Lecture Two:

1. Revolutionary War:

The most Significant conflict in the history of the world that led to
establishment of the United States of America.

 Major Battles:

i. Battle of Lexington and Concord 1775:

It was first military engagement of revolutionary war fought
in Massachusetts that closed all the doors of reconciliation.
These were battles, both won by Americans.

ii. Battle of Saratoga 1777:

This battle is considered the turning point in the war. This
crushing victory of the colonies convinced France to enter
 war on their side and support them economically and
militarily.

iii. Battle of Yorktown 1781:

It was last major battle of the war, where forces led by G.
Washington and French troops trapped the British force
under Lord Cornwallis in Yorktown, Virginia. The surrender
of Cornwallis ended the war.
(Revolutionary war also a civil war where 2.6 million citizens were divided in
Patriots (around 40%) and Loyalists (around 20%) other remained neutral.
After the defeat of British, Loyalist emigrated to Canada and Britain to avoid
persecution)

2. Paris Peace Treaty 1783:

 Britain officially recognized the United States as an independent
nation.
 The boundaries of the new nation were set from Atlantic to
Mississippi river.
 Americans would have fishing rights off coast of Canada.
 Colonist would pay their debt owed to British merchants and
respect right of lives and properties of loyalists.

3. Articles of Confederation:

The Articles of Confederation, officially known as the Articles of

Confederation and Perpetual Union, were the first written constitution
of the United States, drafted by John Dickinson. They were adopted by
the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and became effective
on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. The Articles
 established a loose confederation of sovereign states and served as the
governing framework for the United States during the American
Revolutionary War and the early years of the nation's history.

Key Features of the Articles of Confederation:

1. Weak Central Government: The Articles created a weak central government
deliberately to prevent a concentration of power that had been oppressive
under British rule. The central government had limited authority and was
intentionally designed to be weaker than the state governments.
2. Unicameral Congress: The central governing body, known as the Congress
of the Confederation, was unicameral (consisting of a single chamber) and
served as the primary institution responsible for making laws.
3. States' Sovereignty: Each state retained its sovereignty, freedom, and
independence, and delegates to Congress were appointed and funded by
their respective state legislatures.
4. Limited Powers of Congress: Congress had the authority to declare war,
conduct foreign affairs, manage relations with Native American tribes, and
issue and borrow money. However, it lacked the power to regulate trade,
impose taxes, or enforce its decisions on the states.
5. Amendment and Ratification: Amending the Articles required unanimous
consent from all 13 states, making it challenging to make significant
changes.
Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation:

1. Lack of Central Authority: With a weak central government, there was no

effective executive branch to enforce laws or coordinate national policies.
This led to difficulties in implementing decisions and resolving disputes
between states.
2. Inability to Tax: Congress could not levy taxes directly on the people, and it
relied on voluntary contributions from the states. This lack of reliable
revenue severely hindered the government's ability to fund essential
functions, such as defense and infrastructure.
3. No National Currency or Economic Policy: The lack of a national currency
and economic policy led to economic instability and difficulties in
conducting interstate trade.
4. Inadequate Military Power: The central government had limited control
over the military. It could request troops and resources from the states, but
the states were not obligated to comply, making it challenging to defend the
nation effectively. (Example: Shays Rebellion)
5. No Judicial System: There was no federal judiciary to interpret laws or
resolve disputes, leaving Congress unable to enforce laws uniformly across
the states.

 Achievements of Article of Confederation:

While the Articles of Confederation had significant weaknesses
that ultimately led to its replacement by the U.S. Constitution, it
also achieved some notable accomplishments during its existence:

i. Revolutionary War and Peace Treaty: The Articles of

Confederation were in effect during the American Revolutionary
War, and they provided a loose framework for the states to
cooperate in fighting against British rule. After the war, the
Confederation Congress negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783,
which formally ended the war and recognized American
independence.

ii. Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Despite its limitations, the

Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which
was a groundbreaking piece of legislation. It established a system
for governing and admitting new territories to the Union, leading
to the eventual formation of new states. The ordinance also
prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory, setting a significant
precedent for future decisions about slavery in the expanding
United States.
4. Philadelphia Convention 1787:
 Points of agreement:
a. Articles of confederation should be replaced with a completely
new constitution.
b. Strong government but with separation of Power (Montesquieu)
c. No monarchy, no dictatorship, nor aristocracy, but a Republic.
 Points of disagreement:
1. Representation in congress matter btw Large and Small
states.
2. Slavery issue btw the Southern and Northern States.

 Proposed Plans:
1. Virginia Plan: This plan was proposed by James Madison.
He Suggested: Strong government with three tiers, executive,
legislature and judiciary. Bicameral legislature, strong executive,
proportional representation, thus giving large state more power.

2. New Jersey Plan: Proposed by William Paterson, to protect the

rights of small states. He Suggested: Weak Federal govt/executive,
Unicameral House with equal representation.
3. The Great compromise/ Connecticut compromise: the delegates
are a major pause over disagreements in both plans, blended both
of plan and came to what was known as The Great Compromise.
(Point to remember: This compromise only resolved the issue btw small
and large states over representation. But, what about Issue of Slavery
btw the South and North? Reservations of Georgia and South Carolina?)
 Features the US Constitution:

The United States Constitution has several distinctive features that set it apart
from other constitutions and contributed to the creation of a strong Union. Some
of these distinctive features include:
1. Preamble and Popular Sovereignty: The Preamble begins with the words
"We the People," emphasizing that the power and authority of the
government derive from the citizens. This principle of popular sovereignty
establishes the idea that the government exists to serve the people and
reflects a fundamental democratic value.
2. Federal System of Government: The U.S. Constitution creates a federal
system in which power is divided between a central national government
and individual state governments. This division of powers ensures that the
states retain some autonomy while participating in a unified federal system.
3. Separation of Powers: The Constitution divides the government into three
separate branches: The Legislative (Congress), Executive (President), and
Judicial (Federal Courts). Each branch has its distinct powers and
responsibilities, preventing any one branch from gaining excessive power.
4. Limited Government and Rule of Law: The Constitution establishes a
government with limited powers, meaning it can only act within the
boundaries set by the Constitution. The rule of law ensures that all
individuals, including government officials, are subject to and bound by the
law, protecting against arbitrary use of power.
5. Amendment Process: One of most difficult processes to amend the
constitution.
Process: a. Proposal: An amendment is proposed either by 2/3
majority of both houses or on request 2/3 of state legislatures.
b. Ratification: ¾ of states must ratified it either by simply voting
YEA! Or holding national convention in state.
6. Checks and Balances: The system of checks and balances ensures that no
branch becomes too dominant. Each branch has the ability to restrain the
actions of the other branches. For example, the President can veto
legislation passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto with a
two-thirds majority vote.
 7. Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights,
guarantee fundamental individual liberties and limit the government's
ability to infringe upon them. These rights protect freedoms such as
freedom of speech, religion, and the right to a fair trial.
8. Supremacy Clause: The Supremacy Clause (Article VI) establishes that the
Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land,
overriding any conflicting state laws. This ensures a uniform legal
framework throughout the nation.
How it Created a Strong Union:
The U.S. Constitution played a pivotal role in creating a strong Union in several
ways:
1. Balancing State and Federal Power: By establishing a federal system, the
Constitution strikes a balance between a strong central government and the
autonomy of individual states. This allowed the Union to operate as a single
nation while respecting the diversity and identity of each state.
2. Unity and Common Purpose: The Constitution's preamble emphasizes the
goal of forming "a more perfect Union," signifying the shared purpose of
creating a cohesive and united nation. This common purpose fostered a
sense of national identity and loyalty among citizens.
3. National Defense and Foreign Relations: With the power to declare war
and conduct foreign affairs vested in the federal government, the
Constitution ensured a unified approach to national defense and
international relations, strengthening the Union's position on the world
stage.
4. Consistency in Law and Justice: The federal court system, as established by
the Constitution, ensures uniformity in interpreting laws and resolving
 disputes, promoting consistency in the application of justice across the
states.
5. Flexibility through Amendment Process: The Constitution's amendment
process allows for necessary changes and adaptations without requiring a
complete overhaul of the governing system. This flexibility enabled the
Union to evolve and address various challenges and issues over time.
6. Preservation of Individual Rights: The Bill of Rights, incorporated into the
Constitution to protect individual liberties, bolstered citizen trust in the
federal government and provided a safeguard against potential abuses of
power.
Overall, the distinctive features of the U.S. Constitution contributed to the
establishment of a strong Union by providing a framework for effective
governance, maintaining a delicate balance between federal and state authority,
and safeguarding the rights and interests of the American people.

5. Origin of Political Parties in the US:

 Federalists and Anti-Federalists:

Ratification was fiercely debated for almost a year, from September
1787 until June 1788. Supporters of the Constitution and its strong
federal government were known as Federalists. Opponents were known
as Anti-Federalists. Federalists were most common along the Atlantic
Coast and in the large cities while Anti-Federalists tended to be small
farmers and settlers on the western frontier. (See table on the next page
for more on the two groups.)

 The Federalist Papers:

A key element in the Federalist campaign for the Constitution was a
series of highly persuasive essays written for a New York newspaper by
James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The 85 essays, later
published in book form as The Federalist Papers, presented cogent
reasons for believing in the practicality of each major provision of the
Constitution.

 Outcome:
The Federalists won early victories in the state conventions in Delaware,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-the first three states to ratify. By promising
to add a bill of rights to the Constitution, they successfully addressed the
Anti-Federalists' most telling objection. With New Hampshire voting yes
in June 1788, the Federalists won the necessary nine states to achieve
ratification of the Constitution. Even so, the larger states of Virginia and
New York had not yet acted. If they failed to ratify, any chance for
national unity and strength would be in dire jeopardy.
Process of President’s election:
1. Eligibility: In Article II, Section one, clause 5 of Constitution:
a. Natural-born US citizen
b. At least 35 years old.
c. Has been the resident in the US for 14 years.
2. Primaries and Caucuses: Initial stage of election where each state hold either primary or
Caucus to choose their preferred candidate. It is held 9 months before elections.
3. National Conventions: Hold to Political parties where they finalize their candidate for
election. Finalized candidate then choose his/ her Vice president.
4. Electoral College: These are electors who after election, vote to elect the preferred
candidate. There are 538 electors in total, 270 needed to win the presidency of the US.
5. Winner takes all: system that awards all electors to the Presidential candidate who wins
the State's popular vote.

Washington Presidency: (1789-97)

George Washington was elected unanimously by the convention without election.
He was the most influential as well as loved personality at that time, and everyone
welcome his presidency.
 Vice President: John Adams
 S.O State: Thomas Jefferson
 S.O Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
B. BACKGROUND:

I. Economic issues: Unpaid War Debt (Around $25 million)

NO uniform currency and rules of inter-state trade. Issue of raising
revenue.
 II. Foreign policy challenges: Troubled relations with the superpower of
the world. No clear rules or treaty for trade and other diplomatic
engagements.
War btw France and Britain put The US in troubled situation.
III. Problem with Indians and Manifest destiny: After end of empire,
American wanted to continue westward expansion unabated.
However, Indian were posing security threat to it.

C. Domestic Policies:

I. Economic Policies: Washington adopted the Hamilton Financial Plan

to deal with economic issues.
a. Strong central govt. to raise tariff.
b. National bank to make and regulate policies
c. Issue paper currencies.
d. Tax states to raise revenue.

Whiskey’s Rebellion: Tax on whiskey as suggested by the

financial plan, enraged the farmers who saw it as attack on
their liberties. They took up arms and rebelled against the
act, and attacked the tax collectors. Washington replied
with force by assigning 15000 military men under
Hamilton, to quelled the riots.
This act of Washington was welcomed by many. However,
Jefferson condemned with power show against the
common farmer. This gave him huge popularity in west.

II. Foreign Affairs under Washington:

a. Neutrality proclamation of 1793: This was most important

Foreign policy move taken by Washington that set a
precedence for coming presidents.
Europe was shaken by French Revolutionaries wars, and
France to was looking to the US as an ally due to Treaty of
Alliance 1778. However, the US proclaimed neutrality and
did not enter in war from either side.

b. Jay Treaty 1795: (Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Trade):

Designed by Hamilton and negotiated by John Jay (Chief
Justice of the US).
Its resolved the issues remained unresolved in Paris Treaty.
 : Trade Relation negotiated: Most Favored-nation status:
Both countries gave one another the most favored-nation
status.
: British evacuated the Northwest Territories: British was
asked leave its forts in northwest territories that were later
to become the part of Ohio, Michigan etc.

c. Pinckney treaty (Treaty of Lorenzo or Treaty of Madrid)

1795: After the Jay’s treaty, the attitude of Spain changed
in North America, thinking the US would draw closer to
Britain. Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney, minister to Spain.
: Border adjustment: 31st parallel line was established as
border between the US and Spanish Florida.
: Navigation Rights in Mississippi River: The Citizens of US
got tax-free navigation rights in Mississippi river.
: Pledge by Spain: Spain made a pledge to not to interfere
in western settlements of the US, this ensured unabated
westward expansion.

III. Westward Expansion under Washington:

Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee were added into Union under

Washington presidency.

IV. Farewell Address of Washington: After completing two tenures,

Washington decided to leave the presidential office in 1797.
He Americans:
 To Not get involved into European Affairs. (Isolationism and Monroe
Doctrine)
 Do not form permanent alliances in foreign affairs.
 Do not Form Political Parties.
 Do not fall into politics of sectionalism.

PRESIDENCY OF JOHN ADAMS:

 One of weakest presidents in history due to cult of Thomas Jefferson, who
was vice president during his presidency.
 Served only on term from 1797 to 1801.
 Introduced some controversial acts:
a. Alien act: gave president power to deport non-citizen of
the US.
b. Sedition act: It is a crime to publish scandalous, malicious
and false writings against govt. officials.
c. Naturalization act: Increased residency requirement for
citizenship from 5 to 14 years.
d. Judiciary Act 1801: Appoint of Federalist Judges in last
days in Office by Adams. Democratic Republicans called
them Mid-Night Judges, thus Jefferson Vetoed their
appointments. This Act also led to landmark Supreme
court case ( Marbury vs Madison case) and established
principle of Judicial review.

Impacts:
a. Led Virginia Resolution: Nullification of Federal laws by
states.
b. Defeat of Adams in 1800’s election.
c. Loss in popularity of Federalist Party.
 Foreign Affairs:

XYZ Affairs: US-French diplomatic controversy, US peace Commission was

asked to bribe the agents in France in order to meet French Foreign
Minister, Charles Talleyrand. This incident led to undeclared Naval war
bwt US and France. As anti-French grew in US, because they insulted the
US commission, hence Insulting whole nation.