Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson

The Right Honourable
(30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New
Zealand physicist who was a pioneering researcher in The Lord Rutherford of Nelson
OM FRS HonFRSE
both atomic and nuclear physics. He has been
described as "the father of nuclear physics",[7] and "the
greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday".[8] In
1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
"for his investigations into the disintegration of the
elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances."
He was the first Oceanian Nobel laureate, and the first
to perform the awarded work in Canada.

Rutherford's discoveries include the concept of

radioactive half-life, the radioactive element radon,
and the differentiation and naming of alpha and beta
radiation. Together with Thomas Royds, Rutherford is
credited with proving that alpha radiation is composed
of helium nuclei.[9][10] In 1911, he theorized that atoms
have their charge concentrated in a very small Rutherford, c. 1920s
nucleus.[11] He arrived at this theory through his 44th President of the Royal Society
discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering
In office
during the gold foil experiment performed by Hans
1925–1930
Geiger and Ernest Marsden. In 1912 he invited Niels
Bohr to join his lab, leading to the Bohr-Rutherford Preceded by Charles Scott Sherrington
model of the atom. In 1917, he performed the first Succeeded by Frederick Gowland Hopkins
artificially induced nuclear reaction by conducting Personal details
experiments in which nitrogen nuclei were bombarded Born 30 August 1871
with alpha particles. These experiments led him to Brightwater, Nelson
discover the emission of a subatomic particle that he Province, Colony of New
initially called the "hydrogen atom", but later (more Zealand
precisely) renamed the proton.[12][13] He is also
Died 19 October 1937 (aged 66)
credited with developing the atomic numbering system
Cambridge, England
alongside Henry Moseley. His other achievements
include advancing the fields of radio communications Resting place Westminster Abbey, London
and ultrasound technology. Alma mater University of New Zealand
University of Cambridge
Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish
Known for Coining the term alpha
Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919.
particle
Under his leadership, the neutron was discovered by
James Chadwick in 1932. In the same year, the first Coining the term artificial
controlled experiment to split the nucleus was disintegration
performed by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, Describing alpha decay
working under his direction. In honour of his scientific Directing the Rutherford
advancements, Rutherford was recognised as a baron scattering experiments
of the United Kingdom. After his death in 1937, he Discovering the atomic
was buried in Westminster Abbey near Charles Darwin nucleus
and Isaac Newton. The chemical element
Discovering the proton
rutherfordium (104Rf) was named after him in 1997.
Discovering radon
Inventing radiometric dating
Early life and education Performing the first nuclear
reaction and nuclear
Ernest Rutherford was born on 30 August 1871 in transmutation
Brightwater, a town near Nelson, New Zealand.[14] He Proposing the Rutherford
was the fourth of twelve children of James Rutherford, model
an immigrant farmer and mechanic from Perth,
Spouse Mary Georgina Newton
Scotland, and his wife Martha Thompson, a ​
​(m. 1900)​
schoolteacher from Hornchurch, England.[14][15][16]
Rutherford's birth certificate was mistakenly written as Children 1

'Earnest'. He was known by his family as Ern.[14][16] Relatives Ralph H. Fowler (son-in-
law)
When Rutherford was five he moved to Foxhill, New
Awards See list
Zealand, and attended Foxhill School. At age 11 in
FRS (1903)
1883, the Rutherford family moved to Havelock, a
town in the Marlborough Sounds. The move was made Bakerian Medal (1904,
to be closer to the flax mill Rutherford's father 1920)
developed.[16] Ernest studied at Havelock School.[17] Rumford Medal (1904)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
In 1887, on his second attempt, he won a scholarship (1908)
to study at Nelson College.[16] On his first examination
Elliott Cresson Medal
attempt, he received 75 out of 130 marks for
(1910)
geography, 76 out of 130 for history, 101 out of 140 for
English, and 200 out of 200 for arithmetic, totalling Barnard Medal for
Meritorious Service to
452 out of 600 marks.[18] With these marks, he had the
Science (1910)
highest of anyone from Nelson.[19] When he was
awarded the scholarship, he had received 580 out of International Membership of
600 possible marks.[20] After being awarded the NAS (1911)
scholarship, Havelock School presented him with a Matteucci Medal (1913)
five-volume set of books titled The Peoples of the Hector Memorial Medal
World.[21] He studied at Nelson College between 1887 (1916)
and 1889, and was head boy in 1889. He also played in Dalton Medal (1919)
the school's rugby team.[16] He was offered a cadetship
Copley Medal (1922)
in government service, but he declined as he still had
Franklin Medal (1924)
15 months of college remaining.[22]
Order of Merit (1925)
In 1889, after his second attempt, he won a scholarship Albert Medal (1928)
to study at Canterbury College, University of New
Faraday Medal (1930)
Zealand, between 1890 and 1894. He participated in its
debating society and the Science Society.[16] At Faraday Lectureship Prize
Canterbury, he was awarded a complex BA in Latin, (1936)
English, and Maths in 1892, a MA in Mathematics and Wilhelm Exner Medal
Physical Science in 1893, and a BSc in Chemistry and (1936)
Geology in 1894.[23][24]
Scientific career
Thereafter, he invented a new form of radio receiver, Fields Atomic physics
and in 1895 Rutherford was awarded an 1851 Research Nuclear physics
Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Institutions McGill University
Exhibition of 1851,[25][26] to travel to England for
University of Manchester
postgraduate study at the Cavendish Laboratory,
University of Cambridge.[27] In 1897, he was awarded University of Cambridge
a BA Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter Academic Alexander Bickerton
Studentship from Trinity College, Cambridge.[23] advisors J. J. Thomson[1]
Doctoral See list
students
Scientific career Nazir Ahmed[2]
Norman Alexander
When Rutherford began his studies at Cambridge, he Edward Victor Appleton
was among the first 'aliens' (those without a Cambridge
Robert William Boyle
degree) allowed to do research at the university, and
James Chadwick
was additionally honoured to study under J. J.
Thomson.[1] Rafi Muhammad
Chaudhry[3][4]
With Thomson's encouragement, Rutherford detected John Cockcroft
radio waves at 0.5 miles (800 m), and briefly held the Norman Feather
world record for the distance over which
Alexander McAulay
electromagnetic waves could be detected, although
when he presented his results at the British Association Cecil Powell
meeting in 1896, he discovered he had been outdone Henry DeWolf Smyth
by Guglielmo Marconi, whose radio waves had sent a Ernest Walton
message across nearly 10 miles (16 km).[28] Evan James Williams
C. E. Wynn-Williams
Work with radioactivity Yulii Borisovich Khariton
Again under Thomson's leadership, Rutherford worked Zhang Wenyu[5][6]
on the conductive effects of X-rays on gases, which led Other notable See list
to the discovery of the electron, the results first students Edward Andrade
presented by Thomson in 1897.[29][30] Hearing of
Henri Becquerel's experience with uranium, Patrick Blackett
Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, Niels Bohr
discovering two types that differed from X-rays in their Bertram Boltwood
penetrating power. Continuing his research in Canada, Harriet Brooks
in 1899 he coined the terms "alpha ray" and "beta ray"
Edward Bullard
to describe these two distinct types of radiation.[31]
Charles Galton Darwin
Charles Drummond Ellis
In 1898, Rutherford was accepted to the chair of Kazimierz Fajans
Macdonald Professor of physics position at McGill Thomas Gaskell
University in Montreal, Canada, on Thomson's Hans Geiger
recommendation.[32] From 1900 to 1903, he was
Otto Hahn
joined at McGill by the young chemist Frederick
Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921) for whom he Douglas Hartree
set the problem of identifying the noble gas emitted by Pyotr Kapitsa
the radioactive element thorium, a substance which Daulat Singh Kothari
was itself radioactive and would coat other substances. George Laurence
Once he had eliminated all the normal chemical
Iven Mackay
reactions, Soddy suggested that it must be one of the
Ernest Marsden
inert gases, which they named thoron. This substance
was later found to be 220Rn, an isotope of radon.[33][23] Mark Oliphant
They also found another substance they called Thomas Royds
Thorium X, later identified as 224Rn, and continued to Frederick Soddy
find traces of helium. They also worked with samples Suekichi Kinoshita
of "Uranium X" (protactinium), from William Crookes,
and radium, from Marie Curie. Rutherford further 4th Cavendish Professor of Physics
investigated thoron in conjunction with R.B. Owens In office
and found that a sample of radioactive material of any 1919–1937
size invariably took the same amount of time for half Preceded by J. J. Thomson
the sample to decay (in this case, 111⁄2 minutes), a
Succeeded by Lawrence Bragg
phenomenon for which he coined the term "half-
life".[33] Rutherford and Soddy published their paper Signature
"Law of Radioactive Change" to account for all their
experiments. Until then, atoms were assumed to be the
indestructible basis of all matter; and although Curie
had suggested that radioactivity was an atomic phenomenon, the
idea of the atoms of radioactive substances breaking up was a
radically new idea. Rutherford and Soddy demonstrated that
radioactivity involved the spontaneous disintegration of atoms into
other, as yet, unidentified matter.[23]

In 1903, Rutherford considered a type of radiation, discovered

(but not named) by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900, as an
emission from radium, and realised that this observation must
represent something different from his own alpha and beta rays,
due to its very much greater penetrating power. Rutherford
therefore gave this third type of radiation the name of gamma
ray.[31] All three of Rutherford's terms are in standard use today –
other types of radioactive decay have since been discovered, but
Rutherford's three types are among the most common. In 1904,
Rutherford in 1892, aged 21
Rutherford suggested that radioactivity provides a source of
energy sufficient to explain the existence of the Sun for the many
millions of years required for the slow biological evolution on Earth proposed by biologists such as
Charles Darwin. The physicist Lord Kelvin had argued earlier for a much younger Earth, based on the
insufficiency of known energy sources, but Rutherford pointed out, at a lecture attended by Kelvin, that
radioactivity could solve this problem.[34] Later that year, he was elected as a member to the American
Philosophical Society,[35] and in 1907 he returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria
University of Manchester.[36]

In Manchester, Rutherford continued his work with alpha radiation. In conjunction with Hans Geiger, he
developed zinc sulfide scintillation screens and ionisation chambers to count alpha particles. By dividing
the total charge accumulated on the screen by the number counted, Rutherford determined that the charge
on the alpha particle was two.[37][38]: 61 In late 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds allowed
alphas to penetrate a very thin window into an evacuated tube. As they sparked the tube into discharge,
the spectrum obtained from it changed, as the alphas accumulated in the tube. Eventually, the clear
spectrum of helium gas appeared, proving that alphas were at least ionised helium atoms, and probably
helium nuclei.[39] In 1910 Rutherford, with Geiger and mathematician Harry Bateman published[40] their
classic paper[41]: 94 describing the first analysis of the distribution in time of radioactive emission, a
distribution now called the Poisson distribution.

Ernest Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".[42][23]

Model of the atom

Rutherford continued to make ground-breaking discoveries long after receiving the Nobel prize in
1908.[38]: 63 Under his direction in 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed the Geiger–
Marsden experiment, which demonstrated the nuclear nature of atoms by measuring the deflection of
alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil.[43] Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and Marsden in
this experiment to look for alpha particles with very high deflection angles, which was not expected
according to any theory of matter at that time.[44][45] Such deflection angles, although rare, were found.
Reflecting on these results in one of his last lectures Rutherford was quoted as saying: "It was quite the
most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a
15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you."[46] It was Rutherford's
interpretation of this data that led him to propose the nucleus, a very small, charged region containing
much of the atom's mass.[47]

In 1912, Rutherford was joined by Niels Bohr (who postulated that electrons moved in specific orbits
about the compact nucleus). Bohr adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to be consistent with Max
Planck's quantum hypothesis. The resulting Rutherford–Bohr model was the basis for quantum
mechanical atomic physics of Heisenberg which remains valid today.[23]

Piezoelectricity
During World War I, Rutherford worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of
submarine detection. Both Rutherford and Paul Langevin suggested the use of piezoelectricity, and
Rutherford successfully developed a device which measured its output. The use of piezoelectricity then
became essential to the development of ultrasound as it is known
today. The claim that Rutherford developed sonar, however, is a
misconception, as subaquatic detection technologies utilise
Langevin's transducer.[48][49]

Discovery of the proton

Together with H.G. Moseley, Rutherford developed the atomic
numbering system in 1913. Rutherford and Moseley's experiments
used cathode rays to bombard various elements with streams of
electrons and observed that each element responded in a consistent
and distinct manner. Their research was the first to assert that each
element could be defined by the properties of its inner structures –
an observation that later led to the discovery of the atomic
nucleus.[23] This research led Rutherford to theorize that the
hydrogen atom (at the time the least massive entity known to bear
a positive charge) was a sort of "positive electron" – a component
of every atomic element.[50][51]

It was not until 1919 that Rutherford expanded upon his theory of Top: Expected results: alpha
the "positive electron" with a series of experiments beginning particles passing through the plum
shortly before the end of his time at Manchester. He found that pudding model of the atom
nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected a proton, which he undisturbed.
called a "hydrogen atom", when hit with α (alpha) particles.[23] In Bottom: Observed results: a small
portion of the particles were
particular, he showed that particles ejected by alpha particles
deflected, indicating a small,
colliding with hydrogen have unit charge and 1/4 the momentum concentrated charge. Diagram is not
of alpha particles.[52] to scale; in reality the nucleus is
vastly smaller than the electron
Rutherford returned to the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919, shell.
succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and the
laboratory's director, posts that he held until his death in 1937.[53]
During his tenure, Nobel prizes were awarded to James Chadwick for discovering the neutron (in 1932),
John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton for an experiment that was to be known as splitting the atom using a
particle accelerator, and Edward Appleton for demonstrating the existence of the ionosphere.

Development of proton and neutron theory

In 1919–1920, Rutherford continued his research on the "hydrogen atom" to confirm that alpha particles
break down nitrogen nuclei and to affirm the nature of the products. This result showed Rutherford that
hydrogen nuclei were a part of nitrogen nuclei (and by inference, probably other nuclei as well). Such a
construction had been suspected for many years, on the basis of atomic weights that were integral
multiples of that of hydrogen; see Prout's hypothesis. Hydrogen was known to be the lightest element,
and its nuclei presumably the lightest nuclei. Now, because of all these considerations, Rutherford
decided that a hydrogen nucleus was possibly a fundamental building block of all nuclei, and also
possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was known to be lighter than that nucleus.
Thus, confirming and extending the work of Wilhelm Wien, who in 1898 discovered the proton in
streams of ionized gas,[54] in 1920 Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be a new particle,
which he dubbed the proton.[55]

In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about the existence of neutrons, (which he
had christened in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture), which could somehow compensate for the repelling effect
of the positive charges of protons by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei from
flying apart, due to the repulsion between protons. The only alternative to neutrons was the existence of
"nuclear electrons", which would counteract some of the proton charges in the nucleus, since by then it
was known that nuclei had about twice the mass that could be accounted for if they were simply
assembled from hydrogen nuclei (protons). But how these nuclear electrons could be trapped in the
nucleus, was a mystery.

In 1932, Rutherford's theory of neutrons was proved by his associate James Chadwick, who recognised
neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself, in bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles. In 1935, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this
discovery.[56]

Induced nuclear reaction and probing the nucleus

Rutherford's four part article on the "Collision of α-particles with light atoms" he reported two additional
fundamental and far reaching discoveries.[38]: 237 First, he showed that at high angles the scattering of
alpha particles from hydrogen differed from the theoretical results he himself published in 1911. These
were the first results to probe the interactions that hold a nucleus together. Second, he showed that α-
particles colliding with nitrogen nuclei would react rather than simply bounce off. One product of the
reaction was the proton; the other product was shown by Patrick Blackett, Rutherford's colleague and
former student to be oxygen:
14N + α → 17O + p.

Blackett was awarded the Nobel prize in 1948 for his work in perfecting the high-speed cloud chamber
apparatus used to make that discovery and many others.[57] Rutherford therefore recognised "that the
nucleus may increase rather than diminish in mass as the result of collisions in which the proton is
expelled".[58]

Later years and honours

Rutherford received significant recognition in his home country of New Zealand. In 1901, he earned a
DSc from the University of New Zealand.[27] In 1916, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal.[59]
In 1925, Rutherford called for the New Zealand Government to support education and research, which
led to the formation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in the following
year.[60] In 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, which was
established by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research.[61][62]

Additionally, Rutherford received a number of awards from the British Crown. He was knighted in
1914.[63] He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1925 New Year Honours.[64] Between 1925 and
1930, he served as President of the Royal Society, and later as president of the Academic Assistance
Council which helped almost 1,000 university refugees from Germany.[8] In 1931 was raised to Baron of
the United Kingdom under the title Baron Rutherford of Nelson,[65] decorating his coat of arms with a
kiwi and a Māori warrior.[66] The title became extinct upon his unexpected death in 1937.

Since 1992 his portrait appears on the New Zealand one hundred-dollar note.

Personal life and death

Around 1888 Rutherford made his grandmother a wooden potato masher which is now in the collection
of the Royal Society.[67][68]

In 1900, Rutherford married Mary Georgina Newton (1876–1954),[69] at St Paul's Anglican Church,
Papanui in Christchurch. (He had become engaged to her before leaving New Zealand.)[70][71] They had
one daughter, Eileen Mary (1901–1930); she married the physicist Ralph Fowler, and died during the
birth of her fourth child. Rutherford's hobbies included golf and motoring.[23]

For some time before his death, Rutherford had a small hernia, which he neglected to have repaired, and
it eventually became strangulated, rendering him violently ill. He had an emergency operation in London,
but died in Cambridge four days later, on 19 October 1937, at age 66, of what physicians termed
"intestinal paralysis".[72] After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium,[72] he was given the high
honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, and other illustrious British
scientists.[23][73]

Legacy
Rutherford is considered to be among the greatest scientists in
history. At the opening session of the 1938 Indian Science
Congress, which Rutherford had been expected to preside over
before his death, astrophysicist James Jeans spoke in his place and
deemed him "one of the greatest scientists of all time", saying:

In his flair for the right line of approach to a problem, as

well as in the simple directness of his methods of attack,
[Rutherford] often reminds us of Faraday, but he had
two great advantages which Faraday did not possess,
first, exuberant bodily health and energy, and second,
the opportunity and capacity to direct a band of
enthusiastic co-workers. Great though Faraday's output
of work was, it seems to me that to match Rutherford's
work in quantity as well as in quality, we must go back A statue of a young Ernest
to Newton. In some respects he was more fortunate than Rutherford at his memorial in
Brightwater, New Zealand.
 Newton. Rutherford was ever the happy warrior – happy in hi
happy in its human contacts.[74]

Nuclear physics
Rutherford is known as "the father of nuclear physics" because his research, and work done under him as
laboratory director, established the nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of radioactive
decay as a nuclear process.[7][75][29] Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under Rutherford, using
natural alpha particles, demonstrated induced nuclear transmutation. Later, Rutherford's team, using
protons from an accelerator, demonstrated artificially-induced nuclear reactions and transmutation.[76]

Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd's idea of controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being.
However, a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced transmutation in lithium, printed in the
12 September 1933 issue of The Times, was reported by Szilárd to have been his inspiration for thinking
of the possibility of a controlled energy-producing nuclear chain reaction.[77]

Rutherford's speech touched on the 1932 work of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in
"splitting" lithium into alpha particles by bombardment with protons from a particle accelerator they had
constructed. Rutherford realised that the energy released from the split lithium atoms was enormous, but
he also realised that the energy needed for the accelerator, and its essential inefficiency in splitting atoms
in this fashion, made the project an impossibility as a practical source of energy (accelerator-induced
fission of light elements remains too inefficient to be used in this way, even today). Rutherford's speech
in part, read:

We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than the proton supplied, but on the
average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and inefficient way
of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the transformation of the
atoms was talking moonshine. But the subject was scientifically interesting because it gave
insight into the atoms.[78][79]

The element rutherfordium, Rf, Z=104, was named in honour of Rutherford in 1997.[80]

Publications
Radio-activity (https://archive.org/details/radioactivity00ruthgoog) (1904),[81] 2nd ed. (1905),
ISBN 978-1-60355-058-1
Radioactive Transformations (1906) (https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran02ruthgoog),
ISBN 978-1-60355-054-3
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryM
anager?pid=11020002). Cambridge: University press. 1933.
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryM
anager?pid=6739518) (in German). Leipzig: Akademische Verlaggesellschaft. 1913.
Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (1913) (https://archive.org/details/radioactives
ubst00ruthuoft)[82]
The Electrical Structure of Matter (1926)
 The Artificial Transmutation of the Elements (1933)
The Newer Alchemy (1937)

Articles
Ernest Rutherford (1899). "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical conduction Produced by it"
(https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh5471899lon/page/108/mode/2up). Philosophical
Magazine. 47 (284): 109–163.
Ernest Rutherford (1903). "XV. The Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the easily absorbed
Rays from Radium" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh651903lond/page/176/mode/
2up). Philosophical Magazine. 6. 5: 177-187.
Ernest Rutherford (1906). "The Mass and Velocity of the α particles expelled from Radium
and Actinium" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430814). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 12
(70): 348–371. doi:10.1080/14786440609463549 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440609
463549).
Ernest Rutherford; Thomas Royds (1909). "XXI. The nature of the α particle from radioactive
substances" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburg6171909lond/page/280/mode/2up).
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 17
(98): 281–286. doi:10.1080/14786440208636599 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440208
636599). ISSN 1941-5982 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-5982).
Ernest Rutherford (1911). "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure
of the Atom" (https://web.mit.edu/8.13/8.13c/references-fall/rutherford/rutherford-scattering-o
f-alpha-and-beta-particles.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 21 (125): 669–688.
doi:10.1080/14786440508637080 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080).
Ernest Rutherford (1912). "The origin of β and γ rays from radioactive substances" (https://z
enodo.org/record/1430890). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 24 (142): 453–462.
doi:10.1080/14786441008637351 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441008637351).
Ernest Rutherford; John Mitchell Nuttal (1913). "Scattering of α-Particles by Gases" (https://
archive.org/details/ClassicalScientificPapersPhysics). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 26
(154): 702–712. doi:10.1080/14786441308635014 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1478644130
8635014).
Ernest Rutherford (1914). "The Structure of the Atom" (http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hist
ory/Rutherford-1914.html). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 27 (159): 488–498.
doi:10.1080/14786440308635117 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440308635117).
Ernest Rutherford (1938). "Forty Years of Physics" (https://archive.org/details/backgroundto
mode032734mbp/page/n85/mode/2up). In Needham, Joseph; Pagel, Walter (eds.).
Background to Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of
Science Committee 1936. Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1913). Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (https://archive.org/
details/radioactivesubst00ruthuoft). Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1936). "Radioactivity and Atomic Structure". Journal of the Chemical
Society. 1936: 508–516. doi:10.1039/JR9360000508 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR936000
0508).
"Disintegration of the Radioactive Elements" Harper's Monthly Magazine, January 1904,
pages 279 to 284.

See also
Bateman equation
Hydrophone
 Magnetic detector
Neutron generator
Royal Society of New Zealand
Rutherford (unit)
Rutherfordine
The Rutherford Journal
List of presidents of the Royal Society

Footnotes

References
1. "Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041955/htt
ps://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsoddy.cfm). Archived
from the original (https://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsodd
y.cfm) on 1 December 2017.
2. "University of the Punjab - Science" (http://pu.edu.pk/home/department/55/Department-of-P
hysics). pu.edu.pk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231002053440/http://pu.edu.pk/
home/department/55/Department-of-Physics) from the original on 2 October 2023.
Retrieved 15 September 2023. "The expedition included Professor James Martin Benade
(Professor of Physics at Forman Christian College Lahore) and Dr. Nazir Ahmad (a PhD
student of Ernest Rutherford at Cambridge who later on became the First Chairman of
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956). "
3. Hameed, A. Khan; Qurashi, M. M.; Hussain, E. T.; Hayee, M. I., eds. (2006). "Physics in
Developing Countries – Past, Present & Future" (https://comsats.org/Publications/Books_Sn
T_Series/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Past,%20Present%2
0and%20Future%20(April%202006).pdf) (PDF). Commission on Science and Technology
for Sustainable Development in the South. COMSATS Series of Publications on Science
and Technology. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031259/http://www.comsat
s.org/Publications/Books_SnT_Series/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%
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Further reading
Badash, Lawrence (2008) [2004]. "Rutherford, Ernest". Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35891 (https://doi.org/
10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35891). (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://w
ww.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
Cragg, R. H. (1971). "Lord Ernest Rutherford of Nelson (1871–1937)". Royal Institute of
Chemistry, Reviews. 4 (2): 129. doi:10.1039/RR9710400129 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FRR
9710400129).
Campbell, John. (1999) Rutherford: Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bkcamr
ss.htm), AAS Publications, Christchurch, ISBN 0-4730-5700-X
Marsden, E. (1954). "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture, 1954. Rutherford-His Life and Work,
1871–1937". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 226 (1166): 283–305.
Bibcode:1954RSPSA.226..283M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954RSPSA.226..283
M). doi:10.1098/rspa.1954.0254 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1954.0254).
S2CID 73381519 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73381519).
 Reeves, Richard (2008). A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford. New
York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-33369-8
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-671-44133-7
Wilson, David (1983). Rutherford. Simple Genius, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-23805-
4

External links
Biography and web exhibit (https://history.aip. External videos
org/exhibits/rutherford/) American Institute of
Physics Presentation by Richard Reeves on his
book A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of
Ernest Rutherford (https://www.nobelprize.or
g/laureate/167) on Nobelprize.org including Ernest Rutherford,, January 16, 2008 (https://w
the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1908 The ww.c-span.org/video/?201807-1/a-force-natur
Chemical Nature of the Alpha Particles from e), C-SPAN
Radioactive Substances
The Rutherford Museum (http://www.physics.
mcgill.ca/museum/rutherford_museum.htm)
Rutherford Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/)
Newspaper clippings about Ernest Rutherford (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/0248
60) in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
"Ernest Rutherford, 150th anniversary" (https://sebastienfritsch.wixsite.com/ernestrutherford
150?lang=en). Retrieved 29 June 2024. Well-source site with details on Rutherford's life.

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