BS Zoology curriculum

1)Principles of Animal Life

Scope of Zoology: Introduction; significance and applications of zoology;
animal Diversity; the scientific method; environment and world
resources.The Chemical Basis of Animal Life: Brief introduction to
biomolecules; Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Cellular Organization: Structure of animal cells, cell membrane, cytoplasm

and its Organelles: ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, Mitochondria, cytoskeleton, cilia and flagella, centrioles and
microtubules, vacuoles; The nucleus: nuclear envelope, chromosomes and
nucleolus.Animal tissues: Types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous
tissue; organs and Organ systems.

Enzymes: Structure, types; function and factors affecting their activity;

cofactors and Coenzymes.

Energy Harvesting: Aerobic and anaerobic respiration: glycolysis, citric

acid cycle And electron transport chain; fermentation, the major source of
ATP.

Reproduction and Development: Types; asexual and

sexual,gametogenesis,Fertilization, metamorphosis, zygote and early
development.

Ecological Concepts: Ecosystem, types, homeostasis, biomes, food chain,

food web,Energy flow and thermodynamics; biogeochemical cycles, and
limiting factors, Populations and communities, human population growth,
pollution, resource depletion And biodiversity.

2)Animal Diversity: Invertebrate Zoology

Introduction: Architectural pattern of an animal, taxonomy and phylogeny,
major Subdivisions of animal kingdom with evolutionary perspective.

Animal-Like Protists: The Protozoa; life within a single plasma membrane;

Symbiotic life-styles. Protozoan taxonomy: (up to phyla, subphyla and super
classes, Wherever applicable). Pseudopodia and amoeboid locomotion; cilia
and other Pellicular structures; nutrition; genetic control and reproduction;
symbiotic ciliates; Further phylogenetic considerations.
Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization: origins of
multicellularity; animal Origins. Phylum porifera: cell types, body wall, and
skeletons; water currents and Body forms; maintenance functions;
reproduction. Phylum Cnidaria (coelenterata) the Body wall and
nematocysts; alternation of generations; maintenance functions;
Reproduction and classification up to class. Phylum Ctenophora; further
phylogenetic Considerations.

Triploblastics and Acoelomate Body Plan: Phylum Platyhelminthes:

classification Up to class; the free-living flatworms and the tapeworms;
Phylum Nemertea; PhylumGastrotricha; further phylogenetic considerations.

Pseudocoelomate Body Plan: Aschelminths: general characteristics;

classification up To phyla with external features; feeding and the digestive
system; other organ systems; Reproduction and development of Phylum
Rotifera and Phylum Nematoda; Phylum Kinorhyncha. Some important
nematode parasites of humans; further phylogenetic Considerations.

Molluscan Success: relationships to other animals; origin of the coelom;

molluscan Characteristics; classification up to class. The characteristics of
shell and associated Structures, feeding, digestion, gas exchange,
locomotion, reproduction and Development, other maintenance functions
and diversity in gastropods, bivalves and Cephalopods; further phylogenetic
considerations.

Annelida: The Metameric Body Form: relationship to other animals,

metamerism and Tagmatization; External structure and locomotion, feeding
and the digestive system, Gas exchange and circulation, nervous and
sensory functions, excretion, regeneration, Reproduction and development in
different classes; further phylogenetic Considerations.

Arthropods: Blueprint for Success: classification and relationships to other

animals; Metamerism and tagmatization; the exoskeleton; metamorphosis;
classification up to Class; further phylogenetic considerations; phylogeny and
adaptive diversification.

Echinoderms: relationships to other animals; echinoderm characteristics;

Classification up to class. Maintenance functions, regeneration, reproduction,
and Development; further phylogenetic considerations.Lesser Invertebrates:
The lophophorates, entoprocts, cycliophores, and Chaetognaths.

3)Animal Form & Function-I

Protection, Support, and Movement: Protection: the integumentary
system of invertebrates and vertebrates; movement and support: the
skeletal system of invertebrates and vertebrates; movement: non-muscular
movement; an introduction to animal muscles; the muscular system of
invertebrates and vertebrates

Communication I: Nerves: Neurons: structure and function; neuron-neuron

communication: introductory accounts of resting membrane potential, action
potential (nerve impulse) and transmission of the action potential between
cells; invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems: the ventral nerve cord
and ganglia, the vertebrate brain, the spinal cord, cranial and spinal nerves;
autonomic nervous system.

Communication II: Senses: Sensory reception: baroreceptors,

chemoreceptors, georeceptors, hygroreceptors, phonoreceptors,
photoreceptors, proprioceptors, tactile receptors, and thermoreceptors of
invertebrates; lateral line system and electrical sensing, lateral-line system
and mechanoreception, hearing and equilibrium in air and water, skin
sensors of mechanical stimuli, sonar, smell, taste and vision in vertebrates.

Communication III: The Endocrine System and Chemical

Messengers:Chemical messengers: hormones chemistry; and their feedback
systems; mechanisms of hormone action; some hormones of porifera,
cnidarians, platyhelminthes,

nemerteans, nematodes, molluscs, annelids, arthropods, and echinoderms

invertebrates; an overview of the vertebrate endocrine system; endocrine
systems of vertebrates, endocrine systems of birds and mammals.

Circulation, Immunity, and Gas Exchange: Internal transport and

circulatory systems in invertebrates: characteristics of invertebrate coelomic
fluid, hemolymph, and blood cells; transport systems in vertebrates;
characteristics of vertebrate blood, blood cells and vessels; the hearts and
circulatory systems of bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and Mammals;
the human heart: blood pressure and the lymphatic system;

immunity: nonspecific defenses, the immune response;

gas exchange: respiratory surfaces; invertebrate and vertebrate

respiratory systems: cutaneous exchange, gills, lungs, and lung ventilation;
human respiratory system: gas transport.

4)Chordate Biology
Protochrodates: Structure, anatomy and organ systems; reproduction; life
histories and metamorphosis; phylogenetic relationships; further
phylogenetic considerations.

Fishes: Vertebrate Success in Water: phylogenetic relationships; Agnatha

and Gnathostomata: locomotory adaptations, nutrition and the digestive
system, circulation, gas exchange, nervous and sensory functions, excretion
and osmoregulation, reproduction and development; further phylogenetic
considerations.

Amphibians: The first terrestrial vertebrates: phylogenetic relationships;

Caudata, Gymnophiona, and Anura;Structure and locomotory adaptations,
nutrition and the digestive system, circulation, gas exchange, temperature
regulation, nervous andsensory functions, excretion and osmoregulation,
reproduction, development, and metamorphosis; further phylogenetic
considerations.

Reptiles: The First Amniotes: cladistic interpretation of the amniotic lineage;

Testudines or Chelonia, Rhynchocephalia, Squamata, and Crocodilia;
adaptations in external structure and locomotion, nutrition and the digestive
system, circulation, gas exchange, and temperature regulation, nervous and
sensory functions, excretion and osmoregulation, reproduction and
development; further phylogenetic considerations.

Birds: Feathers, flight and endothermy: phylogenetic relationships; ancient

birds and the evolution of flight; diversity of modern birds; adaptation in
external structure and locomotion, nutrition and the digestive system,
circulation, gas exchange, and regulation, nervous and sensory systems,
excretion and osmoregulation, reproduction and development; migration and
navigation.

Mammals: Specialized teeth, endothermy, hair and viviparity; diversity of

mammals; adaptations in external structure and locomotion, nutrition and
the digestive system, circulation, gas exchange, and temperature regulation,
nervous and sensory functions, excretion and osmoregulation, behaviour,
reproduction and development.

5)Animal Form & Function-II

Nutrition and Digestion: Evolution of nutrition; the metabolic
fates of nutrients in heterotrophs; digestion; animal strategies for
getting and using food, diversity in digestive structures of
invertebrates and vertebrates; the mammalian digestive system:
gastrointestinal motility and its control, oral cavity, pharynx and
esophagus, stomach, small intestine: main site of digestion; large
intestine; role of the pancreas in digestion; and role of the liver
and gallbladder in digestion.
Temperature and Body Fluid Regulation: Homeostasis and
Temperature Regulation; The Impact of Temperature on Animal
Life; Heat Gains and Losses; Some Solutions to Temperature
Fluctuations; Temperature Regulation in Invertebrates, Fishes,
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals; Heat Production in
Birds and Mammals; Control of Water and Solutes
(Osmoregulation and Excretion); Invertebrate and Vertebrate
Excretory Systems; How Vertebrates Achieve Osmoregulation;
Vertebrate Kidney Variations; Mechanism in Metanephric Kidney
Functions.
Reproduction and Development: Asexual reproduction in
invertebrates; advantages and disadvantages of asexual
reproduction; sexual reproduction in invertebrates; advantages
and disadvantages of sexual reproduction; sexual reproduction in
vertebrates; reproductive strategies; examples of reproduction
among various vertebrate classes; the human male reproductive
system: spermatogenesis, transport and hormonal control,
reproductive function; the human female reproductive system:
folliculogenesis, transport and hormonal control, reproductive
function; hormonal regulation in gestation; prenatal development
and birth: the placenta; milk production and lactation.
Descriptive Embryology: Fertilization; embryonic development:
cleavage, and egg types; the primary germ layers and their
derivatives; echinoderm embryology; vertebrate embryology: the
chordate body plan, amphibian embryology, development in
terrestrial environments, avian embryology and fate of
mesoderm.
6)Physiology
Central themes in Physiology: Structure-function relationship,
Adaptations, Homeostasis.

Physiological basis of Membrane Function: Mechanisms in resting

membrane Potentials: Electro genic ion pump, Donnan equilibrium, Roles of
ion channels, action Potential in neurons; Synaptic transmission; Structure
and function of electrical and Chemical synapse; Neurotransmitters; Synaptic
receptors; Post tetanic Potentiation.

Receptors Physiology: Transduction; Sensory coding; Sensory adaptations;

Mechano Reception: Hair cell mechanism, Cutaneous receptors; Taste,
olfactory, Photo, electro, Mechano Reception.

Movements and Muscles: Structural, Physiology, regulation of muscle

contraction: Molecular structures

Cardiovascular Mechanisms: Electrical activity of heart. Automaticity,

Rhythmicity, Electrocardiography, Kymography; Hemodynamics

Exchange of Gases: Transport and Regulation of O2 and CO2 between

respiratory Surface (the lungs) and body cells

Excretion and Osmoregulation: Osmoregulation in aquatic and terrestrial

Environment. Vertebrate nephron, Glomerular filtration, Tubular absorption
and Secretion; Nitrogenous waste products

Nutrition: Regulation of digestive secretions; Physiological anatomy of

digestive tract Temperature Relations: Temperature classification of
animals; ectotherms, Heterotherms, endotherms; Dormancy: Sleep, Torpor,
Hibernation, Estivation

7)Developmental Biology
Introduction: Principal features of development, origin of sexual reproduction,
Developmental patterns; Spermatogenesis; Oogenesis

Fertilization: Recognition of sperm and egg, fusion of gametes, activation

of egg Metabolism, rearrangement of egg cytoplasm

Cleavage: Patterns of embryonic cleavage, mechanism of cleavage

Gastrulation: Fate maps, gastrulation in sea urchin, amphibians, birds and

mammals.
Early Vertebrate Development: Neurulation, ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm

Cellular Basis of Morphogenesis: Differential cell affinity, cell adhesion

molecules

Mechanism of Cellular Differentiation: RNA processing, translational

regulation of Developmental process, cell-fate by progressive determinants,
autonomous cell Specification by cytoplasmic determinants, establishment of
body axes and Mechanism of teratogenesis; Secondary Induction

Organogenesis: A brief account; Origin and migration of germ cells in

vertebrates. Factors controlling growth and oncogenesis.Hormones as
mediators of development; Regeneration in Vertebrates

8)Environmental Biology
Energy: laws of thermodynamics, primary and secondary productions,
trophic levels And energy variation with increasing trophic levels, energy
flow, food chains and food Webs. Biogeochemical cycle: nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulphur, water, carbon, nutrient. Limiting factors: basic
concepts, temperature, soil, water and humidity, light, fire.

Global ecosystems: (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, ecosphere). An

overview Of ecosystem with special reference to ecological niche: basic
concepts and types. Major ecosystem of world: Marine, Estuarine,
Freshwater, Wetlands, Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert and Agricultural
ecosystems.

Population ecology: basic population characters, growth and growth

curves, Population dynamics and regulations. Community ecology: basic
concepts, Community analysis, ecotones, inter-population
interactions.Applied Ecology: resources and their ecological management
(mineral, agricultural Desalination and weather modification, forest and
range management, landscape and Land use);

Pollution: (definition, types, cost, origin and management); water (sources,

domestic And industrial pollution, heavy metals); air (sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxide, carbon Monoxide, ozone, smog and PAN, MTBE & CFCs); land
pollution (pesticides, Bacterial toxins, synthetic hormones); noise pollution.

Radiation ecology: global environmental changes (ozone depletion, acid

rain, Greenhouse effect and global warming, Koyota protocol, desertification,
deforestation, Exotic and invasive species, radioactivity leakage,
environmental laws).

9)Cell and Molecular Biology

Introduction to prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: Plasma membrane, its
chemical Composition structure and functions of plasma membranes, cell
permeability, active

Transport, endocytosis, phagocytosis.

Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments, Microtubules, Intermediate filaments.

Cytoplasmic Organelles: Membrane system, structural and functional

Commonalities. Ultrastructure, chemical composition and functions of
Endoplasmic Reticulum and their role in protein synthesis and drug
metabolism, Golgi apparatus its Role in synthesis of glycoprotein,
Mitochondrial respiration and its significance as Semi-autonomous organelle;
Lysosome, its diverse roles due to hydrolytic activity of Enzymes,
Peroxisome, its role in metabolism of hydrogen peroxide, Glycoxysome With
reference to glyoxylic acid cycle.

Nucleus: chromatin, heterochromatin, euchromatin, chromosome structure,

coiling And nucleosome during different phases of cell cycle.

Replication: mechanism, DNA replication in prokaryotes specially with

reference to Variety of DNA polymerases and other proteins involved, DNA
replication in Eukaryotes with emphasis on DNA polymerases, concept of
replicons etc.,

Transcription: variety of RNA and their characteristics, synthesis of mRNA,

rRNA And tRNA with special reference to enzymes involved, RNA splicing,
split genes, Concept of ribozymes and posttranscriptional processing, RNA
transduction, Genetic Code, point mutations

Translation: Specific role of Ribosomes, various factors, and

posttranslational Processing, control of gene expression in Prokaryotes.

10)Wildlife
Wildlife: Animal occurrence, protection, needs of animals,
maintenance, and the Habitat.Techniques: Ground and aerial
tracking, GPS, radiotelemetry, maps etc.Wildlife Conservation:
Philosophy and significance, Biodiversity and sustainability of
Wildlife.Wildlife Agencies: National and International agencies
involved in conservation and Management of wildlife.
International conventions, agreements.Wildlife of Pakistan:
identification, distribution, status, conservation and management
(population estimate technology) of fishes, reptiles, birds and
mammals of major Importance in Pakistan.
Wildlife rules and regulations in Pakistan: Sanctuaries, Game
Reserves and National Parks in Pakistan. Endangered species of
Pakistan.
11)Evolution and Principle of Systematics Zoology

Evolution: Evidence of evolution. Theories to explain the diversity of life.

Lamarckism, Darwinism and special Creation. Modern synthetics

theory.Factors initiating elementary evolutionary changes (micro – evolution)
by changing Gene frequencies, mutation pressure, selection pressure,
immigration andCrossbreeding, genetics drift. Role of isolation. Factor of
large evolutionary changes (macro – evolution) algometry orthogenesis,
Adaptive radiation.Modern concept of Natural Selection: Levels of selection,
Selection patterns,Laboratory and field example regarding action of Natural
Selection. Action of Natural

Selection leading to convergence, radiation, regression and extinction,

BatesianMimicry, Mullerian mimicry. Sexual selection: Darwin’s concept,
Fisher’s view,Zahavi’s handicap thory. Trend and rates in evolution

Systematic Zoology: Contribution of systematics to Biology, History of

Taxonomy (Downward classification, upward classification, impact of the
origin of species, Population systematics, current trends); Microtaxonomy,
phenon, Taxon; Taxonomic Categories: specific category, intraspecific
category, higher categories; species Concepts(Typological concept;
nominalistic concept, Biological concept, evolutionary Concept), species
mate recognition concept; nondimensional species concept; Multidimensional
species concept; Cohesion species concept; Difficulties in the Application of
biological species concepts; polytypic species, subspecies, super Species,
sibling species; study of major type of variation within a single population.
Speciation and taxonomic decision, various types of characters, cladistic
analysis, Macrotaxonomy; different kinds of taxonomic characters; Taxonomic
collection and Identification; definitions of Synonym, Homonym, Keys;
Evolution of the theory of Nomenclature; interpretation and application of the
code (stability, priority, first Revisor principle) range of authority of code;
concept of availability, type method Formation of specific names.

12)Genetics
Classical Genetics: Scope and importance of genetics, gene concept;
classical and Modern),

Multiple Alleles: blood groups and coat colour in rabbits.

Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance: interaction of genes, changes in

chromosomal Number, euploidy, aneuploidy, polyploidy; structural changes,
insertion, deletion (Cri Du chat syndrome), duplication and translocation
Pedigree Analysis: Normal human chromosome complement; Karyotyping.
Sex-

Determination and Sex-linkage: Sex determination in animals and humans,

linkage, Recombination and chromosome mapping in eukaryotes.

Molecular Genetics: Elements of genetic engineering; genetic basis of

diseases, like Cancer, genetic control of animal development.

Human Genetics; Single and Multifactorial Disorders: Autosomal anomalies,

Pseudo Autosomal genes, (e.g. Down syndrome, Edwards syndrome and),
Single gene Disorders Gene mutation and disorders; autosomal single gene
disorders (Sickle cellanemia, brachydactyly; inborn errors of metabolism such
as Phenylketonuria,

Alkaptonuria). Definition – characteristics crisscross inheritance. Polygenic

traits –Cleft lip and cleft palate, Sex-linked Chromosomal anomalies:
Klinefelters syndrome, and Turners syndrome. Sex-influenced inheritance:
Haemophilia, muscular dystrophy, colour blindness. Prenatal Diagnosis:
Amniocentesis and choriovillus sampling – Ultrasound scanning And
Fetoscopy. Genetic counselling, Eugenics and Euthenics.Population Genetics:
Hardy-Wienberg equilibrium, systematic and dispersive Pressures, inbreeding
and heterosis.

13)General Biochemistry
Amino acids, peptides and proteins: standard amino acids, their structure
and Classification; non-standard amino acids, their structure and role;
peptides, Polypeptides, protein properties & structures Nitrogen metabolism:
metabolic fate of amino acids; catabolism of amino acids; Deamination and
transamination; nitrogen excretion and urea cycle

Enzymes: introduction; important characteristics of enzymes; how enzymes

work; Classification of enzymes, enzyme rate of reaction and substrate
concentration, how pH and temperature effect enzyme activity.

Carbohydrates: classification, types, important characteristics and structure

of Carbohydrates.Description of glycolysis and catabolism of other hexoses;
fate of pyruvate under Aerobic and anaerobic conditions; utilization of other
carbohydrates in glycolysis Phosphorolysis of glycogen and starch.

Lipids: fatty acids, their types and major characteristics. Oxidation of fatty
acids; Digestion, biosynthesis of triacylglycerol; beta-oxidation; Ketone
bodies their Biosynthesis, cholesterol metabolismVitamins and cofactors:
occurrence, types and properties.Bioenergetics: concept of free energy;
standard free energy change: energy rich

Compounds.

14)Fundamental of Endocrinology
An overview of general concepts and principles of endocrinology: The
endocrine system; Type of hormones; Endocrine and nervous system
relationship; General principles in function, interaction, nature, synthesis,
transport of hormones; General concept of feedback, biorhythms, pathology
and assessment of endocrine function;

Evolution of endocrine system.

Hypothalamus and pituitary: Hypothalamic hormones: Origin, chemistry and

actions; Anterior pituitary & hormones: Hypothalamic pituitary regulation,
General chemistry,Physiological action and metabolism of prolactin-growth
hormone family,

glycoprotein hormone family, corticotrophins and other pro-opiomelanocortin

peptides; posterior pituitary: Release, regulation and actions of vasopressin
and oxytocin.

Thyroid gland: Anatomy and histology of gland; Formation and secretion of

thyroid hormones; Thyroid hormones in peripheral tissues, Regulation and
factors affecting thyroid function. Calciotrophic and Mineral Metabolism
Hormones: Chemistry, physiological actions and metabolism of parathyroid
hormone, calcitonin and calciferols; Homeostasis of calcium, phosphate and
magnesium.Pancreatic Hormones and Regulatory Peptides of the Gut:
Anatomy and histology for sources of the hormones; Chemistry, physiological
roles and mechanism of action of insulin and glucagon; Physiological roles of
gut peptides.

Adrenal Medulla and Catecholamines: Chromaffin cell and organization;

Structure of Adrenal medulla; Biosynthesis, storage, release and metabolism;
Adrenergic receptors.Adrenal Cortex: Steroid biochemistry; Physiological
actions of corticoid hormones; Regulation and metabolism of glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids and adrenal sex Steroids.

Testes: Androgenic tissue: Structure and chemistry; Transport, metabolism

and Mechanism of action.

Ovaries: Ovarian hormones: Steroid biochemistry and biosynthesis;

Transport, metabolism and mechanism of action.Endocrinology of Pregnancy:
Hormones in conception and implantation; Hormonal actions and adaptation
in pregnancy and parturition. Endocrinology of Lactation: Hormones in
lactation. Endocrinology of Heart, Kidney, Immune system: Growth and
pineal gland. Functional Diversity of Hormones in Vertebrates. Overview Of
Endocrine Mechanisms in Invertebrates.

15)Zoogeography and Palaeontology

Zoogeography

Branches of Zoogeography: descriptive, chorology, faunistics, systematic,

Biocoenotic, causal, ecological, historical, experimental and applied
zoogeography.Animal distribution: cosmopolitan distribution, discontinuous
distribution, isolation Distribution, bipolar distribution and endemic
distribution, barriers and dispersal.Zoogeographical regions: zoogeographic
division and boundaries, geographic ranges, Physical features, climates,
faunas and affinities of Palaearctic, Nearctic regions, Oriental, Ethiopian,
Australian, and Neotropical Regions, insular fauna

Paleogeography:

Theories of continental drift and plate tectonics; Pangea.Principles of

Palaeontology: Earth, Shells of earth; (atmosphere, hydrosphere, Biosphere
and lithosphere). Rock, types of rocks, Fossil, types and uses of fossils,
Nature of fossils. Processes of fossilization. Geological time scale. Pre-
Cambrian life. Post Cambrian life (Palaeozoic life, Mesozoic life, Cenozoic
life). Geochronometry (Uranium/Lead dating, radiocarbon dating, methods),
evolutionary history of man, Elephant, horse and Camel, Paleoecology,
Paleomagnetism.

16)Medical Microbiology
The beginnings of Microbiology; Discovery of the microbial world; Discovery
of the Role of microorganisms in transformation of organic matter, in the
causation of Diseases, development of pure culture methods. The scope of
microbiology Microbial evolution, systematics and taxonomy;
Characterization and identification of Microorganisms. Nomenclature and
Bergey‟s manual Microbiology and medicine antimicrobial agents, mode of
action, bacterial pathogen And associated diseases. Infective syndromes and
diagnostic procedures. Strategy of Antimicrobial therapy.

Introduction: Host-parasite interactions.Determination of pathogenicity and

molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis.Chemotherapy and drug
resistance.Study of bacterial infections with emphasis on mechanisms of
pathogenesis of the Following groups: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,
Niesseria, Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium, Bordetella, Vibrio,
Enterobacteraceae, Clostridium, Bacillus, Campylobacter, Aeromonas and
Helicobacter, Legionella, Mycobacterium,Actinomycetes/ Nocardia,
Chlamydia and Mycoplasma.

Zoonotic infections: Study of viral and rickettsial diseases including epidemic

and Endemic, typhus, AIDS, Hepatitis. Poxviruses and Herpes
viruses.Protozoan infections with emphasis on Leishmaniasis and
Toxoplasmosis.Pathogenesis of mycotic infections with particular emphasis
on mycetoma.Classical and newly emerging pathogens.

17)Biological Techniques
Microscopy: Principles of light microscopy. Magnification, Resolution,
Contrast. Types of microscopy, Bright field (Compound Microscope), Scanning
microscopy, Eyepiece micrometers, Camera Lucida Phase Contrast Dark field
Interference microscope, Electron microscope.Micrometery and
Morphometry: Use of stage and ocular micrometer.Calibration of ocular
micrometer. Size measurement (length, width, diameter).Standard system
for weight, length, volume: Calculations and related conversions of each:-
Metric system- length; surface; weight – Square measures- Cubic measures
(volumetric)- Circular or angular measure -Concentrations- percent volume;
ppt; ppm - Chemical molarity, normality -Temperature- Celsius, centigrade,
Fahrenheit. Preparation of stock solutions of various strengthsSpecimen
preparation for optical microscopy: Microtomy: Fixation, embedding, Section
cutting (transverse, longitudinal section, mounting and staining. Sections in
paraffin and cryosections.

Extraction techniques: Centrifugation, Ultracentrifugation, cell fractionation,

filtration, Distillation, Use of Soxhalet and Rotary evaporator for
extraction.Separation Techniques: Chromatography: Principle, applications,
types, thin layer, column, gas, ion exchange chromatography.
Electrophoresis: Principle, applications, types.Spectrophotometery: Principle,
applications, types, visible spectrum, UV spectrum, atomic absorption.Basic
principles of Sampling and Preservation: Sampling soil organisms,
Invertebrates, Aquatic animals, Mammals, Estimation of population size,
Preservation of dry and wet specimens. Preservation techniques – Taxidermy
- Rearing techniques, Laboratory and field.

18)Parasitology
Introduction to parasitology: Relationship to other sciences, parasitology and
human welfare. Parasites of domestic and wild animals. Careers in
parasitology. Some basic definitions. Parasitic ecology and evolution.
Immunology and pathology. Susceptibility and resistance, innate defence
mechanisms. Acquired immune response in vertebrates. Immunity in
invertebrates. Immunodiagnosis, pathogenesis of parasitic infections.
Accommodation and tolerance in the host-parasite relationship.Parasitic
protozoa, form, function and classification.

Pathology of Helminths: Host parasite relationships and control of parasitic

helminths with particular reference to Helminths of medical and veterinary
importance.Arthropods, Vectors of diseases. Parasitic insects; bugs, fleas,
flies, mosquito, lice, ticks and mites.

19)Animal Behaviour
Foundations of animal behaviour: ethology, classical ethology Development
of Behaviour: innate mechanisms, imprinting Kinds of behaviour: innate,
conditioned, Complex behaviour patterns, habituation. Mechanisms of
behaviour: Nervous system And behaviour, hormones and behaviour, Social
behaviour: agonistic, altruistic, Kinship, mating, ritualization, dominance,
territoriality Biological rhythms: circadian Clocks, clock genes etc. Social
organization: conflict, sexual behaviour, reproduction And fitness, parental
care, social system. Animal Communication: chemical attraction, In moths,
honey bees, communication displays, pheromones etc.
20)Fish Biology
Fish morphology: Head (size, shape, and orientation); Scales (types,
arrangements, Coloration, scale less fishes); Operculum; Fins, fin rays and fin
spine (dorsal, pectoral,Caudal, anal); Barbel (upper lip barbels, lower lip
barbels); Anatomy: Skeleton (skull, backbone, spines); Brain and spinal cord;
Gills (Number, Size, arrangements); vital organs (heart, liver, and kidney);
Viscera and mesenteries (swim bladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas,
intestine, gonads).Systematic: Identification of fishes up to; Families; Order;
Genus; Species; Feeding Groups of fishes; Herbivore; Plankton eater;
Larvivore; Carnivore; Voracious; Reproduction: Gonads; Testes and ovaries;
Maturation; Reproductive cells (egg and Sperm); Artificial fertilization of sex
cells.Breeding: Nature (seasonal); Artificial; Hormonal induced breeding;
Temperature & Photoperiod; control induced breeding, Courtship behaviour.

Introduction to fisheries and aquaculture: National and International trends.

Water quality parameters (abiotic: temperature, Light, salinity, pH, turbidity,
etc.) and their effects on fish health and production. Biotic parameters
(plankton, insects, aquatic vegetation, etc.) of ponds, lakes, rivers And
impacts on fish growth. Induced breeding. Fish diseases and their control.
Fishing Gears, fishing techniques, fishing communities. Fish preservation,
processing, Transportation and marketing.

21)Bioinformatics
Introduction

introduction to computers, software, hardware, operating systems,

Bioinformatics, Scope of bioinformatics, useful websites, aims of
bioinformatics, Disciplines related to bioinformatics, major tasks involved in
bioinformatics analysis, Bioinformatics tools

Biological databases: data and information, databases, data acquisition,

NCBI, major DNA databases around the world, major protein databases in the
world, primary Protein sequence databases, secondary protein databases,
tertiary protein databases, Protein structure databases, specialized
databases, genome and organism databases, Miscellaneous databases

Genome mapping: genetic and linkage mapping, physical mapping

Gene family: introduction, types, protein family, types of protein families,
Globin Family as an example, globin genes and chains, evolution of globin
proteins in human, Combination and types of globin proteins in human

Data Retrieval: searching sequence databases, FASTA format, retrieval of

nucleotide Sequence data, retrieval of protein sequence and structure data,
retrieval of literature And map data

Primer Designing: primer and probe, qualities of primer, general rules for
primer Designing, websites used for primer designing

Sequence Alignment: importance and significance of alignment, methods for

Sequence alignment, local and global alignment, pair-wise local alignment,
uses of Local alignmentBLAST: introduction, types, uses, algorithm, BLAST
Scores

Amino Acid Matrices: amino acids and their symbols, amino acid scoring
matrices, PAM and BLOSUM, comparison of PAM and BLOSUMMultiple
Sequence Alignment: Introduction, tools for MSA, uses and importance

Phylogenetic analysis: introduction, interpretation, rooted and unrooted tree,

phylogenetic methods, tree terminology, comparison of methods, software

Protein Structure Prediction: homology modelling, threading, ab initio

modelling, motivation to acquire structure, protein 3D structure,
software/databases

Molecular Docking: introduction, steps, importance and uses

Microarrays: gene expression, differential expression, DNA chips, principle of

microarray, types, steps of a microarray experiment, qualitative
interpretation of results, applications of microarray, advantages and
disadvantages of microarray

22)Entomology
Basic Entomology:

Morphology and Physiology: An introduction of Entomology with a brief

description of different classes of Arthropods. Complete morphology of an
insect. Anatomy and physiology of various Systems with special reference to
digestive, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, Excretory and reproductive
system. Development and metamorphosis. Hibernation And diapause

Insect Taxonomy and Ecology:Classification of insects up to orders. Insect

ecology with special reference to factors Effecting the population, population
estimations. Insect societies.Principal of apiculture, sericulture and lac
culture. Study and identification of pests of Agriculture, stored grain and
house holds. Genera characteristics, life cycle and habits Of insects of
medical and veterinary importance. Study of various insect-borne Diseases.