History of Punjab

The History of Punjab refers to the past history of Punjab region which is a geopolitical, cultural, and
historical region in the northwest of South Asia, comprising eastern Punjab province in Pakistan and
western Punjab state in India.[1] It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab
traces to the Soan valley of the Pothohar, between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers, where Soanian culture
developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in
the second Ice Age, from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found.[2]

The Punjab region was the site of one of the earliest cradle of civilizations, the Bronze Age Harrapan
civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the
Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C.[3] The migrating
Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the Iron Age Vedic civilization, which lasted till 500 BC. During this era,
the Rigveda was composed in Punjab,[4] laying the foundation of Hinduism. In the 6th century BC,
Pushkarasarin, the monarch of Gandhara, assumed a role in halting the expansionary ambitions of the
Achaemenid Empire until during the reign of Darius wherein tribute rendered by Gandhara to him is first
documented.[5] A century later, the Janapadas of Punjab encountered the expansive undertakings of
Alexander. The Janapadas exhibited resistance to his advances, notably the Aśvaka of Gandhara, the
Mallians of South Punjab, and Porus of Central Punjab.[6] Following the demise of Alexander,
Chandragupta Maurya, who had received his education in the city of Taxila, garnered support from
republics such as Trigarta and Gandhara.[7] He subsequently conquered the Nanda Empire, with Taxila
being designated as the provincial capital of the Northwestern territories. After its decline, the Indo-
Greeks, Indo-Sakas and Indo-Parthians successively established reigns in Punjab however during this
time a local kingdom known as the Apracharajas, maintained autonomy and other janapadas such as that
of the Yaudheya and the Audumbaras in Eastern Punjab resisted their expansions.[8][9] In the late 1st
century AD the Kushan Empire annexed Punjab, Gandharas cultural zenith occurred during this period in
which artwork from the region flourished.

The devastating Hunnic invasions of Punjab occurred in the 5th and 6th century, which were ultimately
repelled by the Vardhana dynasty.[10][11] Most of the western Punjab region became unified under the
Taank and Odi Shahi Kingdoms in the early medieval period. Between the 8th and 12th century, the
Tomara dynasty and Katoch dynasty controlled the eastern portions of Punjab.[12] Islam became
established in Punjab when the Umayyad Caliphate conquered southern portions of the region up to
Multan, which became independent from the caliphate under the Emirate of Multan in 855. The
Ghaznavids conquered region in 1025, after whom the Delhi Sultanate followed. The Langah Sultanate
ruled much of the south Punjab in the 15th century.

The Mughal Empire, established in 1526 AD, has left an immense cultural and architectural legacy in
Punjab. The city of Lahore became one of the largest in the world under Mughals. In the 16th century,
Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak in central Punjab which attracted many followers. After a long
period of anarchy due to decline of Mughals in the 18th century, the Sikh Empire in 1799 unified most of
the Punjab region. The region was conquered by the British EIC in 1849 after Second Anglo-Sikh War
and Punjab province was created in 1857. In 1947, Punjab was partitioned amidst wide-scale violence.

Etymology
Though the name Punjab is of Persian origin, its two parts (‫پنج‬, panj, 'five' and ‫آب‬, āb, 'water') are
cognates of the Sanskrit words, पञ्‍च, pañca, 'five' and अप्, áp, 'water', of the same meaning.[1][13] The
word Pañjāb thus means 'The Land of Five Waters', referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
and Beas.[14] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of
five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata, which calls one of the regions in Aryavarta Panchanada
(Sanskrit: पञ्चनद, romanized: pañca-nada, lit. 'five rivers').[15][16] The ancient Greeks referred to the region
as Pentapotamía (Greek: Πενταποταμία),[17][18] which has the same meaning as the Persian word.[19]

Geographical extent
Today Punjab region is usually considered to consist of Punjab
province in Pakistan and Punjab state in India. The boundaries of
the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus
the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over
time. In the 16th century, Mughal Empire referred it to a relatively
smaller area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers.[20] In British
Raj, the Punjab Province was a large administrative region
encompassing the present-day Indian states and union territories of
Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Delhi and
the Pakistani regions of Punjab and Islamabad Capital Territory. It
bordered Balochistan and North-West Frontier to the west, Jammu
and Kashmir to the north, the Hindi Belt to the east, and Rajasthan The region of Punjab (lit. The land of
and Sindh to the south.[21] five rivers)

Prehistory

Paleolithic
Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, Pakistan along the Soan River (nearby
modern-day Rawalpindi) during the Pleistocene Epoch. Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region
across what are now India, Pakistan and Nepal.[22] The Soanian culture was a prehistoric technological
culture from the Siwalik Hills.[23][24] It is named after the Soan Valley in Punjab, Pakistan.[25] The
Soanian culture has been approximated to have taken place during the Middle Pleistocene period or the
mid-Holocene epoch (Northgrippian). Soanian artifacts were manufactured on quartzite pebbles, cobbles,
and occasionally on boulders, all derived from various fluvial sources on the Siwalik landscape. Soanian
assemblages generally comprise varieties of choppers, discoids, scrapers, cores, and numerous flake type
tools, all occurring in varying typo-technological frequencies at different sites.[26]

Neolithic
Relics and human skulls have been found dating back to 5000 BCE in the Pothohar Plateau in north of
Punjab that indicate the region was home to Neolithic peoples who settled on the banks of the Swaan
River,[27] and who later developed small communities in the region around 3000 BCE.[27]

Bronze Age (3300 BC – 1300 BC)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as the Harappan civilisation,
after its type site Harappa, the first to be excavated early in the
20th century in Punjab.[28][a] The discovery of Harappa and soon
afterwards Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work that had begun
after the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British
Raj in 1861.[29]

The civilisation flourished both in the alluvial plain of the Indus River,
which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of
perennial monsoon-fed rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the
Ghaggar-Hakra, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern
Pakistan.[30][31]The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their urban
Ceremonial vessel; 2600 – planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply
2450 BC; discovered from systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of
Harappa, Pakistan. handicraft and metallurgy.[b] Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew
to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,[33] and the civilisation
may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence.[34] A gradual drying
of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation.
Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its
population to the east.

Iron Age (c. 1300 BC – 518 BC)

Vedic Era
In ancient times the region was known as Vahika as is attested by authors such as Pāṇini and Patanjali in
the 6th century CE, in which they describe the region as a territory of Sanghas which denotes a republic
form of government. Pāṇini further describes the ruling class of the Vahika republics with some
dominated by Brahmins and others of ‘Rajanyas’ otherwise known as Kshatriyas.[35] The Udichya region
was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of
Vahika and Gandhara.[36] According to Rigvedic tradition, Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent
Udichya tribes and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to
the Madra, Kekaya, Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms of central Punjab, while the Druhyu tribe has been
associated with the Gandhara kingdom based in modern day KPK and the Pothohar Plateau of Punjab.[37]

Some of the early Janas of the Rig Veda can be strongly

attributed to Punjab. Rig Vedic Janas such as the Druhyus,
Anus, Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Bharatas, and others were
associated in Punjab and the Indo-Gangetic plain. Other Rig
Vedic Janapadas such as the Pakhtas, Bhalanasas, Visanins,
and Sivas were associated with areas in the north and west of
Punjab.[38]

Battle of the Ten Kings

An important event of the Rig Vedic era was the "Battle of Map of Indian subcontinent in 500 BCE.
Ten Kings" which was fought on the banks of the river Kingdoms of Gandhara, Kekaya, Madra,
Parusni (Ravi river) in central Punjab, in c. 14th century BCE, Trigarta and Sivi can be seen in Punjab
in northwest.
between the Bharata clan on the one hand and a confederation
of ten tribes on the other. The ten tribes pitted against Sudas
comprised five major tribes: the Purus, the Druhyus, the Anus, the Turvasas and the Yadus; in addition to
five minor ones: the Pakthas, the Alinas, the Bhalanas, the Visanins and the Sivas. Sudas was supported
by the Vedic Rishi Vasishtha, while his former Purohita, the Rishi Viswamitra, sided with the
confederation of ten tribes.[39] Sudas had earlier defeated Samvaran and ousted him from Hastinapur. It
was only after the death of Sudas that Samvaran could return to his kingdom.[40] A second battle, referred
to as the Mahabharat in ancient texts, was fought in Punjab on a battlefield known as Kurukshetra. This
was fought between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Duryodhana, a descendant of Kuru (who was the son
of king Samvaran), had tried to insult the Panchali princess Draupadi in revenge for defeating his
ancestor Samvaran.[40]

Many Janapadas were mentioned from Vedic texts and there was a large level of contact between all the
Janapadas with descriptions being given of trading caravans, movement of students from universities, and
itineraries of princes.[41] In its heyday, the University of ancient Taxila attracted students from all over
Indian subcontinent as well as those from surrounding countries.[40]

Ancient Punjab (518 BC – c. 500 AD)

Pukkusāti and Achaemenid Gandāra (518 BC – 326 BC)

During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King Pukkusāti. According to
early Buddhist accounts, he had forged diplomatic ties with Magadha and achieved victories over
neighbouring kingdoms such as that of the realm of Avanti.[42] It is noted by R. C. Majumdar that
Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the Achamenid king Cyrus the Great[43] and according to the
scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as a bulwark against the expansion of the Persian
Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which Nearchus claimed Cyrus
had lost in Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom.[5] Therefore, following
Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of
 decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with the
growth of Achaemenid power under the kings Cambyses II
and Darius I.[5] However, the presence of Gandhāra, referred
to as Gandāra in Old Persian, among the list of Achaemenid
provinces in Darius's Behistun Inscription confirms that his
empire had inherited this region from conquests carried out
earlier by Cyrus.[44] It is unknown whether Pukkusāti
remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a
Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian satrap,
although Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne
and became a monk after becoming a disciple of the
Buddha.[45] The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the
Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of
Darius the Great did the region between the Indus River and
the Jhelum River become annexed.[5] However Megasthenes
Indica, states that the Achaemenids never conquered India
and had only approached its borders after battling with the
Massagetae, it further states that the Persians summoned
The Battle of Ten Kings was fought on mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were
the banks of River Parusni in Punjab – A previously known to have resisted the incursions of
depiction from Razmnama (1585) Alexander the Great, but they never entered their armies into
the region.[46]

Alexander's invasion
Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who
ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas.[3] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is
chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata.[3] In 326 B.C. The earliest known
notable local king of this region was known as King Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the
Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and
Acesines (Chenab); Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[47] He (alongside Abisares)
had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family.[47] When
the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in Udabhandapura, he was
greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila, Omphis.[47] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into
submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while
Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[47] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with
Porus.[47] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown.[47] The
battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an
uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.[47] Alexander later founded two
cities—Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who
died soon after the battle.[47][c] Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback,
armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[47][48] Porus refused to surrender and
wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[47]

When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat
another king".[49] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose
to not depose him.[50][51][52] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's
forces annexing the territories of Glausaes,
who ruled to the northeast of Porus'
kingdom.[50][53] The battle is historically
significant because it resulted in the
syncretism of ancient Greek political and
cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent,
yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art,
which continued to have an impact for the
ensuing centuries. Porus and Alexander during the Battle of the Hydaspes –
painting by Charles Le Brun (1673)
After battle of Hydaspes, Alexander moved
further southward during his in Punjab which
brought him in confrontation to the Mallian tribe in the south Punjab. The Malli, together with nearby
tribe of oxydrakai, gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to fight against an army of 50,000 Greeks.
Alexander started his Mallian campaign and advanced quickly than the expectations of the Mallians.
Many of them were killed and rest fled to the Mallian capital, Multan.[54] Alexander besieged the city
after arriving there some days later. During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander reputedly leaped into
the inner area of the citadel, where he killed the Mallians' leader.[55] Alexander was wounded by an arrow
that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured.[56] The Greek army thereafter started killing
civilians and animals and whatever came in their way to take revenge of their injured leader. The Mallian
army eventually surrendered, preventing further bloodshed.[57]

Mauryan Empire (316 BC – 180 BC)

During the Mauryan era, Punjab held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with Taxila
serving as the provincial capital of the North West in Gandhara.[58] Chanakya, a prominent figure in the
establishment of the Mauryan Empire, played a key role by adopting Chandragupta Maurya, the initial
Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at
Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8
years.[59] Plutarch's accounts suggest that Alexander the Great encountered a young Chandragupta
Maurya in the Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university.[60] Subsequent to Alexander's
death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the Nanda Empire.[61]
This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and Kambojas, as
documented in the Mudrarakshasa.[62]

According to the Taranatha, following the death of Ashoka, the northwestern region seceded from the
Maurya Empire, and Virasena emerged as its king.[63] Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors,
Virasena's successor, Subhagasena, maintained relations with the Seleucid Greeks. This engagement is
corroborated by Polybius, who records an instance where Antiochus III the Great descended into India to
renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150
elephants from the monarch.[64][65]
The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar
inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the
Mauryans.[66] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[67]

Indo-Greek Kingdom (c. 180 BC – c. 20 BC)

The Indo-Greek kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (and later Eucratides)
invaded Punjab from Bactria in 200 BC, taking advantage of decline of Mauryans.[68] The Greeks in the
Indian Subcontinent were eventually divided from the Graeco-Bactrians centered on Bactria (now the
border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan), and the Indo-Greeks in the present-day north-western
Indian Subcontinent. Later, Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made Sagala (present-day Sialkot)
the capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom.[69][70] Menander is noted for having become a patron and convert
to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.[71]

The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities,
traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila,[72] Pushkalavati and Sagala.[73][74]
Other potential centers are only hinted at; for instance, Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of
later kings suggest that a certain Theophila in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also
have been a satrapal or royal seat at one time.

During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek

kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and
symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek
and Indian ideas, as seen in the archaeological
remains.[75] The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had
consequences which are still felt today, particularly
through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art.[76]
Following the death of Menander, most of his empire
Menander I (155–130 BC) is the most famous
Indo-Greek king mentioned in both Graeco- splintered and Indo-Greek influence was considerably
Roman and Indian sources. The capital of the reduced. Many new kingdoms and republics east of
Indo-Greeks during his reign was Sagala in the Ravi River began to mint new coinage depicting
Punjab. military victories.[77] The most prominent entities to
form were the Yaudheya Republic, Arjunayanas, and
the Audumbaras. The Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas
both are said to have won "victory by the sword" [78] and the Audumbaras are said to of checked the Indo-
Greek advance all the way up the upper bari doab,[79] depicting a short Indo-Greek rule in Eastern
Punjab. The Datta dynasty and Mitra dynasty soon followed in Mathura. The Indo-Greeks ultimately
disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although
pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of
the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.[d]

Apracharajas (c. 52 BC – 78 AD)

The Apracharajas was a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the
governance of Menander I within the Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early Kushans. Renowned for
their significant support of Buddhism, this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations
within their principal domain, between Taxila and Bajaur.[80] Archaeological evidence also establishes
 dynastic affiliations between them and the rulers of Oddiyana in modern day
Swat.[81] The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Viyakamitra,
identified as a vassal to Menander II, according to the Shinkot casket. This
epigraphic source further articulates that Vijayamitra, a descendant of
Viyakamitra, approximately half a century after the initial inscription, is
credited with its restoration following inflicted damage.[82]

A stone palette of the Indo-Scythian Kingdom

type found in the Early The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated
Saka layer at Sirkap, from southern Siberia to Punjab, Pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the
Punjab, Pakistan.
2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the earlier Indo-
Greeks. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE
and soon they were replaced with Indo-Parthians by the mid 1st century AD.[83]

Some Aprachas are documented on the Silver Reliquary discovered at Sirkap, near Taxila, designating the
title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to Senapati, such as that of Indravarma who was a general
during the reign of the Apracharaja Vijayamitra. Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the
above-mentioned Silver Reliquary from the Indo-Scythian monarch Kharahostes, which he subsequently
re-dedicated as a Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According
to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during the reign
of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology, Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja
preceding Vijayamitra.

Indravarmas son Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence
overlaps him with the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II and Gondophares of the Indo-Parthians whilst also
describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with a Buddhist Avadana,
Aspavarma and a Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of
accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of Buddhism. A
reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was
made during the reign of Gondophares nephew, Abdagases I, and Aspavarma, describing the joint rule by
the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians.[84]

Indo-Parthian Kingdom (c. 30 AD – c. 50 AD)

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares, and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. The city
of Taxila is thought to have been a capital of the Indo-Parthians however this is where the Eastern
boundary of the empire was limited to.[85] The Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana is related by
Philostratus in Life of Apollonius of Tyana to have visited India, and specifically the city of Taxila around
46 AD. He describes constructions of the Greek type,[86] probably referring to Sirkap, and explains that
the Indo-Parthian king of Taxila, named Phraotes, received a Greek education at the court. The kingdom
was conquered in the 1st century AD by the Kushan empire.[87]

During the dominion of the Indo-Parthians, Apracharaja Sasan, as described on numismatic evidence
identifying him as the nephew of Aspavarma, emerged as a figure of significance.[88] Aspavarman, a
preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with Gondophares, was succeeded by Sasan, after having
ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's
successors.[89] He assumed the position following Abdagases I.[90] The Kushan ruler Vima Takto is
known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of Sasan, whilst a numismatic hoard
had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of Kujula Kadphises[91] It has also been discovered
that Sasan overstruck the coins of Nahapana of the Western Satraps, this line of coinage dating between
40 and 78 CE.[92]

It was noted by Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with Phraotes in 46 AD, that during
this time the Gandharans living between the Kabul River and Taxila had coinage of Orichalcum and
Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering,
underground rooms were also present.[93] They describe Taxila as being the same size as Nineveh, being
walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads,[94][95] and further describe Phraotes
kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus.[96] Following an exchange with the king, Phraotes is
reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his
kingdom.[97] Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a
young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his
upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the Indus
River.[98] This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with
the king situated beyond the Hydaspes River, in modern-day Punjab, a ruler esteemed greater than
Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the
Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son
who was Phraotes himself.[99] Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim
his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent
support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the
citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.[100]

Kushan Empire (c. 50 AD – c. 350 AD)

About the middle of the 1st century CE, the Kushan Empire
expanded out of central Asia into the Punjab under the leadership
of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises. They were descended
from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the
Yuezhi,[102][103] a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By
the time of his grandson, Kanishka, the empire spread to
encompass much of south Asia[104] at least as far as Saketa and
Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares).[105] By the 3rd century, their
empire in Indian subcontinent was disintegrating and their last
known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[106][107] Following territory
losses in the west (Bactria lost to the Kushano-Sasanians), and in
Possible Kushano-Sasanian plate,
the east (loss of Mathura to the Gupta Empire), several "Little
excavated in Rawalpindi, fourth
Kushans" are known, who ruled locally in the area of Punjab with
century CE. British Museum.[101]
their capital at Taxila: Vasudeva II (270–300), Mahi (300–305),
Shaka (305–335) and Kipunada (335–350).[108] They probably
were vassals of the Gupta Empire, until the invasion of the Kidarites destroyed the last remains of Kushan
rule.[108] In the early 3rd century BC, a union formed between the Punjab janapadas to expel the
Kushans, resulting in a Kushan defeat and them being pushed all the way out of Eastern Punjab. Thus
starting the fall of the empire and resulting in a century of peace in Punjab before the Gupta
expansion.[109]

Hunnic migrations (c. 350 AD – c. 500 AD)

After decline of Kushan empire, the central Asian Huns started migrating towards Punjab and other
regions of Pakistan. First of them were the Kidarites, who around 390 AD invaded Punjab and replaced
remaining remnants of the Kushans. They seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire,
particularly central and western Punjab, until they were displaced by the invasion of the Alchon Huns at
the end of the 5th century.[110]

The Alchon Huns were a nomadic people who invaded South Asia
during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.[112] They were first
mentioned as being located in Paropamisus. Between 460 and 470
AD, the Alchons took over Gandhara and Western Punjab which
also had remained under the control of the Kidarites, while the
Gupta Empire remained further east.[110] Their most famous ruler
The Hephthalite bowl from was Mihirakula who had capital in Sagala in northern
Gandhara (5th century AD) features Punjab.[113][114]
two Kidarite royal hunters as well as
two Alchon hunters, suggesting a
period of peaceful coexistence Decline of Buddhism
between the two entities.[111] The Alchons apparently
undertook the mass
destruction of Buddhist
monasteries and stupas at Taxila, a high center of learning, which
never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon
coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned
down monasteries, where apparently some of the invaders died
alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. One of Ruins of Dharmarajika Stupa in
the long lasting impact of this was the decline of Buddhism in Taxila. It was destroyed during the
Punjab, which was soon replaced by Hinduism as the major Hunnic invasions in the 5th century.

religion.[115]

Medieval Punjab (c. 500 AD – 1526 AD)

Taank Kingdom (6th century AD – 8th century AD)

After the retreat of Huns in the early 6th century, Takkas, an ancient warrior group of Punjab, seized
control of the Punjab.[116] The Chinese monk Xuanzang visited in 630 AD and described it as a large and
prosperous kingdom. It ruled the region in 6th and 7th centuries, as evident from the chronicles of
Xuanzang and other sources.[116] The capital of the kingdom was Sialkot.[116]

Hindu Shahis (9th century AD – 11th century AD)

 In the ninth century, the
Hindu Shahi dynasty
originating from the region
of Oddiyana,[117][118][119]
replaced the Taank
kingdom in the Punjab,
ruling much of Western
Punjab along with eastern
Amb Temples, built by the Hindu
Shahi dynasty between the 7th and
Afghanistan.[3] In the 10th
9th centuries CE in Sakesar. century, the tribe of the
Gakhars/Khokhars formed
a large part of the Hindu
Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta.[120] Three
Taank kingdom highlighted
of the most notable rulers were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 BC after it had been lost
under his predecessor to the Saffarid dynasty. He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers
reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth's
preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding Ghazna around 900 BC.[119]

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined
attack around 963 BC.[119] Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds
were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas. This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund
Slab Inscription (HSI):[119]

Arrival of Islam and the Emirate of Multan

At the beginning of the 8th century, Arab armies of the Umayyad Caliphate penetrated into South Asia. In
712 the Umayyads conquered Sindh and Southern Punjab up to Multan, and Islam emerged as a major
power in the southern Punjab.[3] The newly conquered region became known as Sind and was the
easternmost state of the Umayyad Caliphate. Umayyad rule was later replaced with Abbasid rule in
750.[121]

In the mid 800s, Abbasid authority in Sind weakened and five independent principalities emerged. The
Banu Munnabih established themselves based at Multan. The Banu Munnabih later gave allegiance to the
Abbasids, and remained unchallenged for over a century. Visitors at the time noted the power, prestige
and prosperity brought to the region under Banu Munnabih rule.[121]

Between 982–5, the power of the Banu Munnabih began to erode and Multan was conquered by Halam b.
Shayban on behalf of the Fatimid caliph based in Egypt. By 985, the traveller Al-Maqdisi noted that the
city of Multan was Shia, that the Friday sermon was in the name of the Fatimid and all decisions are
taken in accordance with his commands.[122]

Ghaznavid Empire (10th century AD – 12th century AD)

In 977, Sabuktigin, the Samanid governor of Ghazni, established an independent kingdom in western
Afghanistan with Ghazni as its capital. When the Ghaznavids began expanding eastwards they came into
conflict with the Hindu Shahis. This led to the Hindu Shahi ruler to form an alliance with Rajput rulers in
the Punjab to check the Ghaznavid expansion.[123]

Sabuktigin's son Mahmud succeeded his father in 997, and began a

series of raids into northern India. In 1001 he defeated Jayapala at the
Battle of Peshawar and seized Hindu Shahi territory north of the river
Sindh.[124][125][126] In 1006 Mahmud attacked the Kingdom of
Multan, returning a few years later to massacre the local Ismaili
Silver jitals of Mahmud of Ghazni population.[122]
with bilingual Arabic and Sanskrit
minted in Lahore in 1028 CE Jayapala's son and grandson, Anandapala and Trilochanapala
respectively, resisted Mahmud for another quarter of a century and
later by Bhimapala and local Ghakkhar chieftains until Mu'izz ad-Din
Muhammad's victory in Second battle of Tarain in 1192.[127] Mahmud's battles against the Hindu Shahi
between 1001 and 1026 were significant in establishing Muslim political dominance in the Afghanistan
region and surrounding Gandhar region west of Punjab.[128] After Ghazni was conquered by Ghurid
Empire, the capital of the Ghaznavids shifted to Lahore in Punjab which remained as their last
capital.[129]

Delhi Sultanate
Earliest mention of the region under the name Panjāb date to the early period of Delhi Sultanate, such as
in the Tārīkḣ-i Waṣṣāf of the 13th century historian Wassaf, who described it as a region irrigated by
Indus [Sind], Jhelum [Jelum], Lahore [Lohawar] (now known as Ravi), Satluj [Satlut] and Beas [Biyaha]
rivers.[130]

In 1173 the Ghurid dynasty replaced the Ghaznavids in Ghazni, and under Muhammad of Ghor they
began expanding eastwards. Between 1175 and 1192, the Ghurid dynasty occupied the cities of Uch,
Multan, Peshawar, Lahore, and Delhi. In 1206, the Ghurid general Qutb-al-din Aybeg and his successor
Iltutmish founded the first of the series of Delhi Sultanates. Each dynasty would be an alternation of
various inner-Asian military lords and their clients, constantly vying for power. These sultanates would
make Delhi a safe haven for Muslim Turks and Persians who would flee the eventual Mongol
invasions.[131]

Khilji dynasty (1290 AD – 1320 AD)

The Khalji dynasty was the second dynasty of the Delhi sultanates, ruling from 1290 to 1320. This
dynasty was a short-lived one, and extended Islamic rule to Gujarat, Rajasthan, the Deccan, and parts of
Southern India.[131] The first Mongol invasion of Punjab occurred when they were pursuing the
Khwarezmian Shah, Jalal ad-Din, who was defeated in the battle of Indus in 1221. The early period of te
dynasty saw numerous Mongol invasions of Punjab, and the cities of Multan and Lahore were even
sacked. Ultimately, they were defeated during the rule by its able generals, Zafar Khan, Ayn al-Mulk
Multani and Ghazi Malik who were Punjab Muslims.[132] In the winter of 1297, the Chagatai noyan
Kadar led an army that ravaged the Punjab region, and advanced as far as Kasur.[133] Alauddin's army, led
by Ulugh Khan and probably Zafar Khan defeated the invaders on the Battle of Jaran-Manjur near Lahore
in 1298[133] where quite a large number of them were taken prisoner.[134]

Tughlaq dynasty (1320 AD – 1410 AD)

The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne
under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Maliks reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna
Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to
plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of
Telangana). His first attempt was a failure.[135] Four months later,
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son
asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.[136]
This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed
to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives
were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi
Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam at
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards Multan, built during the reign of
into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq in 1320 AD
over 1324–1325 AD,[135] after placing Delhi under control of his
son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammed Bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire
expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.[137] He attacked and
plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Mithila and many other regions in India[138] His
distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new
looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain,
and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine.[139] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March
1351[140] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and
Gujarat.[141]

The Tughlaq empire after Muhammed Bin Tughluqs death was in a state of disarray with many regions
assuming independence, it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Maliks nephew, took reign.
His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title Sipahsalar. His
mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur and Abohar according
to the historian William Crooke.[142][143] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and
there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions
against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced
Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute.[144][145] He also laid siege to the Kangra Fort and forced
Nagarkot to pay tribute.[146] During his time Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab however he
was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who
ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[147]

Sayyid Dynasty (1410–40 AD)

After the death of the last Tughluq ruler Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, Khizr Khan established the Sayyid
dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[148]

Following Timur's 1398 Sack of Delhi,[149] he appointed Khizr Khan as deputy of Multan (Punjab).[150]
He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.[151][152] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414
thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.[150] Khizr Khan did not take up the title of Sultan, but continued
the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat-i-Ala(vassal) of the Timurids – initially that of Timur, and
later his son Shah Rukh.[153][154] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh
were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[155] Punjab was the
powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from
Multan and Dipalpur.[156]

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Sayyid Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak
Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with
the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.[157][158] He defeated the advancing Hoshang Shah
Ghori, ruler of Malwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.[159] Mubarak Shah
also put down the rebellion of Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the
Timurids of Kabul.[160]

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in
favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.[161]

Lodi Dynasty (1451 AD − 1526 AD)

Later, Bahlul Lodi captured Delhi and founded the Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi sultanate. [162] The
Lodi dynasty reached its peak under Bahlul's grandson Sikander Lodi. Various road and irrigation
projects were taken under his rule, and the rule had patronized Persian culture. Despite this, there was still
persecution of the local Hindu people as many temples, such as that of Mathura, were destroyed and had
a system of widespread discrimination against Hindus.[163] The rule of Ibrahim Khan Lodi, the last Lodi
emperor, emperor was a weak one and was eclipsed by the arrival of Babur's army. [164]

Langah Sultanate
In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, the chief of Langah tribe, established
the Langah Sultanate in Multan. The reign of Sultan Husayn I who
ruled from 1469 to 1498 is considered to most illustrious of the
Langah Sultans.[165] Multan experienced prosperity during this
time, and a large number of Baloch settlers arrived in the city at
the invitation of Shah Husayn.[165] Shah Husayn successfully
repulsed attempted invasion by the Delhi Sultans led by Tatar
Khan and Barbak Shah.[165] He fought off attempts to reinstall
Shiekh Yousaf who had taken refuge under Delhi Sultans.
Eventually, he signed a peace treaty with Sikander Lodhi and
abducted in the favour of his son. His successor, Budhan Khan, Approximate territory of the Langah
who assumed the title Sultan Mahmud Shah I, inherited the Sultanate at its greatest extent, circa
Sultanate stretched encompassing the neighbouring regions, 1475 CE[165]

including the cities of Chiniot and Shorkot.[165]

Sultan Husayn I being unable to hold his trans-Indus possessions, assigned the region around Dera Ismail
Khan to Sardar Malik Sohrab Dodai Baloch in 1469 or 1471 and appointed him as "Jagir".[166] The city
was invaded during the reign of Sultan Husseyn II by ruler Shah Husayn of the Arghun dynasty, probably
at Babur's insistence,[165] who was either ethnic Mongol,[167] or of Turkic or Turco-Mongol
extraction.[168] Multan fell in 1528 after an extended siege and Shah Husayn appointed his son Mirza
Askari as governor of the city, assisted by Langar Khan, one of the powerful amirs of Sultan Mahmud
Langah I. Shortly after Shah Husayn departed Multan for Thatta, however, the governor was thrown out
of the city. The rebels under Sultan Mahmud II administered Multan for a time independently[169] but in
1541, Sher Shah Suri captured Multan, and the Sultanate ended.[170]

Founding of Sikhism
A significant event in the late 15th century Punjab was the formation
of Sikhism by Guru Nanak who was born in Nankana Sahib, Punjab,
Pakistan in the Lahore province of the Delhi Sultanate.[171][172] The
history of the Sikh faith is closely associated with the history of
Punjab and the socio-political situation in the north-west of the Indian
subcontinent in the 17th century. The hymns composed by Guru
Nanak were later collected in the Guru Granth Sahib, the central
The Gurdwara Janam Asthan in
religious scripture of the Sikhs.[173]
Nankana Sahib, Pakistan,
commemorates the site where
Guru Nanak is believed to have
been born. Early Modern period (1526 AD – 1849 AD)

Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from the Fergana Valley was ousted from his
ancestral domain in Central Asia. Bābur turned to India and crossed the Khyber Pass.[174] He was able to
secure control of Punjab, and in 1526 he decisively defeated the forces of the Delhi sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī
at the First Battle of Panipat. The next year, he defeated the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga of
Mewar, and in 1529 defeated the remnants of the Delhi sultanates. At his death in 1530 the Mughal
Empire encompassed almost all of Northern India.[175]

Bābur's son Humāyūn (reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56) had lost territory to Sher Shah Suri, launched
campaigns against the Gakkhars, about whom he suspected of being friendly with the Mughals.[176]
During this period, Sher Shah constructed the Rohtas Fort near Jhelum. Following the death of Sher
Shah, in 1556, the Mughal forces under Humayun defeated Sikandar at the Battle of Panipat in 1556 and
re-established the Mughal Empire across the Punjab and northern India. In 1580 the Punjab was divided
into two provinces, Subah of Lahore and Subah of Multan. From 1586 to 1598, Lahore remained capital
of the Mughal Empire.[177]

Over the next twentyfour years, the Mughals gradually consolidated power in the Punjab. Campaigns
followed to subdue local Zamindars and the Hill forts. The Gakkhars were co-opted and assimilated into
the Mughal polity under Kamal Khan, son of Rai Sarang.[178] Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) defeated Hemu
at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) and re-established Mughal rule. Akbar's son Jahangir had furthered
the size of the Mughal Empire through conquest, yet left much of the state bankrupt as a result. He was
later buried in Lahore. Jahangir's son Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was known for his monuments,
including the Taj Mahal. He was born in Lahore. Saadullah Khan, born into the Thaheem tribe in
Punjab[179] from Chiniot[180] remained Grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal empire in the
period 1645 to 1656.[180] Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb was deeply religious and undertook extensive
campaign in Deccan. He built famous Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. Aurangzeb had instilled heavy taxes
on Hindus and Sikhs that had later led to an economic depression.[175][181][182][183][184][185]
During the reign of Muḥammad Shah (1719–48), the empire began to decline, accelerated by warfare and
rivalries, and. After the death of Muḥammad Shah in 1748, the Marathas attacked and ruled almost all of
northern India. Mughal rule was reduced to only a small area around Delhi, which passed under Maratha
(1785) and the British (1803) control. The last Mughal, Bahādur Shah II (reigned 1837–57), was exiled to
Burma by the British.[175] Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include
Wazir Khan,[186] Adina Beg Arain,[187] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[188]

Naulakha pavilion (1633) in Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore The Tomb of Jahangir in
the Lahore Fort Fort, a UNESCO World Lahore
Heritage Site

Shalimar Gardens, Lahore Akbari Sarai Badshahi Mosque

Mughal conflicts with Sikhs

The lifetime of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, coincided with the conquest of northern India by
Babur and establishment of the Mughal Empire. Jahangir ordered the execution of Guru Arjan Dev,
whilst in Mughal custody, for supporting his son Khusrau Mirza's rival claim to the throne.[189] Guru
Arjan Dev's death led to the sixth Guru Guru Hargobind to declare sovereignty in the creation of the Akal
Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar. Jahangir then jailed Guru Hargobind at Gwalior,
but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The succeeding son of
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobind's declaration and after a series of assaults on
Amritsar, forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Sivalik Hills.[190] The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved
the Sikh community to Anandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb,
who attempted to install Ram Rai as new guru.[191]

Durrani and Maratha invasions

In 1747, the Durrani Empire was established by Ahmad Shah Abdali with his crowning as King of the
Afghans by a Pashtun tribal jirga. The first time Ahmad Shah invaded Punjab, the Mughal imperial army
checked his advance successfully. Yet subsequent events led to a double alliance, one by marriage and
another politically, between the Afghan King and the Mughal Emperor. The battle of Panipat was the
effect of this political alliance. After the victory of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani became the primary
ruler over Northern India. The influence of Durrani monarch continued in Northern India up to his
death.[192]

In 1757, the Sikhs were persistently ambushing guards to loot trains. In order to send a message, and
prevent such occurrences from recurring, Ahmad Shah destroyed the Golden Temple in Amritsar and
filled the Sarovar (Holy water pool) with cow carcasses.[193]

In 1758 the Maratha Empire's general Raghunathrao attacked and conquered northern and central Punjab
up till Attock driving out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the process.
Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other provinces on the eastern side of Attock were under Maratha rule. In
Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas became major players.[194] As Punjab served as the frontier province
of the Marathas, Nana Saheb I gave the province to his key ally Adina Beg Khan who acquired the title of
the Nawab of Punjab in 1758. In 1761, following the victory at the Third battle of Panipat between the
Durrani and the Maratha Empire, Ahmad Shah Abdali captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in
Punjab and Kashmir regions and had consolidated control over them.

In 1762, there were persistent conflicts with the Sikhs. Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Durrani
rule to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals,
with the Chhota Ghallughara,[195] and lasted several decades under its successor states.[196] The rebuilt
Golden Temple was destroyed, and the pool was filled with cow entrails, again.[197][198]

Sikh Empire

Punjabi Unification
In 1799, a process to unify Punjab was initiated by Ranjit Singh. Training his army under the style of the
East India Company, he was able to conquer much of Punjab and surrounding areas.[199] The invasions of
Zaman Shah, the second successor of Ahmad Shah Durrani had served as a catalyst, for various Punjabi
states to accede. After the first invasion, Singh had recovered his own fort at Rohtas. During the second
invasion, he had emerged as a leading Sikh chief. After the third invasion, he had decisively defeated
Zamah Shah. This had eventually led to the takeover of Lahore in 1799, officially forming the Sikh
Empire. In 1809, Singh signed the Treaty of Amritsar with the British; in this treaty, Singh was
recognised as the sole ruler of Punjab up to River Sutlej by the British.[200]
Within ten years of Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the Empire was taken over by the British who had
already more or less exerted indirect or direct influence throughout the Subcontinent. At Lahore, there
were increasing levels of nobles vying for power. A growing instability, allowed the British to come in
and take over control of the area. After the British victories at the battles of the Sutlej in 1845–46, the
army and territory of the boy Raja Duleep Singh was cut down. Lahore was garrisoned by British troops,
and given a resident in the Durbar. In 1849, the British had formally taken control.[199]

Hazuri Bagh Baradari in The Samadhi of Ranjit Maharaja Ranjit Singh

front of the Alamgiri gate. It Singh is located in Lahore, listening to Guru Granth
was built by Ranjit Singh in Pakistan, adjacent to the Sahib being recited near
1818 to celebrate his Badshahi Mosque the Akal Takht and Golden
capture of the Koh-i-Noor Temple, Amritsar. Painting
diamond from Shuja Shah by August Schoefft (1850)
Durrani in 1813.

Kingdom of Bahawalpur
The Bahawalpur state was founded in 1609 AD by Nawab
Bahawal Khan Abbasi. The role of Bahawalpur state was
important as the sole surviving Muslim state in Punjab. On 22
February 1833, Abbasi III entered into a subsidiary alliance with
the British, to get protection against the expanding Sikh Empire.
When British rule ended in 1947 and British India was partitioned
One Rupee gold coin of Sadeq
into India and Pakistan, Bahawalpur joined the Dominion of
Mohammad Khan V
Pakistan. Bahawalpur remained an autonomous entity until 14
October 1955, when it was merged with the province of West
Pakistan.[201]

Colonial period (1849 AD – 1947 AD)

The Punjab was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. Although nominally part of the Bengal
Presidency it was administratively independent. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, apart from Revolt
led by Ahmed Khan Kharal and Murree rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful.[178]
In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Punjab came under
the direct rule of Britain.
Colonial rule had a profound impact on all areas of Punjabi life. Economically it transformed the Punjab
into the richest farming area of India, socially it sustained the power of large landowners and politically it
encouraged cross-communal co-operation amongst land owning groups.[202] The Punjab also became the
major centre of recruitment into the Indian Army. By patronising influential local allies and focusing
administrative, economic and constitutional policies on the rural population, the British ensured the
loyalty of its large rural population.[202]

Administratively, colonial rule instated a system of bureaucracy and measure of the law. The 'paternal'
system of the ruling elite was replaced by 'machine rule' with a system of laws, codes, and procedures.
For purposes of control, the British established new forms of communication and transportation,
including post systems, railways, roads, and telegraphs. The creation of Canal Colonies in western Punjab
between 1860 and 1947 brought 14 million acres of land under cultivation, and revolutionised
agricultural practices in the region.[202] To the agrarian and commercial class was added a professional
middle class that had risen the social ladder through the use of the English education, which opened up
new professions in law, government, and medicine.[203]

Despite these developments, colonial rule was marked by exploitation of resources. For the purpose of
exports, the majority of external trade was controlled by British export banks. The Imperial government
exercised control over the finances of Punjab and took the majority of the income for itself.[204]

Religious revivalism
A highlight of religious controversy during this time was that of the Ahmaddiya movement, initiated by
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. In his Burahin-i-Ahmaddiya, which was meant to rejuvenate Islam on the basis of
the Quran, he had attempted to refute both Christian missionaries, and Hindus and Sikhs. In another
work, Ahmad argued that Guru Nanak was a Muslim. He interpreted Jihad as a peaceful method, and
declared himself to be the Messiah. This was met with significant controversy.[205]

In the first and second decades of the early 20th century, the idea of Hindu and Muslim separation had
become an active political tone. Muslims were told to remain aloof of the Indian National Congress, the
main body seeking Indian Independence, because there was a general fear that representation based on
elections and employment-based upon competition was not in their interest. The All-India Muslim
League's demand for separate electorates for Muslims was granted at Amritsar in 1909. The Muslim
League also demanded separate electorates in every province, even in those without Muslim majority
populations, which was also granted by the Indian National Congress in 1916.[206]

Railways
In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and
Lahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and
Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.[207] The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the Scinde,
Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The Punjab
Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had
amalgamated into North Western State Railway.[207]

Education
In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all
government managed institutions.[208] Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return
for providing secular instruction.[208] By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to
higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no
indigenous owned schools received government help.[208] In 1882, University of Punjab was established
in Lahore, the 4th university to be established in South Asia. In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab
education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over
education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new
institutions were encouraged in the province. The Arya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the
Sikhs opened the Khalsa College whilst the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim
education.[209]

Unrest
An important event of the British Raj in Punjab was the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. In 1919, Brigadier-
General Reginald Dyer led fifty riflemen from the 1/9th Gurkhas, 54th Sikhs, and 59th Sikhs into the
Bagh and ordered them to open fire into the crowd that had gathered there. The official number of deaths,
as reported by the British government, was given as 379 killed, but some reports claimed that more than
1,000 were killed.[210] There had been many Indian independence movements in Punjab at the time as
well. Notably, the actions of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on 17 December 1928 in which the trio
was responsible for killing J.P. Saunders in revenge for the latter's killing of Lala Lajpat Rai. They were
also responsible for the bombing of the Legislative Assembly in Delhi on 8 April 1929. The three
believed that the nonviolent movement was a failure. Nevertheless, the use of violence in the Indian
independence movement became unpopular after the execution of the trio on 23 March 1931.[211]

Politics
Punjab Legislative Council was established by colonial authorities under Government of India Act 1919.
The Government of India Act 1935 introduced increased provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the
system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members
presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party
under Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik
Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier of the Punjab till partition in 1947. The Unionist
Party dominated Punjabi politics from the 1920s until the Second World War. Its influence over the rural
population severely limited the local appeal and reach of both the Indian National Congress and Muslim
League.[202] A strong supporter of colonial rule, the Unionists were weakened by the war as they were
directed to sacrifice their political interests to support the war effort.[202] Unable to placate their
traditional support base with benefits from the colonial administration, they suffered a loss of authority
which led to their disastrous performance at the 1946 Punjab Provincial Assembly election and a
breakdown in inter-communal cooperation at a political level.[202] Although the term of the Assembly
was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March
1945.[212]
 Lahore Museum in Lahore. Government College, General Post Office,
It was built in 1865. Lahore, established in Lahore, built in 1887.
1864.

University of the Punjab, Multan Ghanta Ghar was Martyr's memorial at

built in 1882. It was the built in the Indo-Saracenic Jallianwalla Bagh. In 1919,
fourth university established style, in 1884. Brigadier-General Reginald
in the Indian subcontinent. Dyer ordered troops under
his command to fire into a
crowd of non-violent
protestors, killing between
300 and 1,000 people. The
act served to rally the
Indian independence
movement.

Partition of Punjab (1947)

In 1947, the Punjab Province of British India was divided
along religious lines into West Punjab and East Punjab, with
East Punjab containing modern states of Indian Punjab,
Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. The Partition of India in
1947 split the former Raj province of Punjab; the mostly
Muslim western part became the Pakistani province of West
Punjab and the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became
the Indian province of Punjab. Many Sikhs and Hindus lived
in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so Map of Punjab region, as of today
partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. All Punjabi princely states,
except Bahawalpur, also became part of India.

The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large
minority population of Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.[213] The Gurdaspur
district which is partially now part of the Indian state of Punjab had a slight Muslim majority (50.2%
according to the 1941 census) prior to the partition. Many Muslims fled the partition violence to settle in
Pakistan.[214][215]

As stated, a major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred
in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This
rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale
religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical
demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab
following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that
were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately
became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[216]

After Independence

Punjabi Subah
After independence, the Akali Dal, a Sikh-dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, sought to
create a Sikh State but idea was not very popular. However, there was push in many regions of India for
reorganisation of states based on language. In Punjab, instead of religion, the Akalis launched the Punjabi
Suba movement aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority subah ("province") in the erstwhile East Punjab
state of India in the 1950s.In 1966, it resulted in the formation of the Punjabi speaking -majority Punjab
state, the Haryanvi-Hindi-majority Haryana state and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Some Pahari
majority parts of the East Punjab were also merged with Himachal Pradesh as a result of the
movement.[217]

Khalistan movement
Sikhs called for the creation of a separate Sikh homeland known as Khalistan in the 1970s, along the lines
of Pakistan, which led to a state of emergency being declared by Indira Gandhi, who believed the creation
of Khalistan would drastically weaken India, particularly since the Punjab region grew up to 70% of the
country's wheat (during the Green Revolution in India, incentives had been provided to the people of
Punjab to switch to growing wheat exclusively). During Operation Blue Star, Gandhi further called in
Indian troops to extinguish the few militants who had taken shelter in the Golden Temple, killing
thousands of civilians in the crossfire.[218] Attacks then targeted the Punjab State police and Indian
Security forces that opposed the creation of Khalistan and wished Punjab stay under Indian rule.[219]

See also
History of Pakistan
History of India
Panjab Digital Library

Notes
a. Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to
archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city
of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro
near the banks of the Indus, in the Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922.
Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the
term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term
doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the
presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey
of India after Independence, have preferred to call it `Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan',
taking Harappa to be its type-site."[28]
b. These covered carnelian products, seal carving, work in copper, bronze, lead, and tin.[32]
c. Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.
d. "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did
they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new
masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central
Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278

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p://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189620). p. 16. "Chanakya, who is described as a
resident of the city of Taxila, returned to his native city with the boy and had him educated
for a period of 7 or 8 years at that famous seat of learning where all the ' sciences and arts '
of the times were taught, as we know from the Jatakas."
8. Tarn, William Woodthorpe (24 June 2010). The Greeks in Bactria and India (https://books.go
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108-00941-6.
9. Ohri, Vishwa Chander (1980). Himachal Art & Archaeology: Some Aspects (https://books.go
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Department of Languages & Culture, Himachal Pradesh.
10. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1952). Ancient India, History and Culture (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=-_UHAQAAIAAJ&q=adityavardana+defeated+huns). Asia Publishing
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NbTqAAAAMAAJ&q=adityavardhan+defeated+huns). Publication Scheme. ISBN 978-81-
85263-87-8.
12. Hutchison, John; Vogel, Jean Philippe (1994). History of the Panjab Hill States (https://book
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15. Kenneth Pletcher, ed. (2010). The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places (https://b
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Publishing. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-61530-202-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202211
18182901/https://books.google.com/books?id=GdKcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199) from the
original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022. "The word's origin can perhaps
be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the
ancient epic the Mahabharata."
16. Rajesh Bala (2005). "Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab". In Sukhdial Singh (ed.).
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11 August 2022. "The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab
(Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to
panch nada, Sanskrit for 'Five rivers' the word used before the advent of Muslims with a
knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and
Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus."
17. Lassen, Christian. 1827. Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica
(https://books.google.com/books?id=XbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20221118182901/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3
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by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is named Panchanada in the sacred language of the Indians;
either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of
the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both
Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the
Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple
Persian names which end with that word, e.g., Doab and Nilab. Therefore, it is probable that
the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin
and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was
mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the
fact that it is already seen in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the most ancient Indian
poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for Panchála, which
English translations of the Ramayana render with Penjab...is the name of another region,
entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."
18. Latif, Syad Muhammad (1891). History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the
Present Time (https://books.google.com/books?id=RzBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1). Calcultta
Central Press Company. p. 1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221118182902/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=RzBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1) from the original on 18
November 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022. "The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek
historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two
Persian words, panj (five), an áb (water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on
the country its distinguishing features." "
19. Khalid, Kanwal (2015). "Lahore of Pre Historic Era" (http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/
PDF-FILES/7.%20Kanwal%20Khalid_v52_2_15.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the Research
Society of Pakistan. 52 (2): 73. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220811210654/htt
p://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/7.%20Kanwal%20Khalid_v52_2_15.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022. "The earliest mention
of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was
used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later
period the word Pentapotamia was used by the Greeks to identify this land. (Penta means 5
and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab "
for this region. Again it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are
references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet."
20. Grewal, J. S. (1998). The Sikhs of the Punjab (https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFA
NsoYC). The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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b/20120104171240/http://www.assemblage.group.shef.ac.uk/issue7/chauhan.html) 2012-
01-04 at the Wayback Machine. An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its
Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective.
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18 November 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2022. Quote: “Soanian and Soanian‐like
assemblages are known throughout the entire Siwalik or Sub‐ Himalayan region, from
Pakistan to northeast India including Nepal...”
24. Lycett, Stephen J. (2007). "Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3
phenomenon? A morphometric assessment" (https://web.archive.org/web/20211007112602/
http://sites.google.com/site/sjlycett/Lycett_2007_Soan.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Archaeological
Science. 34 (9): 1434–1440. Bibcode:2007JArSc..34.1434L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2007JArSc..34.1434L). doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.20
06.11.001). Archived from the original (https://sites.google.com/site/sjlycett/Lycett_2007_So
an.pdf) (PDF) on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
25. "Pakistan: The lesser-known histories of an ancient land" (https://www.dawn.com/news/1312
059). 2 February 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180910204149/https://www.
dawn.com/news/1312059) from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved 10 November
2022.
26. Paterson, T.T., Drummond, H.J.H., 1962. Soan the Palaeolithic of Pakistan.Department of
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29. Wright 2009, p. 2.
30. Wright 2009, p. 1.
31. Giosan et al. 2012.
32. Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
33. Dyson 2018, p. 29 "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000
and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the
provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural
areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4–6
million people."
34. McIntosh 2008, p. 387: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope
for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are
estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the
region's carrying capacity."
35. Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini (http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.469
5). p. 77. "Panini specially mentions the Vahika sanghas, some dominated by Brahmanas as
ruling caste, others by Rajanyas, and called Rajanyaka"
36. Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini (http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.469
5). p. 38. "Udichya and Prachya are the two broad divisions of the country mentioned by
Panini, and these terms occur in connection with the linguistic forms known to the eastern
and northern grammarians. The Udichya country included Gandhara and Vahika, the latter
comprising Madra and Usinara."
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39. Frawley 2000, p. 118.
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n.ernet.dli.2015.118140). p. 22. "According to the Buddhist account Pukkusati, king of
Taksasila, sent an embassy and a letter to king Bimbisara of Magadha and he also defeated
Pradyota, king of Avanti."
43. Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1974). The Achaemenids And India (http://archive.org/details/i
n.ernet.dli.2015.118140). p. 22. "Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru, he did not probably
come to the throne before 540 or 530 bc, and Pukkusati also may be regarded as ruling in
Gandhara about that time. He would be thus a contemporary of Cyrus who established his
power and authority in 549 bc"
44. History Of Ancient And Early Medieval India From The Stone Age To The 12th Century (htt
p://archive.org/details/history-of-ancient-and-early-medeival-india-from-the-stone-age-to-the-
12th-century-pdfdrive). p. 604. "The Behistun inscription of the Achaemenid emperor Darius
indicates that Gandhara was conquered by the Persians in the later part of the 6th century
BCE."
45. "Pukkusāti" (http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/pu/pukkusati.htm).
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(http://archive.org/details/AncientIndiaAsDescribedByMegasthenesAndArrianByMccrindleJ.
W). p. 109. "The Persians indeed summoned the Hydrakai from India to serve as
mercenaries, but they did not lead an army into the country and only approached its borders
when Kyros marched against the Massagatai."
47. Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The
Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130.
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University of California Press.
49. Rogers, p.200
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Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press.
51. Anson, Edward M. (2013). Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues. Bloomsbury. p. 151.
ISBN 9781441193797.
52. Roy 2004, pp. 23–28.
53. Irfan Habib; Vivekanand Jha (2004). Mauryan India (https://books.google.com/books?id=nU
vGQgAACAAJ). A People's History of India. Aligarh Historians Society / Tulika Books. p. 16.
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oks.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ) from the original on 18 November 2022.
Retrieved 11 August 2022.
54. Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 597.
55. Arrian (1893). Anabasis of Alexander. George Bell and Sons. OCLC 486120., p. 604
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e&pg=PA152). Cambridge University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-108-00941-6. "The
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seat of the viceroy of the North West..."
59. Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And
Satavahanas) (http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532644). p. 2. "he bought the boy
by paying on the spot 1000 kdrshapanas. Kautilya(Chanakya) then took the boy with him to
his native city of Takshasila (Taxila), then the most renowned seat of learning in India, and
had him educated there for a period of seven or eight years in the humanities and the
practical arts and crafts of the time, including the military arts."
60. Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And
Satavahanas) (http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532644). p. 2. "This tradition is
curiously confirmed by Plutarch's statement that Chandragupta as a youth had met
Alexander during his campaigns in the Panjab. This was possible because Chandragupta
was already living in that locality with Kautilya (Chanakya)."
61. Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And
Satavahanas) (http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532644). p. 3. "According to
tradition he began by strengthening his position by an alliance with the Himalayan chief
Parvataka, as stated in both the Sanskrit and Jaina texts, Mudradkshasa and
Parisishtaparvan."
62. Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And
Satavahanas) (http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532644). p. 4. "The army of
Malayaketu (Parvataka) comprised recruits from the following peoples : Khasa, Magadha,
Gandhara, Yavana, Saka, Chedi and Huna."
63. Prakesh, Buddha. "Studies In Indian History And Civilization" (https://ia802902.us.archive.or
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ext.pdf) (PDF). p. 157. "Subhagasena seems to be the successor of Virasena, who came to
the throne after Ashoka, according to Taranatha. It appears that after the secession of the
north-western half of India from the Maurya empire after the death of Ashoka, Virasena
entrenched his hold over it while the other eastern and southern half of the country passed
under the domination of Samprati."
64. Prakesh, Buddha. "Studies In Indian History And Civilization" (https://ia802902.us.archive.or
g/2/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.126821/2015.126821.Studies-In-Indian-History-And-Civilization_t
ext.pdf) (PDF). p. 155. "Polybius states: "He (Antiochus the Great) crossed the Caucasus
and descended into India, renewed his friendship with Sophogsenus the king of the Indians;
received more elephants, until he had 150 altogether"
65. Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard; Dodwell, Henry; Wheeler, Sir
Robert Eric Mortimer (1968). The Cambridge History of India (https://books.google.com/boo
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whom Antiochus the Great renewed an ancestral relationship in 206 BCE"
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google.com/books?id=jbjT9GG__nEC&dq=chief+of+the+mauryan+military+yaudheyas&pg=
PA194). Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2.
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expedition across northern India and visited Patna, the capital of the Mauraya empire,
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70. Ahir, D. C. (1971). Buddhism in the Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh (https://archiv
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country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p. 377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be
Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that
Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."
75. "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with
interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point
to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.
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76. Ghose, Sanujit (2011). "Cultural links between India and the Greco-Roman world" (https://w
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houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one
story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers
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Wink, Andre (2002), Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and
the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries, Brill, ISBN 978-0-391-04173-8
Wright, Rita P. (2009). The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
57219-4. Retrieved 29 September 2013.

Journals
Digby, Simon (1976). "Mohammad Habib: Politics and society during the early medieval
period. Collected works, Vol. 1. Edited by K. A. Nizami. xx, 451 pp., front. New Delhi:
People's Publishing House [for the] Centre of Advanced Study, Dept. of History, Aligarh
Muslim University, 1974. Rs. 50". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 39
(2). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 453. doi:10.1017/s0041977x0005028x (https://doi.o
rg/10.1017%2Fs0041977x0005028x). ISSN 0041-977X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/00
41-977X).
Fenech, Louis E. (2001), "Martyrdom and the Execution of Guru Arjan in Early Sikh
Sources", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 121 (1): 20–31, doi:10.2307/606726 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F606726), ISSN 0003-0279 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0
279), JSTOR 606726 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/606726)
Giosan L, Clift PD, Macklin MG, Fuller DQ, et al. (2012). "Fluvial landscapes of the
Harappan civilization" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3387054).
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (26): E1688–E1694.
Bibcode:2012PNAS..109E1688G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PNAS..109E1688
G). doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1112743109).
ISSN 0027-8424 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424). PMC 3387054 (https://www.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3387054). PMID 22645375 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/22645375).
Talbot, I. A. (1980). "The 1946 Punjab Elections" Modern Asian Studies 14(1), 65-91 online
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/312214) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021012808422
7/https://www.jstor.org/stable/312214) 28 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine.

Theses
Rehman, Abdur (1976). The last two dynasties of the Sahis : an analysis of their history,
archaeology, coinage and palaeography (https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handl
e/1885/11229) (PhD). doi:10.25911/5d74e50054bb9 (https://doi.org/10.25911%2F5d74e500
54bb9).

Further reading
R. M. Chopra, "The Legacy of the Punjab", (1997), Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta.

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