The Lessons Emergency

CREW
ACAS / TCAS

The ACAS II equipment, known as TCAS II, provides an independent airborne

last resort safety net designed to prevent collisions between aircraft.

ECAC common policy for ACAS II requires that:

 From January 2000 all civil fixed wing aircraft exceeding
15,000Kg, or with a passenger seating configuration of more than 30 must
have ACAS II
 From January 2005 all civil fixed wing aircraft exceeding
7,500 Kg, or with a passenger seating configuration of more than 19 must
have ACAS II

When a risk of collision is detected, TCAS II calculates the necessary manoeuvre

and communicates the solution directly to the flight crew.
ACAS II can issue two types of advisory
 Traffic Advisory (TA), warns the flight crew to be ready for
a potential Resolution Advisory and helps the crew in the visual search for
the intruder aircraft. The TA is triggered between 20 and 48 seconds before
the Closest Point of Approach (CPA)
 Resolution Advisory (RA), an advisory to the flight crew to
execute avoidance manoeuvres in the vertical plane. The RA is activated
between 15 and 35 seconds before the CPA

Airborne Collision Avoidance System Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System

Communication of TA or RA
The TA or RA is communicated to the flight crew by means of both a visual
display and an aural alert message.

The following can be expected:

 Climb or descent without prior warning

 No emergency squawk
 Two aircraft or more involved
 Notification from pilot of “TCAS climb” or “TCAS descent”

Effects of turbulence
If an aircraft experiences severe turbulence that makes it deviate very suddenly
towards another aircraft, the altitude varies with an important acceleration.
TCAS II computes a high vertical speed and an advisory may be triggered.
Even though these are rare events, TAs or RAs may be triggered between aircraft
on adjacent flight levels because of turbulence.
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 ATC
In the event of a pilot reporting a manoeuvre induced by an RA, Remember:

 The controller shall not attempt to modify the aircraft flight

path
 The controller shall provide traffic information as appropriate
 Pilots very busy
 TCAS II altitude data is more accurate than radar data

NB: Once an aircraft departs from its clearance in compliance with an RA, the
controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between that aircraft
and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA

1. The controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance
2. The controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is
resuming the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is
acknowledged by the flight crew
Following an RA event, or other significant ACAS event, pilots and controllers
should complete an air traffic incident report.

CREW
II. BIRDSTRIKE

An aircraft hitting a bird may create an emergency situation, known as

Birdstrike.
The seriousness of this emergency depends on:
 the size of the bird
 the speed of the aircraft at impact
 where it hits the aircraft.

Its effects may be very severe. The most dangerous strikes are to the
 windshield
 engine

A strike of this nature may lead to the ultimate loss of the aircraft.
Strikes other than windshield and engine may impair the flying characteristics of
the aircraft, making levels and headings difficult to maintain and safe landings
difficult. They may ultimately lead to loss of control, or even structural failure.
The likelihood of birdstrike varies depending on the level, the location and the
time of year. The greatest risk of birdstrike is below 1000 ft above GND, with
decreasing risk between 1000 ft and 5000 ft.
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The risk above 5000 ft is much less but there is still some risk from migrating
geese or other large birds, which have been encountered above 20000ft. The risk
is also higher in spring and autumn.

Birdstrike on windshield
 loss of visibility
 may need nav, and landing assistance
 may require to operate by IFR
 loss of pressure / emergency descent
 pilot injury
 poor communication owning to noise
 may need to terminate flight and land at next suitable
aerodrome

Birdstrike on landing gear

A birdstrike on the gear, or undercarriage, can cause serious problems and
structural damage
 damaged landing gear may collapse when plane lands
 if the strike happens on take-off it may not be possible to
retract the landing gear
 if gear cannot be retracted, the aircraft must terminate flight
and land as soon as possible
 handling may be restricted owning to speed limits on
extended landing

Birdstrike on fuselage
 smaller aircraft are more endangered
 stability may be reduced
 urgent landing be necessary

Birdstrike on engine
 engine may shut down
 engine may catch fire
 turbine engines more sensitive to damage
 single engine aircraft are more vulnerable

Birds on hydraulics
 this situation is complex
 may affect multiple systems:
flight controls
gear extension
brakes
flaps / rudder / elevator
nosewheel steering

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 ATC
In the event of birdstrike, Remember:
 Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A “Acknowledge – S “Separate” – S “Silence” – I “Inform” – S “Support” – T “Time”

 Find out if the pilot can still control the aircraft

 Allow a Long Final if requested
 Check RWY if birdstrike is during or after take-off

I. If …
… the pilot intends to land at the next suitable aerodrome
… the pilot reports limited vision owning to a dirty or damaged windshield
… the pilot reports problems controlling the aircraft
… a pilot reports a birdstrike during or after take-off or landing

II. If the pilot intends to land at the next suitable aerodrome …

- Recommend one or more suitable landing options as soon as possible
- Assess all of the following requirements carefully to avoid missed
approaches:
- ACFT type and configuration
- aerodrome conditions
RWY in use: length, surface, elevation
ILS & navigational frequencies
any other facilities required, weather

III. If the pilot reports limited vision owning to a dirty or damaged

windshield …
- If required, provide navigational assistance, radar monitoring and guidance to
touchdown
- ACFT may require to be landed in accordance with instrument Flight Rules.
a long approach would be advisable
- RWY / Approach lighting

IV. If the pilot reports problems controlling the aircraft …

This means that the manoeuvrability of the ACFT is limited. As a result, flying
procedures may not be executed as normal
You may assist the ACFT by:
If required, provide navigational assistance, radar monitoring and guidance to
touchdown
increasing separation from other traffic
informing all appropriate units
arranging technical assistance by appropriate specialists

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V. If the pilot reports a birdstrike during or after take-off or landing
- The birdstrike may have caused damage to the aircraft. Parts of the aircraft and
/ or bird may be lying on the RWY, endangering departing or arriving aircraft.
- Address this by arranging a RWY inspection
- Arrange technical assistance as necessary

CREW
II. BRAKE PROBLEMS

Brake or anti-skid problems are usually caused by hydraulic failure.

It should be noted that this doesn’t require urgent measures unless the aircraft has
started approach.
The landing distance available may be insufficient and there will be an increased
probability of tyre burst. If a tyre burst occurs, this could result in damage to
other parts of the aircraft.
As the landing distance may be increased, the pilot can be expected to request the
longest RWY possible.
The wheels may become damaged and the aircraft may swerve off the RWY, or
overrun it at the far end. It is also possible that with damaged wheels, the RWY
and / or the safety strip may become blocked.
Brake problems are not urgent unless the ACFT has started approach. Priority
may be given to succeeding traffic as RWY may be blocked once the afflicted
aircraft has landed. If blocked, acft will continue to hold or will have to divert.

ATC
In the event of brake problems, Remember:
1. Situation: Coming in for landing.
 Offer the longest RWY possible (ACFT needs more landing
distance than usual)
 If tyres have burst, ACFT may remain on runway, make
arrangements for succeeding ACFT

2. Situation: On approach
 Inform about length and conditions of the RWY
 Keep RWY and safety strip clear
 Check towing equipment is on standby
 Check that technical staff are on standby, if required

3. Situation: Not yet prepared for landing

 If time permits, let other aircraft land first while RWY is still
clear
 Inform about length and conditions of the RWY
 Keep safety strip clear
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 Check towing equipment is on standby
 Check that technical staff are on standby, if required
CREW
III. COMMUNICATION FAILURE

Communication systems are complex. A communication failure may have various

causes, which in turn may be simple or complex. They are usually caused by
electrical / electronic or hardware problems.
Simple causes:
Communication failure may be caused by a simple technical problem such as a
defect in the pilot’s or controller’s headset or microphone, or blocked frequency.
Complex cause:
The causes of communication failure may be more complex, for example:
 a broken wire
 a malfunction of the radio equipment
 a power failure
Originating with ATC:
Remember, communication problems do not always originate with the ACFT.
They may also originate with ATC. A sector or unit frequency may be lost. ATC
would quickly become aware of this problem. It would be solved by a change of
frequency.
Communication failure may affect the pilot’s ability to communicate in various
ways:
The pilot may be able to:
transmit but not receive messages
receive but not transmit messages
send carrier waves only. This is called NON-VERBAL or SPEECHLESS
communication.
Whenever possible, the ACFT will squawk A 7600.
Smaller ACFT may be more affected by communication failure than larger ACFT
as they have fewer back-up systems.
A controlled flight experiencing communication failure in Visual
Meteorological Conditions shall:
 set transponder to A7600
 continue to fly in VMC
 land at the nearest suitable aerodrome
 report its arrival time by the most expeditious means to the
appropriate ATS unit
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
 Communication failure occurs. ACFT sets transponder to
A7600.
 Maintain last assigned speed and level for a period of 7
minutes, OR, if the minimum flight altitude is higher than the last assigned
level, maintain the minimum flight altitude for a period of 7 minutes.

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 Thereafter, adjust level and speed in accordance with the
filed flight plan.
 If being radar vectored, or proceeding offset according to
RNAV without a specified limit, proceed in the most direct manner
possible to rejoin the current flight plan route no later than the next
significant point, taking into consideration the applicable min. flight
altitude.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
Arriving aircraft with communication failure
The ACFT will proceed according to the current flight plan to the designated
navigational aid serving the destination aerodrome and hold until commencement
of descent.
Commence descent at, or as close as possible to, the EAT last received and
acknowledged.
OR
If no EAT received and acknowledged, commence descent at, or as close as
possible to, the ETA resulting from the CPL.
Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated
navigation aid.
Land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the ETA specified,
OR
Within 30 minutes of the last acknowledged expected approach time, whichever is
later.

ATC
In the event of communication failure, REMEMBER:
 Following the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

 Inform your Supervisor

 As soon as the failure becomes known, maintain separation
between the affected ACFT and other ACFT based on the assumption that
the ACFT will operate in accordance with the (ICAO) rules define for
VMC or for IMC
 Recognize that this is an unusual situation which could
become an emergency
 Establish whether the aircraft has:
 functioning transmitter
 functioning receiver
 neither
 if blocked frequency, establish the source:
 ground
 airborne
 inform all units concerned
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 try to make contact with the aircraft on other available
frequencies – 121.5 Mhz; 243.0 MHz; company frequency, or by any other
available means, eg SELCAL; VOR: mobile phone etc.
 if control has to be transferred to another ATC station, radar
hand-off procedure should be followed

CREW
IV. Pressurisation Problems
A failure of the cabin pressurisation system causes an immediate danger to the
aircraft, crew and passengers. This is an emergency situation.
During high level flight, the aircraft cabin is pressurised in order to provide air for
breathing and a comfortable environment for the human body.
Engine bleed air is conditioned (cooled down and mixed with outside air) and
guided into the cabin. The amount and pressure of the conditioned air is regulated
by a computer and outflow valves.
Pressurisation problems may be caused by:
 malfunction of the pressure outflow
 a malfunction of the pressure regulating valves
 a physical leak in the system
 a damage to a door or window

A rapid decompression in the cabin leads to loss of oxygen and increased gas
pressure in the human body.
The drop in pressure will result in a sudden temperature drop, fog and reduced
visibility in the cabin.
The difference in air pressure between inside and outside of the cabin leads to a
wake effect where the wind sucks items towards the hole.
Loose objects will fly through the cabin and may harm passengers and crew.
Urns may boil over and bottles burst.
When the air from the cabin is lost, the time of useful consciousness (TUC) is
short. This is the period of time during which a person can continue to function
“normally”, without oxygen, before “blackout” occurs.
The time of useful consciousness can vary from 4 to 30 seconds depending on
 the altitude
 the size of the leak
 the size of the fuselage
It is vital that oxygen masks are deployed for pilot, crew and passengers during
the TUC. The crew immediately puts on oxygen masks and then assists
passengers to do the same.
The pilot can no longer use the standard headset for RTF communication. The
pilot’s mask is therefore equipped with a microphone , and the earpiece is
automatically switched over to a cabin loudspeaker.

The human body needs about 20 litres of oxygen per hour.

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With increasing altitude, the density of air decreases and therefore the oxygen
content decreases. The effect of this on the human body depends on the amount of
oxygen available.
Medical Science has defined thresholds of altitude at which the human body will
start to experience particular symptoms.
These are defined as bands of altitude, since tolerance will vary from person to
person.

Reaction threshold (6000-9000ft)

Symptoms of oxygen deficiency start to show at this level, in the form of tiredness
or exhaustion.
In the cabin of an aircraft the oxygen content is kept equivalent to a level of
6000ft or less, to prevent even those with the lowest tolerance from experiencing
symptoms.

Disturbance Threshold (12000-15000ft)

At this level the symptoms are more serious. The lack of oxygen now also starts to
affect our cognitive processes.
We start to lose the ability to think clearly and to make sound judgements.
We overestimate our abilities.

Critical Threshold (18000-24000ft)

At this level the density of air and oxygen content are only half of the value on
ground.
More severe symptoms of oxygen starvation now also start to show.
Co-ordination of muscles is affected and the body will become paralysed.
Humans must leave this level as soon as possible.
In the even of depressurisation, the ACFT may stop its climb, request immediate
descent or descend without warning.
If the problem cannot be resolved the crew will perform a rapid descent to below
10,000ft where passengers can breath unaided. The higher the ACFT the faster the
rate of descent.
By doing this, the ACFT will descend through other levels and separation from
other ACFT may be infringed.
These manoeuvres may cause injuries to passenger or crew.

ATC
In the event of pressurisation problems, REMEMBER:

Follow the ASSIST code of practice:

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

 Clear airspace directly beneath the aircraft

 Inform pilot about minimum enroute altitude
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 CREW
V. Electrical problems:

Electrical problems may be caused by failures one or more of the aircraft’s

generators, a short circuit, or other technical deficiency. Lightning strike may also
cause problems with the electrical systems.
Loss of electrical power is an emergency situation. Even though most aircraft can
still function on reduced power, a possible complete power failure must be
expected. Therefore, partial failure is also treated as an emergency.
When a pilot reports the aircraft to be an a standby power, remember most aircraft
will have battery supplied electrical power for only 20-30 minutes, so urgent
action by ATC is required.

Typical power supply systems:

Most modern transport aircraft have two generators and a battery for power
supply. Smaller aircraft will have less backup and therefore lower redundancy.
In order to conserve power supplies, all unnecessary power-consuming systems
shall be switched off. This may include, for example the transponder and internal
& external lighting. As it must be expected, that all power supply could end, the
flight may wish to continue under VMC. This may require level changes.
Landing at the next suitable aerodrome is the expected action in this situation.
Read back may be limited to save energy.
If all generators are down, the battery will not be recharged and supply will be
extremely limited. Only the navigational instruments will be working and even
these may be limited.
Systems affected by electrical power supply problems are:
Electronic devices: transponders, computers, controls and indicators, sensors
Electrical heating: Galley, anti-icing
Lighting: Cockpit, cabin, exterior
Mechanical Power: pumps, valves
If the battery supply is exhausted there will be a failure of navigational systems,
including the compass, and the pilot will have to work hard to fly the plane safely.
Therefore, the aircraft will need all available navigational assistance, especially if
it cannot remain in VMC.
As the workload in the cockpit is increased the crew may experience high stress
levels. This could result in delayed responses to ATC.

ATC
In the event of electrical problems, REMEMBER:
 Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

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(See the ASSIST panel on the bottom left for further information.)

 Informing the supervisor

 Informing the landing aerodrome

SITUATION: General ATC actions to be taken if needed.

Be ready to assist the pilot by:
 Giving pilot suitable next aerodrome
 Giving the pilot RWY details as soon as possible: RWY in use, length,
surface elevation
 Informing pilot of suitable vectors and position information
 Advising pilot to save energy
 Advising pilot to avoid IMC

SITUATION: If needed, ATC actions to be taken if all ACFT generators are

out.
Be ready to assist the pilot by:
 Handing over ACFT to the local APP unit as soon as possible
 Avoiding all requests to pilot, and clearance which might increase the
consumption of energy on board
 Phrasing ATC messages so that the pilot can answer them with a click on
the mike button or just ‘Roger’ or ‘Affirm’
 If a primary radar detection is not possible, advice pilot to switch
transponder to STBY now and then, to save energy
 If the NAV-Instruments are switched off, give radar vectors and position
information to the pilot

CREW
VI. EMERGENCY DESCENT

An Emergency Descent may be triggered by several events including:

 Failure of cabin pressurisation system
 Rapid depressurisation may have an effect on the handling of
the aircraft
 Damage to a door or window (cracked windshield) which may lead to
depressurization
 Fire on board
 Equipment failure
 Unlawful interference
 In the event of an emergency descent, the ACFT may descend without
warning or request immediate descent.
Separation to other ACFT may be infringed.
 The pilot may not have time to transmit an emergency squawk and there
may be poor or no RTF.

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 The higher the ACFT the faster the rate of descent. By doing this, the
ACFT will descend through other levels and separation to other ACFT may
be infringed.

ATC
In the event of an emergency descent, REMEMBER:
 Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

 Other traffic
 Avoiding action
 Traffic information
 Emergency broadcast
 After emergency descent, request intentions
 Is a diversion required?
- inform appropriate aerodromes (civil / military)
 Are there any injuries on board?
 Is the ACFT damaged?
 Consider ACFT still to be in an emergency situation
 Inform pilot about minimum en route altitude
 may require heading change
 Squawk A7700

CREW
VII. ENGINE FAILURE

Engine failure may be caused by hydraulic or electrical problems, birdstrike,

engine on fire, fuel problems, low oil pressure, icing, ingestion of debris, or
pilot error.
The effects of an engine failure are influenced by the following factors:
 At what stage of the aircraft’s flight does the failure occur?
Is it during departure or cruise?
 How many engines does the aircraft have?
Is it single engine or multi-engine?

ENGINE FAILURE DURING DEPARTURE

1. Aircraft takes off then departs from aerodrome
2. Engine failure occurs during departure
!!NOTE: Single engine aircraft must now land as soon as possible
3. Continues on straight course then levels off at 1000 to 1.500 ft GND
4. Flaps are retracted and speed increases
5. Aircraft can now climb to safe level to await further decisions

ENGINE FAILURE DURING CRUISE

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Aircraft may need to descend in order to:
A. maintain cabin pressure
B. increase speed and airflow to aid engine restart
C. start APU – many APUs need lower altitudes to start
!! NOTE: Single engine aircraft: if engine can’t restart, aircraft must land as
soon as possible

ENGINE FAILURE IN ANY AIRCRAFT

Heavy workload in the cockpit restricts the pilot’s ability to communicate with
ATC. The crew may take up to 10 minutes to work through the checklist.
In the event of an engine failure, you should expect any of the following:
 Take-off abort
 Deviation from SID
 Intermediate level-off
 Course deviation
 Descent
 Pressurisation problems
 Fuel dumping
 Diversionary or forced landing
 Blocked RWY after landing
Loss of one engine in a multiple engine aircraft reduces power and ability to fly
normally:
 propeller driven aircraft may descend to increase speed and adapt cabin
pressure
 high altitudes (above FL 200) cannot be maintained
 turns to the side where the engine has failed normally need to be wider
 ACFT will prefer to fly straight and level and in a larger turning radius
Single engine aircraft are often small general aviation aircraft. Flight accident
analysis has shown that the main cause of engine failure here is pilot error.
During this critical incident, the pilot should be given every possible support.
Effects of engine failure are:
 loss of electrical power
 loss of navigational systems
 loss of communication systems
 loss of cabin pressure
 loss of avionics systems (e.g. gyro, horizon)
 manual gear extension

ATC
In the event of engine failure, REMEMBER:
 Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

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 INFORM TWR at landing aerodrome
 Clear RWY according to local instructions
 Keep safety strip clear
 Offer pilot extended final
 Check that towing equipment is on standby
 In case of diversionary or forced landing, record last known position and
time for search and rescue purposes
IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be inexperienced.
Commercial pilots will already be familiar with these procedures.)
 Inform pilot of nearest suitable aerodrome
 Provide aerodrome details as soon as possible:
RWY in use; length; surface; elevation; ILS and NAV frequencies;
WX information: wind; visibility; ceiling; QNH

CREW
VIII. ENGINE / APU ON FIRE

Engine fire may be caused by ingestion of debris, electrical problems, engine

failure, or birdstrike.
Larger aircraft are fitted with internal fire extinguishing systems which can be
operated remotely by the crew. Heating at any point the coils causes the gas to
expand, increasing pressure. The detection control unit detects this and triggers
the warning light in the cockpit and an alarm sound.

EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
The fire extinguishing system usually consists of 2 containers, filled with an inert
gas which acts as the extinguishing agent.
When triggered, one of the containers empties into the engine nacelle. If after 30
seconds this has not extinguished the fire, the second container is used.
It is extremely important to identify correctly which engine is on fire, to avoid
closing down a good engine.
A procedure is followed to activate the fire extinguishing system.
The throttle is put to cut-off position. Fuel flow is immediately interrupted and the
engine is shut off.
The extinguishing system is then activated. APUs have the same fire
extinguishing equipment as engines.
When activated, the extinguishing system also shuts off the engine fuel supply.
If the extinguishing system is activated on the wrong engine, that engine will shut
down!
The crew should therefore be very careful in execution of this manoeuvre and
should not be disturbed. A checklist is followed by the crew.

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 ATC
Try to memorise these points then go to the next page to put out the fire!
In the event of engine fire ATC can expect …

In the air OR on the If the ACFT is on the If the ACFT is in the air:
ground: ground:
Heavy workload in the Brakes may be hot Pressurisation problems
cockpit
Engine shutdown / fire Passenger evacuation ACFT losing altitude
extinguishing may occur
A take-off abort RWY could be blocked Landing at next suitable
aerodrome
An engine failure Other adjacent ACFT Possible emergency
may be endangered landing
Smoke in the cockpit A diversionary or forced
landing

CREW
IX. Fuel problems

The minimum amount of fuel for an IFR flight is prescribed by ICAO. This is
called the “Minimum Take-Off Fuel (MTOF)”.
If an alternate aerodrome is required: the MTOF contains enough fuel to reach the
destination aerodrome, thence to an alternate aerodrome and thereafter for 45
minutes, plus an additional contingency of 15%.
If no alternate aerodrome is required: the MTOF contains enough fuel to reach the
destination aerodrome, thereafter for another 45 minutes, plus an additional
contingency of 10%.
Any additional carried fuel is called EXTRA FUEL.
The term “Fuel Problem” indicates that the remaining amount of fuel on an
aircraft may not be sufficient for the safe completion of the planned flight.
Minimum diversion fuel:
The fuel on board is exhausted to the legal minimum and the aircraft must divert
to the alternate or the pilot applies the ‘commitment to stay procedure’.
Minimum fuel:
The fuel on board is less than the legal minimum, the aircraft requires priority
landing.
Low on fuel:
The fuel on board is exhausted so that a grave and imminent danger exists. The
aircraft should be given emergency handling.
Fuel problems may be caused by a variety of factors. The headwinds may be
stronger than expected. The pilot may need to circumnavigate bad weather areas.

15
Technical deficiencies in the pipe and pump systems can result in fuel leakage.
Also, diversion to a more distant alternate aerodrome will consume extra fuel.
Remember that a combination of these factors can impact on fuel levels.

ATC

Fuel problems may have multiple side effects, possibly impairing the pilots ability
to fly and land the plane safety. Without fuel, one or both engines can be expected
to fail, which may in turn result in a forced landing short of the RWY or short of
the aerodrome itself.
ATC can expect emergency communications from the pilot. This may be “PAN
PAN, minimum fuel” where the ACFT needs priority handling. Alternatively,
ATC may receive a “MAYDAY, low on fuel” call, indicating an emergency with
imminent danger to the aircraft.
ATC should be aware of communication problems through improper use of
phraseology. Actual fuel status shall be verified with the appropriate terms, i.e.
“low on fuel”, “minimum fuel” “minimum diversion fuel.”

IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be
inexperienced. Commercial pilots will already be familiar with these procedures.)

Assist by informing the pilot about:

The location of the nearest suitable aerodrome.
ATC should also provide details of the aerodrome as soon as possible:
RWY in use
length
elevation
ILS and NAV frequencies
WX information should also be provided:
wind
visibility
ceiling
QNH

Remember to assist resolution of the situation by:

 Informing your supervisor
 Keeping the ACFT high to save fuel
 Avoiding ATC-caused GO AROUND
 Checking for the next suitable aerodrome
 Informing landing aerodrome
 Asking if dangerous goods on board
 Asking for number of POB
 Clearing the RWY according to local instructions e.g. ACFT
is 20 NM final
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 Keeping the safety strip clear
 Checking if the towing equipment is on standby
 Recording last known position and time, in case of a
diversionary or forced landing

CREW
X. GEAR PROBLEMS
Normal operation:
Hydraulic liquid is pumped into the gear actuating cylinder which drives the
mechanical release of the landing gear. To withdraw landing gear, hydraulic
liquid is extracted from the cylinder, retracting the landing gear.
Gear problems:
Electrical problems: if the pump cannot be activated none of the system is going
to work.
Hydraulic problems: without hydraulic pressure, the gear actuating cylinder will
not power the lowering mechanism.
Mechanical failure: the rest of the system may work but the actual mechanism
fails to operate.
Expect:
 Manual gear extension, specialist advice may be required.
 Low pass of tower for gear inspection by specialist
engineering personnel.
 No gear or only partial gear deployment.

Instructions:
Drag the binoculars over the tower window to view examples of what to expect.

Expect:
 Runway blocked after landing.
 The aircraft may skid off the runway.
 Taxiway may be blocked after clearing runway.

Expect:
 GO AROUND.
 Missed approach procedure should be followed.

ATC
In event of gear problems, REMEMBER:
Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

(See the ASSIST panel on the bottom left for further information).

 Clear the runway according to local instructions.

 Keep the safety strip clear.
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 Check if the towing equipment is on standby.

ATC should also prepare for a LOW PASS of the aircraft to allow a visual
inspection of the landing gear and the area around it.

 Technical assistance will be required e.g. a specialist

engineer or another pilot.
 If dusk is approaching, the visual inspection should be
arranged urgently.
 If visibility is bad, the observer should be at the side of the
runway.
 If fog prevents visual checking from the ground, observation
may be arranged from another aircraft.

IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be
inexperienced. Commercial pilots will usually already be familiar with these
procedures.)
Assist by informing the pilot about:
In case of a manual gear extension not working, the pilot could attempt a g-load-
extension whereby a sharp change in altitude is used to force the gear down.
Retracting the gear is impossible after a manual gear release so extra drag
should be factored into any ATC calculations.
Having consulted with a specialist engineer, inform the pilot about the aircraft
configuration, e.g. gear appears down / gear doors closed.
The pilot could check the bulbs are working on the gear extension indicator. Has
the pilot contacted maintenance?

ATC
XI. HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS
 The ACFT may have limited manoeuvrability (bank angle /
turns).
 The ACFT may have erratic pitch control.
 The ACFT may have limited bank / increased radius of turn / poor
maintenance of heating.
 Higher speeds may result.
 Manual gear extension may be required (no retraction
possible).

In the event of hydraulic problems, REMEMBER:

Follow the ASSIST code of practice

A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’

 Informing your supervisor

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 Informing the alternate landing aerodrome, if one is to be
used
 Increasing vertical and lateral separation
 Monitoring the progress of the flight on radar

REMEMBER:
Assist resolution of the situation by:
 Asking if dangerous goods on board
 Asking for the number of Persons on Board (POB)
 Avoiding ATC-caused go around

Assist resolution of the situation by:

 Clear RWY in accordance with local instructions. This may
vary from aerodrome to aerodrome.
 Keeping safety strip clear
 Safety services on standby
 Checking if towing equipment on stand by

IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be
inexperienced. Commercial pilots will usually already be familiar with these
procedures.)

Assist by informing the pilot about:

 The location of the nearest suitable aerodrome.
 ATC should also provide details of the aerodrome as soon as
possible:
 RWY in use
 Length
 Surface
 Elevation
 ILS and NAV frequencies
 WX information may be provided also:
 Wind
 Visibility
 Ceiling
 QNH
 Fire or smoke at brakes
 Pilot should notify that ready for approach, “possibility of
expecting long final.”

CREW
XII. ICING

Descending aircraft
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1. All water droplets freeze below a temperature of -40°C
2. Ice may also form on an aircraft descending from a cold region, passing
through near 0°C rain.

Clear ice
Clear ice may form between 0 С and -15C. Nearly all lower clouds contain super-
cooled water droplets.

Rime Ice
Rime Ice tends to form at temperatures of less than -15°C, found in the upper
parts of clouds.

 Ice may appear on the windshield, internal and external, so

that visibility is affected.
 The leading edges of wings may change sufficiently to upset
aerodynamic flow.
 Operation of retractable landing gear may also be affected.
 The controls may freeze up.
 Propellers may be affected strongly to produce unbalanced
vibrations.
 Flame-outs may occur in turbine engines.
 Carburettor may become blocked up.
 Faulty readings due to blockage of static and dynamic air at
pressure intake.

Icing may also have an impact on the controllability of the aircraft:

 There may be limitations in rate of climb or descent.
 An immediate change of level and / or heading may
occur.
 Higher speeds may result.

Assist resolution of the problem by:

 Informing your supervisor
 Issuing AIREP to other ACFT, other units and MET
 Avoiding prolonged holding of ACFT at icing levels
 Enabling continuous climb or descent
 Keeping the safety strip clear
 Checking that APP-RWY lighting system 100%.

IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be
inexperienced. Commercial pilots will usually already be familiar with these
procedures.)
Assist by informing the pilot about:

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The pilot should check whether the following anti-icing and de-icing systems are
on:
 Pitot heating
 Stall warner heating
 Carburettor heating
 Propeller heating / de-icing
 Wing anti-ice / de-ice
 Alternate air supply
 Windshield heating

They may also try a descent with higher power setting to increase bleed air
supply.
A higher approach / landing speed could compensate for a possible increase of
weight.
Partial or no flap settings on approach and landing could be tried to combat a
possible increase of stalling speed.

CREW
XIII Smoke or Fire in the Cockpit

Smoke or fire in the cockpit is serious situation which may lead to an emergency.
An emergency descent and immediate landing may then be required.
The cause of smoke in the cockpit is generally a short circuit or other electrical
malfunctions.
Such problems may quickly escalate into an increase of the smoke or even fire.
In the event of smoke or poisonous gases, the crew will put on oxygen masks.
The ability of the crew to read cockpit instruments and see outside the aircraft
may be limited considerably.
Therefore, the crew may be totally reliant on ATC instructions.
If smoke is uncontrollable, rapid aircraft descent below 10,000 ft AMSL or to
MSA can be expected.
The pilot will require radar vectors to land at the nearest suitable aerodrome.
ATC should take into account that the RWY will possibly be blocked after
landing.
A passenger evacuation may result.

ATC
REMEMBER:
Vector aircraft to intercept the localiser with an angle of less than 20º and the
glidepath from below. This ensures a safe approach mode engagement.
If wind and LDA permits, offer the pilot the reciprocal RWY to shorten the
distance to fly.
IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft where the pilot may be inexperienced.
Commercial pilots will usually already be familiar with these procedures.)

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Assist by informing the pilot about:
 track until touchdown at next suitable aerodrome
 availability of automatic approach low visibility procedure
 details of landing aerodrome
 RWY in use
 Length, surface, elevation, ILS and NAV frequencies
 WX information at landing aerodrome: wind, visibility,
ceiling, QNH
Remember to assist resolution of the situation by:
 Informing your supervisor
 Informing landing aerodrome
 Asking if dangerous goods on board
 Asking for number of POB
 Clearing the RWY according to local instructions
e.g. ACFT is 20 NM final
 Keeping the safety strip clear
 Checking APP and RWY lighting system

CREW
XIV. UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

HIJACKING:
A hijacking is defined as an armed person in the aircraft threatening the pilot, the
crew and the passengers to get some kind of concession.
PLANNING & SUPPORT:
Because of the additional burdens created for pilot and crew, planning for all
eventualities is an important task. This planning is executed by ATC, supporting
personnel and institutions.
COUNTER MEASURES:
The counter measures against hijacking in the aircraft are limited, as the initial
intentions of the hijacking are unknown.
CALMNESS:
Concentrated calmness of crew and controllers is necessary to avoid additional
risks and provocation of the hijacker.
 Every possible dangerous situation for the aircraft and the occupants is
conceivable.
 All actions and initiatives will be determined by the situation on board and
on decisions from the pilot.
 The crew will be under a high amount of stress, possibly in fear and near to
panic
 The crew may have problems asking ATC for instructions and advice.
 The hijacking may become known to ATC by an aircraft squawking A7500
or by a message.
 The crew may try to pass information covertly.

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 ATC
Assist resolution of the situation by:
 Informing your supervisor
 Not initiating any further RTF referring to the hijacking unless confirmed
by the pilot
 Complying with the pilot’s requests as far as possible
 Transmitting pertinent information without expecting a reply
 Monitoring all flight manoeuvres-give room for manoeuvre
 Collecting any necessary information e.g. destination aerodrome, WX
situation at destination, routing etc.

REMEMBER:
It is important to remember not to make any further RTF unless initiated by
the pilot.
This is because the initial communication by the pilot may have been made
without the hijacker’s knowledge.
If a hijack squawk code is received, ATC should check the transponder setting:
“Confirm squawk”.
NO REPLY shall be taken as confirmation of the A7500 squawk. Absence of a
reply shall not be taken as an indication that the squawk was set by mistake.
ATC should also attempt to provide any information requested.
Although most cases of this modern form of terrorism are false alarms, ALL must
be taken seriously until proved to be a hoax.
The crews are trained to handle such situations and there is a bomb search
checklist on board.
In order to reduce the effect of a possible explosion, the following procedures are
followed if a foreign object is found in the cabin:
 the object is placed at the bottom of a rear door
 the object is covered in all available blankets, cusions and other soft
materials

In the event of a bomb warning, ATC is the most direct point of contact with the
pilot and crew. Therefore, much of the coordination and official counter
measure planning will be relayed through the controller talking to the pilot.
Controllers should relay verbatim instructions or advice passed by authorised
persons for transmission to the aircraft.
All procedures will be executed according to local instructions as contained in
the local alarm plans.
The ACFT may stop its climb and the pilot may request immediate level re-
clearance.
Bomb devices may be connected to a pressure-related ignitor.
In the event of an explosion, damage is reduced if flying at a lower altitude due to
lower cabin differential pressure.
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Cabin differential pressure is the difference in pressure between the inside and
outside of the cabin.
Implications of a bomb warning:
 the pilot may bring the aircraft into landing configuration early, as any
explosion may reduce subsequent manoeuvrability.
 Aircraft in landing configuration are less manoeuvrable, slower and do not
allow any steep manoeuvres.
 The pilot may require to land at the next suitable aerodrome.
 The passengers and crew may need to be evacuated after landing.
SITUATION: If the pilot intends to land at the next suitable aerodrome, if
needed assist by:
 finding out and recommending one or more suitable alternate aerodrome
options
 assessing ACFT type and configuration to avoid missed approach
 passing aerodrome conditions (RWY in use, length, surface, elevation,
navigational and other facilities)
 passing WX information of landing aerodrome: wind, visibility, ceiling,
QNH
SITUATION: If pilot requests to change to an early landing configuration, if
needed assist by:
 clearing the aircraft as requested and as early as possible
 clearing the appropriate airspace
 separating other air traffic sufficiently
 providing all assistance required

SITUATION: If pilot requests a lower flying altitude, if needed assist by:

 clearing the aircraft to lower flight levels as soon as possible
 recognising that if an aircraft is climbing, it will normally stop its climb
immediately
 considering that flat descents are preferred when giving clearances

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