AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT

DYNAMICS
SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY

2024
Africa’s Development
Dynamics
2024

SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Foreword

The annual flagship report Africa’s Development Dynamics is a product of the longstanding
partnership between the African Union Commission’s Department of Economic
Development, Trade, Tourism, Industry and Minerals and the OECD Development Centre.
It brings together a team of academic researchers, economists, statisticians and other
experts from African and partner countries.
The 2024 edition explores how African stakeholders can increase the continent’s
supply of quality skills, in line with current and future demand, to support the creation
of jobs and growth in productivity, in line with the vision and aspirations of Agenda 2063.
The first chapter addresses how skill supply currently meets demand. It also identifies
options for developing newly in‑demand skills, in response to the digital and green
transitions. The second chapter proposes priority policies to bridge gaps in foundational,
soft and technical skills, drawing on lessons from across the continent and beyond.
The ensuing chapters focus on the five African regions as defined by the Abuja Treaty:
Southern, Central, East, North and West Africa. These chapters offer tailored policy
recommendations to develop skills in strategic sectors for each region, including mining,
digital technologies, renewable energy and agri‑food.
This edition draws on a wide range of data sources and included primary data
collection through interviews and surveys. The cut‑off date for data used in the report was
21 March 2024, except for the statistical annex, which is revised online on an ongoing basis.
For the second chapter, 20 evaluation reports were analysed to assess the implementation
of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) projects in Africa. This exercise
sought to explain factors that enable or hinder TVET project performance. The analysed
reports were selected from a database of 225 TVET evaluations, compiled from 2 publicly
available sources: the online repository of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the Evaluation Resource Centre (DEReC) of the OECD
Development Assistance Committee (DAC). The former gathers project reports led by the
German Cooperation Agency; the latter collects evaluation reports from the development
agencies of the 32 DAC members, including Germany, and partners such as the African
Development Bank. Additionally, the authors conducted 3 semi‑structured interviews
with TVET practitioners in Africa‑based international organisations to evaluate success
factors for and barriers to TVET project implementation. The interviews took place from
October to December 2023.
The North Africa chapter provides a comprehensive overview of findings derived from
a qualitative survey conducted in January 2024 in the renewable energy sector. Based on
semi‑structured interviews, the survey asked questions about skills in renewable energy.
The study included 18 participants who were engaged in renewable energy activities
or used such energy sources. The participants came from different countries in North
Africa and represented the public sector, business associations, private enterprises and
universities.
The statistical annex contains the latest economic, social and institutional indicators
across African countries for which data are comparable. A list of data tables appears in
the last pages of the report. The data are presented by country, region, regional economic
community and relevant country groupings (e.g. resource endowment, levels of income,
socio‑economic development and fragility, ocean access, and language). The annex
provides comparisons between Africa and different world regions as well as other relevant
benchmarks. These data aim to inform decision‑makers, advisors, business analysts,
private investors, journalists, non‑governmental organisations and citizens around the
globe who are interested in the development trajectories of African countries.

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Foreword

The full report is published in English, French and Portuguese. Additional figures and
tables and the statistical annex are available on the websites of the African Union and the
OECD Development Centre.

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Acknowledgements

The flagship economic report Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024: Skills, Jobs and
Productivity (AfDD 2024) was jointly prepared by the African Union Commission (AUC)
and the OECD Development Centre. It is published under the aegis of H.E. Moussa Faki
Mahamat, AUC President, and H.E. Mathias Cormann, OECD Secretary‑General. It was
guided by H.E. Albert M. Muchanga, Commissioner for Economic Development, Trade,
Tourism, Industry and Minerals of the African Union, and by Ragnheiður Elín Árnadóttir,
Director of the OECD Development Centre. The report was supervised by Djamel
Ghrib, Director, Department of Economic Development, Trade, Tourism, Industry and
Minerals, and by Patrick Ndzana Olomo, Head of the Economic Policy and Sustainable
Development Division, Department of Economic Development, Trade, Tourism, Industry
and Minerals, along with Federico Bonaglia, Deputy Director of the OECD Development
Centre, and Arthur Minsat, Head of the OECD Development Centre’s Africa Unit and
Senior Economist.

The drafting team of the AUC consisted of Patrick Ndzana Olomo, Head of the Economic
Policy and Sustainable Development Division, Rumbidzai Treddah Manhando, Economist,
Luckystar Miyandazi, Tax and Domestic Revenue Mobilisation Adviser, and Ronnel Inonge
Sisamu, Legal Advisor (Department of Economic Development, Trade, Tourism, Industry
and Minerals). Regional experts who contributed to the report included Jude Eggoh
(University of Abomey‑Calavi), Kevin Ibeh (Birkbeck University, University of London),
Nabil Jedlane (ENCG Tanger), Nicholas Ngepah (University of Johannesburg) and Bruno
Emmanuel Ongo Nkoa (Université de Yaoundé II). The team at the OECD Development
Centre, led by Arthur Minsat, Head of the Africa Unit, with Nicolas Friederici, included,
Keiko Álvarez, Mélanie Brin, Andrea Cinque, Ginevra Coda Nunziante, Majda Eddaifi,
Ismaël Keita, Sébastien Markley, Agnès Moukarzel, Francesco Napolitano, Elisa Saint
Martin, Clémentine Tahir, Maha Temre and Bakary Traoré. Anne‑Marie Trang (OECD) and
Mandy Mauyakufa (AUC) gave valuable support to the research, production, logistics and
administrative work on the report.

Inputs and data were provided by the African Union Department for Education,
Science, Technology and Innovation, the OECD Centre for Skills, the OECD Development
Centre, the OECD Development Co‑operation Directorate, the OECD Directorate for
Education and Skills, the OECD Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs
and the International Energy Agency. Substantive contributions from Filipa Sousa
(Camões – Instituto da Cooperação e da Língua, I.P.); Abdelghni Lakhdar (Casablanca
Finance City [CFC]); Nora‑Marie Hüser and Sabine Klaus (Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ]); Khalil Bahloul (IIEP‑UNESCO Dakar);
Alice Vozza (ILO); Sako Ikewada, Motohiro Matsumura and Shuhei Ueno (JICA); and
Gonçalo Silva Marques (Permanent Delegation of Portugal to the OECD) are gratefully
acknowledged.

The chapters benefited from comments and inputs from the following experts:
Barassou Diawara (African Capacity Building Foundation [ACBF]); Rob Floyd and Mona
Iddrisu (African Center for Economic Transformation [ACET]); Jerry Ahadjie and
Salimata Soumaré (African Development Bank [AfDB]); Salimata Doumbia (African
Union Commission [AUC]); Aggrey Ambali, Unami Dube, Simon Kisira, Pamla Gopaul,
Symerre Grey‑Johnson, Umami Mpofu, Lukovi Seke and Msingathi Sipuka (African Union
Development Agency [AUDA‑NEPAD]); Daniela Langen, Karen Pfundt and other subject
matter experts (Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung
[BMZ]); Paula Machado and Carolina Ormonde (Camões – Instituto da Cooperação e
da Língua, I.P.); Robert Zougmoré (Consultative Group for International Agricultural

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Acknowledgements

Research [CGIAR]); Natasha Karanja (CIPIT, Strathmore University); Geoffroy Gantoli,

Simon Hochstein, Annika Hornberger, Kieu Ly Doan, Lisa Roob and Kirsten Schuettler
(Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ]); Colin Bermingham and
Carmelo Cocuzza (EIB); Claire Hunault, Anna Hakami, Simona Montanari, Riccardo Roba
and Domenico Rosa (European Commission); Alexander Stöcker and Tina Zintl (German
Institute of Development and Sustainability [IDOS]); Ibrahima Diallo (IIEP‑UNESCO
Dakar); Isabelle Ramdoo and Ege Tekinbas (International Institute for Sustainable
Development [IISD]); Jeff Bridgford and Christine Hofmann (ILO); Nadim Abillama, Mariya
Aleksynska, Caleigh Andrews, Francesca Borgonovi, Eleanor Carey, Rodrigo Castaneda
Valle, Helena Cravinho, Pierre de Boisséson, Jason Gagnon, Philipp Heinrigs, Megan Grace
Kennedy‑Chouane, Alexandre Kolev, Fabio Manca, Vasiliki Mavroeidi, Ida Mcdonnell,
Bathylle Missika, El Iza Mohamedou, Hyeshin Park, Lorenzo Pavone, Annalisa Primi, Jan
Rielaender, Ji‑Yeun Rim, Setsuko Saya, Julie Seghers, Henri‑Bernard Solignac‑Lecomte,
Pablo Suárez Robles, Sophie Vayssettes, Ayumi Yuasa, Ada Zakrzewska, Koffi Zougbédé
and Sibiri Jean Zoundi (OECD); Thang Nguyen‑Quoc (Oxford Economics Asia); Francisco
Gonçalo Nunes André and Celina Pereira (Permanent Delegation of Portugal to the
OECD); Mohamed Sherwali (Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
[RCREEE]); Ahmed Baroudi (Société d’Ingénieurie Energétique); Elizabeth Sidiropoulos
(South African Institute of International Affairs [SAIIA]); Giovanni Valensisi (UNCTAD);
Rodrigo Deiana (UN DESA); Wafa Aidi, Marcellin Stephane Bella Ngadena, Zoubir
Benhamouche, Amal Elbeshbishi, Sonia Essobmadje, Andrew Mold and Rodgers
Mukwaya (UNECA); Mattia Olivari (UNESCO); Elvis Melia (University of Duisburg‑Essen);
Clémence Pougue Biyong (World Bank); Stephanie Allais (Wits University); Rodrigue Kaki
(World Bank); Kaylash Allgoo (Independent consultant). The peer review meeting was
additionally attended by Mkhululi Nkosilamandla Ncube (African Minerals Development
Centre [AMDC]); Christiane Haziyo (EUDEL Zambia); Pauline Gibourdel and Nathalie
Larsen (European Commission); Milagros Lazo Castro and Camila Meireles (ILO); Vittoria
Barbagallo, Ania Thiemann (OECD); and Sezai Ata (Presidency of Strategy and Budget,
Republic of Türkiye).

The report drew from the following consultations held in 2023 and 2024: the
kick‑off meeting (October 2023); the meetings on AfDD 2024 at Casa África in Las
Palmas de Gran Canaria and the Spanish Confederation of Business Organizations
(CEOE) in Madrid (November 2023); the Kenya Innovation Week, Commonwealth edition
(November‑December 2023); the meeting on AfDD 2024 at the Camões Institute, Lisbon
(December 2024); the AfDD 2024 peer review meeting (January‑February 2024); bilateral
meetings at the OECD Ministerial Council Meeting 2024 (May 2024). The report also
benefited from external consultations including: the AUDA‑NEPAD “2024 Year of Education
Knowledge Marketplace” held on the margins of the 37th AU Summit, under the theme of
the year “Educate an Africa fit for the 21st century: Building Resilient Education Systems
for Increased access to Inclusive, Lifelong, Quality and Relevant Learning in Africa”, at
the AU Headquarters (February 2024); Pitch World Fast “Strengthening Professional and
Vocational Skills in Africa to Foster Economic Development (May 2024)”.

The involvement of the editing, translation and proofreading team was crucial
to producing the report on time. The report was edited by Sophie Alibert (for chapters
drafted in French) and Jill Gaston (for chapters drafted in English) and translated by
Marika Boiron, the OECD Translation Services and Vera Pinto. Delphine Grandrieux
and Elizabeth Nash supervised the production, and Luminess was responsible for page
layout. Aida Buendía created the graphic design and the cover, and Irit Perry developed
the infographics.

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 Acknowledgements

The AUC and the OECD Development Centre are grateful to the African Union Member
States, European Commission (DG INTPA), Germany (BMZ/GIZ), Italy (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and International Co‑operation) and Portugal (Camões – Instituto da Cooperação e
da Língua, I.P., and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) for their support and valuable feedback
on this sixth annual edition of Africa’s Development Dynamics.

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Editorial

In 2024, Africa is projected to reach an average GDP growth of 3.5%, and account for
five of the world’s ten fastest growing economies. Africa’s growth rate will be well above
the projected global growth of 3.1% and reach 4.0% in 2025, compared to projected global
growth of 3.2%. Growth prospects can be further boosted by the demographic dividend
of growth in the continent’s working age population which is expected to double by 2050
and account for 86% of the total global increase. As Africa’s growing population is getting
better educated, African countries are developing an unprecedented pool of talent. The
African Union is committed to boosting the educational and professional prospects
for Africa’s young labour force. Skills development lies at the heart of its Agenda 2063;
education is the African Union theme for 2024.

Improving access to, and the quality of, skills development that matches employment
opportunities, will be key to driving the productive transformation of Africa’s economies.
In 2022, over one in four African youth were not in employment, education, or training
(NEET). Africa’s GDP could increase by about USD 154 trillion before the end of the
century – more than 22-fold, a greater increase than for any other world region – if all
African children attained foundational skill levels. In 2021, public education spending
averaged 3.7% of GDP and accounted for 14.5% of total public expenditure, both slightly
below the international benchmarks of at least 4% and 15% respectively. Prioritisation can
help African governments achieve better results under constrained budgets. Collaboration
with the private sector is instrumental in bridging the perceived skills mismatch to
address issues of unemployment, poverty and inequality.

Addressing employment informality through skills development and opportunities for

decent jobs will improve productivity, access to social protection, job security and working
conditions. Africa overall has a higher share of informal employment than any other world
region. An estimated 82% of all workers in Africa are in informal occupations, compared
to 56% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 73% in developing Asia. A dedicated policy
focus would help informal workers overcome barriers faced to skills development such as
high opportunity costs, limited resources, lack of pre-requisites and greater vulnerability
to shocks. This should include a particular focus on women. The proportion of women in
informal employment with no formal education was 14 percentage points higher than the
corresponding proportion among men.

The Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 report assesses skill shortages and gaps,
including changing skills demand across African countries, in light of the specifics of
African labour markets. It proposes skills strategies that combine inclusive education and
training with excellence in the technical skills required in the most productive parts of
the economy. We suggest three priorities:
• Devise country-specific strategies to identify and address specific skill needs in
dynamic, productive sectors.
• Improve access to quality education, skills development and technical and
vocational education and training, especially for informal workers, women and
people in rural areas.
• Strengthen the regional integration of skills development policies to provide more
efficient labour flows and skills allocation.

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Editorial

The partnership between the African Union Commission and the OECD, including
through the OECD Development Centre, continues to deepen. In October 2023, we
renewed our Memorandum of Understanding, setting out a concrete plan of action:
a hands-on approach of generating new data together, and expanding a direct dialogue
between decision makers. It is in that framework, considering the mandate entrusted
by African Union Policy Organs, that we started the operationalisation of the African
virtual Investment Platform. This initiative will support investment in the continent in
support of the implementation of the vision and aspirations of Agenda 2063 towards an
integrated peaceful and prosperous Africa. This sixth edition of our flagship report is a
key part of our work together to inform international dialogue and collaboration in line
with Agenda 2063.

Moussa Faki Mahamat Mathias Cormann

Chairperson Secretary‑General
African Union Commission Organisation for Economic Co‑operation
and Development

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 Table of contents
Foreword.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Editorial....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Abbreviations and acronyms..................................................................................................................................................... 19
Executive summary.......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Skills development can increase the productivity of Africa’s talent pool and create jobs............. 27
Better policies contribute to productive and inclusive skills development in Africa........................ 31
Notes........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
References............................................................................................................................................................................................ 36

Chapter 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation........................................................... 41

In brief.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Continental profile......................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Africa’s growing talent pool is seeking better opportunities for productive employment............ 45
Limited access to quality education, labour market divides and a slow productive
transformation curtail Africa’s skill supply and demand.................................................................................... 49
As African economies diversify, workers need more soft, business and sector-specific
technical skills to increase productivity and technology adoption............................................................... 56
Digital skills are in demand across the continent, while the need for green skills will
increase with climate challenges......................................................................................................................................... 61
Annex 1.A. The nexus of migration and skills in Africa....................................................................................... 68
Annex 1.B. Analysis of skill importance using labour force statistics and the O*NET database...... 71
Notes........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 74
References............................................................................................................................................................................................ 74

Chapter 2. Policies for productive and inclusive skills development in Africa.......................................... 83

In brief.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
African countries can be strategic in meeting emerging needs for technical skills
in priority sectors, digital skills and green skills....................................................................................................... 87
Efficient education spending, cost‑effective interventions and learning assessments
can help expand quality education..................................................................................................................................... 91
Training and skill recognition can benefit informal and female workers in African countries..... 95
TVET institutions can better respond to Africa’s emerging skill needs..................................................... 98
The regional integration of African skills development depends on harmonised
frameworks, international safeguards and partnerships................................................................................. 102
Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 105

Chapter 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa............................................................................................................. 113

In brief................................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
Southern Africa regional profile........................................................................................................................................ 116
Southern Africa can further raise educational outcomes................................................................................. 117
Southern Africa’s mining sector can benefit from demand‑oriented skills development.......... 120
Harmonised mining policies and better‑targeted education and training can improve
skills development for Southern Africa’s mining sector.................................................................................... 129

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Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 134
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 134

Chapter 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa................................................................................................................. 139

In brief................................................................................................................................................................................................. 140
Central Africa regional profile............................................................................................................................................. 142
Central African countries are facing a major skills shortage, which has resulted
in a preponderance of low‑skilled jobs and widespread informality........................................................ 143
The region has significant mineral wealth to supply global demand, but little
of the material extracted is processed locally due to a lack of skills and infrastructure............ 147
Capacity building will be crucial to increase local processing and adapt to technological
developments and climate change................................................................................................................................... 154
Central African governments have several policy levers at their disposal to strengthen
skills and promote better positioning within mining value chains........................................................... 158
Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 163

Chapter 5. Digital skills in East Africa.................................................................................................................................. 169

In brief................................................................................................................................................................................................. 170
Regional profile.............................................................................................................................................................................. 172
Most workers in East Africa are in vulnerable employment and unskilled occupations,
and the quality of education varies widely across countries.......................................................................... 173
Digital skills development is advancing in East Africa but unevenly across countries................ 176
East African countries require specific strategies to develop digital skills based
on national levels of supply and demand.................................................................................................................... 183
Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 189
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 189

Chapter 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa....................................................................................... 195

In brief................................................................................................................................................................................................. 196
North Africa regional profile................................................................................................................................................ 198
North Africa must continue its efforts to deliver high‑quality skills for all......................................... 199
The renewable energies sector presents a new opportunity to develop skills
and productive employment in North Africa............................................................................................................ 203
Public policies to improve skills in the renewable energy sector in North Africa............................ 208
Annex 6.A. Qualitative survey of key actors in North Africa’s renewable energy sector............ 215
Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 215
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 215

Chapter 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa.................................................................................................................. 221

In brief................................................................................................................................................................................................. 222
West Africa regional profile.................................................................................................................................................. 224
West African countries have a major shortage of skills..................................................................................... 225
The agri‑food sector: A major lever for productive transformation in West Africa......................... 229
Closing the agri‑food skill-gap could boost the sector’s productivity and resilience..................... 231
West African decision‑makers can draw on public policy tools to improve agri‑food skills..... 235
Annex 7.A. Technical research centres specialising in agri‑food research........................................... 243
Notes..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 244
References......................................................................................................................................................................................... 244
Annex A. Statistical annex....................................................................................................................................................... 249

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 Table of contents

Figures

1. Minimum proficiency in mathematics and reading and primary school completion

in selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa, 2019............................... 28
2. Percentage of tertiary education graduates from programmes in science,
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and gross enrolment rates
in African countries, average 2015‑23.................................................................................................................. 30
3. Jobs requiring digital skills by 2030 in five African countries, by skill level................................. 31
4. Primary school completion, public education spending and share of official
development assistance allocated to education, by world region, 2000‑22................................. 32
1.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending by world
region, 2000‑22.................................................................................................................................................................... 44
1.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation by world region, 2021..................... 44
1.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling by world
region, 2020........................................................................................................................................................................... 45
1.4. Minimum proficiency in mathematics and reading and primary school completion
in selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa, 2019............................... 46
1.5. Potential economic gain from children’s achieving at least basic proficiency
in foundational skills in world regions by 2100............................................................................................. 48
1.6. Disparities in educational outcomes across genders and rural and urban areas in Africa..... 50
1.7. Disparities in skilled occupations across genders and rural and urban areas in Africa...... 51
1.8. Value added per worker in major sectors in Africa, 2001‑21................................................................. 53
1.9. Evolution of employment by sector in Africa, 2001‑21.............................................................................. 53
1.10. Percentage of workers involved in low‑, medium‑ and high‑skilled occupations
by economic activity in Africa, 2021 or latest year....................................................................................... 54
1.11. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education than
required for their occupation, by world region, 2022 or latest year available............................. 55
1.12. Net international migration of African LinkedIn users by top five and bottom five
skills and industries, 2015‑19.................................................................................................................................... 56
1.13. Labour force breakdown by occupation in selected African countries, 2021 or latest
year available....................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.14. Importance of foundational and soft skills in selected agrarian and diversifying
African economies and other world regions................................................................................................... 58
1.15. Importance of business and managerial skills and technical skills in selected
agrarian and diversifying African economies and other world regions......................................... 59
1.16. Percentage of tertiary education graduates from programmes in science,
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and gross tertiary enrolment
rates in African countries, average 2015‑23...................................................................................................... 60
1.17. Jobs requiring digital skills in 2030 in five African countries, by skill level.................................. 63
1.18. Differences in adoption of artificial intelligence across African countries and other
world regions....................................................................................................................................................................... 64
1.19. Shares of online workers across selected African countries, 2020.................................................... 65
1.20. Computer skill differences among 15‑24 year olds by gender in selected African
countries................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
1.A.1. Africa’s stocks of high‑ and low‑educated migrants per region of origin
and destination, in thousands, 2020..................................................................................................................... 68
1.A.2. Occupational skills of immigrants and natives across selected African countries................. 70
2.1. Percentage of female students enrolled in secondary technical and vocational
education and training in selected African countries, 2017‑19........................................................ 100

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3.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in Southern

Africa, 2000‑22.................................................................................................................................................................. 116
3.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in Southern Africa, 2021........... 116
3.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling in Southern
Africa, 2020......................................................................................................................................................................... 117
3.4. Percentage of adolescents in upper secondary school achieving proficiency
in mathematics in Southern Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)................................ 118
3.5. Migrants with tertiary education, origin and destination (Southern Africa, 2020)............... 118
3.6. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in Southern Africa, by gender
and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available............................................................................... 119
3.7. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education than
required for their occupation in Southern Africa, 2022 or latest year available..................... 120
3.8. Employment by education level in mining and mining‑related manufacturing
in South Africa................................................................................................................................................................. 123
3.9. Capacity underutilisation in mining‑related manufacturing in South Africa,
2021‑23 average............................................................................................................................................................... 124
3.10. Capacity underutilisation in mining‑related manufacturing in South Africa due
to labour shortages, 2004‑23 (% of total capacity)..................................................................................... 124
4.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in Central
Africa, 2000-22.................................................................................................................................................................. 142
4.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in Central Africa, 2021................ 142
4.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling in Central
Africa, 2020......................................................................................................................................................................... 143
4.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school achieving proficiency
in reading and mathematics in Central Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)....... 144
4.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in Central Africa, by gender and place
of residence, 2019 or latest year available...................................................................................................... 144
4.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required
for their occupation in Central Africa, 2022 or latest year available.............................................. 145
4.7. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account without the help
of a third party in Central Africa.......................................................................................................................... 146
4.8. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (Central Africa, 2020)......................... 147
4.9. Minerals as a share of total exports from Central African countries, 2022............................... 149
4.10. Share of mining companies citing lack of skills as a barrier to investment, 2022................ 151
4.11. Percentage of STEM graduates and gross higher education enrolment ratio,
2015–23 average............................................................................................................................................................... 156
4.12. Global water scarcity footprint by mineral.................................................................................................... 157
5.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in East
Africa, 2000‑22.................................................................................................................................................................. 172
5.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in East Africa, 2021....................... 172
5.3. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in East Africa, by gender and place
of residence, 2019 or latest year available...................................................................................................... 173
5.4. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education than
required for their occupation in East Africa, 2022 or latest year available................................ 174
5.5. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling in East Africa, 2020... 175
5.6. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (East Africa, 2020)................................ 176
5.7. Export of services in information and communications technology by selected
East African countries................................................................................................................................................. 180

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6.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in North

Africa, 2000‑22.................................................................................................................................................................. 198
6.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in North Africa, 2021................... 198
6.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling in North
Africa, 2020......................................................................................................................................................................... 199
6.4. Percentage of adolescents in upper secondary school achieving proficiency
in reading and mathematics in North Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)........... 200
6.5. Number of workers by skill level and occupation, latest year available..................................... 201
6.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required
for their occupation in North Africa, 2022 or latest year available................................................. 202
6.7. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (North Africa, 2020)............................ 203
6.8. Total employment in renewables sector, latest available data.......................................................... 205
7.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending in West
Africa, 2000‑22.................................................................................................................................................................. 224
7.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in West Africa, 2021..................... 224
7.3. Average years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling in West
Africa, 2020......................................................................................................................................................................... 225
7.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school achieving proficiency
in reading and mathematics in West Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)............. 225
7.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in West Africa, by gender and place
of residence, 2019 or latest year available...................................................................................................... 226
7.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education than required
for their occupation in West Africa, 2022 or latest year available................................................... 227
7.7. R&D expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) and number of R&D researchers per
million inhabitants, average 2010–22................................................................................................................ 228
7.8. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account without the help
of a third party in West Africa................................................................................................................................ 228
7.9. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (West Africa, 2020).............................. 229
7.10. Professional skills deficits in selected agri‑food occupations........................................................... 232
7.11. Productivity gap between ECOWAS countries and European and Central Asian
countries in agriculture and industry (difference in value added per worker)....................... 233
7.12. Researchers in food science and nutrition, latest year available (2014‑16)............................... 233
7.13. Researchers in veterinary medicine, latest year available (2014–16)............................................. 234
7.14. Agriculture orientation index for government expenditure and share of total
public expenditure spent on agriculture in West Africa, average 2017‑21................................. 241

Tables

1. Demand for and supply of digital skills across Africa............................................................................... 30

2. Challenges and policy actions to boost skills, jobs and productivity............................................... 32
3. Skills, jobs and productivity: Policy recommendations by region...................................................... 35
1.1. Three salient labour market divides in Africa................................................................................................ 52
1.2. Policy priorities for reducing skill gaps in Africa........................................................................................... 58
1.3. Demand for and supply of digital skills across Africa............................................................................... 62
1.B.1. Classification used for the Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 analysis..................................... 72
2.1. Challenges and policy actions for skills development for productive employment.............. 87
2.2. Steps to design nationally specific skill strategies...................................................................................... 88
2.3. Job boards in selected African countries............................................................................................................ 90

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2.4. Steps to expand quality education through learning assessments

and cost‑effective interventions............................................................................................................................. 92
2.5. Policy options to improve learning outcomes in African countries,
by cost‑effectiveness....................................................................................................................................................... 93
2.6. Overview of standardised learning assessments in African countries........................................... 94
2.7. Steps to improve the labour productivity of informal and female workers through
innovative on‑ and off‑the‑job training and skill recognition.............................................................. 95
2.8. Steps to help technical and vocational education and training institutions
embrace innovative approaches to emerging skill needs....................................................................... 98
2.9. Steps for regional and continental integration of skills policies..................................................... 103
3.1. Top three exports for Southern African countries, 2022....................................................................... 122
3.2. Beneficiation and downstream activities and in‑demand occupations
for important mineral value chains in Southern Africa........................................................................ 126
3.3. Examples of mining sector policies and strategies in Southern Africa....................................... 130
3.4. Tertiary education and training institutions teaching technical mining skills
in Zimbabwe..................................................................................................................................................................... 132
4.1. Minerals extracted in Central Africa.................................................................................................................. 148
4.2. National public mining companies in Central Africa.............................................................................. 151
4.3. DR Congo employee quota by job category (2018 Mining Code)....................................................... 152
4.4. Skills required by workers to improve the productivity of ASM in Central Africa................ 154
4.5. Technical skills and occupations required in critical mineral value chains
with a strong presence in Central Africa........................................................................................................ 155
4.6. Examples of mining training institutions in Central Africa................................................................ 160
5.1. East African countries clustered according to digital economy advancement....................... 177
5.2. Examples of digital skills training providers in East Africa................................................................. 181
5.3. Digital policy and regulatory frameworks in East Africa....................................................................... 184
5.4. Examples of inclusive digital skills development initiatives in East Africa.............................. 185
6.1. Socio‑economic effects of the energy transition (under the “1.5°C scenario”
compared with the “business‑as‑usual scenario”)................................................................................... 204
6.2. Renewable energy skills development priorities by North African country profile............. 205
6.3. Skills breakdown by renewable energy value chain segment........................................................... 206
6.4. Degree‑level courses on renewable energies in North Africa............................................................ 207
6.5. National renewable energy strategies incorporating skills development in the sector.... 209
6.6. Transferable skills by value chain segment in the renewable energy sector........................... 211
7.1. West Africa’s highest agri‑food product exports, by country 2018-22.......................................... 230
7.2. Skills needed for the development of the agri‑food sector................................................................. 231
7.A.1. Examples of technical research centres in West Africa specialising in agri‑food
research................................................................................................................................................................................ 243

Boxes

1.1. Defining and assessing skills in this report..................................................................................................... 46

1.2. Supply of and demand for skills for productive employment in Africa......................................... 48
1.3. Massive open online courses and e‑learning in Africa............................................................................. 62
1.4. The artificial intelligence revolution and online labour........................................................................... 64
2.1. Deriving skill trends through occupation‑skill matching classifications...................................... 89
2.2. The potential of job board data to inform skill gap assessments in Africa’s labour
markets................................................................................................................................................................................... 90

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2.3. National artificial intelligence strategies and inclusive skills development in Africa.......... 91
2.4. The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment......................................................... 94
2.5. Germany’s activities in technical and vocational education and training across Africa.. 100
2.6. Bridging educational and skill gaps in Portuguese‑speaking African countries.................... 102
2.7. The Skills Initiative for Africa................................................................................................................................. 104
3.1. Mining, beneficiation and mining‑based manufacturing.................................................................... 121
4.1. Change in global demand for critical minerals, and implications for Central Africa......... 148
4.2. Skills development under the 2009 Africa Mining Vision..................................................................... 150
4.3. Difficulties faced by ASM workers....................................................................................................................... 152
4.4. The Kibali gold mine in the DR Congo: a case study of modern mining.................................... 156
4.5. African Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research in DR Congo.............................. 158
5.1. Advancing artificial intelligence and high‑end digital skills in Seychelles............................... 179
5.2. Digital skills policies in least developed countries affected by conflict in East Africa....... 184
6.1. Specific skills required for the development of renewable energy value chains................... 207
6.2. The Kaizen approach to skills development................................................................................................. 208
6.3. Casablanca Finance City’s AFIC Initiative: a talent pool to catalyse competitiveness....... 214
7.1. Developing strategic value chains to boost local industry................................................................... 231
7.2. Organic farming in West Africa............................................................................................................................. 235
7.3. The Songhaï Centre: An agri‑food skills incubator in West Africa.................................................. 237
7.4. Agricultural training initiatives in Nigeria..................................................................................................... 238
7.5. A commitment to agricultural and rural training..................................................................................... 240

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Abbreviations and acronyms

AAP Alliance for African Partnership

ACET African Center for Economic Transformation
ACQF African Continental Qualifications Framework
ADEA Association for the Development of Education in Africa
AfCFTA African Continental Free Trade Area
AFD Agence française de développement (French Development Agency)
AfDB African Development Bank
AfDD Africa’s Development Dynamics
AI Artificial intelligence
AMLA African Mining Legislation Atlas
ASM Artisanal and small‑scale mining
ATAF African Tax Administration Forum
AU African Union
AUC African Union Commission
AUDA‑NEPAD African Union Development Agency‑New Economic Partnership
for Africa’s Development
AUF Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (The Francophone University
Agency)
BEAR Better Education for Africa’s Rise
BMGF Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
BMZ Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und
Entwicklung (Federal Ministry for Economic Co‑operation and Development)
CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
COMILOG Compagnie minière de l’Ogooué (Ogooué Mining Company)
DHS Demographic and Health Surveys
EAC East African Community
EASTRIP East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration Project
EC European Commission
ECA Economic Commission for Africa
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
EU European Union
ERCE Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study
ESG Environmental, social and governance
EV Electric vehicle
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI Foreign direct investment
FONEA National Support Fund for Employability and Apprenticeship
GCA Global Center on Adaptation
GDP Gross domestic product
GEEAP Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS Geographic information system
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German Agency
for International Co‑operation)

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Abbreviations and acronyms

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICEE International Conference on Environmental Education
ICT Information and communications technology
IDRC International Development Research Centre
IEA International Energy Agency
IFC International Finance Corporation
IGF Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable
Development
ILO International Labour Organization
IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPIS International Peace and Information Service
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
ITC International Trade Center
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
JKUAT Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (Credit Institute for Reconstruction)
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
LAYS Learning‑adjusted years
LLECE Laboratorio Latinoamericano de Evaluación de la Calidad de la
Educación (The Latin‑American Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality
of Education)
LMIS Labour market information systems
MOOC Massive open online course
MQA Mining qualifications authority
NVTC Nakawa Vocational Training College
OACPS Organization of African, Caribbean and Pacific States
OECD Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development
O*NET Occupational Information Network
PALOP Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa (Portuguese‑speaking
African countries)
PASEC Programme for the Analysis of Educational Systems of CONFEMEN
PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PPP Purchasing power parity
PSF Private Sector Federation
RAFIC Regional Flagship ICT Centre
RES Renewable energy sources
RPL Recognition of prior learning
SACMEQ The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education
Quality
SADC Southern African Development Community
SAP Systems, Applications and Products in Data Processing
SIFA Skills Initiative for Africa
SME Small and medium‑sized enterprise
SMP Skill mobility partnership
SQL Structured Query Language

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 Abbreviations and acronyms

STEM Science, technology, engineering and mathematics

SWP Sustainable Water Partnership
TaRL Teaching at the Right Level
TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
TVET Technical and vocational education and training
UEMOA Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest‑Africaine (West African Economic
and Monetary Union)
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNU WIDER United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics
Research
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WEF World Economic Forum
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
ZMDC Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Executive summary

Africa can improve the productivity and the quality of its economic growth by
investing in a virtuous cycle of better skills for better jobs. Labour markets must rapidly
increase the supply of and demand for skilled workers. On the supply side, while education
levels have progressed, the quality of education must catch up with other developing
regions. Over the last two decades, primary school completion rates have increased from
about 55% to 75%. Yet, children in Africa benefit from only 5.1 learning‑adjusted years of
schooling, compared to 7.2 in developing Asia and 7.8 in Latin America and the Caribbean.
On the demand side, labour markets must create quality jobs for skilled workers. Over
80% of Africa’s youth in school aspire to work in high‑skilled occupations, but only 8%
find such jobs. The demand for skilled workers remains low because employment growth
has been confined to low‑productivity sectors like agriculture, retail trade and services.
About 82% of the continent’s workers are informal, compared to 56% for Latin America
and the Caribbean and 73% for developing Asia. In addition, highly educated workers tend
to migrate outside the continent: among tertiary‑educated individuals born in Africa, 17%
resided abroad in 2020, of which 72% chose high‑income countries.

Africa’s better‑educated and growing population is changing the global workforce.

The continent’s working‑age population (i.e. 15‑64 years old) will almost double in the
next 26 years, from 849 million in 2024 to 1 556 million in 2050. This growth will account
for 85% of the increase in the global working‑age population. The number of young
Africans having completed an upper‑secondary or tertiary education will more than
double between 2020 and 2040, from 103 million to 240 million.

Socio‑economic returns on better education are higher in Africa than in other world
regions. Each additional year of education could boost African learners’ earnings by
8.2‑11.4%, compared to 7.6‑9.1% for countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. In
manufacturing, evidence from 27 African countries shows that a 10 percentage point
increase in the share of employees with high school and university degrees is associated
with an increase in average firm productivity by 4.2% and 4.8%, respectively. If all of
Africa’s children acquired foundational literacy and numeracy skills, gross domestic
product could increase by more than 22‑fold (more than any other world region), by about
USD 154 trillion.

African labour markets are adapting to new trends, which is redefining skill demand
and supply. As the continent’s digitalisation advances, the number of jobs requiring
digital skills is growing. By 2030, 70% of these jobs will demand basic digital skills and
23% intermediate digital skills, especially in services. Developing renewable energy and
sustainable infrastructure could generate over 9 million new jobs by 2030 and a further
3 million jobs by 2050. Many skill shortages in the renewable energy sector are found in
vocational roles. Climate adaptation measures, including improved climate literacy and
climate‑smart agriculture, will increase productivity and provide additional employment
opportunities.

African countries would benefit from skills development policies that balance multiple
trade‑offs, including between high productivity, employment potential and inclusivity.
Policies must take into account each country’s comparative advantages, capacities and
financial resources. Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 proposes five policy options to
bridge Africa’s skill gaps:

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Executive summary

1. To be effective, skill strategies must be based on detailed analysis of data pertaining

to each national context. Countries face different situations: African economies
that are diversifying (e.g. Egypt, Eswatini, Mauritius, Senegal and Tunisia) rely on
occupations requiring more foundational and soft skills as well as more skills in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) than agrarian countries
(e.g. Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, Tanzania and
Uganda), which depend on agricultural employment. Only Algeria, Mauritius,
Morocco and Tunisia show STEM graduation rates of above 20%, coupled with
large tertiary enrolment. To align the supply of skills with future demand, national
strategies can use granular and big data (like from job boards) to identify skill gaps
in targeted sectors. Improving labour market information systems, increasing the
frequency of surveys and collaborating more closely with the private sector are
ways to better assess skill supply and demand.

2. African countries can increase education spending and improve its efficiency
through cost‑effective interventions and learning assessments. Cost‑effective
interventions include structured pedagogy and targeted teaching by learning
level. Comparable national, regional (e.g. PASEC and SACMEQ) and international
(e.g. PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS) learning assessments can serve to monitor education
outcomes and policy impacts, providing evidence for policy making.

3. Training and skill recognition can improve informal and female workers’
productivity. Entrepreneurial, managerial and soft skills training are widespread.
Training formats vary in effectiveness, and they need to be chosen with care to
increase productivity and inclusivity. Recognition of prior learning validates
knowledge that informal workers have acquired without formal training and can
help them find more productive jobs. Cabo Verde, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Togo
and Tunisia, among others, have developed such programmes.

4. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions can better adapt
their training offers to Africa’s emerging skill needs. TVET institutions can become
more attractive to students and employers by designing more relevant curricula,
including on digital skills, and by developing stronger linkages with the private
sector. Only 30% of surveyed TVET trainers in Africa have recent experience in
companies related to the sectors they teach. Many good practices can be emulated,
including Morocco’s ten Delegated Management Institutes located within special
economic zones to provide tailor‑made training courses. National funding for TVET
can be made more accountable and can rely less on development partners.

5. Regional frameworks and broader international partnerships can accelerate skills

development. Harmonising policies across countries can permit skill mobility, free
trade and the free movement of people across borders, creating benefits from their
interplay. The East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration Project
(EASTRIP) brings a regional approach to specialised TVET skills. Across Africa,
AUDA‑NEPAD’s regional Centres of Excellence help anticipate sectoral skill needs.
International partnerships and university exchanges, for example programmes
like ERASMUS+, are crucial for skills development and retention.

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 Executive summary

Policy recommendations to improve skills, jobs and productivity in African regions

Region Case study Policy recommendations
Southern Africa Mining • Monitor skills development in alignment with regional standards and global best practices.
• Incorporate country‑specific technical mining and complementary skill sets into mining education and training.
• Target education and training programmes directly towards women and workers in artisanal and small‑scale mining.
Central Africa Mining • Encourage the development of regional and national strategies and improve data collection.
• Promote public‑private partnerships to improve TVET quality and offer training that responds to skill demand.
• Enhance the mining sector’s sustainability and inclusiveness through upskilling artisanal and small‑scale miners.
• Strengthen transparency, accountability and multi‑level governance for a better allocation of resources.
East Africa Digital skills • Expand Internet access and integrate digital skills into education.
• Target intermediate and advanced digital skill provision towards country‑specific needs and global demand.
• Enhance regional integration of digital markets, infrastructure and regional co‑operation for skills development.
North Africa Renewable • Develop national strategies for renewable energy that account for upcoming skill demand.
energies • Enhance skill supply by promoting on‑the‑job training, research and development, and centres of excellence.
• Support skills development through co‑operation with public and private partners at all levels.
West Africa Agri‑food • Reinforce professionalisation through public‑private partnerships and local initiatives.
• Reduce the skill gap through increased co‑operation between research institutions and the private sector.
• Mobilise investment towards upskilling workers to respond to global challenges, particularly climate change.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Overview

Skills development can increase the productivity of Africa’s talent pool and
create jobs
To improve productivity and the quality of its economic growth, Africa must
invest in a virtuous cycle of better skills for better jobs. In 2025, Africa’s real growth is
projected at 4.0%, outpacing Latin America and the Caribbean (2.5%) and close behind
developing Asia (4.8%). And yet the continent’s economic growth continues to generate
too few quality jobs, for the growth does not translate into sufficient productivity gains
(AUC/OECD, 2019[1]; AUC/OECD, 2018[2]). Skill gaps are one central reason. Partly because of
shortages in skilled labour – notably in sectors such as agrifood and renewable energies –
private investment remains below the continent’s potential (AUC/OECD, 2023[3]). Africa
has a higher share of informal employment than any other world region, as a result of
slow productive transformation; an estimated 82% of all the continent’s workers are in
informal employment, compared to 56% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 73%
in developing Asia. In South Africa, a country with a low share of informality, 76% of
employers report difficulty finding the talent they need (ManpowerGroup, 2022[4]). Skilled
workers are necessary to strengthen Africa’s fledgling productive transformation and to
deliver quality jobs at scale. The 2024 edition of the Africa’s Development Dynamics report
therefore addresses skills, jobs and productivity, coinciding with the African Union’s
choice of “education” as its theme of the year.
Continuing to expand quality education generates larger returns in Africa than in
other world regions.
• Children in Africa benefit from only 5.1 learning‑adjusted years of schooling (a
metric combining quantity and quality of schooling),1 compared to 7.2 in developing
Asia, 7.8 in Latin America and the Caribbean and 10.5 in high‑income countries. Math
and reading proficiency is lower in Africa than in other world regions (Figure 1).
• Returns to education are higher in Africa than elsewhere in the world. Each
additional year of education could increase African learners’ earnings by 8.2% to
11.4%, compared to 7.6% to 9.1% for Latin American and Caribbean countries (Peet,
Fink and Fawzi, 2015[5]).
• Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP) could increase by about USD 154 trillion
before the end of the century – a more than 22-fold increase, greater than any
other world region – if all African children attained foundational skill levels (Gust,
Hanushek and Woessmann, 2024[6]).2
• Firms benefit from better‑educated workers as well. In manufacturing, evidence
from over 7 600 firms across 27 African countries shows that a 10 percentage
point increase in the share of employees with high school and university degrees
is associated with an increase in average firm productivity by 4.2% and 4.8%,
respectively (Okumu and Mawejje, 2020[7]).
Workers lack the specific skill sets required for existing jobs (limited supply), while
not enough quality jobs are available to further build their skills (limited demand). In a
survey of six African countries, many secondary school graduates did not meet employers’
expectations in terms of technical skills (almost 50%), digital, business and managerial
skills (25%) and soft skills (10‑40%) (ACET, 2022[8]). In Ghana, about 14% of surveyed
companies reported recruiting employees with digital skills internationally, because they
could not find skilled local talent (IFC, 2019[9]). Over 80% of African youth in school aspire
to work in high‑skilled occupations, but only 8% find such jobs (OECD, 2017[10]).3

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Overview

Skill gaps vary between countries. African economies that are diversifying (e.g. Egypt,
Eswatini, Mauritius, Senegal and Tunisia) rely on occupations that require 3.8 percentage
points more foundational and soft skills than countries that depend on agricultural
employment (e.g. Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, Tanzania
and Uganda).

Figure 1. Minimum proficiency in mathematics and reading and primary school

completion in selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa, 2019
Completion of primary school (right-hand scale, 2019 or latest year) Reading Mathematics
% of students reaching minimum proficiency level % of students completing primary school
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Gabon

Senegal

Congo Republic

Burkina Faso

Cameroon

Madagascar
Costa Rica

Dominican Republic

Côte d'Ivoire

DR Congo
Benin

Togo

Niger
El Salvador

Burundi
Guinea

Chad
Latin America and the Africa
Caribbean
Note: Regional discrepancies in the proportion of children in sixth grade achieving minimum proficiency levels could be
partly due to differences in assessment frameworks, contexts and measured constructs. All African countries are displayed
for which data are available. Data for Latin America and the Caribbean only include the top, middle and bottom performers
out of all countries that were part of the assessment.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on UNESCO/PASEC/LLECE/IEA (2022[11]), “Establishing a concordance between regional
(ERCE and PASEC) and international (TIMSS/PIRLS) assessments”, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361903612_
Rosetta-Stone_Policy-Brief_2022.
12 https://stat.link/82pdai

Gender and rural‑urban divides in skills development cause significant disparities in

employment and remuneration. Girls and women face more significant barriers to skills
development than boys and men, as discriminatory gender norms often restrict their
school or training attendance and job opportunities (ACET, 2022[12]; OECD, 2022[13]). The
rate of out‑of‑school primary‑aged children is 4.2 percentage points higher for girls than
for boys (UNESCO, 2022[14]). The gender pay gap is around 30% in most African countries
(UN Women, 2022[15]). The share of workers in skilled occupations is around 27% among
men versus 15% among women, and 30% among urban inhabitants versus 13% among
rural inhabitants. These inequalities intersect, with less than 10% of rural women found
in skilled occupations compared to almost 45% of urban men. Hourly wages for all workers
in rural areas are only half of those in large cities (OECD/UNECA/AfDB, 2022[16]).
Highly skilled workers tend to move out of Africa. Low‑skilled migrants from African
countries mostly remain within the continent, with skills development figuring as one of
a range of factors underlying migration decisions. For highly skilled migrants, skill‑based
employment opportunities represent a more important factor. In 2020, 74% of highly
educated migrant workers opted to move to another continent; the vast majority (98%)
chose high‑income countries as a destination. Almost half (47%) of tertiary‑educated
individuals born in East Africa resided abroad in 2020.4

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 Overview

Africa’s talent pool is growing fast, and targeted investment in education and
training promises to fuel productivity
As Africa’s growing population is becoming better educated, the continent is developing
an unprecedented pool of talent and improving its age structure for a demographic
dividend. Africa’s working‑age population (i.e. 15‑64 years old) will almost double by 2050,
from 849 million in 2024 to 1 556 million in 2050. This growth will account for 85% of the
total increase in the global working‑age population. Projecting constant enrolment ratios,
the number of young Africans having completed an upper‑secondary or tertiary education
will more than double between 2020 and 2040, from 103 million to 240 million. In the past
20 years, mean years of schooling have increased by over 2 years for 28 African countries
with available data. Continuing progress, particularly in girls’ education, will also shape
Africa’s demographics favourably by postponing the age of child pregnancy. This will
raise Africa’s demographic dividend, by increasing the active population compared to the
dependency‑age population. Better quality education for millions of Africans can result in
impressive progress throughout society.
Skills development that effectively reaches informal workers, especially in agriculture
and trade, can increase productivity for millions of workers. The share of youth not in
employment, education or training across 12 African countries averages 7 percentage
points higher for young people from households that rely solely on informal employment
(OECD, 2024[17]). Vulnerable workers5 account for 93% of the labour force in agriculture,
forestry and fishing and 84% in wholesale and retail trade. Together, these two sectors
account for about half of the jobs created over the last two decades, and they have the
lowest share of occupations with a high complexity and range of tasks and duties. “By
2040, own account and family workers in Africa will represent 65% of employment under
current trends”, rising from 325 million to 529 million, according to AUC/OECD (2021[18]).
Greater investment in technical skills such as science, technology, engineering and
mathematics (STEM) increases labour productivity. Workers with STEM skills can support
the development of technology‑intensive value chains such as automotive, electronics,
solar panels, pharmaceuticals and medical devices, and mining (UNCTAD, 2023[19];
Dugbazah et al., 2021[20]). Yet, when investing in technical disciplines, African policy
makers and educational institutions often have to choose between inclusion or selective
excellence. Across Africa, only Algeria, Mauritius, Morocco and Tunisia show STEM
graduation rates of above 20%, coupled with large overall tertiary enrolment (Figure 2).
Consequently, African countries have a limited number of engineering professionals per
capita: they range from 540 per 100 000 inhabitants in Seychelles to less than 45 in the
DR Congo, Madagascar, Malawi and Mozambique. This compares to 1 160 engineering
professionals in the United Kingdom and 850 in the United States (UNESCO/ICEE, 2021[21];
SADC, 2018[22]).

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Figure 2. Percentage of tertiary education graduates from programmes in science,

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and gross enrolment rates
in African countries, average 2015‑23

Graduates from STEM programmes in tertiary education (%) Gross tertiary enrolment rate (%)

%
50

40

30

20

10

Note: Gross enrolment rates represent total enrolment in tertiary education (ISCED 5 to 8), expressed as a percentage of the
total population of the five‑year age group following on from secondary school leaving.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[23]), UIS Stat (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org/.
12 https://stat.link/yf06cr

Digital skills are in demand across the continent, while the need for green skills
is increasing with climate challenges
The digital revolution is redefining the demand for and the supply of skills in the
African labour market. As the continent’s digitalisation advances, the demand for basic
digital skills (e.g. Internet navigation, mobile communication) and intermediate digital
skills (e.g. use of spreadsheet and presentation software) is growing fast, and the demand
for advanced skills (e.g. programming) is also emerging. By 2030, it is projected that 70%
of the demand for digital skills will be for basic skills and 23% for intermediate skills.
Most of the demand will be in services (Figure 3). While the supply of basic digital skills is
growing, intermediate and advanced digital skills remain scarce (Table 1).

Table 1. Demand for and supply of digital skills across Africa

Basic digital skills Intermediate digital skills Advanced digital skills
(e.g. smartphone use, e‑mail, basic file (e.g. use of multiple devices, e‑commerce (e.g. web design, programming,
management, web browsing, mobile and financial software, professional social AI development, data science)
communication) media, data entry and management)
Demand Very large demand Large demand Emerging demand
70% of demand for digital skills is expected to be 23% of demand for digital skills is While AI markets are more mature in
for basic digital skills by 2030 expected to be for intermediate skills high‑income economies, some African
(World Bank, 2021[24]). by 2030 (World Bank, 2021[24]). countries are emerging as regional
AI leaders (World Bank, 2021[24]).
Supply Growing supply Limited supply Scarce supply
26.4% of the African population knows how to 5% of the young population possesses Africa comprises only 1.3% of global
use a mobile money account. Across 15 African intermediate digital skills across users of GitHub – a widely used
countries, 9% of the young population possesses 15 African countries (Authors’ calculation platform for programme developers
basic digital skills (Authors’ calculations based on based on UNICEF (2022[26])). (OECD et al., 2021[27]).
World Bank (2021[25]); and UNICEF (2022[26])).
Note: AI – artificial intelligence.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

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Figure 3. Jobs requiring digital skills by 2030 in five African countries, by skill level

Services Agriculture Industry

Millions
40

35 11%

30
35%
25

20
8%
15 16%

10 54%
77%
5

0 88%
Basic Intermediate Advanced
Note: Data cover Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Rwanda.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2021[24]), Demand for Digital Skills in Sub‑Saharan Africa, https://www.datocms-
assets.com/37703/1623797656-demand-for-digital-skills-in-sub-saharan-africa.pdf.
12 https://stat.link/jgkp16

Addressing climate change can create jobs and raise Africa’s productivity in key
sectors, but more green skills are needed. Producing less than 4% of global greenhouse gas
emissions created by human activity, Africa is the world region that contributes the least
to climate change; yet it is the most vulnerable and most exposed to the consequences
of climate change (IPCC, 2022[28]). Notwithstanding, a green transition could create job
and growth opportunities in Africa: renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure
could generate over 9 million jobs from 2019 to 2030 and a further 3 million jobs by
2050 (IRENA/AfDB, 2022[29]). Specific skills are needed, and many skill shortages in the
renewable energy sector are found in vocational roles (Chapter 6). These mid‑skilled roles
often require specialised training beyond that needed for typical energy‑related jobs (IEA,
2023[30]). Measures for adapting to climate change, including improved climate literacy and
climate‑smart agriculture, can increase productivity and provide additional employment
opportunities (Chapter 7) (IPCC, 2022[28]; Williams et al., 2021[31]).

Better policies contribute to productive and inclusive skills development

in Africa
African countries and their development partners can expand efforts to deliver
education for all Africans. With rising primary school completion rates, from about 55%
in 2000 to 75% in 2022, millions more children receive an education today than at the
turn of the century (Figure 4, Panel A). However, to bring the rate closer to that of other
world regions, more investment in skills remains a priority, despite constrained budgets
(IMF, 2024[32]). On average, in 2021, African governments spent 3.7% of GDP on education,
accounting for 14.5% of total public expenditure. These shares are slightly below the
international benchmarks set by UNESCO of at least 4% of GDP and 15% of total public
expenditure (UNESCO, 2015[33]). Public spending on education has stagnated since 2000
(Figure 4, Panel B), due to important fiscal constraints (OECD/AUC/ATAF, 2023[34]) and debt
concerns (AUC/OECD, 2023[3]). Donors’ disbursements in education have also flatlined in
Africa, at around 10% of overall official development assistance disbursements since 2013
(Figure 4, Panel C).

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Figure 4. Primary school completion, public education spending and share

of official development assistance allocated to education, by world region, 2000‑22

Africa Latin America and the Caribbean

Asia (no high-income countries) High-income countries (no LAC)
A. Primary school completion rate B. Public education spending C. Share of ODA disbursement
allocated to education
% % of GDP %
100 6 16
90 14
80 5
12
70 4
60 10
50 3 8
40 6
30 2
4
20 1
10 2
0 0 0

Note: Primary school completion rate is the number of new entrants (enrolments minus repeaters) in the last grade of
primary education, regardless of age, divided by the population at the entrance age for the last grade of primary education.
The earliest available year in the Creditor Reporting System (CRS) database in Panel C is 2013. The category “High‑income
countries (no LAC)” is omitted from Panel C. ODA = official development assistance. LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean.
Source: Panel A: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[23]), UIS Stat (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org/; Panel B: IMF (2023[35]),
World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO; Panel C: OECD.Stat (2024[36]), Creditor Reporting
System (CRS) (database), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=crs1.
12 https://stat.link/4gto6b

To be effective, skills development policies must balance high productivity, employment

potential and inclusiveness and consider each country’s comparative advantages,
capacities and financial resources. In this respect, this report proposes policy actions to
tackle five challenges related to Africa’s skill gaps that are preventing greater employment
creation and productivity (Table 2).

Table 2. Challenges and policy actions to boost skills, jobs and productivity
Challenges Policy agenda Policy actions
Population growth that is outpacing formal Nationally specific strategies • Target skill strategies through harmonised, up‑to‑date
job growth; significant country differences identifying priority sectors, and comparable data on skill mismatches
in the selection of skill supply and demand, based on granular data, to tackle • Select priority sectors with high productivity and employment
especially for digital and green skills emerging skill needs potential, based on national comparative advantages
• Integrate digital and green skills into strategies, addressing
country‑specific skill gaps
Significant foundational skill shortages; Learning assessments and • Assess weaknesses in national education systems that result
gender and rural‑urban divides cost‑effective interventions to in foundational skill gaps
expand quality education • Target investments towards the most cost‑effective measures
• Monitor progress against international benchmarks to inform
reforms
Employment growth confined to Innovative on‑ and off‑the‑job • Expand entrepreneurial and soft skills training to impart
low‑productivity/high‑informality sectors; training and skill recognition to transferable skills that increase worker productivity
gender and rural‑urban divides improve the labour productivity of • Offer certified apprenticeships in co‑operation with the private
informal and female workers sector to provide practical experience and documented
technical skills
• Establish frameworks for the recognition of prior learning
and professional certificates

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Table 2. Challenges and policy actions to boost skills, jobs and productivity (continued)

Challenges Policy agenda Policy actions

Varying technical skill needs across African Technical and vocational education • Involve the private sector, including small and medium‑sized
countries; basic and intermediate digital skill and training (TVET) institutions to enterprises, in programme delivery to ensure effectiveness
gaps embrace innovative approaches and employability
that better respond to emerging • Increase the appeal of TVET to students by upgrading
skill needs institutions’ curricula, governance and reputation
• Increase female and rural participation through local outreach
and private sector involvement
• Make TVET levies more accountable and improve
the co‑ordination of partner finance
Limited high‑skilled migration within Africa; Regional integration of African • Identify skill needs within cross‑border labour pools
large high‑skilled emigration to high‑income skills development policies and regional value chains
countries • Address skill shortages and gaps along regional value chains
• Improve cross‑border skill recognition and portability
• Reduce talent outflow and encourage the international
circulation of skills via partnerships
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Significant country differences require nationally specific skill strategies based on

more comprehensive data analysis. To align the supply of skills with current and future
demand, national strategies can use granular data analysis to focus skills development
on priority sectors and specific digital and green skill gaps. By strengthening the quality
of labour market information systems, increasing the frequency of surveys and fostering
collaboration with the private sector, African countries can better assess skill supply
and demand. Using big data, especially from online job boards, can facilitate real‑time,
detailed analysis of skill demand and help anticipate future needs.
In East Africa, Mauritius has established a comprehensive digital policy that
encourages firms to attract employees with skills and incites workers to acquire
skills, particularly in research and development and innovation related to artificial
intelligence (AI) (ANDP, 2019[37]; Republic of Mauritius, 2018[38]). Ethiopia, Rwanda
and Uganda are also formulating policies specifically on AI skills development
(Diplo, 2022[39]).
Efficient education spending, cost‑effective interventions and learning assessments can
help expand quality education. Africa’s spending inefficiencies in education remain high:
between 2000 and 2017, they were equivalent to over USD 40 billion annually (IMF, 2021[40]).
To achieve better learning outcomes with limited funds, cost‑effective interventions,
such as support for teachers with structured pedagogy and targeted teaching by learning
level, could be expanded (Angrist et al., 2023[41]). Applying these types of interventions
to reach 90% of primary school pupils in African countries would cost the equivalent
of just 2.3% of the continent’s 2021 spending on education while generating a return of
1.2 learning‑adjusted years of schooling.6 Comparable national, regional and international
learning assessments can serve to monitor education outcomes and policy impacts.
In North Africa, Morocco’s Ministry of Education rolled out a roadmap for reforming
the education system in 2022, designed to respond to the country’s low results
in 2018 in PISA, the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment.
The roadmap focuses on improving learning impact, student well‑being and
foundational learning results (Madrastna, 2022[42]; Madrastna, 2022[43]).
Training and skill recognition can increase informal and female workers’ productivity.
Training in entrepreneurial, managerial and soft skills is widespread, but training formats
vary in effectiveness and need to be chosen with care to increase productivity. For African
enterprises in manufacturing and services that provide training to employees, sales per
worker are around 20% higher than for those that do not. Yet less than 30% of firms
registered in Africa provide formal training to employees, compared to almost 50% in Latin
America (AfDB, 2020[44]).7 Seventy‑five per cent of informal apprentices find a job less than

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six months after finishing their apprenticeships, most of them becoming self‑employed
or being employed by the businesses that hosted their apprenticeships (ILO, 2022[45]).
Training programmes can also help reduce the gender pay gap: socio‑emotional skills
training can yield higher earnings for female workers and ensure a greater likelihood
of success in their entrepreneurial endeavours (Baliamoune‑Lutz, Brixiova and Ncube,
2014[46]). Recognition of prior learning can create win‑win scenarios for informal workers
and employers, but the available support often remains unknown to both.
TVET institutions can better respond to Africa’s emerging skill needs. In the next
20 years, the number of secondary TVET students is expected to more than quadruple
in agrarian economies like Burundi, Mali and Uganda and to increase ten‑fold in Niger
(ILO/World Bank/UNESCO, 2023[47]). TVET institutions would benefit from an improved
reputation and more relevant curricula, including on digital skills. Stronger linkages with
the private sector can enhance the professionalisation of TVET trainers and help align
skill supply with demand. Only 30% of TVET trainers in Africa have recent experience
in companies related to the sectors they teach (IIEP‑UNESCO, 2023[48]). National funding
for TVET can be more accountable since levy funds for training are often retained by
the central government and diverted to other purposes. Of funds analysed in 29 African
countries, the only country in which 100% of the training levies collected go to TVET
is Senegal, compared to 60% in Niger, 17% in Zambia and 5% in Burkina Faso (UNESCO,
2022[49]).
In West Africa, Benin’s National Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (SN‑EFTP 2020‑2030) envisages an increase in technical agricultural
vocational institutions from around 10 to 30 by 2025 (Marie, 2022[50]).
The regional integration of African skills development depends on harmonised policies
and partnerships. Aligning relevant policies across countries can help close skill gaps,
allowing African countries to reap the benefits of the interplay of skill mobility, free trade –
notably while developing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) – and the free
movement of people across borders. AUDA‑NEPAD’s five regional Centres of Excellence
can help anticipate sectoral skills needed across Africa. Partnerships with international
and private actors can help address challenges for skills development in regional value
chains (OECD/AUC/EU/AUDA‑NEPAD, 2023[51]). University exchange programmes and skill
mobility partnerships, within and beyond Africa, are crucial to retaining highly educated
students and increasing the circulation of skills.
In Central and Southern Africa, the Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery
Research between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia supports
public‑private co‑operation for training and research along different segments of
value chains for electric vehicle batteries.
African regions can better leverage their comparative advantages to accelerate
productive transformation and job creation. The report’s five regional chapters (Chapters 3‑7)
summarise some of the most salient characteristics of skills development in each region
and highlight how each can accelerate skills development in strategic sectors. Case
studies in those chapters propose ways to carry out the report’s five continental policy
recommendations (Table 3) in specific sectors. Examples are below:
• Southern Africa’s mining sector would benefit from developing downstream
industries where value addition per worker is higher than in extraction, like diamond
cutting (e.g. in Botswana), steel production (e.g. in Zimbabwe), cobalt refining (e.g.
in Zambia) and electric vehicle manufacturing (e.g. in Namibia and South Africa).
Currently, technical skill shortages and predominantly informal employment
prevent productivity increases. More than half of the region’s mining workers,
mainly informal and low‑skilled, are in artisanal and small‑scale mining (ASM).

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• Central Africa has significant reserves of strategic minerals, accounting for

almost 70% of global cobalt production, 30% of tantalum production and 20% of
manganese production, but it does not transform these resources within the region
(e.g. the DR Congo produces 69% of the world’s cobalt but transforms less than
1% of it). Improving technical skills can help develop local mineral processing and
transformation, increase the productivity of ASM workers, and meet the growing
global demand.
• East Africa’s progress in digital skills development is highly uneven: the share of
the population over 15 years old who possesses basic digital skills ranges from
33% in Mauritius to 4% in South Sudan. Country‑specific expansion of digital skill
provision, especially through TVET institutions, can be an effective response to the
rising demand for digital skills in the region.
• North Africa has the greatest potential among African regions for developing solar
and wind energy, and it is set to become the leading exporter of green hydrogen,
with potential exports forecasted at USD 110 billion per year by 2050. Egypt, Morocco
and Algeria have contributed to the expansion of solar energy in the region, ranking
second, third and fourth for solar power generation on the continent. Egypt and
Morocco also dominate African wind energy production, after South Africa (IRENA,
2023[52]). Developing specific technical skills (e.g. in construction and installation)
and managerial skills (e.g. in project management) in the renewable energy sector
could create at least 2.7 million additional jobs, improve energy security, reduce
air pollution and contribute to the global efforts to reduce greenhouse emissions.
• Between 5 and 9 West African countries usually rank among the world’s top
20 producers of a dozen agri‑food products, such as fonio, shea nuts, yams and cocoa
beans. Yet almost 24% of the region’s products are lost after harvest. Improving
technical skills and conservation techniques can reduce this waste. Boosting
research and development and green skills in the agri‑food sector can support
the development of higher‑value products and enhance regional food security and
resilience to climate change.

Table 3. Skills, jobs and productivity: Policy recommendations by region

Region Case study Policy recommendations
Southern Africa Mining • Monitor skills development in alignment with regional standards and global best practices.
• Incorporate country‑specific technical mining and complementary skill sets into mining education
and training.
• Target education and training programmes directly towards women and workers in artisanal and small‑scale
mining.
Central Africa Mining • Encourage the development of regional and national strategies and improve data collection.
• Promote public‑private partnerships to improve TVET quality and offer training that responds to skill
demand.
• Enhance the mining sector’s sustainability and inclusiveness through upskilling artisanal and small‑scale
miners.
• Strengthen transparency, accountability and multi‑level governance for a better allocation of resources.
East Africa Digital skills • Expand Internet access and integrate digital skills into education.
• Target intermediate and advanced digital skill provision towards country‑specific needs and global demand.
• Enhance regional integration of digital markets, infrastructure and regional co‑operation for skills
development.
North Africa Renewable energies • Develop national strategies for renewable energy that account for upcoming skill demand.
• Enhance skill supply by promoting on‑the‑job training, research and development, and centres of excellence.
• Support skills development through co‑operation with public and private partners at all levels.
West Africa Agri‑food • Reinforce professionalisation through public‑private partnerships and local initiatives.
• Reduce the skill gap through increased co‑operation between research institutions and the private sector.
• Mobilise investment towards upskilling workers to respond to global challenges, particularly climate change.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

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Notes
1. Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of education into one
metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See
Filmer et al. (2020[53]) for the detailed methodology.
2. The model by Gust, Hanushek and Woessmann assumes constant labour demand for
foundational skills, meaning that an increase in skill supply directly results in economic growth.
3. These numbers are drawn from a survey that covers 11 African countries among 32 low‑ and
middle‑income countries.
4. Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[56]).
5. For a definition of vulnerable workers, see Chapter 1.
6. An additional 1.2 years of schooling would translate into around an 11% increase in earnings
[authors’ calculation based on estimated returns to education in Africa in Peet, Fink and Fawzi
(2015[5])].
7. In 2013‑22, 83% of firms in Africa formally registered when they started operations in their
country, against 87% in Latin America and the Caribbean [authors’ calculation based on (World
Bank, 2024[55])].

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Madrastna (2022), “La Feuille de Route”, https://www.madrastna.ma/fr-FR/pages/feuille-de-route. [43]
ManpowerGroup (2022), “South Africa’s 2022 talent shortage”, https://go.manpowergroup.com/
hubfs/Talent%20Shortage%202022/MPG_2022_TS_Infographic-South_Africa.pdf. [4]
Marie, P. (2022), “Bénin: 30 lycées techniques agricoles fonctionnels en 2025”, Réseau FAR, https://www.
reseau-far.com/benin-30-lycees-techniques-agricoles-fonctionnels-en-2025/. [50]
OECD (2024), Breaking the Vicious Circles of Informal Employment and Low‑Paying Work, OECD Publishing,
Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f95c5a74-en. [17]
OECD (2022), Institutions sociales et égalité femmes‑hommes en Côte d’Ivoire: Rapport pays SIGI, OECD
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c798990a-fr. [13]
OECD (2017), Youth Aspirations and the Reality of Jobs in Developing Countries: Mind the Gap, Development
Centre Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264285668-en. [10]
OECD.Stat (2024), Creditor Reporting System (CRS) (database), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSet
Code=crs1 (accessed on 14 May 2024). [36]
OECD/AUC/ATAF (2023), Revenue Statistics in Africa 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.
1787/15bc5bc6-en-fr. [34]
OECD/AUC/EU/AUDA‑NEPAD (2023), Joint Workshop: Developing Strategic Value Chains for Africa’s
Productive Transformation, held on 31 October 2023 at the OECD during the AUC‑OECD Development
Centre’s 22nd International Economic Forum on Africa. [51]
OECD/UNECA/AfDB (2022), Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2022: The Economic Power of Africa’s Cities,
West African Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3834ed5b-en. [16]
OECD et al. (2021), Production Transformation Policy Review of Egypt: Embracing Change, Achieving
Prosperity, OECD Development Pathways, OECD Publishing, Paris/United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, Vienna/United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Addis
Ababa/United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.1787/
302fec4b-en. [27]
Okumu, I. and J. Mawejje (2020), “Labour productivity in African manufacturing: Does the level of
skills development matter?”, Development Policy Review, Vol. 38/4, pp. 441‑464, https://doi.org/10.
1111/dpr.12431. [7]
Peet, E., G. Fink and W. Fawzi (2015), “Returns to education in developing countries: Evidence from

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the living standards and measurement study surveys”, Economics of Education Review, Vol. 49,
pp. 69‑90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.08.002. [5]
Republic of Mauritius (2018), Mauritius Artificial Intelligence Strategy, https://ncb.govmu.org/ncb/
strategicplans/MauritiusAIStrategy2018.pdf. [38]
SADC (2018), Engineering Numbers and Needs in the SADC Region, Southern African Development
Community, Gaborone, https://tis.sadc.int/files/9616/3117/4900/Engineering_Numbers_and_Needs_
in_SADC.pdf. [22]
UN Women (2022), “Equality will be achieved when women and men are granted equal pay
and equal respect: An explainer”, UN Women Africa, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/stories/
explainer/2022/09/equality-will-be-achieved-when-women-and-men-are-granted-equal-pay-
and-equal-respect. [15]
UNCTAD (2023), The Potential of Africa to Capture Technology‑Intensive Global Supply Chains, United Nations
Publications, https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/aldcafrica2023_en.pdf. [19]
UNESCO (2022), Global Review of Training Funds: Spotlight on Levy‑Schemes in 75 Countries, https://unesdoc.
unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000384184. [49]
UNESCO (2022), “New estimation confirms out‑of‑school population is growing in sub‑Saharan
Africa”, UNESCO Digital Library, programme and meeting document, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/
ark:/48223/pf0000382577. [14]
UNESCO (2015), Education 2030 Incheon Declaration: Towards Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education
and Lifelong Learning for All, https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/education-2030-
incheon-framework-for-action-implementation-of-sdg4-2016-en_2.pdf. [33]
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023), UIS Stat, http://data.uis.unesco.org/ (accessed on 17 December
2023). [23]
UNESCO/ICEE (2021), Engineering for Sustainable Development: Delivering on the Sustainable Development
Goals, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375644. [21]
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PASEC) and international (TIMSS/PIRLS) assessments”, Rosetta Stone Policy Brief, https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/361903612_Rosetta-Stone_Policy-Brief_2022. [11]
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https://data.unicef.org/resources/dataset/learning-and-skills/ (accessed on 8 November 2023). [26]
Williams, P. et al. (2021), “Feasibility assessment of climate change adaptation options across Africa:
An evidence‑based review”, Environmental Research Letters, Vol. 16/7, p. 073004, https://doi.org/10.
1088/1748-9326/ac092d. [31]
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enterprisesurveys (accessed on 15 May 2024). [55]
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migration (accessed on 9 November 2023). [56]
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datocms-assets.com/37703/1623797656-demand-for-digital-skills-in-sub-saharan-africa.pdf. [24]
World Bank (2021), The Global Findex Database, https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/global
findex/Data (accessed on 12 January 2024). [25]

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
 Chapter 1
Skills development
for Africa’s productive
transformation
This chapter explains why developing the skills of
Africa’s workforce lies at the core of the continent’s
productive transformation and the African Union’s
Agenda 2063. It first outlines the barriers to the
continent’s skill supply and demand, namely limited
quality education, gender and rural‑urban divides,
a high rate of informal employment, and Africa’s
slow structural transformation. Second, the chapter
analyses differences in foundational, soft and technical
skill gaps across the continent. Third, it highlights the
emerging skill demands brought about by the digital
and green transitions.

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

IN BRIEF Equipping workers with quality skills is essential

for Africa’s productive transformation. The number
of young Africans with an upper‑secondary or higher
education will rise from 103 million to 240 million
between 2020 and 2040. Opportunities for productive
employment will be required to match the resulting
supply of skills with new demand.
African countries face important barriers
regarding the supply of and demand for quality skills.
Supply is hampered by the population’s limited
access to quality education and significant gender,
rural‑urban and informal‑formal employment
divides. Despite increases in school enrolment, the
number of learning‑adjusted years of schooling is
more than two years lower than in any other world
region. The demand for skilled workers is mostly
restricted by employment growth having been
confined to low‑productivity sectors like agriculture,
retail trade and services. Highly educated African
workers tend to migrate outside the continent; 72%
of tertiary‑educated migrants move to high‑income
countries.
Skill requirements and gaps vary depending on
the diversity of occupations and tasks in a country.
Foundational and soft skills prove more important
in the most diversified African economies than in
those where agricultural employment dominates.
Technical skills are key to support growth in
nationally strategic sectors, but supply often does not
align with specific local demand. If workers acquire
superior business skills, firms across the continent
will be able to improve their productivity, while
informal entrepreneurs will more easily master the
wide range of skills that running a business entails.
The digital revolution has created a large demand
for digital skills, and climate change is now beginning
to generate demand for green skills. In most African
countries, skill gaps remain widest for intermediate
digital skills. Green skills will be necessary to
support climate adaptation and mitigation and to
drive productive transformation in sectors such as
renewable energies and construction.

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Skills development for Africa’s

productive transformation
Africa has a vast talent pool, but uneven access to quality education and job
opportunities holds back its progress
People with an upper-secondary
or higher education,
2020 to 2040 (millions) Share of students with basic skills in…
Mathematics Reading
103 240
171 170
2020 2040
Africa Latin America Africa Latin America
and the Caribbean and the Caribbean

Working in skilled occupations

17% of tertiary-educated adults
born in Africa lived abroad in 2020

72% of them chose

high-income countries
Rural women Urban men outside of Africa

The digital revolution and climate change are redefining Africa’s skill needs

Demand: Supply:
Jobs with digital skills Today’s skill sets
{} needed by 2030 among youth
</>

7% 9%
5%
Basic Intermediate Advanced 23% 2%
70%

An energy transition could create over 9 million additional jobs by 2030

and another 3 million by 2050

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1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Continental profile

Figure 1.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

by world region, 2000‑22

Africa Latin America and the Caribbean

Asia (no high-income countries) High-income countries (no LAC)
A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant C. Public education spending
GDP per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
70 120 5.5
60 100 5
50 4.5
80
40 4
60
30 3.5
40
20 3
10 20 2.5
0 0 2

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed
(own‑account) workers and contributing family members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation
of informal employment, it is used here to show long‑term trends, as time series data on informal employment is missing for
most African countries. Labour productivity is measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international
USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices, divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/; World Bank
(2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and
IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/wqh6ti

Figure 1.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation by world region, 2021

Managers Professionals Technicians Clerical support Service and sales

Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers Skilled elementary occupations
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Africa Asia (no high-income countries) Latin America and the Caribbean High-income countries (no LAC)
Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. “Technicians” include associate professionals, “Skilled elementary occupations”
include skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, and elementary occupations, and “Operators and assemblers”
include plant and machine operators and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/.
12 https://stat.link/t0dmkj

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Africa’s growing talent pool is seeking better opportunities for productive

employment
As Africa’s growing population is becoming better educated, the continent is developing
an unprecedented pool of talent. Africa’s working‑age population (i.e. 15‑64 years old) will
double by 2050, with this growth accounting for 85% of the total increase in the global
working‑age population.1 The number of young Africans (i.e. 15-29 years old) who have
completed an upper‑secondary or tertiary education will more than double between
2020 and 2040, from 103 million to 240 million. Better education for millions of Africans
represents impressive progress.
Improving young Africans’ educational proficiency is essential. Basic proficiency
levels in Africa are lower than in other developing regions. In 2020, the learning‑adjusted
number of years of schooling was 5.1 in Africa, compared to 7.2 years in developing Asia
and 7.8 years in Latin America and the Caribbean (Figure 1.3). In 2019, across 18 countries
in Latin America and the Caribbean, the percentage of students who reached basic
proficiency levels at the end of primary school was 78.3% for reading and 44.2% for
mathematics. In contrast, across 14 African countries, 22.6% of students reached similar
levels for reading and 5.6% for mathematics (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling

by world region, 2020

Years of schooling, population 15–64 years Learning-adjusted mean years of schooling

Average number of years

14

12

10

0
Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Asia (no high-income countries) High-income countries (no LAC)
Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of
education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer
et al. (2020[4]) for the detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[5]), Education Statistics – All Indicators (database), https://databank.
worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/1h0lfr

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1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Figure 1.4. Minimum proficiency in mathematics and reading and primary school
completion in selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa, 2019

Completion of primary school (right-hand scale, 2019 or latest year) Reading Mathematics
% of students reaching minimum proficiency level % of students completing primary school
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Gabon

Senegal

Congo Republic

Burkina Faso

Cameroon

Madagascar
Costa Rica

Dominican Republic

Côte d'Ivoire

DR Congo
Benin

Togo

Niger
El Salvador

Burundi
Guinea

Chad
Latin America and the Africa
Caribbean
Note: Regional discrepancies in the proportion of children in sixth grade achieving minimum proficiency levels could be
partly due to differences in assessment frameworks, contexts and measured constructs. All African countries are displayed
for which data are available. Data for Latin America and the Caribbean only include the top, middle and bottom performers
out of all countries that were part of the assessment.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on UNESCO/PASEC/LLECE/IEA (2022[6]), “Establishing a concordance between regional
(ERCE and PASEC) and international (TIMSS/PIRLS) assessments”, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361903612_
Rosetta-Stone_Policy-Brief_2022.
12 https://stat.link/82pdai

Important gaps exist between the skills of Africa’s secondary school graduates and
those needed for employment. While better education outcomes increase the supply of
foundational skills, the supply of and demand for specific combinations of skills in a
particular location are sometimes poorly matched (Box 1.1). In 2016, across ten African
countries,2 45% of young people who had recently graduated from secondary school
felt that their skills were inappropriate for their work (17% felt over‑skilled and 28%
under‑skilled), while 38% indicated that their education was not useful in finding jobs
(AUC/OECD, 2021[7]; Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[8]). Studies across six African countries3
show that a large share of students graduating from secondary school would need to
be retrained to match employers’ expectations in terms of technical skills (almost 50%),
digital, business and managerial skills (25%) and soft skills (10‑40%) (ACET, 2022[9]).

Box 1.1. Defining and assessing skills in this report

The Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 report assesses skill gaps, including changing skill
demand across African countries, in light of the specifics of African labour markets. Bridging
skill gaps is essential to productive and sustainable transformations (OECD, 2023[10]; Aleksynska
and Kolev, 2021[11]; Fox and Ghandi, 2021[12]). Both adjusting existing skills and building new skills
will be required to adapt to rapid technological and climate change. Using data mainly from
labour force and household surveys, the report analyses skill gaps across African countries by
examining the prevalence of skills as well as qualification gaps and mismatches. Case studies
in the report’s regional chapters highlight the needs and current policy approaches in response
to changing skill demands unique to specific sectors (mining in Southern and Central Africa,
digital skills in East Africa, renewable energies in North Africa and agri‑food in West Africa).

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Box 1.1. Defining and assessing skills in this report (continued)

Skill gaps refer to the mismatch between the skills offered by working‑age individuals and those
demanded within labour markets, both for formal and informal employment (OECD, 2017[13]).
Skill gaps thereby imply a lack of employability: once workers offer skills that are in demand,
they are more likely to find employment.
Several types of skills are relevant for productive employment:
• Foundational skills refer to the ability to process information. They include literacy and
numeracy, as well as basic proficiency in mathematics, reading comprehension, speaking
and writing (Gust, Hanushek and Woessmann, 2024[14]; OECD, 2019[15]).
• Soft skills encompass (OECD, 2019[15]):
oo socio‑emotional skills (e.g. self‑awareness, communication, leadership and teamwork)
oo transversal cognitive skills (e.g. critical and creative thinking, complex problem‑solving).

• Technical skills are the specialised knowledge and capabilities necessary to perform
job‑specific tasks (e.g. science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) skills,
repairs, maintenance, graphic design, drawing, food production).
Three domain‑specific skill sets that combine elements of soft and technical skills are core to
the productive transformation (ILO, 2021[16]; AfDB, 2020[17]; OECD, 2016[18]):
• Business and managerial skills are the competencies required to productively operate
functions within a firm (e.g. marketing, finance), while entrepreneurial skills further
include the ability to start and grow a business (e.g. business model design, fundraising)
(Conney, 2012[19]).
• Digital skills encompass skills that enable workers to use digital technologies productively.
They range from basic (e.g. Internet navigation, mobile communication) to intermediate
(e.g. use of spreadsheet and presentation software) and advanced (e.g. programming).
• Green skills refer to skills to develop or modify products, services or operations in response
to climate change (OECD/Cedefop, 2014[20]).

Africa’s youth seek high‑skilled occupations in the formal sector, but most employment
remains informal with limited potential for skills development and productivity. Human
capital and skills are foundational to economic development, provided labour markets
create quality jobs at scale (Box 1.2). While the number of African workers in high‑skilled
occupations has grown at an average annual rate of 3% over the last 20 years, enrolment
in tertiary education has grown by 5% annually. In addition, over 80% of African youth
in school aspire to work in high‑skilled occupations, while only 8% are able to find such
jobs (OECD, 2017[21]). Skill premiums (i.e. positive pay‑offs from investing time and money
into skills development) are generally more substantial in the formal sector and urban
areas, but only a limited number of such jobs are available. However, informal workers
– representing 82% of Africa’s workforce – often have fewer incentives to develop their
skills and are more likely to remain in low‑productivity, experience‑based jobs (Dimova,
Nordman and Roubaud, 2010[22]). In 2022, over one in four African youth were not in
employment, education or training (ILO, 2023[23]).

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Box 1.2. Supply of and demand for skills for productive employment in Africa

Skill supply is foundational to economic development. The value that labour adds to economic
production depends in large part on workers’ skills (i.e. task‑relevant abilities, knowledge and
competencies). Macroeconomic analysis reveals that foundational skills, which are relevant for
any employment and mostly attained in primary and secondary education, are highly correlated
with economic growth (Hanushek and Woessmann, 2015[24]). Africa’s gross domestic product
could increase more than 22‑fold, by about USD 154 trillion, before the end of the century – more
than any other world region – if all African children attained foundational skill levels (Gust,
Hanushek and Woessmann, 2024[14]). However, such macroeconomic modelling assumes that
the demand for foundational skills remains constant, meaning that an increase in skill supply
directly results in economic growth.

Figure 1.5. Potential economic gain from children’s achieving at least basic
proficiency in foundational skills in world regions by 2100
A. In trillion US dollars B. Multiple of 2019 gross domestic product
USD trillion Multiple of 2019 GDP
400 25 22.51
344
350
20
300
250 15
200 154
150 10 7.59 7.54
100 77
5
50
0 0
Africa Latin America and the Asia (no high-income Africa Latin America and the Asia (no high-income
Caribbean countries) Caribbean countries)

Note: A basic proficiency level in foundational skills corresponds to achieving an equivalent of Level 1 in mathematics
and science according to the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). At Level 1, students
can answer mathematics questions involving familiar contexts where all of the relevant information is present
and the questions are clearly defined. They are able to identify information and carry out routine procedures
according to direct instructions. They can only perform actions that are obvious and that follow immediately from
the given stimuli.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Gust, Hanushek and Woessmann (2024[14]), “Global universal basic skills:
Current deficits and implications for world development”, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103205 and OECD
(2019[25]), PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do, https://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2018-
results-volume-i-5f07c754-en.htm.
12 https://stat.link/a89mzh

Matching skill supply with skill demand is an imperfect process. Education levels provide an
incomplete approximation of skill supply, given that skill levels result from a combination of
education, training, on‑the‑job learning and other forms of self‑learning (McGrath, 2022[26];
AUC/OECD, 2018[27]). Skill supply is relatively inelastic, as skills represent an intangible resource
whose production depends on social and cognitive processes. Acquiring skills takes time, and
workers continue to obtain them while they perform jobs. Information asymmetries are large,
given that the specific skills demanded by a job and supplied by a worker are typically revealed
at the time that the work is being conducted. In addition, skills are not traded in isolation but
instead represent only one aspect of labour supply. Workers apply their skills within labour
relations for the benefit of employers (for employees) or clients (for self‑employment); these
relations are governed by informal and formal rules and regulations (such as social protection
and labour laws). Informal workers, especially, may have significant experience‑based skills
that are not recognised in the form of degrees (Dimova, Nordman and Roubaud, 2010[22]).

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Box 1.2. Supply of and demand for skills for productive employment in Africa
(continued)

The demand for skills is changing fast and is hard to measure or predict. Sources of new skill
demand typically arise from changing task profiles of existing occupations or emerging new
occupations. While it is apparent that technological shifts such as the digital revolution create
new skill demands, predicting or measuring the precise timing, location and nature of these
demands is difficult (ILO, 2021[16]). Particular new skill sets (like in artificial intelligence) may
unfold their value in combination with existing or other new skill sets (Stephany and Teutloff,
2024[28]).

The digital and green transitions offer new opportunities to increase productive
employment and to upskill workers. The digital revolution and climate change are
creating new skill demands in every African country, beyond country‑ and sector‑specific
developments. As the continent’s digitalisation advances, the demand for basic and
intermediate digital skills is growing fast (SAP, 2023[29]). Green skills are in high demand in
specific sectors such as renewable energy and construction. Their importance will widen
as countries adapt to the consequences of climate change (GCA, 2021[30]).
Skills development is at the core of the African Union’s efforts. The African Union’s
Agenda 2063 strives for “a prosperous continent … where […] well‑educated and skilled
citizens, underpinned by science, technology and innovation for a knowledge society
[are] the norm and no child misses school due to poverty or any form of discrimination”
(AUC, 2015[31]). Overarching African Union strategies, such as the Continental Education
Strategy for Africa and the Technical and Vocational Education Training Strategy,4
co‑ordinate policies of member states. Aligning education and training programmes with
labour market demands and industrialisation processes can help develop regional value
chains as part of the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area and the
continent’s overall productive transformation (AUC/OECD, 2022[32]).
The Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 report addresses the question of how African
policy makers can use skills development policies to advance the continent’s productive
and sustainable transformation. It emphasises the development of skills that are key
to improving Africa’s productivity and sustainable development within and through
employment, both informal and formal. The report assesses current and future skill gaps,
explicitly considering not just education and training (as instruments to increase skill
supply) but also the changing demand for skills. It emphasises sectors that are core to the
productive and sustainable transformation (e.g. renewable energy, the digital economy,
mining and agriculture) (Box 1.2).

Limited access to quality education, labour market divides and a slow

productive transformation curtail Africa’s skill supply and demand

Access to quality education and employment remains unequal between genders,

rural and urban populations, and informal and formal workers
Too many African children do not receive an education. Despite higher school enrolment
ratios, the total number of children who do not benefit from any formal education has
continued to increase due to the continent’s significant demographic growth. From 2009
to 2021, the number of out‑of‑school children aged between 6 and 18 increased by more

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1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

than 20 million, reaching about 100 million. More than 17 million additional teachers
are needed to respond to this unmet demand (UNESCO, 2022[33]; UNICEF/AUC, 2021[34]),
equivalent to a USD 41 billion funding gap for teacher salaries.5 Thirty‑eight per cent of
all youth and 11.5% of employed youth have never attended school, either due to limited
financial resources or because of the absence of a school nearby (Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[8]).
Structural challenges and the shock of the COVID‑19 pandemic have affected Africa’s
students, especially learners with low socio‑economic status. Prevalent challenges to
educational quality include a lack of basic and advanced pedagogical resources, deficits
in physical infrastructure, a shortage of qualified teachers and teacher absenteeism, as
well as limited access to pre‑primary education (Gruijters and Behrman, 2020[35]; PASEC,
2020[36]; OECD, 2017[13]; SACMEQ, 2017[37]). The COVID‑19 pandemic has set learning back
by about 0.5 to 2 years, hitting students with low socio‑economic status the hardest
(Moscoviz and Evans, 2022[38]; Kadzamira et al., 2021[39]).
Limited funds have resulted in fewer students attending resource‑intensive
educational programmes, such as STEM degrees. African policy makers and educational
institutions often have to choose between investing in inclusion or in selective excellence
in technical disciplines. Over 2015‑23, an average of 20% of African students enrolled in
tertiary education graduated with STEM degrees, compared to an average of about 25% in
developing Asia and high‑income countries.
More girls are out of school than boys, and rural children in general have less access
to education than those in urban areas. In large parts of Africa, the rate of out‑of‑school
primary‑aged children is 4.2 percentage points higher for girls than for boys (UNESCO,
2022[33]). Access to school infrastructure and services is also unequal between rural and
urban populations: children in rural areas benefit from, on average, 3.4 years less of
education than children in cities (Figure 1.6). The share of the population without any
formal education is 13% in urban areas, compared to 42% in rural areas (OECD/UNECA/
AfDB, 2022[40]).

Figure 1.6. Disparities in educational outcomes across genders and rural

and urban areas in Africa

Years of education (left-hand scale) Reading Mathematics

Years %
12 48
44
10 40
36
8 32
28
6 24
20
4 16
12
2 8
4
0 0
Girls Boys Rural Urban
Gender Location
Note: Data are drawn from surveys across 24 African countries for “Years of education” and 11 African countries for
“Reading” and “Mathematics” (lower secondary students achieving reading and mathematics assessments of increasing
difficulty) collected between 2017 and 2021.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[41]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.education-
inequalities.org/.
12 https://stat.link/ahboe4

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

Informal employment dominates in rural agriculture and urban services, and informal
female and male workers are concentrated in different sectors. Informal employment –
jobs that are not subject to national labour laws, income taxation or social protection
– is particularly prevalent in rural areas where it accounts for about 92% of Africa’s total
employment, compared to some 72% in urban areas. Over half of rural workers (around
57%) are involved in informal agricultural activities, while about 46% of urban workers are
informally employed in services (ILO, 2023[42]). Informal female workers tend to concentrate
in retail trade, hotels and restaurants, garments, health, education, and social services. In
contrast, informal male workers are more likely to work in agriculture, forestry and fishing,
construction, transport, manufacturing, or other industries (Carranza, Dhakal and Love,
2018[43]; AfDB/OECD/UNDP, 2017[44]). Labour productivity is lower for women‑owned than
for male‑owned informal firms, due to women’s more limited access to resources such as
education, managerial experience and capital (Islam and Amin, 2022[45]).
Gender and rural‑urban divides cause significant disparities in employment and
remuneration (Table 1.1). The share of workers in skilled occupations is around 27% among
men versus 15% among women, and 30% among urban inhabitants versus 13% among
rural inhabitants. These inequalities intersect, with less than 10% of rural women found
in skilled occupations compared to almost 45% of urban men (Figure 1.7). Women face
more significant barriers to skills development, as discriminatory gender norms often
restrict job opportunities and school or training attendance (ACET, 2022[46]; OECD, 2022[47]).
The gender pay gap is around 30% in most African countries (UN Women, 2022[48]). Hourly
wages in rural areas are only half of those in large cities (OECD/UNECA/AfDB, 2022[40]).

Figure 1.7. Disparities in skilled occupations across genders and rural

and urban areas in Africa
% of workers in skilled occupations
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Rural Urban Male Female Urban men Urban women Rural men Rural women
Total (weighted Location Gender Intersection
average)
Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) across 35 African
countries collected between 2010 and 2019. Occupational categories provided by DHS have been classified
into skilled/unskilled following OECD/UNECA/AfDB (2022[40]) methodology. Skilled occupations are defined as
professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work. Unskilled occupations are defined as sales,
agriculture, household and domestic work, services, and unskilled manual work.
Source: USAID/DHS (2023[49]), The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program (database), https://dhsprogram.com/.
12 https://stat.link/lb7d8z

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Table 1.1. Three salient labour market divides in Africa

Divide Effects on skill supply and demand
Gender divide • Social norms can prevent women from accessing education, employment and training opportunities. For instance,
households in Côte d’Ivoire and the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter, Tanzania) have higher educational
aspirations for boys than for girls and, in contexts of limited resources, tend to prioritise the education of the former
over that of the latter (OECD, 2022[47]; OECD, 2022[50]).
• Gender gaps in completion rates are increasing as children move to higher education levels. At the primary level, eight
countries achieve gender parity, while this number drops to five at the lower secondary level and to zero at the upper
secondary level (UNESCO/AU, 2023[51]).
• African women are 2.5 times more likely than men to contribute primarily to other family members’ livelihoods,
resulting in women’s more limited individual profits and reducing their access to training and apprenticeships (ILO,
2023[42]).
Rural‑urban divide • In most countries, a large gap exists between the participation rates and learning outcomes of children in urban areas
and their peers in rural areas. Children living in cities across 24 African countries benefit from 3.4 additional years of
education compared to rural children.
• Learning outcomes across 11 African countries are also better in urban areas, with around 40% of lower secondary
students achieving minimum proficiency in reading compared to less than 20% in rural areas (Figure 1.6).
• In rural areas, agriculture accounts for most employment opportunities (69%). The high informality rate (92%) affords
limited opportunities for skills development and contributes to low labour productivity.
• Urban workers can access a wider set of occupations with higher productivity and earning potential (e.g. in financial
services) (OECD/UNECA/AfDB, 2022[40]). While small in most African cities, the urban formal sector is able to absorb
highly educated workers and provide high skill premiums (Dimova, Nordman and Roubaud, 2010[22]).
Informal‑formal • Self‑employed informal workers are required to master a wide range of skills associated with running an informal
employment divide business (such as planning, delegating tasks, budgeting, pricing, handling sales and caring for customers) while
lacking access or time to engage in training.
• Over 70% of self‑employed workers in Côte d’Ivoire and Madagascar (of which over 85% are informal) do not keep
written accounts (OECD, 2017[52]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Africa’s slow productive transformation results in a growing informal labour

force and limited opportunities for highly skilled workers
As manufacturing is not the basis for most African countries’ productive transformation,
they could focus on other sectors to increase productivity and employment. Unlike
other world regions, Africa’s productive transformation – the reallocation of production
factors from low to high‑productivity economic activities – has not been based on the
growth of manufacturing (AUC/OECD, 2019[53]; AUC/OECD, 2018[27]; UNU‑WIDER, 2018[54]).
Manufacturing growth remains limited, employing about 8% of Africa’s workforce in
2022, compared to 12% in developing Asia and as much as 19% in the People’s Republic
of China (Newfarmer and Heitzig, 2023[55]). In the absence of a significant manufacturing
sector, African countries are restricted to identifying sectors to focus on, which, within
national contexts, promise to combine productivity potential with employment for many
(Rodrik and Stiglitz, 2024[56]).

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Figure 1.8. Value added per worker in major sectors in Africa, 2001‑21

Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing Construction Manufacturing

Other activities Transport, storage and communication Wholesale, retail trade, restaurants and hotels
Value added per worker (US dollar)
18 000
16 000
14 000
12 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Note: The “Mining and utilities” sector was omitted, due to value added being affected primarily by volatile global
commodity prices.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UN (2024[57]), National Accounts (database), https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama.
12 https://stat.link/pyl861

Skills development for agriculture and trade, accounting for half of Africa’s employment
growth, can increase productivity for millions of workers. The agriculture, forestry and
fishing sector remains the largest provider of employment in Africa, despite a decrease
in its share of total employment, from 57% to 48% between 2000 and 2021. In contrast,
wholesale and retail trade grew from about 19% to 24% of total employment over the same
period. Together, these two sectors account for about half of the jobs created over the last
two decades (Figure 1.8). Informal employment is prevalent, with vulnerable workers6
(self‑employed, or own‑account workers, and contributing family members) accounting
for 93% of the workforce in agriculture, forestry and fishing and 84% in wholesale and retail
trade (Figure 1.9). The two sectors also have the lowest education requirements (Figure 1.10).
While labour productivity is unlikely to rise drastically in these sectors, skills development
could achieve marginal productivity increases per worker, for a large labour force.
Figure 1.9. Evolution of employment by sector in Africa, 2001‑21
Number of jobs created (2001-21) Average % vulnerable employment (right-hand side)
Number of jobs %
100 000
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
Construction

Education
Agriculture, forestry and fishing

Real estate; business and

Public administration and defence,

Other services

Transport, storage and

Manufacturing

Accommodation and food service

Human health and social work

Mining and quarrying

Utilities

Financial and insurance activities

Wholesale and retail trade, repair of

administrative activities
motor vehicles and motorcycles

communication

compulsory social security

activities
activities

Note: “Number of jobs created” represents the difference in the absolute number of people employed in a sector in 2021
compared to 2000, based on estimates modelled by the International Labour Organization, covering 54 African countries.
“Average % vulnerable employment” refers to the percentage of self‑employed (own‑account) workers and contributing
family members in a given sector and is based on labour force statistics across 40 African countries (latest year available).
Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/dua84w

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Figure 1.10. Percentage of workers involved in low‑, medium‑ and high‑skilled

occupations by economic activity in Africa, 2021 or latest year

Skill level 1 (low) Skill level 2 (medium) Skill levels 3 and 4 (high)

Education
Human health and social work activities
Financial and insurance activities
Public administration and defence, compulsory social security
Real estate, business and administrative activities
Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles
Utilities
Accommodation and food service activities
Manufacturing
Other services
Mining and quarrying
Transport, storage and communication
Construction
Agriculture, forestry and fishing
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
Note: Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an occupation.
Skill level 1 (low) covers elementary occupations. Skill level 2 (medium) covers plant and machine operators and assemblers,
craft and related trades workers, skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, service and sales workers, and clerical
support workers. Skill levels 3 and 4 (high) cover technicians and associate professionals, professionals, and managers.
Data are based on labour force statistics across 31 African countries.
Source: ILOSTAT (2023[58]), ILO Labour Force Statistics (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/5ihb07

The share of informal employment is likely to remain far larger than the share of
formal employment, demanding a dedicated policy focus. The African continent has a
higher share of informal employment than any other world region: an estimated 82% of
all workers are informal, compared to 56% for Latin America and the Caribbean and 73%
for developing Asia. The share of youth not in employment, education or training across
12 African countries7 averages 7 percentage points higher for young people from fully
informal households (i.e. “households where all family members are working informally”)
than those from fully formal ones (OECD, 2024[59]). Despite wide‑ranging policy efforts to
increase the share of formal wage employment, the share of vulnerable workers among
the working population (used as an approximation of informal employment) has only
marginally decreased over the past 20 years (Figure 1.1, Panel A). Under current trends,
by 2040, vulnerable workers will continue to make up the majority of employment in
Africa (AUC/OECD, 2021[7]). Accordingly, while efforts to upgrade from informal to
formal employment remain necessary, addressing skill gaps, low productivity and
inter‑generational social mobility of informal workers requires dedicated policy responses.
Informal workers face barriers to skills development such as little education, limited
resources and inaccessible professional training (OECD, 2024[59]). Acquiring skills seems
linked more directly with growth, productivity and innovation in the informal than in the
formal sector (Adams, Johansson de Silva and Razmara, 2013[60]). Nevertheless, in practice,
informal workers are far less likely to access education and training. In 2019, roughly 68%
of informal workers in Africa had completed only primary or no education, compared to
26% of workers in formal employment. The proportion of women in informal employment
with no formal education was 14.3 percentage points higher than the corresponding
proportion among men (ILO, 2023[42]). Fewer financial resources and lower educational
levels limit the propensity to access formal training programmes and acquire additional
skills (Aleksynska and Kolev, 2021[11]). Data across ten African countries indicate that
43% to 68% of workers in informal employment earn less than half the median national
earnings (OECD, 2024[59]). Evidence across eight African countries shows that less than
5% of surveyed informal workers participate in job‑related professional training over the

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 1. Skills development for Africa’s productive transformation

course of a year. Depending on the country, this rate is 3 to 15 times lower than for formal
workers (ILO, 2023[61]). In Ghana and Tanzania, around 90% of vocational training or skills
development programme beneficiaries are formal workers (OECD, 2024[59]).
Due to limited formal job opportunities, employees are more likely than self‑employed
workers to be overeducated and over‑skilled. The scarcity of formal job opportunities
implies that, in comparison to informal workers, formal workers are more likely to accept
positions for which they are overeducated (Aleksynska and Kolev, 2021[11]). Forty‑one per
cent of African employees hold an occupation matching their education level, compared
to 49% in developing Asia and 57% in Latin America and the Caribbean (Figure 1.11). While
undereducation remains the prevalent form of mismatch for employees, 16% of them are
overeducated for their position, compared to only 7% of self‑employed workers. In contrast,
about 68% of self‑employed workers in Africa (mostly informal) are underqualified for
their occupation, compared to 52% in developing Asia and 38% in Latin America and the
Caribbean.

Figure 1.11. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation, by world region, 2022 or latest year available

Matched Undereducated Overeducated

Employees
Africa

Self-employed
high-income

Employees
Caribbean countries)
High-income America and Asia (no

Self-employed

Employees
Latin

the

Self-employed
countries (no

Employees
LAC)

Self-employed

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. (Mis)matches are assessed through the normative approach by comparing
educational requirements set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) for each one‑digit ISCO
occupational group with the level of education of each person in employment. Calculations are based on data collected
in national labour force statistics or other nationally representative household surveys with a module on employment.
Coverage includes 39 countries from Africa, 22 countries from developing Asia, 24 countries from Latin America and the
Caribbean and 37 high‑income countries.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023[62]), ILO Education and Mismatch Indicators (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/ylm6q4

Highly skilled workers and students tend to move out of Africa, suggesting greater
professional and educational opportunities abroad. Low‑skilled migrants from African
countries mostly remain within the continent, with skills development figuring as only
one out of a range of factors underlying migration decisions (Annex 1.A). For highly skilled
migrants, skill‑based employment opportunities represent a more important factor. In
2020, 74% of highly educated migrant workers opted to move to another continent;8 the vast
majority (98%) chose high‑income countries as a destination (i.e. a total of 72% of all highly
educated migrants). East Africa has experienced the highest outflow of highly educated
workers of all African regions. Forty‑seven per cent of tertiary‑educated individuals born
in East Africa resided abroad in 2020, of which 53% had moved to high‑income countries
and 46% to another African country. Close to 600 000 African students in tertiary education

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(3.3% of all tertiary‑level students) left to pursue their studies in another country in 2021.
This rate is greater than in developing Asia (1.8%) and Latin America and the Caribbean
(1%).9 LinkedIn data reveal that employees with skills in advanced technologies (such
as mobile application development or artificial intelligence) and working in globalised
professional industries (e.g. higher education, research or computer software) migrate out
of the continent, likely due to better pay and career opportunities. Conversely, African
employees with managerial or common technological skills are more likely to move to
other African countries (World Bank, 2023[63]).

Figure 1.12. Net international migration of African LinkedIn users by top five
and bottom five skills and industries, 2015‑19
A. Skills B. Industries

Social media International trade and development

Research Renewables and environment

Graphic design Entertainment

Employee learning and development Government relations

Leadership Farming

Human-computer interaction Higher education

Mobile application development Investment management

Mathematics Computer software

Signal processing Research

Artificial intelligence Staffing and recruiting

-700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Net gain or loss of LinkedIn members (per 10 000) Net gain or loss of LinkedIn members (per 10 000)
Note: Figures indicate the net gain or loss of LinkedIn members from or to another country who indicated an industry or a
skill on their profiles, divided by the number of LinkedIn users indicating the same industry/skill in a given African country,
multiplied by 10 000. Average values shown are for 2015‑19 as the latest years for which data are available. “Military” was
omitted from “Industries” analysis due to data only being available for Nigeria.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on World Bank (2023[63]), Skills | LinkedIn Data (database), https://datacatalog.worldbank.
org/search/dataset/0038027/Skills---LinkedIn-Data-.
12 https://stat.link/jp1suw

As African economies diversify, workers need more soft, business and

sector-specific technical skills to increase productivity and technology
adoption
Agrarian and diversifying African economies require different skills. As economies
industrialise and diversify, they produce more sophisticated outputs, thus relying on
wider sets of skills and higher skill levels (Lo Turco and Maggioni, 2022[65]; WTO/ILO,
2017[66]). The present analysis explains the importance of skills in an economy by mapping
occupations onto the skills required to perform them, using O*Net, an occupation‑skills
database developed in the United States. Despite its limitations, this approach is useful
for broad‑based comparative analysis of skill requirements across African countries
(Annex 1.B). Two groups, each composed of 5 African countries, represent the least and
most diversified occupational structures in the dataset of 31 African countries (Figure 1.13):
• Agrarian economies include Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR
Congo), Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda. In these countries, over 60% of workers
are involved in the agriculture, forestry and fishery sector. These economies are all
least developed countries.

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• Diversifying economies include Egypt, Eswatini, Mauritius, Senegal and Tunisia.

These countries have the lowest share of workers involved in elementary
occupations10 or agriculture, forestry and fishery. They demonstrate productive
transformation levels that are higher than Africa’s average (ACET, 2023[67]), and they
have the highest levels of industrial development on the continent (AfDB/AUC/
UNIDO, 2022[68]).

Figure 1.13. Labour force breakdown by occupation in selected African countries,

2021 or latest year available

Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers Elementary occupations Service and sales workers
Craft and related trades workers Plant and machine operators and assemblers Professionals
% Technicians and associate professionals Clerical support workers Managers
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Senegal
Tunisia

Egypt

DR Congo

Mozambique

Uganda

Asia (no high-income

High-income countries (no

Mauritius

Burundi

Tanzania
Eswatini

Africa

countries)

LAC)
Diversifying economies Agrarian economies Regional weighted averages
Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Regional averages are weighted by the number of workers surveyed by
country. Thirty‑one countries are covered for Africa, 20 countries for developing Asia and 37 high‑income countries
(no LAC).
Source: ILOSTAT (2023[58]), ILO Labour Force Statistics (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/3zo94h

Foundational and soft skills enable Africans to earn more, be more productive
and acquire complementary skills, especially in diversifying economies
Foundational and soft skills increase in importance as African countries diversify,
often matching or surpassing technical skill requirements. Skill requirements and gaps for
different types of skills vary across African countries and sectors (Table 1.2). On average,
on a 100‑point scale, foundational and soft skill requirements are 3.8 points higher in
the most diversified African economies than in those relying primarily on agricultural
employment (Figure 1.14). Nationally representative surveys of formal and informal
firms employing youth in Benin, Liberia, Malawi and Zambia suggest that these skills
matter at least as much as technical skills for hiring decisions (Arias, Evans and Santos,
2019[69]; Cunningham and Villasenor, 2014[70]). Similarly, basic digital skills and soft skills
like analytical thinking, creativity, curiosity, leadership, resilience and self‑awareness
rank among the top reskilling and upskilling priorities for 2023‑24 across world regions,
especially in Africa (WEF, 2023[71]). According to a study of employers across six African
countries,11 almost 40% of students graduating from secondary school would require
additional training in communication skills, 15‑20% in social and leadership skills and
about 11% in analytical and problem‑solving skills (ACET, 2023[72]).

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Table 1.2. Policy priorities for reducing skill gaps in Africa

Priorities Skill gaps Evidence
1. Foundational and Foundational and soft skills • Weak foundational and soft skills lessen the gains from technical training (Levin
soft skills strongly influence a worker’s et al., 2023[73]). For instance, a study from Tanzania found that science‑oriented and
ability to accumulate other types problem‑solving skills were the most sought‑after by employers in agriculture and
of skills later. required students in technical and vocational education and training to have solid
foundational and soft skills (Takei, 2016[74]).
2. Managerial and Missing managerial and • Employers across nine African countries indicated that the need for training for
entrepreneurial entrepreneurial skills impede the administrative and managerial skills trumped that for technical and digital skills.
skills growth and productivity of large Administrative and managerial skills were also most commonly identified as lacking
and small businesses. by unemployed workers (ILO, 2022[75]).
3. Technical skills Job‑specific and technical • Employer surveys across six African countries show that almost 50% of students
based on demand knowledge is required for graduating from secondary school do not possess adequate technical skills and would
from local industries competitiveness and productivity. need to be retrained on the job (ACET, 2023[67]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Figure 1.14. Importance of foundational and soft skills in selected agrarian

and diversifying African economies and other world regions

Agrarian African economies Diversifying African economies

Asia (no high-income countries) High-income countries (no LAC)
Weighted skill importance scores
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
Active learning
Monitoring

Persuasion
Writing

Mathematics

Instructing

Negotiation
Critical thinking
Speaking

Complex problem-solving
Co-ordination

Service orientation
Reading comprehension

Active listening

Social perceptiveness

Judgment and decision-making

Learning strategies

Foundational skills Soft skills

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. “Weighted skill importance scores” (from 0 to 100) indicate the average
importance of a specific skill to fulfil the tasks and duties across occupations present in the economies considered, weighted
by the share of workers employed in each type of occupation at the International Standard Classification of Occupations
two‑digit level. These scores are matched with occupational data from national labour force statistics from countries for
which data are available (see Annex 1.B).
Source: Authors’ calculation based on ILOSTAT (2023[58]), ILO Labour Force Statistics (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/ and O*NET
OnLine (2023[76]), O*NET Data (database), https://www.onetonline.org.
12 https://stat.link/k4vyic

African workers with higher foundational and soft skills earn more and are more
productive. For instance, in Ghana and Kenya, comparable surveys show that literate
workers earn a wage premium of about 30%. In manufacturing, evidence from over 7 600
firms across 27 African countries shows that a 10 percentage point increase in the share
of employees with high school and university degrees (a proxy of foundational and soft
skills) is associated with an increase in average firm productivity (sales per worker) by
4.2% and 4.8%, respectively (Okumu and Mawejje, 2020[77]).
Higher foundational and soft skills also improve workers’ capacity to acquire new skills.
Farmers’ skills explain 12‑17% of variation in maize yields in Kenya, with foundational
and soft skills strongly influencing their ability to accumulate technical skills (Laajaj and

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Macours, 2017[78]). In Malawi, farmers with soft skills (such as perseverance) were more
likely to adopt new cash crops and acquire technical knowledge (Montalvao et al., 2017[79]).
A cross‑country study based on income and educational attainment data of workers across
sectors in Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania showed that productivity returns to
additional education or training were higher when workers had better foundational skills
(Fasih et al., 2012[80]).

Technical skills are needed to support growth and productivity in dynamic

sectors
STEM skills can help develop technology‑intensive value chains, but Africa has
low numbers of STEM graduates and engineering professionals. Skills in mathematics,
engineering and technology, computer and electronics, and design are on average 4.7 points
more important in diversifying African economies than in agrarian ones (Figure 1.15).
Workers with STEM skills can support the development of technology‑intensive value
chains such as automotive, electronics, solar panels, pharmaceuticals and medical devices,
and mining (UNCTAD, 2023[81]; Dugbazah et al., 2021[82]). Yet, the rate of STEM tertiary
education graduates varies widely across Africa, with only Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritius
and Morocco showing STEM graduation rates of above 20%, coupled with large overall
tertiary enrolment (Figure 1.16). African countries have a limited number of engineering
professionals per capita, ranging from 540 practitioners per 100 000 inhabitants in the
Seychelles to less than 45 in the DR Congo, Madagascar, Malawi and Mozambique. This
compares to 1 160 engineering professionals in the United Kingdom and 850 in the United
States (UNESCO/ICEE, 2021[83]; SADC, 2018[84]).

Figure 1.15. Importance of business and managerial skills and technical skills
in selected agrarian and diversifying African economies and other world regions

Agrarian African economies Diversifying African economies

Asia (no high-income countries) High-income countries (no LAC)
Weighted skill importance scores
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Design
Transportation

Physics
Sales and marketing

Mathematics

Geography

Food production
Mechanical
Finance and accounting

Biology
Customer and personal service

Computers and electronics

Engineering and technology

Administration and management

Administrative

Personnel and human resources

Production and processing

Business and managerial skills Technical skills

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Weighted skill importance scores (from 0 to 100) indicate the average
importance of a specific skill to fulfil the tasks and duties across occupations present in the economies considered, weighted
by the share of workers employed in each type of occupation at the International Standard Classification of Occupations
two‑digit level. These scores are matched with occupational data from national labour force statistics from countries for
which data are available (see Annex 1.A).
Source: Authors’ calculation based on ILOSTAT (2023[58]), ILO Labour Force Statistics (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/ and O*NET
OnLine (2023[76]), O*NET Data (database), https://www.onetonline.org.
12 https://stat.link/3dq8bz

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Figure 1.16. Percentage of tertiary education graduates from programmes in science,

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and gross tertiary enrolment rates
in African countries, average 2015‑23

Graduates from STEM programmes in tertiary education (%) Gross tertiary enrolment rate (%)

%
50

40

30

20

10

Note: Gross enrolment rates represent total enrolment in tertiary education (ISCED 5 to 8), expressed as a percentage of the
total population of the five‑year age group following on from secondary school leaving.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[85]), UIS Stat (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org/.
12 https://stat.link/yf06cr

Improving agricultural productivity and enhancing agro‑processing hinge on technical

skills. As would be expected, on average, technical skills in food production, mechanics,
biology and geography are more important in agrarian than in diversifying economies
(Figure 1.16). According to a survey of over 200 African technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) stakeholders (mostly government bodies and TVET providers),
agriculture represents the sector with the greatest need for new technical qualifications
(Allais, 2023[86]). Research on Rwanda’s agri‑food systems finds skill gaps in crop planting
techniques, harvest and post‑harvest, and knowledge of and compliance with standards
in food processing and conditioning (PSF, 2021[87]). In Ethiopia, 80% of surveyed firms stress
the need for technical skills to support the development of agro‑processing activities in
edible oil, poultry, floriculture, and fruits and vegetables (ILO, 2021[88]). In North Africa,
increased consumption of processed food products is driving demand for skills in baking,
cheesemaking, fruit drying, gastronomy, pastry making, and the packaging of ready‑to‑eat
products (OECD, 2023[89]; OECD et al., 2021[90]).

Closing managerial and entrepreneurial skill gaps can increase labour productivity
and technology adoption
Business and managerial skills are key to increasing firm productivity and encouraging
the adoption of technology across sectors. While skills in administrative functions are
more important in diversifying than in agrarian African economies (by about 9.6 points),
other business and managerial skills, such as sales, marketing, finance and accounting,
are equally important in both types of economies (Figure 1.15). Currently, managerial skills
are often missing in African countries compared to other world regions, lowering firm
performance (Lemos and Daniela, 2015[91]). For instance, research across 200 manufacturing
firms in Zambia demonstrated that quality managerial practices significantly improved
firm productivity and profitability (Grayson, Nyamazana and Funkila‑Mulenga, 2016[92]).
Cross‑country surveys on firm‑level adoption of technology show that firms using more
sophisticated technologies require more managers with advanced degrees. However,

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the same data also highlight the relative scarcity of better‑trained managers in Africa,
impeding technology adoption (Begazo, Blimpo and Dutz, 2023[93]).
Informal entrepreneurs often struggle to master the range of skills needed to run their
businesses. Africa has the highest share of adults in the process of starting or running
new businesses of all world regions (OECD/AfDB/UNDP, 2017[94]). A range of skills – from
project planning to delegation of tasks and sales – are important for entrepreneurs to be
able to grow their businesses but are often missing for informal enterprises in developing
countries (Magidi and Mahiya, 2021[95]). For instance, over 70% of self‑employed workers
in Côte d’Ivoire and Madagascar (of which over 85% are informal) do not keep written
accounts (OECD, 2017[52]). Similarly, surveys across seven African capital cities showed
that the share of informal business owners preparing a profit and loss statement at least
once a year varies from around 40% in Khartoum (Sudan) and Mogadishu (Somalia) to less
than 10% in Maputo (Mozambique) (World Bank, 2023[96]).

Digital skills are in demand across the continent, while the need for green
skills will increase with climate challenges
The digital and green transitions represent unique opportunities for skills development
in African countries and make it an urgent priority. With the digital revolution and climate
change, African countries are facing two fundamental transformations that require them
to equip their workforce with digital and green skills. These transitions have generated
new job opportunities and are also reshaping the future of work and, with it, the demand
for and supply of skills (Nedelkoska and Quintini, 2018[97]).

Basic and intermediate digital skills are in high demand across African countries,
while the demand for and supply of advanced digital skills remain scarce
Digital skills refer to abilities to productively use digital technologies, such as the
Internet, software applications, smartphones and computers. They can be categorised
into three levels of sophistication: basic, intermediate and advanced (Table 1.3). In African
countries, the demand for and supply of skills are diverse, with each country having
unique challenges and strengths (Chapter 5).
Digital infrastructure has improved across the continent, but Internet connections
remain slow or inaccessible in many parts of Africa. Adequate and reliable Internet access
is fundamental for the digital sector and digital skills development (World Bank, 2020[98]).
It can also support innovative approaches to education, such as online learning (Box 1.3).
Africa’s Internet penetration has more than doubled since 2015 and increased fivefold
since 2010.12 Despite these improvements, in 2016‑18, only 28% of Africa’s population
had Internet access, compared to 58% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 41% in
developing Asia. Similarly, broadband Internet speeds are still slow. In January 2024,
the average download speed was 23 megabits per second (Mbps) in Africa, compared to
78 Mbps in Latin America and the Caribbean and 54 Mbps in developing Asia.13

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Table 1.3. Demand for and supply of digital skills across Africa
Basic digital skills Intermediate digital skills Advanced digital skills
(e.g. smartphone use, e‑mail, basic file (e.g. use of multiple devices, e‑commerce (e.g. web design, programming,
management, web browsing, mobile and financial software, professional social AI development, data science)
communication) media, data entry and management)
Demand Very large demand Large demand Emerging demand
70% of demand for digital skills is expected to be 23% of demand for digital skills is While AI markets are more mature in
for basic digital skills by 2030 expected to be for intermediate skills by high‑income economies, some African
(World Bank, 2021[99]). 2030 (World Bank, 2021[99]). countries are emerging as regional
AI leaders (World Bank, 2021[99]).
Supply Growing supply Limited supply Scarce supply
26.4% of the African population knows how to 5% of the young population possesses Africa comprises only 1.3% of global
use a mobile money account. Across 15 African intermediate digital skills across users of GitHub – a widely used
countries, 9% of the young population possesses 15 African countries (Authors’ calculation platform for program developers
basic digital skills (Authors’ calculations based on based on UNICEF (2022[101])). (OECD et al., 2021[90]).
World Bank (2021[100]); and UNICEF (2022[101])).
Note: AI – artificial intelligence.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Box 1.3. Massive open online courses and e‑learning in Africa

Online learning increasingly offers an alternative to traditional education in Africa. The

continent’s demand for online learning is on the rise. The percentage of users within the total
population is estimated to increase from 1.5% in 2024 to 1.8% by 2028, reaching 25 million users by
2028 (Statista, 2023[102]). Massive open online courses (MOOCs) provide digital access to learning
content and materials offered from anywhere in the world. MOOCs thereby have the potential
to address some of the shortcomings in African education, such as overcrowded classrooms,
missing infrastructure and high costs of education (Ochieng’, Mutisya and Thiong’o, 2022[103]).
While there is a strong demand for MOOCs in Africa, the number of African MOOCs remains
low. In 2015, Africans took 13% to 20% of MOOCs offered by the Francophone University Agency
(AUF) – a global leading association of higher education institutions (Rimondi, 2015[104]). However,
the continent designs and produces a small percentage of the world’s MOOCs: 98% of existing
MOOCs were produced mainly by public or private universities in high‑income countries
(Elongué, 2021[105]).
Civil society is offering solutions to meet the growing demand for e‑learning. Start‑ups
increasingly supply e‑learning, in the form of courses delivered through community‑based
mobile applications and online platforms, especially in East Africa (AU‑Startups, 2023[106]). In the
most rural areas of Uganda, where Internet‑based education is not possible, distance learning
has developed through sponsored educational radio broadcasts by local non‑governmental
organisations (Vincent‑Lancrin, Cobo Romaní and Reimers, 2022[107]).

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Surveys show large gaps in the supply of digital skills across the continent, sometimes
forcing employers to recruit internationally. Recent surveys of employees and employers
led in nine African countries indicate both an increasing demand for and a short supply
of digital skills, especially in high‑skilled occupations (ILO, 2022[75]). In Ghana, the supply
gap for digital skills is driving employers to recruit internationally. Survey findings from
2019 show that nearly 20% of surveyed Ghanaian companies recruit employees with
digital skills only internationally, and of these, nearly 70% do so because they cannot
find skilled local talent (IFC, 2019[108]). In another survey, companies in Kenya, Nigeria and
South Africa identified the limited availability of skills as a major challenge, with 97% of
firms stating that they expected to have difficulties in recruiting and retaining skilled
digital workers (SAP, 2023[29]).
The demand for basic digital skills in Africa is on the rise. The COVID‑19 pandemic
has accelerated the need for basic digital skills, as firms were pushed to digitalise their
operations (AUC/OECD, 2021[7]). Even after the pandemic, the number of jobs requiring
the performance of digital tasks will continue to grow quickly. By 2030, 70% of this new
demand across much of the continent will be for basic digital skills (World Bank, 2021[99]).
In countries leading Africa’s digital transformation, like Kenya, by 2030, 50‑55% of all jobs
(or 21 million workers) may require basic digital skills, driven by the expansion of the
domestic digital sector and start‑up ecosystem. In economies less reliant on the digital
sector such as Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria and Rwanda, 35% to 45% of jobs are expected to
require basic digital skills. Among the jobs requiring basic digital skills in 2030, 54% will
be in services, 35% in agriculture and 11% in industry (Figure 1.17).
The demand for intermediate and advanced digital skills is growing across all sectors,
particularly in services. Intermediate digital skills enable the use of digital technology for
task‑oriented purposes and for specific occupations and professions. In 2022, 93% of firms
in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa reported that the need for intermediate digital skills
had increased over the past 12 months, with not one participating enterprise indicating
that the need had decreased (SAP, 2023[29]). By 2030, most of the jobs needing intermediate
and advanced digital skills will be in the service sector (Figure 1.17).

Figure 1.17. Jobs requiring digital skills in 2030 in five African countries, by skill level

Services Agriculture Industry

Millions
40

35 11%

30
35%
25

20
8%
15 16%

10 54%
77%
5

0 88%
Basic Intermediate Advanced
Note: Data cover Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Rwanda.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2021[99]), Demand for Digital Skills in Sub‑Saharan Africa, https://www.datocms-
assets.com/37703/1623797656-demand-for-digital-skills-in-sub-saharan-africa.pdf.
12 https://stat.link/jgkp16

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The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) is beginning to increase the demand for
advanced digital skills in Africa. Technological progress in automation, robotics, artificial
intelligence (AI) and biotechnology is poised to redefine labour markets globally. While
so far the 4IR is predominantly affecting high‑income countries, digital skill demand in
Africa is increasing through online labour (Box 1.4). African firms have accelerated their
adoption of AI in recent years (PCNS, 2023[109]), increasing the demand for AI skills. In a
survey of representatives of UNESCO’s 32 African member states, 27 out of 32 declared that
updating education, skills and training systems for imparting AI skills and knowledge is
a priority (UNESCO, 2021[110]). Currently, however, there are significant differences in AI
adoption across countries (Figure 1.18). In the 2023, AI Readiness Index, Africa has an
average score of 31.6. For comparison, the first country in the global ranking is the United
States, with 84.8 points, and at the bottom stands North Korea, with 9.2 points.

Figure 1.18. Differences in adoption of artificial intelligence across African countries

and other world regions
Global AI Readiness Index
60

50

40

30

20

10

Source: Authors’ calculations based on Oxford Insights (2023[111]), Government AI Readiness Index (database), https://oxfordinsights.
com/ai-readiness/ai-readiness-index/.
12 https://stat.link/nk2m6i

Box 1.4. The artificial intelligence revolution and online labour

Some African countries contribute significantly to the global supply of online labour. African
online workers can benefit from the globally rising demand for digital tasks. With 70% of online
workers being software developers, Africa was supplying 5.5% of the world’s online labour force
in 2020, lower than the 65.5% in developing Asia, but above the 3.5% in Latin America and the
Caribbean.14 However, African online workers represented less than 0.1% of the continent’s
overall labour force in 2020, despite differences across African countries (Figure 1.19).
Artificial intelligence can improve online workers’ productivity. Recent studies have found that
AI can increase the productivity of online digital workers by cutting routine tasks. A randomised
controlled trial of 640 Kenyan micro, small and medium‑sized enterprises found that
business owners could benefit from conversations with the chatbot GPT‑4 (Otis et al., 2023[112]).

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Box 1.4. The artificial intelligence revolution and online labour (continued)

In the Philippines, using GPT‑4, low‑skilled online workers increased their productivity by 34%
and average skilled workers by 14%, while the most skilled showed only negligible improvements
(Brynjolfsson, Li and Raymond, 2023[113]). Together, these findings suggest that generative AI
could boost productivity, especially that of low‑skilled, vulnerable African online workers, given
that it does not require new infrastructure and is intuitive to use.

Figure 1.19. Shares of online workers across selected African countries, 2020

Share of the labour force who are online workers (left) Country share of all online workers in world (right)
% %
0.7 3.5

0.6 3.0

0.5 2.5

0.4 2.0

0.3 1.5

0.2 1.0

0.1 0.5

0 0.0

Source: Authors’ calculations based on Kässi, Lehdonvirta and Stephany (2021[114]), “How many online workers are
there in the world? A data‑driven assessment”, https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.13639.4 and Stephany et al.
(2021[115]), “Online Labour Index 2020: New ways to measure the world’s remote freelancing market”, https://doi.
org/10.1177/20539517211043240.
12 https://stat.link/1x30h6

Africans’ basic digital skills vary, and intermediate and advanced digital skills remain
scarce. On average across 30 African countries, 26.4% of the population knows how to
use a mobile money account without any help compared to 16% in Latin America and
the Caribbean and 11% in developing Asia and at a global level (World Bank, 2021[100]).15
However, computer skills (a subset of all digital skills) are scarcer (Figure 1.20). Currently,
only 9% of the population aged 15‑24 in 15 African countries for which data are available
possesses at least basic computer skills – 10% of the male workforce and 7% of the female
workforce. Only 1% of the young population in Chad and 2% in the Central African Republic
have basic computer skills, while the figure reaches 33% in Tunisia. Intermediate computer
skills are scarcer, remaining below 13% in all countries for which data are available, except
for Tunisia, Algeria and Zimbabwe (23%, 19% and 17%, respectively). While growing,
advanced computer skills remain limited: 2% of workers have programming skills. Only
1.3% of global users of GitHub – a widely used platform for program developers – reside in
Africa, compared to 37% for Europe and 23% for Asia (OECD et al., 2021[90]).

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Figure 1.20. Computer skill differences among 15‑24 year olds by gender
in selected African countries

Basic skills (female) Intermediate skills (female) Advanced skills (female)

Basic skills (male) Intermediate skills (male) Advanced skills (male)

%
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female

Female
Male

Male

Female

Female
Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Male

Female

Male
Tunisia Algeria Zimbabwe São Tomé Gambia Lesotho DR Congo Guinea Madagascar Malawi Ghana Central Togo Chad Sierra
and Bissau African Leone
Príncipe Republic

Note: Percentage of people aged 15‑24 who used at least one of nine computer skills in the three months leading up to the
survey. Basic skills: copied or moved a file or folder; used a copy and paste tool to duplicate or move information within
a document; sent an e‑mail with an attached file. Intermediate skills: used a basic arithmetic formula in a spreadsheet;
downloaded and configured software; created an electronic presentation; connected and installed a new device, such as a
modem or printer; transferred a file between a computer and another device. Advanced skills: wrote a computer program
in any programming language. See UNICEF (2022[101]).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNICEF (2022[101]), UNICEF Global Database on Information and Communications Technology
(ICT) Skills (database), https://data.unicef.org/.
12 https://stat.link/s156wb

Addressing climate change can create jobs and raise Africa’s productivity in key
sectors, but more green skills are needed
Mitigating and adapting to climate change can create jobs that require new skills.
Producing less than 4% of global greenhouse gas emissions created by human activity,
Africa is the world region that contributes the least to climate change; yet it is the
most vulnerable and most exposed to its consequences (IPCC, 2022[116]). In 2022, climate
and water‑related hazards in Africa caused more than USD 8.5 billion in economic
damages (WMO, 2023[117]). Notwithstanding, a green transition could create job and
growth opportunities in Africa. Climate change mitigation efforts, such as the move
towards renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure, could generate over 9 million
job opportunities from 2019 to 2030 and a further 3 million jobs by 2050 (IRENA/AfDB,
2022[118]). Adaptation measures, including improved climate literacy and climate‑smart
agriculture, can increase productivity and provide additional employment opportunities
(IPCC, 2022[116]; Williams et al., 2021[119]). These transformations not only create new jobs,
they also change existing ones and demand new soft and technical skill sets (ILO, 2015[120]).
Adopting new skilled practices will allow agricultural workers to better respond
to climate change and boost productivity. Agriculture is the sector with the greatest
need for new technical qualifications and complementary green skills (Allais, 2023[86]).
Innovative green agriculture techniques require a workforce equipped with skills to
mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Green solutions for agriculture
should be based on climate‑smart agricultural practices that address climate change and
food security. Examples of these practices are diversifying crops, advancing agriculture
through technology (agri‑tech) and reducing emissions from farming practices through
agroforestry (Williams et al., 2021[119]). Adopting such agricultural practices can boost
productivity and contribute to the sustainability of land use. For instance, in East and

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Southern Africa, agricultural productivity could double or triple if better farm inputs
and production technologies were adopted, water and soil resources were used more
efficiently, and natural capital and ecosystems were restored (World Bank, 2022[121]).
Climate change literacy remains limited. Climate change literacy involves
understanding both climate change and its human‑caused origins, forming the basis
for informed actions in both mitigation and adaptation (Simpson et al., 2021[122]). While
about six in ten Africans (58%) have heard of climate change, only one in four (28%) also
understands it to have negative consequences and recognises it as caused in part by
human activity. Groups that are less familiar with the concept of climate change include
rural residents, women, the poor and the less educated, as well as people who work in
agriculture. Countries such as Liberia, Niger and Sudan are among the most vulnerable
to climate change while showing some of the lowest levels of climate change awareness
(Selormey et al., 2019[123]).
The renewable energy sector has strong job creation potential, but the lack of clean
energy skills is hindering its growth. In 2020, renewable energies, such as of hydro,
geothermal, solar and wind power, accounted for over 55% of the total primary energy
supply in 34 African countries (OECD, 2023[124]). Transitioning jobs from fossil fuel to clean
energy sectors is already happening in Africa. Between 2019 and 2022, around 400 000 clean
energy jobs were created in the continent, while around 200 000 jobs in fossil fuels
disappeared. Yet, skilled labour shortages have limited the economic gains of the
renewable energy sector. An important reason is its demand for highly skilled workers,
which is higher than that of any other industry in the economy. Thirty‑six per cent of
the global energy workforce typically requires some form of tertiary education, and
51% vocational training. Many key shortages in skilled labour in the clean energy sector
are found in vocational roles. These mid‑skilled roles often require specialised training
beyond typical energy‑related jobs. For instance, heating, ventilation and air conditioning
specialists may need to retrain for heat pump installation, while electricians may require
training in battery or solar installation (IEA, 2023[125]).
Jobs in infrastructure and construction need green skills, and African cities offer a
skilled workforce. Infrastructure is responsible for 79% of all greenhouse gas emissions
and 88% of all adaptation costs (Thacker et al., 2021[126]). Resource‑efficient buildings can
reduce the negative impacts of climate change. Since 80% of the buildings that will exist
in 2050 in Africa are yet to be built (World Green Building Council, 2023[127]), construction
skills should focus on such green buildings. Africa already has skilled construction
workers in cities; it has a greater availability of skilled labour in the construction sector
than in other world regions. Of the 9 African cities in a global survey of 89 large cities,
6 had a surplus of skilled construction workers, while only 2 had skill shortages. This
stands against a global skill shortage rate of 74% (Turner & Townsend, 2023[128]).16
Africa’s waste management sector is poised to grow – creating new jobs. Efficient
recycling and waste management practices are needed to minimise environmental
pollution. An estimated 70‑80% of municipal solid waste generated in Africa is recyclable,
while only 4% is recycled (UNEP, 2020[129]). Rapid urbanisation and buoyant economic
activity further increase the need for recycling and waste‑to‑energy activities, with the
continent’s waste management sector projected to grow at an annual rate of 5% by 2029
(Mordor Intelligence, 2023[130]). Similarly, the circular economy can generate numerous
additional economic opportunities in this sector and beyond (Never, 2023[131]).

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Annex 1.A. The nexus of migration and skills in Africa

African workers who migrate to other African countries tend to be low‑educated and
migrate for higher pay. International migration decisions are complex, being influenced
by factors such as demographic, sociocultural, political, environmental and economic
conditions in the migrant’s home country (push factors) and destination country (pull
factors). A key motivation for African workers’ migrating is the prospect of higher earnings
abroad (De Vreyer, Gubert and Roubaud, 2010[132]). Rural, low‑skilled Africans often move to
nearby countries, due to labour demand in sectors such as construction, private household
services and trade, and seasonal agriculture, while keeping migration costs low (OECD/
ILO, 2017[133]; Mercandalli, 2017[134]). In 2020, more than half (57%) of African migrants with
secondary education or less moved within the continent (Annex Figure 1.A.1, Panel B),
amounting to more than double Latin America and the Caribbean’s intra-regional
migration rate (27%) (World Bank, 2023[135]).
Africa’s high‑educated migrants generally leave the continent, which can sometimes
benefit their countries of origin. High‑educated migrants tend to leave Africa (Annex
Figure 1.A.1, Panel A). However, when workers return from abroad, they can help enrich
skill sets in their home countries (OECD, 2017[136]).

Annex Figure 1.A.1. Africa’s stocks of high‑ and low‑educated migrants

per region of origin and destination, in thousands, 2020

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Annex Figure 1.A.1. Africa’s stocks of high‑ and low‑educated migrants

per region of origin and destination, in thousands, 2020 (continued)

Note: “Low‑educated” refers to individuals holding secondary education degrees or less. “High‑educated” represents those
with a tertiary education or more.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[64]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.
org/source/global-bilateral-migration.
12 https://stat.link/boi2lw

Over one‑third of intra‑Africa labour migrants work in agriculture, and around

a third of the continent’s medium‑ and low‑skilled workers migrate to the same two
regions. Between 2017 and 2021, the largest share of African immigrants in the continent
was employed in agriculture (34.5%), followed by services and trade (22.3%) and other
elementary occupations (19.6%). East and West Africa emerged as the primary destinations
for low‑educated workers from other African countries. In 2020, East Africa welcomed
30% of the low‑educated workforce and West Africa 35% (Annex Figure 1.A.1, Panel B).
This influx is potentially driven by the significant role of agriculture, which attracts a
considerable labour force, and its contribution to the value chains in both regions (AUC/
OECD, 2022[32]). Intra‑African migrants tend to hold more high‑skilled occupations than
do the local host populations. Nine African countries out of 13 have a larger share of
immigrant workers in high‑skill occupations than the share of the native populations
(Annex Figure 1.A.2).

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Annex Figure 1.A.2. Occupational skills of immigrants and natives

across selected African countries

Skill level 1 (low) Skill level 2 (medium) Skill levels 3 and 4 (high)

A. Immigrants B. Natives
South Africa 35 44 21
South Africa 28 46 27
Rwanda 29 39 32 Rwanda 51 40 9
Namibia 36 38 26 Namibia 23 58 19
Malawi 32 57 12 Malawi 33 61 6
Liberia 12 72 16 Liberia 29 62 9
Lesotho 26 42 32 Lesotho 27 61 12
Guinea-Bissau 27 67 6 Guinea-Bissau 31 65 5
Guinea 11 76 13 Guinea 6 77 18
Ghana 7 83 10 Ghana 7 84 9
Gambia 16 75 9 Gambia 12 77 11
Côte d’Ivoire 4 94 1 Côte d’Ivoire 6 86 8
Cabo Verde 9 70 21 Cabo Verde 26 56 18
Burkina Faso 8 59 33 Burkina Faso 6 81 13

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% %
Note: Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an occupation.
Skill level 1 (low) covers elementary occupations. Skill level 2 (medium) covers plant and machine operators and assemblers,
craft and related trades workers, skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, service and sales workers, and clerical
support workers. Skill levels 3 and 4 (high) cover technicians and associate professionals, professionals, and managers.
Data are based on labour force statistics across 13 African countries for which complete data are available for 2017‑21.
Source: ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org.
12 https://stat.link/wlyoqh

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Annex 1.B. Analysis of skill importance using labour force statistics and the
O*NET database
The methodology used in this report to assess the country profiles of skill requirements
relies on two main data sources:
• The United States Occupational Information Network (O*NET) database contains
detailed occupation‑specific information on skill requirements by occupation from
standardised questionnaires filled out by American workers with over six months
of seniority at business establishments statistically selected from a random sample.
Each dimension in O*NET is attributed categorical values to their “importance” for
the job. Respondents indicate the importance of a given skill for their job on a scale
from one (not important) to five (extremely important).
• The harmonised labour force statistics of the International Labour Organization
(ILO) derived from national labour force statistics available for 31 African countries
provide detailed information on employment structure by occupation.
To compute weighted skill importance scores, the analysis used the following
approach:
• First, importance scores were standardised for each occupation. Standardised score
= 100* ((O ‑ L)/(H ‑ L)) where O is the original rating score, L is the lowest possible
score (1) and H is the highest possible score on the rating scale used (5).
• Second, O*NET occupation classifications (O*NET‑SOC 2019 taxonomy) (Annex
Table 1.B.1) at the six‑digit level were converted to the International Standard
Classification of Occupations (ISCO‑08) at the two‑digit level through available
crosswalks.
• Third, O*NET skill importance scores by occupations were matched to labour force
statistics from ILO.
• Fourth, weighted skill importance scores were computed, using the share of
employed people by occupation as a weight.
Caveats and limitations of this approach
• While several studies have applied O*NET to the assessment of occupations in
low‑income countries (Arias, 2014[137]; Aedo et al., 2013[138]; Aedo, 2012[139]), the skill
content of certain occupations might differ between low‑ and high‑income countries
like the United States, as countries differ significantly in terms of technology and
regulatory context.
• The present analysis focused on two groups of African economies (agrarian and
diversifying). This choice was made partly because skill importance scores are
derived from surveyed United States workers. As skill importance scores vary
across countries according to occupational structures, a significant difference
between groups was required to obtain distinct average skill importance scores.

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Annex Table 1.B.1. Classification used for the Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 analysis
Broad skills category Skills Description
Mathematics Using mathematics to solve problems.
Reading comprehension Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work‑related documents.
Foundational skills
Speaking Talking to others to convey information effectively.
Writing Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience.
Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand
Active listening the points being made, asking questions as appropriate and not interrupting at
inappropriate times.
Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future
Active learning
problem‑solving and decision‑making.
Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative
Critical thinking
solutions, conclusions or problem approaches.
Selecting and using training/instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the
Learning strategies
situation when learning or teaching new things.
Monitoring/assessing the performance of yourself, other individuals or organisations to
Soft skills Monitoring
make improvements or take corrective action.
Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and
Complex problem‑solving
evaluate options and implement solutions.
Time management Managing one’s own time and the time of others.
Co‑ordination Adjusting actions in relation to others’ actions.
Instructing Teaching others how to do something.
Negotiation Bringing others together and trying to reconcile differences.
Persuasion Persuading others to change their minds or behaviour.
Service orientation Actively looking for ways to help people.
Social perceptiveness Being aware of others’ reactions and understanding why they react as they do.
Knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning,
Administration and management resource allocation, human resources modelling, leadership technique, production
methods, and co‑ordination of people and resources.
Knowledge of administrative and office procedures and systems such as word
Administrative processing, managing files and records, stenography and transcription, designing
forms and workplace terminology.
Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services.
Customer and personal service This includes customer needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and
Business and
evaluation of customer satisfaction.
managerial skills
Knowledge of economic and accounting principles and practices, the financial markets,
Finance and accounting
banking, and the analysis and reporting of financial data.
Knowledge of principles and procedures for personnel recruitment, selection, training,
Personnel and human resources compensation and benefits, labour relations and negotiation, and personnel information
systems.
Knowledge of principles and methods for showing, promoting, and selling products or
Sales and marketing services. This includes marketing strategy and tactics, product demonstration, sales
techniques, and sales control systems.

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Annex Table 1.B.1. Classification used for the Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024 analysis
(continued)
Broad skills category Skills Description
Knowledge of materials, methods, and the tools involved in the construction or repair
Building and construction
of houses, buildings, or other structures such as highways and roads.
Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer
Computers and electronics
hardware and software, including applications and programming.
Knowledge of design techniques, tools, and principles involved in the production of
Design
precision technical plans, blueprints, drawings and models.
Knowledge of the practical application of engineering science and technology. This
Engineering and technology includes applying principles, techniques, procedures, and equipment to the design and
production of various goods and services.
Knowledge of machines and tools, including their designs, uses, repair and
Mechanical
maintenance.
Knowledge of plant and animal organisms, their tissues, cells, functions,
Biology
interdependencies, and interactions with each other and the environment.
Knowledge of the chemical composition, structure and properties of substances and
of the chemical processes and transformations that they undergo. This includes uses
Chemistry
Technical skills of chemicals and their interactions, danger signs, production techniques and disposal
methods.
Knowledge of principles and methods for describing the features of land, sea and
Geography air masses, including their physical characteristics, locations, interrelationships, and
distribution of plant, animal and human life.
Mathematics Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics and their applications.
Knowledge and prediction of physical principles, laws, their interrelationships,
Physics and applications to understanding fluid, material, and atmospheric dynamics, and
mechanical, electrical, atomic and sub‑atomic structures and processes.
Knowledge of techniques and equipment for planting, growing and harvesting food
Food production products (both plant and animal) for consumption, including storage/handling
techniques.
Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality control, costs, and other
Production and processing
techniques for maximising the effective manufacture and distribution of goods.
Knowledge of principles and methods for moving people or goods by air, rail, sea or
Transportation
road, including the relative costs and benefits.
Source: Authors’ selection based on O*NET OnLine (2023[76]), O*NET Data (database), https://www.onetonline.org.

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Notes
1. Authors’ calculations based on UN DESA (2022[143]).
2. Benin, the Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda
and Zambia are covered in the study (Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[8]).
3. Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger, Rwanda and Uganda are considered in these studies
(ACET, 2022[9])
4. Compare https://cieffa.au.int/sites/default/files/files/2021-09/continental-strategy-education-africa-
english.pdf and https://au.int/en/documents/20201107/african-decade-technical-professional-
entrepreneurial-training-and-youth.
5. Authors’ calculations based on Cummins (2021[148]).
6. Vulnerable employment refers to the sum of (i) self‑employed (own‑account) workers and
(ii) contributing family workers. The measure includes formal self‑employed workers and excludes
informal wage‑employed workers. As such, it is an approximation of informal employment,
especially in economies where the vast majority of self‑employed workers are informal and the
number of informal employed workers is low, which applies to most African countries (World
Bank, n.d.[146]; ILO, 2018[141]). In this report, vulnerable employment is used only to show broad
trends and patterns, when data on informal employment are limited or missing.
7. Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South
Africa and Tanzania.
8. Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[64]).
9. Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[85]).
10. Elementary occupations consist of simple and routine tasks that mainly require hand‑held
tools and often some physical effort. They include cleaners and helpers; agricultural, forestry
and fishery labourers; labourers in mining, construction, manufacturing and transport; food
preparation assistants; street and related sales and services workers; refuse workers and other
elementary workers (ILO, 2012[142]).
11. Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger, Rwanda and Uganda are covered in these studies (ACET,
2022[9]).
12. Authors’ calculation based on International Telecommunication Union (2023[147]).
13. Authors’ calculation based on fixed broadband Internet speed from Ookla (2024[144]).
14. Authors’ calculation based on Stephany et al. (2021[115]).
15. Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2021[100]).
16. Authors’ calculation based on Turner & Townsend (2023[128]).

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 Chapter 2
Policies for productive
and inclusive skills
development in Africa
This chapter identifies policy priorities for African
policy makers to increase the supply of quality skills
across the continent, in line with current and future
demand, to support productive employment. First, it
highlights the importance of national skill strategies
driven by data. Second, it suggests ways to expand
quality education in more cost‑effective ways. Third,
the chapter discusses innovative training formats
with a wide reach. Fourth, it shows how technical and
vocational education and training could be upgraded.
Fifth, the chapter outlines the most important steps for
the regional integration of African skills development
policies, including the circulation of skills.

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 2. Policies for productive and inclusive skills development in Africa

IN BRIEF Skills development policies for African countries

face the dual challenge of boosting labour productivity
while enabling better employment prospects for all.
In view of strained budgets, achieving these requires
carefully balancing investments in high‑potential
sectors with cost‑effective, scalable and inclusive skill
provision. Five sets of policy instruments stand out:
1. African national governments can devise skill
strategies that focus on sectors with exceptional
productivity, based on thorough data analysis of
skill gaps and future skill demands. Governments
can select priority sectors based on national
comparative advantages and on megatrends like
the demographic, digital and green transitions.
2. 
African countries can expand affordable
quality education. Extending the most
cost‑effective and scalable interventions to
Africa’s primary school students would deliver
1.2 learning‑adjusted years of schooling at a
cost of just 2.3% of current education spending.
Harmonised learning assessments can help
identify foundational skill shortages.
3. Training providers and the private sector can
extend innovative wide‑reaching training formats
to informal and female workers. Entrepreneurship
and on‑the‑job training can increase the
productivity of informal and female‑led small
enterprises. Effective skill recognition can
help informal workers benefit from their prior
work experience and reassure employers.
4. 
Technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) institutions can upgrade their
programmes to equip learners with in‑demand
skills and set them on promising career paths.
They can also be more responsive to the
local private sector and the digital and green
transitions. TVET financing can improve on
traditional models, such as payroll levies.
5. Regional economic communities, the African
Union and African educational institutions
can support regionally integrated policies for
the development of skills. Beyond harmonised
qualification frameworks, regional Centres of
Excellence and specialised training centres can
drive technical skills development, especially
within regional value chains. Exchange and
skill mobility programmes can help retain
African talent.

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 2. Policies for productive and inclusive skills development in Africa

Policies for productive and inclusive

skills development in Africa
National skill strategies can effectively address skill gaps if based on reliable data

Policy makers tend to underestimate The number of secondary-level

the learning crisis technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) students by 2040

“What is the %
of 10-year-olds 47% ×4 × 10
who can read?*”

Burundi Mali Uganda Niger

Actual
estimate
23% but only 30% of TVET trainers
have work experience in companies
related to the sectors they teach
*2021 survey

Targeted interventions improve spending on education and training

Reaching 90%
of primary school Add 1.2 years of schooling
students with
the two most cost-
effective teaching
Bring USD 65 in earnings for
practices would: every USD 1 spent by government

2.3% And will only cost 2.3% of current

annual spending on education

Regional and continental institutions can close skill gaps by following four steps:
Skills anticipation Skills development Skill recognition Skill retention
and circulation

Supply chain and logistics,

climate resilience, rural resources
and food systems ...


 


Strengthened regional Centres of excellence provide Skill mobility and

information sharing skills specific to sectors university exchange
and value chains programmes retain talent
and circulate skills

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2. Policies for productive and inclusive skills development in Africa

African countries’ skills development policies can better focus on productive

employment, while taking into account each country’s comparative advantages, capacities
and financial resources. By improving educational outcomes for a fast‑growing population,
African countries have expanded their supply of foundational skills. Cost‑effective
interventions, such as structured pedagogy and teaching based on individuals’ learning
levels (Angrist et al., 2023[1]), can further increase that supply. Applying such interventions
could raise the level of education by 1.2 learning‑adjusted years of schooling for 90% of
Africa’s primary school students at a cost of USD 3.6 billion per year, equivalent to just 2.3%
of current education spending. However, expanding skill provision alone is insufficient
because productive employment remains scarce in most African countries (Beber et al.,
2020[2]). Skills development policies need to identify national opportunities for increasing
productive employment. Such opportunities are often linked to comparative advantages,
like natural resources or talent pools in specific sectors.
Increasing social protection, workers’ rights, and the accessibility of education and
training can improve the cost‑benefit ratio of skills development from the workers’
perspective and can make skills development more inclusive. Workers will actively seek
quality skills if the expected benefits outweigh the costs. Across an economy, social
protection and workers’ rights have an impact on individual and societal development
benefits, while the overall affordability and accessibility of education and training (in
part, depending on public transportation and local infrastructure) affect the costs. In
2020, only 17% of the African population was covered by at least one social protection
benefit, compared to a global average of 47% (ILO, 2021[3]). Social protection coverage can
be extended to informal workers, for instance, by introducing non‑contributory schemes
to complement contributory ones (OECD, 2024[4]). In addition, if education and training are
not widely accessible, rural populations, women, refugees and internally displaced people
are at a disadvantage compared to workers who attain higher earnings by acquiring skills,
thus increasing inequality (Mastrorillo, Scognamillo and Ignaciuk, 2024[5]; OECD, 2021[6]).
African countries require skills development policies with a balanced focus on high
productivity and employment potential. This chapter proposes five policy options that
respond to the trends identified in Chapter 1 (Table 2.1). Throughout the chapter, the
policy recommendations suggest involving the whole range of private sector firms to
ensure skills are developed to align with demand:
1. African national governments can devise skill strategies that identify priority
sectors with exceptional productivity potential, based on granular data.
2. African countries can use cost‑effective interventions and learning assessments to
expand quality education.
3. Training providers and the private sector can widen the reach of on‑ and off‑the‑job
training that offers immediate productivity gains for informal workers, in particular
women.
4. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions can upgrade
their programmes to equip learners with in‑demand skills and set them on
promising career paths.
5. Regional economic communities, the African Union and African educational
institutions can improve the functioning of cross‑border labour markets by
harmonising skill certification and recognition frameworks, strengthening regional
skills development and enabling high‑skill mobility.

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 2. Policies for productive and inclusive skills development in Africa

The policy recommendations in this chapter cover high‑priority options at the disposal
of stakeholders of skills development in Africa. They include fundamental issues (national
strategies, quality education), skill provision implementation (training and TVET), and
specific regional frameworks and interventions. The recommendations target various
stakeholders (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1. Challenges and policy actions for skills development for productive employment
Challenges Policy agenda Policy actions Primary
implementers
Population growth that is Nationally specific • Target skill strategies through harmonised, up‑to‑date and National governments
outpacing formal job growth; strategies to tackle comparable data on skill mismatches and agencies,
significant country differences emerging skill needs • Select priority sectors with high productivity and employment international partners
in skill supply and demand, potential, based on national comparative advantages
especially for digital and • Integrate digital and green skills into strategies, addressing
green skills country‑specific skill gaps
Significant foundational Learning assessments • Assess weaknesses in national education systems that result in National and
skill shortages; gender and and cost‑effective foundational skill gaps sub‑national
rural‑urban divides interventions to expand • Target investments towards the most cost‑effective measures governments and
quality education • Monitor progress against international benchmarks to inform agencies, international
reforms partners
Employment growth Innovative on‑ and • Expand entrepreneurial and soft skills training to impart Training providers,
confined to low‑productivity/ off‑the‑job training transferable skills that increase worker productivity employers, the private
high‑informality sectors; and skill recognition • Offer certified apprenticeships in co‑operation with the private sector sector, workers
gender and rural‑urban divides to improve labour to provide practical experience and documented technical skills (including informal and
productivity of informal • Establish frameworks for the recognition of prior learning and female workers)
and female workers professional certificates
Varying technical skill needs TVET institutions to • Involve the private sector, including small and medium‑sized TVET institutions,
across African countries; basic embrace innovative enterprises, in programme delivery to ensure effectiveness and private sector,
and intermediate digital skill approaches that better employability international partners
gaps respond to emerging • Increase the appeal of TVET to students by upgrading
skill needs institutions’ curricula, governance and reputation
• Increase female and rural participation through local outreach
and private sector involvement
• Make TVET levies more accountable, and improve the
co‑ordination of partner finance
Limited high‑skilled migration Regional integration • Identify skill needs within cross‑border labour pools and regional Regional economic
within Africa; large high‑skilled of African skills value chains communities, African
emigration to high‑income development policies • Address skill shortages and gaps along regional value chains Union, educational
countries • Improve cross‑border skill recognition and portability institutions,
• Reduce talent outflow and encourage the international circulation international partners
of skills via partnerships
Source: Authors’ compilation.

African countries can be strategic in meeting emerging needs for technical

skills in priority sectors, digital skills and green skills
Significant differences in African countries’ opportunities and challenges for skills
development require them to design individual skill strategies. To align with current and
future skill demand, national strategies can use granular data analysis to focus skills
development on priority sectors and specific digital and green skill gaps (Table 2.2).

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Table 2.2. Steps to design nationally specific skill strategies

Step Policy action Example
1. Data analysis Target skill strategies through The Skills4Jobs database on South Africa provides a comprehensive view of skill gaps
harmonised, up‑to‑date and based on various data sources (OECD, 2023[7]).
comparable data on skill
mismatches
2. Priority sector Select priority sectors In 2018, Rwanda published a six‑year ICT Sector Strategic Plan, which aims to advance
selection with high productivity and digital skills by developing suitable digital infrastructure, engaging in public‑private
employment potential, based partnerships to improve banking systems and mobile coverage, and adopting curriculums
on national comparative that integrate digital skills across all levels of education (Rwanda Development Board,
advantages 2024[8]; Rwanda’s Ministry of Information, Technology and Communications, 2017[9]).
3. Digital and green Integrate digital and green As part of Ghana’s National Green Jobs Strategy 2021‑2025, the Ghana Green Jobs
skills development skills into strategies, Programme entails a component on the greening of existing skill sets and developing new
addressing country‑specific green skills and professions, through the creation of an observatory as part of the Ghana
skill gaps Labour Market Information System. It predicts future green skill demand and identifies
critical skill sets for the green and circular economies (Ghana’s Ministry of Employment
and Labour Relations, 2021[10]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Assessing current and future skill gaps requires more comprehensive data
analysis, including using big data
By strengthening the quality of labour market information systems (LMIS), increasing
survey frequency and fostering private sector collaboration, African countries can better
assess skill supply and demand. LMIS in Africa are often incomplete and underfunded
and fail to adequately address the informal economy (African Centre for Technology
Studies, 2023[11]; OECD, 2023[12]). In 2016, only 38 African countries had become members
of the African Union’s inventory of LMIS, and only 26 had conducted a labour force survey
at any point in time (Sorensen and Mas, 2016[13]). As a result, skill supply and demand are
mainly inferred from indirect measures, such as education output data (e.g. number of
years in school) (Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[14]; OECD, 2017[15]). To bridge this gap, African
countries can enhance the African Union’s LMIS inventory, conduct more frequent and
granular labour force surveys, and actively engage the private sector in data collection
efforts.
Multi‑dimensional assessments can better measure current skill gaps and inform
skills anticipation. Assessments of current skill gaps and the anticipation of future skill
demand can embrace multi‑dimensional data, including wage growth or unfulfilled
vacancies, to inform skill strategies and better matching supply with demand in labour
markets (OECD, 2017[15]). Cross‑sectoral assessments, occupational definitions harmonised
with international standards, and active private sector engagement are key for effectively
analysing national skill gaps (Table 2.2) (OECD, 2023[7]).

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Box 2.1. Deriving skill trends through occupation‑skill matching

classifications

Using the O*NET occupation‑skill classification is a common approach to measuring

skills in labour markets. However, the classification originates from a survey in the
United States and is not available in languages other than English. Adapting O*NET
surveys to African countries could inform strategic skill investments (ILO/OECD,
2023[16]), as illustrated by examples from other world regions:
• In Indonesia, the Occupational Tasks and Skills (Indotask) pilot survey introduced
a nationally specific classification system based on modules from O*NET,
surveying 51 occupations significant for Indonesia’s economy. Results revealed
that foundational skills such as speaking, reading and listening were the most
required by employers (World Bank, 2020[17]).
• In Viet Nam, the Survey of Detailed Skills (SDS) measured 30 high‑demand
occupations. It showed that 43% of them required at least a secondary degree,
with basic and financial math skills needed in about one‑third of the occupations
(Granata, Moroz and Thi Nguyen, 2023[18]).
• In Uruguay, the O*NET Project extends the O*NET framework to 23 selected
occupations, using online questionnaires for enterprises and workers (ILO/OECD,
2023[16]).

Using big data can facilitate real‑time and detailed skills anticipation in formal job
markets. Analysis based on big data includes both quantitative forecasts and qualitative
foresight (e.g. text mining) tailored to specific sectors or countries (Bakule et al.,
2016[19]). For example, data extracted from online job postings can provide a nuanced
understanding of evolving job markets in African countries where one or two job boards
are dominant (Box 2.2). Notably, big data offer advantages like frequent updates and low
costs, allowing algorithms to infer skill relevance in occupations and create data‑based
indicators akin to O*NET (OECD, 2023[20]). During external shocks (e.g. COVID‑19), big data
can facilitate rapid skills assessments for reskilling needs. Challenges include accounting
for the underrepresentation of jobs that are not advertised online, biases towards
high‑skilled roles and difficulties in aggregating occupation‑specific skills due to their
various definitions (OECD, 2023[20]). This makes participatory preparatory work and the
harmonisation of definitions particularly important for African countries.
Collaboration with job platforms – such as the Asian Development Bank co‑operating
with LinkedIn or the Development Data Partnership joining international organisations
like the OECD with data providers – illustrates that big data can help anticipate emerging
skills (Data Partnership, 2024[21]; ADB, 2022[22]).

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Box 2.2. The potential of job board data to inform skill gap assessments
in Africa’s labour markets

Innovative data analysis can enable assessments of skill demand. With data collected
from online job boards, countries can assess skill demand within white‑collar
professions. The data available encompass a wide range of information on occupations,
skills, salaries, locations, industries, experience and user profiles. Online job vacancies
specify skills in precise terms such as “data science,” “SQL” (structured query language)
and “software engineering”. Data can be extracted from international and national job
boards and staffing agencies and be supplemented with public employment services
and corporate websites. This approach can be especially useful in countries where a
single job board is dominant and likely to represent the national job market (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3. Job boards in selected African countries

Examples of dominant job boards Country coverage
Brightermonday Kenya, Uganda
Jobberman Nigeria, Ghana
Careerjunction South Africa
Wuzzuf Egypt
Emploi.ma Morocco
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Job board data are a valuable source of insights into the demand for skills. Job vacancies
are relevant sources of information on skills sought by employers to analyse labour
market needs. A 2019 study in Ghana analysed job advertisements from a local daily
newspaper. The analysis highlighted the top skills required by the Ghanaian market:
computer literacy (27%), communication (12.7%) and teamwork (10.8%) (Asomaning
et al., 2021[23]).
Existing data platforms can be used by international organisations to conduct analysis.
Lightcast is a platform that gathers data from online vacancies from several sources.
It covers over 150 countries, including more than 50 countries in Africa. Data include
more than 1 million online job postings in South Africa and more than 800 000 in
Nigeria (Lightcast, 2023[24]). International organisations such as the World Bank, the
International Labour Organization and the OECD have begun to use data from such
providers for labour market analysis (ILO/OECD, 2023[16]; World Bank, 2020[25]).

National skill strategies can respond to specific skill gaps in high‑potential

sectors, including the digital and green economies
Countries can support different skills, based both on whether they have agrarian or
diversifying economies and on regional value chain opportunities. Agriculture contributes
32% of Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP), and approximately 50% of the continent’s
employment; yet, only 2% of students specialise in this field (Andinet et al., 2017[26]). Agrarian
economies (see Chapter 1) can invest in deepening workers’ technical skills, for instance,
in commercial agriculture, agro‑processing, agroecology, food processing and urban
agriculture (AfDB, 2016[27]). Least developed agrarian countries with small populations
(e.g. Sierra Leone) can specialise within regional value chains while targeting larger
neighbouring markets (AUC/OECD, 2022[28]). Diversifying economies can target sectors
with productivity potential, such as services. Services productivity in Rwanda, for
example, is more than ten times higher than agriculture productivity (Newfarmer, Page
and Tarp, 2018[29]).

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Kenya has introduced the National Skills Development Policy 2020, establishing
a Sector Skills Advisory Council responsible for co‑ordinating sector skills
committees comprised of subject experts across ten sectors in alignment with the
Vision 2030 strategy (Republic of Kenya, 2020[30]).
South Africa developed a Sector Skills Plan specifically on skills within the
wholesale and retail sectors, aiming to transition towards a technology‑based
retail sector (South Africa’s Higher Education and Training Department, 2023[31]).
Integrating the development of digital and green skills into national strategies can
strengthen the supply of sought‑after skills. Gaps in intermediate and advanced digital
skills, as well as in sector‑specific green skills, are growing across African countries
(Chapter 1). Policy frameworks such as the World Bank Methodological Guidebook (World
Bank, 2021[32]) and the Digital Manifesto1 (Pathways for Prosperity Commission, 2019[33])
offer insights into crafting national cross‑sectoral strategies for digital skills. Integrating
green skills in environmental and labour policies can facilitate the transition from
“brown” to “green” economies (CEDEFOP/OECD, 2015[34]). Countries can broaden the scope
of their artificial intelligence (AI) strategies by adding development plans for digital skills
(Box 2.3).
Nigeria has created a National Digital Economy Policy and Strategy that focuses on
eight pillars including developing digital skills and indigenous content development
and adoption (Nigeria’s Ministry of Communications and Digital Economy, 2019[35]).

Box 2.3. National artificial intelligence strategies and inclusive

skills development in Africa

The African Union’s forthcoming African AI Strategy can guide African countries’
national strategies (AU, 2023[36]). So far, Egypt and Mauritius have developed strategies,
while Kenya is advancing towards one. While Egypt focuses its strategy on reskilling,
upskilling and lifelong learning, Mauritius encourages skills attraction and skills
acquisition, particularly for AI‑related research and development and innovation)
(ANDP, 2019[37]; Republic of Mauritius, 2018[38]). Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, South Africa
and Uganda are formulating policies specifically on AI skills development (Diplo, 2022[39]).
Women and marginalised groups are vastly underrepresented among workers
with advanced AI skills, and their jobs are more likely to be replaced by AI‑induced
automation (Musoni, 2024[40]; Adams, 2022[41]). Building on existing policy frameworks,
such as Rwanda’s AI policy and South Africa’s 2019 White Paper on Science, Technology,
and Innovation, African governments can prioritise gender‑sensitive and inclusive AI
reskilling strategies (Musoni, 2024[40]).

Efficient education spending, cost‑effective interventions and learning

assessments can help expand quality education
Expanding quality education is necessary to increase the supply of foundational skills
in all African countries. Proven, cost‑effective interventions can be further scaled, while
harmonised learning assessments can serve to detect foundational skill gaps and monitor
progress (Table 2.4).

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Table 2.4. Steps to expand quality education through learning assessments

and cost‑effective interventions
Step Policy action Example
1. Assessing Assess weaknesses in national A survey across 35 low‑ and middle‑income countries (including 28 in Africa) revealed
foundational skill gaps education systems that lead to that policy makers tend to overestimate current levels of foundational learning outcomes.
foundational skill gaps More accurate perceptions are associated with a larger allocation of funding towards
foundational skills (Crawfurd et al., 2021[42]).
2. Cost‑effective Target investments towards Meta‑analysis across African countries found that supporting teachers with structured
interventions the most cost‑effective pedagogy (lesson plans, learning materials, coaching) had the largest effect on learning
measures outcomes compared to other types of programmes (Conn, 2017[43]).
3. Monitoring Monitor progress against In 2022, Morocco’s Ministry of Education rolled out a new roadmap for reforming the
international benchmarks to education system, designed to respond to the country’s low results in 2018 in PISA,
inform reforms the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment. The roadmap focuses
on learning impact, student well‑being and improving foundational learning results
(Madrastna, 2022[44]; Madrastna, 2022[45]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

More funds for education, efficient spending and cost‑effective interventions

can increase learning outcomes
African countries can increase education spending and improve the efficiency of
spending. On average, in 2021, African governments spent 3.7% of GDP on education,
accounting for 14.5% of total public expenditure, slightly below the international
benchmarks set by UNESCO of at least 4% of GDP and 15% of total public expenditure
(UNESCO, 2015[46]). Of the 42 African countries with available data in 2020‑23, 12 countries
met both minimum targets while 16 did not meet either of them (GEM/UNESCO/World
Bank, 2024[47]). The continent’s annual average education financing gap between 2023 and
2030 is estimated at USD 77 billion (GEM/UNESCO, 2024[48]). Africa’s spending inefficiencies
also remain high: between 2000 and 2017, they were equivalent to over USD 40 billion
annually (IMF, 2021[49]) (Table 2.4).
Cost‑effective interventions can improve learning outcomes while keeping spending
low. In view of tight public budgets, education interventions in African countries need
to carefully balance effectiveness and cost. For instance, it is costly to eliminate school
tuition for all, though doing so can improve access to education. Offering free tuition for
underserved communities and gradually expanding it can be a more efficient use of scarce
resources (Gruijters, Abango and Casely‑Hayford, 2023[50]). Recent systematic research of over
13 000 studies highlights cost‑effective, immediate and scalable options for governments
from low‑ and middle‑income countries that can complement broader reforms, such
as curriculum revisions, in improving educational outcomes (Table 2.5). For instance,
structured pedagogy and targeted teaching by learning level2 are the most cost‑effective
and scalable (Angrist et al., 2023[1]). Applying these two types of interventions to reach 90%
of the 220 million primary school pupils in African countries would cost USD 3.6 billion
annually. This would represent only 2.3% of the USD 159 billion the continent spent on
education in 2021 while generating a return of 1.2 learning‑adjusted years of schooling.3
In Uganda, removing tuition fees in public and private secondary schools increased
girls’ school attendance by at least 0.28 additional years. Following the removal,
educational outcomes improved more for private schools than for public ones
(Lauterbach, 2024[52]).
In Nigeria, the Edo Basic Education Sector Transformation (EdoBEST) programme
aims to improve the teaching and learning processes in basic education in Edo
State. Three years after the intervention began, EdoBEST students in grade 6 could
read about 100 words per minute compared to over 40 words per minute by students
in other states (EdoBEST, 2021[53]).

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In Zambia, the Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) programme was scaled to over
160 000 students between 2016 and 2019. In the span of one school year, it managed
to increase the number of students in grades 3‑5 who could read at least a simple
paragraph by 60%, and the number of those who could do subtraction by 89%
(UNICEF, 2022[54]).

Table 2.5. Policy options to improve learning outcomes in African countries,

by cost‑effectiveness
Cost‑effectiveness Interventions
High cost‑effectiveness • Supporting teachers with structured pedagogy (including structured lesson plans, learning materials and ongoing teacher
support)
• Targeting teaching instruction by learning level, not grade (in or out of school)
• Providing information to parents and children on the benefits, costs and quality of education
Medium • Reducing travel times to schools
cost‑effectiveness • Merit‑based scholarships to disadvantaged children and youth
• School‑based mass deworming where worm load is high
• Quality pre‑primary education (for ages 3 to 5)
• Parent‑directed early childhood stimulation programmes (for ages 0 to 36 months)
High effectiveness but • Software that allows personalised learning and adapts to a child’s learning level (where hardware is available in schools)
missing evidence on • Augmenting teaching teams with community‑hired teaching assistants
cost‑effectiveness or on • Providing school‑based mass treatment of specific health conditions
implementation at scale • Leveraging mobile phones to support learning
• Safeguarding students from violence
• Teaching soft skills
• Involving communities in school management
• Targeting interventions towards girls
High effectiveness but • Cash transfers as a tool for improving learning
expensive • Providing free meals in primary schools where attendance is low and malnutrition high
Not cost‑effective • Providing additional inputs alone, such as textbooks, additional teachers to reduce class size, school buildings, grants,
salaries and libraries, without improving how these inputs are used or connecting them to other policies.
Source: GEEAP (2023[55]), Cost‑Effective Approaches to Improve Global Learning, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/
099420106132331608/pdf/IDU0977f73d7022b1047770980c0c5a14598eef8.pdf.

Comparable national, regional and international learning assessments can

serve to monitor education outcomes and policy impacts
Improving countries’ participation in learning assessments and comparability across
assessments can help policy makers set priorities and monitor the policy impacts.
Increasing the availability of and communication on learning outcomes can improve
prioritisation and monitoring. Currently, two‑thirds of African countries do not assess
internationally comparable measures of learning in primary education, and a majority
lack measures of learning at the secondary level.
Established international, regional and national learning assessments can
complement each other by measuring proficiency in different subjects at different grades
(Table 2.6). International and regional assessments often come with high standards of
rigour and offer credible results (Box 2.4); however, they tend to allow less involvement
from local stakeholders, are relatively more costly than national assessments and may not
sufficiently consider national curriculum and learning objectives. Recalibration exercises
(i.e. running parallel tests enabling the conversion of scores from different national tests
or conducting statistical recalibration of existing data), such as the Rosetta Stone project,
can make assessments comparable (UNESCO/PASEC/LLECE/IEA, 2022[56]; Altinok, Angrist
and Patrinos, 2018[57]; Patrinos and Angrist, 2018[58]).

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Table 2.6. Overview of standardised learning assessments in African countries

Participating African countries Subjects Grade/age Envisioned Cost
frequency
International PISA Eight countries (Algeria, Egypt, Mathematics, 15‑year‑old Every 3 Around USD 800 000;
assessments Kenya, Morocco, Rwanda, Senegal, language (reading), students years total cost can vary by
Tunisia, Zambia) natural sciences country depending on the
assessment programme and
local cost factors
TIMSS Seven countries (Algeria, Botswana, Mathematics, Grades 4 Every 4
Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Ghana, natural sciences and 8 years
Morocco, South Africa)
PIRLS Four countries (Botswana, Egypt, Language (reading) Grade 4 Every 5
Morocco, South Africa) years
Regional PASEC Ten countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Mathematics, Grades 2 2000‑10, USD 200 000‑500 000;
assessments Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Republic language and 6 2011‑12, total cost can vary by
of the Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, (listening/oral 2014, 2019, country depending on the
Senegal, Togo) comprehension, 2021 assessment programme and
decoding, reading) local cost factors
SACMEQ Fourteen countries (Botswana, Mathematics, Grade 6 1995, 2000,
Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, language (reading), 2007, 2013,
Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, health 2019
Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania,
Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe)
National and Uwezo Three countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Mathematics, Children/ Annually Around USD 200 000; total
sub‑national Uganda) language (decoding, youth aged cost can vary depending on
assessments reading, writing). 6‑16 assessment implementation
(e.g. national versus
subnational level) and local
cost factors
Note: PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study; PIRLS = Progress in International Reading Literacy Study; PASEC = Program for the Analysis of Educational Systems;
SACMEQ = Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality. The national and subnational
section offers illustrative examples rather than a comprehensive overview.
Source: Gustafsson (2019[59]), Costs and Benefits of Different Approaches to Measuring the Learning Proficiency of Students (SDG
Indicator 4.1.1), https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip53-costs-benefits-approaches-measuring-proficiency-
2019-en.pdf and Ramírez (2018[60]), Quick Guide No. 2: Making the Case for a Learning Assessment, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/
ark:/48223/pf0000265404.

Box 2.4. The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests the skills and knowledge
in reading, mathematics and science of 15‑year‑old students (i.e. corresponding to the end of
compulsory education in most OECD countries). PISA’s aim is to measure the extent to which
students can use what they learned in and out of school to participate in society. It collects
information on student attitudes and motivations and assesses soft skills such as collaborative
problem‑solving, communication, critical and creative thinking, and learning in a digital world.
PISA uniquely focuses on:
• Public policy issues: PISA aims to answer questions such as, “Are our schools adequately
preparing young people for the challenges of adult life?”, “Are some kinds of teaching
and schools more effective than others?” and “Can schools contribute to improving the
futures of students from immigrant or disadvantaged backgrounds?”.
• Foundational and soft skills: Rather than examining mastery of specific school curricula,
PISA looks at students’ ability to apply knowledge and skills in key subject areas and to
analyse, reason, and communicate effectively when examining, interpreting and solving
problems.

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Box 2.4. The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (continued)

• Lifelong learning: To be effective lifelong learners, young people need not only knowledge
and skills but also an awareness of why and how they learn. In addition to measuring
student performance, PISA asks students about their motivations to learn.
PISA allows policy makers to set and measure progress towards national objectives and to steer
effective action. Over 100 countries and economies have participated in PISA to track their
progress in meeting key learning goals. Researchers and policy makers use the results to chart
national progress against international standards and identify strengths and weaknesses in
education systems. A module for low‑ and middle‑income countries (called PISA for Development
in its piloting phase) aims to expand PISA’s global reach. So far, eight African countries have
participated or are participating in PISA: Algeria (2015), Egypt (2025), Kenya (2025), Morocco (2018
to 2025), Rwanda (2025), Senegal (PISA for Development, 2015), Tunisia (2003 to 2015) and Zambia
(PISA for Development, 2014, 2025).
Source: OECD Directorate for Education and Skills, PISA Unit.

Training and skill recognition can benefit informal and female workers in
African countries
Skill training and recognition can improve the productivity and employability of
Africa’s informal and female workers, on the condition they be effective. Entrepreneurial,
managerial and soft skills training are widespread, but training formats vary in
effectiveness and need to be chosen with care to increase productivity. Likewise, skill
recognition is an essential tool to improve the employability of informal workers, but it
needs to be well‑designed and practice‑oriented to be effective (Table 2.7).

Table 2.7. Steps to improve the labour productivity of informal and female workers
through innovative on‑ and off‑the‑job training and skill recognition
Step Policy action Example
1. Entrepreneurial and soft Expand entrepreneurial and soft skills Training for informal enterprises in Togo compared the impact of a “personal
skills training training to impart transferable skills that initiative” intervention (i.e. goal setting, future orientation, problem‑solving)
increase worker productivity based on four monthly mentoring sessions, developed by the Frese Research
Group in Germany, to a long‑established managerial training programme.
The former showed superior gains in productivity, innovation and firm profits
(30% vs. 11% gains) (Campos et al., 2017[61]).
2. Certified apprenticeships Offer certified apprenticeships in In Tanzania, as of 2019, the Dual Apprenticeship Training System, a three‑year
co‑operation with the private sector work‑based learning training programme, jointly developed by TVET
to provide practical experience and institutions and the Hamburg Chamber of Crafts, had recruited around
documented technical skills 100 companies and completed training for 200 apprentices (AUDA‑NEPAD,
2024[62]).
3. Skill recognition Establish frameworks for the Based on prior RPL legislation and pilot projects for RPL qualification in the
recognition of prior learning (RPL) and hospitality sector, Cabo Verde expanded the qualifications for RPL eligibility
professional certificates to the administrative services and customer support sector in 2021 (Cabo
Verde’s National System of Qualifications, 2024[63]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Entrepreneurial and soft skills training and apprenticeships can benefit firms
and workers, including women
Entrepreneurial training for self‑employed workers and students can help increase
firms’ inclusiveness and scale. Entrepreneurship is widely spread in Africa, with a national
average of 65% of the working population being self‑employed on the continent in 2022.4

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Entrepreneurial training can complement traditional learning of business practices

(i.e. accounting, cash flow management, customer relations, human resources, marketing,
etc.) by instilling an entrepreneurial mindset. Introducing entrepreneurship education
starting at primary level can improve its inclusiveness and scale (AAP, 2022[64]).
In rural Rwanda, the involvement of village savings and loan associations in
entrepreneurial training provided by CARE International allowed for an increase in
profit and financial literacy (Rubyutsa et al., 2023[65]).
Fundis (“artisan” in Swahili) is a Kenyan e‑platform that connects accredited
informal artisans and builders to employment (Fundis, 2024[66]). In 2023, it launched
the IngiaBiz initiative in partnership with the Kenya Association of Certified
Training Providers for Industry to upskill and certify artisans and promote youth
employment over a three‑year period (Fintech, 2024[67]).
Digify Africa offers digital and business skill training to young Africans, drawing
on an alumni network and private sector partners; it has enabled the careers of
more than 500 graduates (IFC/LEK, 2019[68]).
On‑the‑job training can increase firms’ benefits, but the majority of Africa’s firms do
not provide it. On‑the‑job training refers to learning or directed training undertaken in the
workplace, both structured (apprenticeships, internships) and unstructured (experiential
learning by doing). In Ghana and Tanzania, on‑the‑job management training using the
Kaizen approach, which enhances firm‑level productivity by gradually applying tools
such as production management and quality control, had substantial benefits. The two
countries increased the value added of small businesses in a garment production cluster
by 50% and raised the resilience of small firms in the metal industry by 20% (ILO, 2018[69]).
For African enterprises in manufacturing and services that provide training to employees,
sales per worker are around 20% higher compared to those that do not. Yet, less than 30%
of firms registered in Africa provide formal training to employees, compared to almost
50% in Latin America (AfDB, 2020[70]).
Apprenticeships significantly help people get jobs. In Ghana, a large majority of
technical and vocational skills are acquired through apprenticeships: the number of
apprentices is ten times higher than students in formal TVET (MasterCard Foundation,
2018[71]). Seventy‑five per cent of informal apprentices find a job less than six months
after finishing their apprenticeships, most of them becoming self‑employed or employed
by the business that hosted their apprenticeships (ILO, 2022[72]). Apprentices who receive
certificates are more likely to transition to formal jobs, even if the certificates are not
formally recognised. For instance, in Malawi, 31% of apprentices with a certificate
obtained a formal job compared to only 5% of those without (IFC/LEK, 2019[68]).
Including socio‑emotional skills development and peer networks in training
programmes oriented towards women can bolster female workers’ skills and entrepreneurial
success. In many parts of Africa, women suffer from persisting discriminatory social
norms that hinder their access to quality education. Women are usually either absent
from work or confined to traditionally feminine jobs (ILO, 2022[72]; OECD, 2021[6]). One
study examined gender differences in ten socio‑emotional skills that are associated with
success in a competitive workplace (like positive self‑concept or expressiveness). Based
on respondent data from 17 African countries, the study found that the skill gap between
women and men was equivalent to the skills gained in 5.6 years of education, with the
male advantage increasing with higher education levels (Ajayi et al., 2022[73]). Training
programmes focusing on socio‑emotional skills can thus yield higher earnings for female
workers and ensure a greater likelihood of success in their entrepreneurial endeavours
(Baliamoune‑Lutz, Brixiova and Ncube, 2014[74]). In addition to formal training, networks
and kinship relationships contribute distinctly to women’s entrepreneurial success. This

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is especially true for women who try to transition to more profitable sectors, which are
often male‑dominated (e.g. the digital economy, infrastructure, transport) (OECD, 2021[6]).
Mauritius implements targeted skills training for marginalised groups, in particular
women and youth. This has contributed to a steady increase in women’s labour
force participation since 2005 (World Bank, 2018[75]).

Recognition of prior learning can profit workers and employers, and digital
platforms and education technology startups are increasing their reach
Recognition of prior learning (RPL) can create win‑win scenarios for informal workers
and employers, but the available support often remains unknown to both. Expert
interviews conducted for this report stressed that, by officially recognising all prior
learning, including that acquired outside of formal5 education systems, RPL enhances the
employability of informal workers. Certificates obtained through RPL are akin to those
awarded by training centres. RPL can expand informal workers’ access to formal training
opportunities and jobs while offering a path out of informality (OECD, 2024[4]). RPL serves
employers’ interests in that it makes the supply of sought‑after skills from marginalised
workers more visible. However, challenges in implementing RPL schemes include a lack
of adequate awareness of RPL and insufficient tracking and monitoring of impacts (ILO,
2022[76]). Increasing the availability of RPL tools, especially in remote communities, could
reassure employers (ACQF, 2023[77]; Aggarwal, 2015[78]).
Tunisia allows candidates with at least three years of experience as a craftsperson
to obtain a certificate to prove professional competence in a given sector. This “certificate
of professional aptitudes” (certificat d’attestation de qualification professionnelle)
facilitates their integration into the formal labour market (Tunisia’s Ministry of
Employment and Professional Training, 2024[79]).
Professional certificates issued for courses on digital platforms are growing in
importance. Professional certificates from digital platforms have become more relevant
following the COVID‑19 pandemic. They can be obtained through platforms such as
Coursera or LinkedIn Learning. Nigeria has the third highest enrolment rate globally
on the Coursera platform (which counts 124 million learners), only behind the United
States and India. Learners in 13 of the 18 African countries covered in a study by Coursera
showed their best performance in business skills, followed by entrepreneurial skills,
while technology and data science skills allowed for improvement (Coursera, 2023[80]).
Education technology startups, such as Women in Data Africa and Femafricmaths,6
offer training courses and skill certification, often through partnerships with the
private sector.

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TVET institutions can better respond to Africa’s emerging skill needs

Table 2.8. Steps to help technical and vocational education and training institutions
embrace innovative approaches to emerging skill needs
Step Policy action Example
1. Private sector Involve the private sector, including Morocco’s ten Delegated Management Institutes (Instituts à Gestion Déléguée) are
participation small and medium‑sized enterprises, strategically located within the special economic zones of the priority sectors for
in programme delivery to ensure which they provide tailor‑made training courses (e.g. Tangier’s Vocational Training
effectiveness and employability Institutes for the Automotive Industry (World Bank, 2020[81]).
2. Updated curricula, Increase the appeal of TVET to Technical curriculum reviews in South Africa led to the inclusion of renewable
governance and students by upgrading institutions’ energies and emerging technologies in TVET curricula in 2013 and 2023, respectively,
reputation curricula, governance and with certificates in robotics and renewable energy now available in 29 out of the 50
reputation registered TVET colleges (Freimann and Magnus, 2023[82]).
3. Respond to Increase female and rural Between 2020 and 2022, the GEN‑UP project employed gender‑based mentoring to
contextual challenges participation through local outreach overcome stereotypes and empower young women to join TVET programmes to build
and private sector involvement careers in male‑dominated sectors. It was implemented by the Don Bosco vocational
training network and two research partners: Yaoundé University (Cameroon) and Njala
University (Sierra Leone) (Wignall et al., 2023[83]).
4. Multi‑stakeholder Make TVET levies more The West African Economic and Monetary Union’s platform, co‑developed by the
financing accountable, and improve the Africa‑based office of UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational Planning
co‑ordination of partner finance (IIEP‑UNESCO Dakar), pools methodological and financial resources to respond to
common training challenges in the region (UEMOA platform, 2024[84]).
Source: Authors’ compilation.

TVET can increase the skills needed in African countries, but its success is mixed
TVET programmes can provide skills needed in African countries’ priority sectors
for the exploding number of students. TVET programmes offer practical and technical
skills for entry into occupations, dividing learners’ time between the classroom and
work‑based training. To improve graduates’ employability, TVET programmes can align
with the demand for skills in national priority sectors. By 2040, the number of secondary
TVET students is expected to more than quadruple in agrarian economies like Burundi,
Mali and Uganda and to increase ten‑fold in Niger (ILO/World Bank/UNESCO, 2023[85]).
The East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration Project (EASTRIP),
led by the World Bank, brings a regional approach to developing specialised TVET
skills. Since 2018, it has created a cluster of 16 TVET Centres of Excellence in three
countries. The centres offer skill supply for major regional infrastructure projects.
Each centre focuses on a specific sector: road transport (Ethiopia), textiles (Kenya)
and renewable energies (Tanzania).
Evaluations show that the implementation of TVET in Africa has had mixed results.
Analysis of 22 evaluations of TVET programmes from the DEReC and GIZ databases7
(GIZ, 2024[86]; OECD, 2024[87]) and expert interviews carried out for this report suggest four
success factors: i) political will to promote vocational training as a means to economic
advancement; ii) partnership and information sharing between employers and providers;
iii) competency‑based training to improve quality management of TVET institutions; and
iv) alignment with donors’ international co‑operation strategies and recipients’ national
development plans. The most common hurdles for TVET include: i) lack of follow‑up with
graduates and weak relations between training centres and the private sector (e.g. missing
direct job placement services); ii) lack of results‑based management systems, including
missing planning of evaluations; iii) slow governance due to centralised decision‑making,
staff turnover at ministries and lengthy accreditation processes by TVET authorities;
and iv) limited applicability of learned skills on training completion. Cost‑effectiveness
remains understudied, despite continental efforts, including the African Union Strategy
for TVET and its Plan of Action for the African Decade for Technical, Professional and
Entrepreneurial Training and Youth Employment (2019-2028).

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African TVET institutions can upgrade their reputation and curricula and
strengthen collaboration with the private sector
TVET institutions would benefit from an improved reputation, more relevant curricula,
including on digital skills. TVET’s mixed effectiveness has resulted in reputational
damage, leading students to perceive TVET‑based careers as a second choice relative to
academic pathways (IDRC, 2019[88]). To keep content relevant, TVET institutions can more
strongly emphasise digital and green skills and promote gender‑inclusive access.
Through its Global Gateway strategy, the European Union will invest EUR 150 billion
by 2027 to improve African digital infrastructure and digital skills. In Kenya, for
example, the programme will support the digitalisation of TVET centres (European
Union, 2022[89]).
Since 2011, UNESCO‑Korea’s Better Education for Africa’s Rise (BEAR) project has
supported TVET upgrades in 14 countries. In Uganda, it provided digital equipment
to TVET institutions to increase efficiency in agro‑food processing and post‑harvest
management (UNESCO, 2023[90]).
The WorldSkills Africa initiative offering live demonstrations of selected skills, and
the Skills in Action Photo Competition hold promise to change the perceptions of
TVET (UNESCO, 2022[91]).
Stronger linkages with the private sector can enhance the professionalisation of TVET
trainers and help align skill supply with demand. Only 30% of TVET trainers in Africa
have recent experience in companies related to the sector they teach (IIEP‑UNESCO,
2023[92]). African countries could learn from peers such as the Philippines, where the
national TVET authority requires industry immersion for trainer certifications (TESDA,
2021[93]). Involving the private sector in the development of curricula is central to better
aligning skill supply with demand.

TVET can be more responsive to learning ecosystems and low female

participation
Contextualising TVET programmes within wider learning ecosystems is key to
responsive national TVET systems. Improving TVET effectiveness can require an ecosystem
approach, which considers how TVET overlaps with universities, workplaces, informal
vocational training, and generally the worlds of work, learning and living (Lotz‑Sisitka
and McGrath, 2023[94]). National TVET systems can improve their responsiveness to
contemporary challenges (digitalisation, automation, climate change) and persisting ones
(quality lifelong education, informality, internally displaced people) (UNESCO, 2022[95]).
Senegal’s Société de développement et des fibres textiles (SODEFIDEX) works with
family farms and cotton co‑operatives. In the 2000s, the company began offering its
own literacy courses for seasonal workers. It gradually developed more advanced
TVET programmes to meet rural job needs linked to changes in agriculture.
Courses are given in Pulaar, Mandingo and Wolof, the languages commonly spoken
by Senegal’s farming populations (IIEP‑UNESCO, 2021[96]).
Female enrolment and completion rates are low in TVET programmes. Young girls and
women are often prevented from enrolling in and completing TVET programmes. This
results from social norms that confine their role to the domestic realm, from long distances
to TVET institutions and from the high cost of learning materials. Between 2017 and 2019,
female participation in formal TVET at secondary level as a share of total enrolment was
lowest in Tanzania (12%) and Seychelles (18%) and highest in São Tomé and Príncipe (56%)
and Lesotho (67%) (Figure 2.1). Unfortunately, enrolment does not necessarily translate
into completion. For instance, Uganda’s TVET end‑of‑year assessment in 2019 indicates
that women comprised only 19% of the examinees (Mawanda, 2020[97]).

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The Gender makes Business Sense e‑learning course, implemented by GIZ and
AUDA‑NEPAD, equips participants with managerial skills, financial know‑how and
an understanding of social norms and gender dynamics in business development
(AUDA‑NEPAD, 2024[98]).

Figure 2.1. Percentage of female students enrolled in secondary technical

and vocational education and training in selected African countries, 2017‑19
Share of female students
%
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Source: World Bank/UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2020[99]), Secondary Education, Vocational Pupils (% female) (database),
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.ENRL.VO.FE.ZS.
12 https://stat.link/sfirpl

Box 2.5. Germany’s activities in technical and vocational education

and training across Africa

The German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) supports African partner
countries in expanding access to skills and shaping the transition to decent employment
in future‑oriented sectors. It does so in line with Germany’s priorities and on behalf
of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). In 2022,
76 GIZ‑implemented TVET programmes were active in Africa.
At the national level, GIZ implements an approach to promoting employment that
encourages training women in green and digital skills. Its Employment Promotion
for Women for the Green Transformation in Africa (WE4D) programme focuses on
developing gender‑sensitive training with public and private partners in green sectors
(e.g. eco‑tourism, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy and green construction).
The WE4D programme, funded by BMZ, the Norwegian Agency for Development
Cooperation and the European Union (GIZ, 2024[100]), operates across nine African
countries. Another such GIZ initiative is the Digital Skills for Jobs and Income in
South Africa project. This project, partly funded by the G20 initiative #eSkills4Girls,
aims to narrow the gender divide in the digital economy by offering girls training
courses for aspiring drone pilots, creative content producers and application developers
(GIZ, 2024[101]).

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Box 2.5. Germany’s activities in technical and vocational education

and training across Africa (continued)

GIZ also supports African Union member states in implementing demand‑oriented,

inclusive TVET through the Skills Initiative for Africa (SIFA) (Box 2.7). Under SIFA,
the continental portal ASPYEE (African Skills Portal for Youth Employment and
Entrepreneurship), practitioners and policy makers share, collaborate on and engage in
key areas (AUDA‑NEPAD, 2024[102]).
Source: GIZ.

National funding for TVET can be more accountable, while funding from
development partners can be better co‑ordinated
Africa’s low public spending on TVET is sometimes supplemented by levies from
the private sector, with mixed results. On average, Africa devotes 5% of public education
spending to TVET (AFD/ADEA, 2014[103]), with the amounts varying greatly across countries.
In the Southern African Development Community (SADC), countries dedicate between
0.6% and 13.6% of education spending to TVET (AUDA‑NEPAD, 2022[104]; SADC, 2013[105]).
In Equatorial Guinea, less than 25% of TVET centres are publicly run. Some countries
compensate for insufficient public financing by raising training funds from the private
sector, charging a levy rate of between 0.5% (Gabon and Zambia) and 4.0% (Benin and
Tanzania) of payroll. However, the levy‑based model has limitations, such as the diversion
of funds to national general budgets for purposes other than training, thus reducing
both fund capacity and firms’ willingness to participate. Of funds analysed in 29 African
countries, 5% of training levies collected in Burkina Faso go to national TVET funds, 17%
in Zambia and 60% in Niger; only Senegal’s 3FPT Fund achieves 100% (UNESCO, 2022[106]).
Performance‑based schemes can contribute to TVET funding. In 2024, South
Africa announced the establishment of an innovative USD 197 million loan fund for
middle‑income students at TVET colleges and universities. Students who obtain a 70%
grade or above and finish within a prescribed time will receive a 50% reduction in loans
they have requested (SABC News, 2024[107]).
TVET financing from development partners can be better co‑ordinated and targeted
towards countries with the greatest need. Donor funding is likely to remain a significant
source of financing for TVET in African countries. For example, in Burkina Faso, 46% of
TVET funds come from development partners, 4% from the state and only a small portion
from the training levy (ILO, 2020[108]). Donor‑run grants (e.g. the SIFA Financing Facility
and the European Development Fund) can promote innovation and competition but risk
leaving out countries with lower capacities (Boxes 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7).

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Box 2.6. Bridging educational and skill gaps in Portuguese‑speaking

African countries

Addressing educational disparities and teacher shortages is crucial for Portuguese‑speaking

African (PALOP) countries – Angola, Cabo Verde, Guinea‑Bissau, Mozambique, and São Tomé and
Príncipe. The heterogeneity in educational attainment and workforce skill distribution across
PALOP countries is significant. In Mozambique, the lower secondary education completion rate
among students over 25 years of age is 15%, compared to 28.9% in Angola, 29.5% in Cabo Verde
and 38.9% in São Tomé and Príncipe. These figures stand against an average of 30.4% across
29 African countries (UNESCO, 2023[90]). This creates a challenge to educational outcomes, as
does the shortage of qualified teachers. The shortage prevents youth from accessing quality
education and is the focus of several initiatives. These include the recent training initiatives
led by Camões – Instituto da Cooperação e da Língua, I.P. (Camões, I.P), to develop capacities
of education professionals which have been implemented in Angola (Saber+), Guinea Bissau
(PRECASE8) and São Tomé and Príncipe (PAISE‑STP9).
PALOP countries are seeking to improve technical and vocational education and training to
meet job market needs. With unemployment rates among the 15‑ to 24‑year‑olds ranging from
4% (Guinea‑Bissau) to 28% (Cabo Verde) in 2024 (ILOSTAT, 2024[109]), TVET represents a pathway to
transition into the labour market for many youth. Mozambique saw a 6% increase in enrolment
in TVET programmes between 2008 and 2018, against a continent‑wide declining trend (AfDB,
2022[110]). The Improvement of Skills Development in Mozambique project in partnership with
the World Bank, aims at improving the quality of education in secondary and TVET institutions
geared towards labour market needs (World Bank, 2024[111]).
International partners and national governments can maximise synergies to narrow skill
gaps and boost employment in priority sectors. To this end, Cabo Verde and Portugal signed
a memorandum of understanding in 2023 with investment objectives in six strategic areas:
metallurgy, digital, civil construction, the social sector, tourism and the energy transition. By
improving access to, and the quality of, professional training at the Centres of Professional
Excellence, the agreement seeks not only to equip the Cabo Verdean youth with transferable
skills but also to attract talent from other PALOP countries. Similarly, the multi‑stakeholder
PALOPs‑Timor‑Leste PROCULTURA Programme, with a budget of EUR 19 million, sought to
develop artistic and management skills while boosting revenue‑generating activities and
jobs across creative industries (Futuros Criativos, 2024[112]). Lastly, +EMPREGO Mozambique
aims to promote i) better qualifications for available jobs, ii) public‑private partnerships and
iii) improved access to employment and self‑employment in Cabo Delgado Province. This
project, co‑financed by the European Union and Camões, I.P., targets the professional insertion
of 1 200 Mozambicans, aged 15 to 25, and graduates from professional education, 25% of whom
are women (+Emprego, 2024[113]).

The regional integration of African skills development depends on harmonised

frameworks, international safeguards and partnerships
The regional integration of skills development hinges on better harmonisation of
international frameworks and enhanced skill mobility partnerships. To reduce skill gaps
at the continental scale, integrating the supply of and demand for skilled labour across
national borders is paramount. Harmonising policies across countries can help close skill
gaps, allowing African countries to reap the benefits of the interplay of skill mobility, free
trade and the free movement of people across borders (Table 2.9).

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Table 2.9. Steps for regional and continental integration of skills policies
Step Policy action Example
1. Skills anticipation Identify skill needs within AUDA‑NEPAD’s five Centres of Excellence strengthen regional labour market information,
cross‑border labour pools and harmonise national occupational standards and design training programmes.
regional value chains
2. Skills development Address skill shortages and The Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research between the Democratic Republic
gaps along regional value of the Congo and Zambia supports private‑public co‑operation for training and research
chains along different segments of value chains for electric vehicle batteries (Box 4.5).
3. Skill recognition Improve cross‑border skill Nine SADC countries are implementing national qualification frameworks based on a
recognition and portability regional mechanism for comparability and on the recognition of qualifications and credit
transfers (Castel‑Branco and Mavimbela, 2022[114]).
4. Skill retention and Reduce talent outflow and The SMP programme called Towards a Holistic Approach to Labour Migration Governance
circulation encourage the international and Labour Mobility in North Africa trained 350 young workers from Morocco and Tunisia.
circulation of skills via One‑fourth moved to Belgium as the European host country; three‑fourths joined their
partnerships local labour markets (BAG/OECD, 2024[115]).
Note: AUDA‑NEPAD = African Union Development Agency ‑ New Economic Partnership for Africa’s Development; SADC =
Southern African Development Community; SMP = skill mobility partnership; COMESA = Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Free trade and the free movement of people across borders can be better integrated
into protocol agreements and expanded in scope. While mainly designed to promote
free trade, the Protocol on Trade in Services, under the African Continental Free Trade
Area (AfCFTA), is a critical precursor of free movement agreements in Africa (AUC/IOM,
2018[116]). Yet, it only targets the mobility of businesspeople and professionals in the
context of service delivery. The Protocol to the Treaty Establishing the African Economic
Community Relating to Free Movement of Persons, Right of Residence and Right of
Establishment has a broader scope, covering informal cross‑border traders, seasonal
workers and student migrants. However, it lacks an explicit link to free trade, which has
made its implementation a low priority in many member states of the African Union
(Hirsch, 2021[117]; Bisong, 2021[118]). Coherent international integration protocols could start
from regional economic communities. The Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), for example, has significantly advanced free trade and the free movement of
people between member states (Urso and Hakami, 2018[119]).
AUDA‑NEPAD’s five regional Centres of Excellence can help anticipate sectoral skills
needed across Africa. The centres seek to reflect the diversity and capacity‑building needs
of the continent; they cover five strategic sectors: supply chain and logistics (Central
Africa); climate resilience (Egypt); human capital and institutions development (Kenya);
rural resources and food systems (Senegal); and science and technology and innovation
(South Africa) (AUDA‑NEPAD, 2023[120]). These sectoral specialisations and strategic
locations make the centres well‑suited for regional skills anticipation, strengthening
labour market information, updating national occupational standards and designing
training programmes. Anticipating national skills is gaining traction, for instance, via
dedicated Skills Anticipation Action Plans in Ghana (launched in 2022), Zambia (2023‑27)
and Zimbabwe (2022‑25). Regional skills anticipation could more directly take into account
economies’ comparative advantages along regional value chains.
Partnerships can help address challenges for skills development in regional value
chains (OECD/AUC/EU/AUDA‑NEPAD, 2023[121]). Multistakeholder partnerships, led by
organisations such as the AUDA‑NEPAD and UNITAID, have established platforms for
co‑ordinating skills development in value chains (Box 2.7). By increasing the development
of skills, such partnerships can also attract more greenfield foreign direct investments
and foster regional integration (AUC/OECD, 2022[28]). Regional training centres can help
alleviate skill shortages and promote skill mobility for the development of regional value
chains (see also the EASTRIP programme above).

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Box 2.7. The Skills Initiative for Africa

The African Union Commission, AUDA‑NEPAD, the European Union and the German
government (through the KfW Development Bank) created the Skills Initiative for Africa (SIFA)
to promote innovative skills development. Between 2017 and 2023, SIFA financed projects that
contributed to employment‑oriented skills development for young people in eight African
countries, in collaboration with private firms. The SIFA Financing Facility provided grants of up
to EUR 3 million to domestic public or private accredited training providers, TVET institutions,
international chambers of commerce, international industry associations, and foundations of
international companies with local training activities. SIFA aims to create a continental platform
for knowledge exchange and private sector engagement in skills development.

African countries are making efforts to harmonise qualification frameworks to

facilitate the mobility of skilled labour and graduates. Existing regional qualifications
frameworks, spearheaded by regional economic communities and non‑governmental
organisations, remove restrictions on intra‑African mobility of skilled labour by creating
comparable qualification frameworks. While only SADC (in 2016) and the East African
Community (in 2015 and 2023) have adopted such frameworks to date, ECOWAS and the
Intergovernmental Authority on Development are moving in that direction. Joint minimal
standards have emerged as flexible, bottom‑up initiatives to promote the mutual
recognition of qualifications in agriculture and construction between neighbouring
countries such as Ghana, Nigeria and Togo (ILO, 2023[122]). To facilitate the regional mobility
of graduates, the African Union’s Continental Education Strategy for Africa 2016‑2025
stresses the need for continental qualifications frameworks that connect regional and
national frameworks.
The African Continental Qualifications Framework (ACQF) – implemented by the
African Union, in partnership with the European Union and GIZ – is a ten‑level
blueprint that connects qualifications frameworks and systems (ACQF, 2023[77]). It
aims to enhance comparability and transparency of qualifications, to facilitate the
recognition of diplomas and certificates and to promote the mobility of workers
and students. The second implementation (ACQF‑II) is a promising opportunity for
a regionally unified approach to micro‑credentials (Castel‑Branco, 2023[123]).
University exchange programmes, within and beyond Africa, are crucial to retain
highly educated students and attract new ones. Inspired by the European ERASMUS+
programme, intra‑African exchange programmes can retain African talent on the
continent and attract aspiring skilled workers. African countries can expand and deepen
existing initiatives to link university and training, backed by effective educational
counselling. Many leading international tertiary institutions are also establishing local
campuses, forming collaborative partnerships with African institutions, including
exchange programmes, and offering accredited online degrees.
The EU‑Africa: Global Gateway Investment Package – Education and Training
programme – integrates students from 35 African countries into the European
ERASMUS+ programme (European Union, 2022[89]).
International safeguards can regulate the outflow of skilled workers from strategic
sectors such as healthcare. For instance, the health workforce support and safeguards
list published by the World Health Organization for 2023 identifies countries with low
health workforce density and low coverage of essential health services (WHO, 2023[124]).
The United Kingdom has adopted this list in its 2023 code of practice that regulates

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international recruitment for health and social care organisations; it excludes 39 African
countries from active recruitment (UK GOV, 2023[125]).
Skill mobility partnerships can enhance skills development and circulation. Such
programmes offer dual‑track training in both origin and destination countries, with
the cost of training partially borne by destination countries or employers. While these
programmes do not prevent participants from seeking permanent relocation, they
emphasise temporary assignments and return initiatives. They also include training
components tailored to the skills needed in both the origin and destination countries, not
only for labour migrants but also for local populations (AU, 2020[126]).

Notes
1. The Digital Manifesto was piloted in Ethiopia, Mongolia and South Africa.
2. Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) programmes have been piloted in 12 African countries
(Botswana, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, South Africa,
Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia), reaching over 4 million students in 2022. Evaluations of TaRL
programmes found an increase in test scores by between 0.1 and 0.3 standard deviations per
student (Carter, 2024[127]).
3. Authors’ calculations based on GEM/UNESCO/World Bank (2024[47]) and Angrist et al. (2023[1]).
4. Authors’ calculation based on ILOSTAT (2024[109]).
5. Outside of formal learning, there exist non‑formal and informal learning. While non‑formal
learning usually takes place in community‑based settings, in the workplace and through the
activities of civil society organisations, informal or experiential learning refers to unstructured
learning developed in daily work‑related, family or leisure activities (UIL‑UNESCO, 2012[129]).
6. https://twitter.com/WomenInDataAfri; https://twitter.com/femafricmaths?lang=en.
7. An overview of the evaluations considered for this analysis can be obtained on request.
8. https://www.instituto-camoes.pt/en/activity-camoes/what-we-do/co-operation/programmes-
and-projects/featured-projects/programa-de-reforco-de-capacidades-do-sistema-educativo-
precase.
9. https://www.instituto-camoes.pt/sobre/comunicacao/noticias/programa-de-apoio-integrado-ao-
setor-educativo-de-sao-tome-e-principe-paise-stp-2019-2022.

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 Chapter 3
Skills for mining
in Southern Africa
This chapter examines skills development with a
focus on mining and mining beneficiation in Southern
Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi,
Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and
Zimbabwe). First, the chapter presents the region’s
educational outcomes to assess the overall skill supply.
Second, the chapter examines the mining sector’s
economic impact, workforce and outlook in the face
of changing global demand for minerals, as well as
how these relate to the demand for skills in industries
that are downstream of mining. Third, it examines the
region’s current policies that seek to equip workers
with in‑demand skills and makes recommendations
for how to improve those policies.

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 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

IN BRIEF Southern Africa’s supply of well‑educated and

skilled workers is above the African average. The
region’s educational outcomes are on par with
other African regions. A larger share of workers in
Southern Africa are in skilled occupations, and more
are overeducated while fewer are undereducated
than elsewhere in Africa.
Mining is a priority sector for the region, as it
supports economic development and government
revenues. However, Southern Africa continues to
export mostly mineral resources in raw form. Skill
needs in mining and in downstream industries vary
by mineral value chain. For example, in South Africa,
workers’ education levels are lower in non‑ferrous than
in ferrous ore mining. Yet, in manufacturing, the
country’s workers in non‑ferrous metals tend to have
higher education levels than those in ferrous metals.
Most of the sector’s workers are in artisanal and
small‑scale mining, where many jobs are informal
and for subsistence, resulting in low levels of
social protection and high levels of vulnerability.
Mining sector employment is overwhelmingly male‑
dominated, while women are better represented in
artisanal and small‑scale mining. Still, female mining
workers are often poorer and more vulnerable to
exploitation and danger than male workers.
Southern Africa has developed specific
industries downstream of mining, such as diamond
cutting, steel production, cobalt refining and electric
vehicle manufacturing. Yet, the relative lack of
skilled workers inhibits the region’s development
efforts, leading to an underutilisation of capacity in
mining‑related manufacturing.
Southern African policy makers can prioritise
three policy actions:
1. Ensure that sound national mining policies and
legislative frameworks are well harmonised
with regional standards and global best practices.
2. Adapt formal mining education to country‑specific
technical, business and digital skill needs.
3. Target education and training programmes
more directly towards women and other
marginalised groups.

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 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Skills for mining in Southern Africa

% of boys and girls with basic

math proficiency in high school
Skill levels
in Southern Africa Southern Africa Worldwide
are on par with
the rest of Africa >50%
11%
but vary greatly 9%
within the region
Girls Boys Girls Boys

% of workers in skilled occupations

44% 42% Rural workers

41% and female
30% workers Rural
26% 29% 20%
23% are less often Urban
21% 20% 21% in skilled 40%
14% occupations Female
22%
Male
39%

*Data not available for Botswana

Demand for new skills is high in industries downstream of mining

Diamond cutting in Botswana Cobalt refining in Zambia Renewable energy in South Africa
Number of diamond cutting Growing demand for
and polishing companies electric vehicles will double
the need for cobalt by 2030
Direct employment
50 in renewable
21 Co
Cobalt
energy surged
by 10% between
2022 and 2023

2013 2023

Monitor skills development according to regional

standards and global best practices

Adapt formal mining education to country-specific

Next steps technical, business and digital skill needs

Provide women and workers in artisanal and small-scale

mining with targeted education and training programmes

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3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Southern Africa regional profile

Figure 3.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

in Southern Africa, 2000‑22
Southern Africa Africa
A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant C. Public education spending
GDP per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
70 25 6
60 5
20
50
4
40 15
3
30 10
2
20
5 1
10
0 0 0

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed (own‑account) workers and contributing family
members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show
long‑term trends, as time series data on informal employment are missing for most African countries. Labour productivity
is measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices,
divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/; World
Bank (2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators;
and IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/zrugnp

Figure 3.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation

in Southern Africa, 2021
Managers Professionals Technicians Clerical support Service and sales
Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers Skilled elementary occupations

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Angola Botswana Eswatini Lesotho Malawi Mozambique Namibia South Africa Zambia Zimbabwe
Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals, “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers, and elementary occupations, and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators
and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/.
12 https://stat.link/7l3uez

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 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Southern Africa can further raise educational outcomes

Educational outcomes in the region are on par with other African regions, while
many highly educated Southern Africans leave the region
Southern Africans spend more years in school than the average for Africa but fewer
than in other world regions. On average, Southern Africans complete 7.5 years of schooling.
The estimated learning‑adjusted years of schooling (see Chapter 1) across Southern Africa
was 5.4 in 2020 (Figure 3.3). This is slightly higher than for Africa as a whole but lower than
the global average of 7.8. Zimbabwe has the region’s highest number of learning‑adjusted
years of schooling (7), approaching the global average.

Figure 3.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling

in Southern Africa, 2020
Years of schooling, population aged 15-64 Learning-adjusted years of schooling
Average number of years
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of
education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer
et al. (2020[4]) for the detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[5]), Education Statistics – All Indicators (database), https://databank.
worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/ao9mrw

Math achievement scores for Southern Africa are slightly lower than the African
average, with slightly higher scores for girls and a large rural‑urban divide (Figure 3.4).
The average percentage of adolescents achieving proficiency in math for Botswana,
South Africa and Zambia is lower than the average for all reporting African countries for
both males and females and in both rural and urban areas. The percentage of Southern
African students achieving proficiency in math is marginally higher for females than for
males, and it is twice as high in urban as in rural areas. The percentage of the region’s
adolescents in upper secondary school achieving math proficiency is slightly lower than
that for Africa as a whole, but the average for the world is nearly three times as high.

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3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Figure 3.4. Percentage of adolescents in upper secondary school achieving proficiency

in mathematics in Southern Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)
Mathematics
A. By area A. By gender
% %
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
Rural

Rural

Urban

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural
Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Female

Female
Female

Male

Female

Female

Female
Male

Male

Male

Female
Male

Male

Female
Male

Male
Botswana South Zambia Southern Africa Latin Asia (no High-
Botswana South Zambia Southern Africa Latin Asia (no High-
Africa Africa America high- income
Africa Africa America high- income
and the income countries
and the income countries
Caribbean countries) (no LAC)
Caribbean countries) (no LAC)

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[6]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.
education-inequalities.org/.
12 https://stat.link/xrnbi5

The share of highly educated people who immigrate to the region from outside of
Africa is generally lower than the share of Southern Africans who leave the continent.
For every extra‑continental immigrant to Southern African countries with a tertiary
education, six Southern Africans with the same education level leave Africa. Botswana
and Namibia are two notable exceptions: both countries have managed to attract far more
immigrants from outside of Africa with a tertiary education than the number of people
with that education level leaving these countries.

Figure 3.5. Migrants with tertiary education, origin and destination

(Southern Africa, 2020)
Intra-continental emigrants Intra-continental immigrants
Extra-continental emigrants Extra-continental immigrants

Angola
Botswana
Eswatini
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Southern Africa
Africa
World
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers show emigration.
Source: World Bank (2023[7]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-
migration and World Bank Group (2023[8]), World Development Report 2023, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/102109.
12 https://stat.link/o9fasl

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Southern African countries have more workers in skilled occupations than

the African average, but gender and rural‑urban divides and educational
mismatches exist
The share of workers in skilled occupations is higher in Southern Africa than the
African average, and their numbers differ across countries and reflect gender gaps. The
share of workers in skilled occupations in the region is 29%, compared with 22% for Africa
as a whole (Figure 3.6). However, Southern Africa’s average hides enormous heterogeneity:
the share ranges from 44% in South Africa to 14% in Malawi. While all Southern African
countries have a lower percentage of the rural population in skilled occupations than of
the urban population, the rural‑urban gap ranges from 33 percentage points in Malawi
to only 12 percentage points in South Africa. The share of workers in skilled occupations
is higher for males than females in Southern Africa, but this gap also varies by country,
with a low of 3 percentage points for Lesotho and a high of 35 for Angola. The discrepancy
between the slight advantage for girls over boys in math proficiency (Figure 3.4) and the
higher share of males in skilled occupations (Figure 3.6) suggests that women may face
additional barriers to integrating into skilled labour markets.

Figure 3.6. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in Southern Africa, by gender

and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available
Rural Urban Female Male All workers

A. By location B. By gender
% %
60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0

Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between 2010 and
2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled occupations include
professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations include sales, agriculture,
household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: USAID (2019[10]), Demographic and Health (DHS) Surveys (2010‑19) (database), https://www.statcompiler.com/en/.
12 https://stat.link/5upzfw

In Southern Africa, the education levels of a majority of workers do not match

occupational requirements (Figure 3.7). Compared to African workers overall, Southern
African workers – whether men, women, employees or self‑employed workers – are less
likely to have education levels below occupational requirements and more likely to have
education levels above requirements. Self‑employed workers in Southern Africa are far
less likely to have education levels above requirements (13% of workers) compared with
employees (22%) and more likely to have education levels below requirements (49% of
workers vs. 29%). The education‑occupation mismatch was slightly higher for female
workers than male workers, for education levels both below and above requirements.

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Figure 3.7. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation in Southern Africa, 2022 or latest year available
Matched Undereducated Overeducated
Employees
Africa

Self-employed

Employees
Southern
Africa

Self-employed

Employees
Zimbabwe

Self-employed

Employees
Zambia

Self-employed

Employees
South
Africa

Self-employed

Employees
Namibia

Self-employed
Mozambiqu

Employees
e

Self-employed

Employees
Lesotho

Self-employed

Employees
Eswatini

Self-employed

Employees
Botswana

Self-employed

Employees
Angola

Self-employed

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
%
Note: (Mis)matches are assessed through the normative approach by comparing educational requirements set out in the
International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) for each one‑digit ISCO occupational group with the level of
education of each person in employment. Calculations are based on data collected in national labour force statistics or other
nationally representative household surveys with a module on employment.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023[11]), ILO Education and Mismatch Indicators (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/j4fhqp

Southern Africa’s mining sector can benefit from demand‑oriented skills

development
The mining sector is disproportionately important for Southern Africa’s exports,
government revenue and development. In 2022, exports of fossil fuels and minerals from
Southern Africa were 39% of gross domestic product – the highest amount since 2008 –
compared to 23% for the rest of the world. Mining in Southern Africa is both an important
source of government revenue and a driver of development in other sectors, such as
construction, manufacturing and transportation.
The value chains of Southern Africa’s mining sector require skills beyond mining.
The economic impacts of mining unfold along value chains, from fossil fuel and mineral
extraction to mining beneficiation to mining‑based manufacturing (Box 3.1). Increasing
the value that the mining sector creates for the economy demands developing different
kinds of skills:

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 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

• Technical skills unique to mining and mining beneficiation, such as mining

engineering or the operation of mining and smelting equipment.
• Transversal skills that are relevant in mining and beyond. Many people within
the mining workforce, especially informal workers in artisanal and small‑scale
mining, are vulnerable to economic precarity or poverty. They can benefit from
obtaining some non‑mining‑related skills that would improve their resilience, such
as soft, entrepreneurial and managerial skills.
• Skills for mining‑related manufacturing and other industries, such as steel production
from iron ore and coal, or jewellery production from precious metals and gemstones.
These industries can use locally produced mining outputs for value addition if skill
supply is available, for instance, workers trained in gem cutting or artisans and
technicians in the metal manufacturing sector.

Box 3.1. Mining, beneficiation and mining‑based manufacturing

The paths that economically useful minerals follow from the time they are extracted to
when they reach the final consumers are long, complex and varied. These value chains
of fossil fuels and minerals follow three main steps:
1. Mining refers to the extraction of fossil fuels and minerals from below the Earth’s
surface (e.g. mines and oil wells). This is a sector that requires a specialised
workforce, such as mining engineers or geologists.
2. Mining beneficiation refers to the transformation of fossil fuels and minerals
extracted from below the Earth’s surface into materials of greater value that serve
as inputs into other industries. Examples of beneficiation include oil refining,
cobalt smelting and the production of coke and steel. Beneficiation can occur at
mine sites, undertaken by the firms running the mines, or elsewhere, sometimes
in other countries. Depending on the value chain, activities in beneficiation
can vary greatly from those in mining and often require different equipment,
occupations and skills.
3. Mining‑based manufacturing refers to the part of the manufacturing sector that
directly depends on the materials derived from mining and beneficiation, such as
the manufacturing of steel car parts or copper pipes. While these activities rely
on mining, they are almost always carried out by firms with different capabilities
and in different locations.

Different mining‑based value chains create different demands for skills

A diverse set of fossil fuels and minerals are mined in Southern African countries.
Exports of fossil fuels and minerals, in crude, ore and processed forms, accounted for
66% of Southern Africa’s exports in 2022; they were also the top exports for all Southern
African countries aside from Eswatini and Malawi (Table 3.1). The ten most valuable mined
commodities from Southern African countries in 2022 were petroleum, gold, diamonds,
copper, coal, iron, platinum, rhodium, palladium and aluminium.

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Table 3.1. Top three exports for Southern African countries, 2022
Country Product Exports Exports Exports Number of miners
(USD billion) (% of GDP) (% of total) (where available)
Angola Crude petroleum 43.2 35.1 84.2
Natural gas 3.8 3.1 7.4
Industrial diamonds 2.5 2.0 4.8
Botswana Non‑industrial diamonds 6.6 32.6 80.1 11 312
Copper ores 0.4 1.8 4.3
Electrical equipment 0.3 1.3 3.2
Eswatini Perfume and essential oils 0.5 10.5 25.2
Sugar, molasses and honey 0.4 8.0 19.0
Chemical products 0.2 4.2 10.1
Lesotho Non‑industrial diamonds 0.3 13.5 36.8 2 297
Men’s clothing 0.1 4.1 11.1
Women’s clothing 0.1 3.9 10.5
Malawi Tobacco 0.3 2.5 39.2
Sugar and honey 0.1 0.9 14.9
Oil seeds 0.1 0.9 14.3
Mozambique Coal 2.1 11.2 26.7 70 600
Aluminium 1.4 7.3 17.3
Base metal ores 0.8 4.1 9.7
Namibia Non‑industrial diamonds 1.4 11.0 22.2 16 147
Uranium 0.7 5.5 11.0
Gold 0.5 4.1 8.2
South Africa Platinum 17.7 4.4 14.6 445 653
Coal 12.4 3.1 10.2
Gold 9.8 2.4 8.1
Zambia Copper 8.8 29.7 68.7 66 478
Electricity 0.4 1.5 3.5
Cement and lime 0.3 1.1 2.5
Zimbabwe Gold 2.6 8.1 39.3 245 600
Nickel ores 1.1 3.6 17.6
Tobacco 1.1 3.4 16.7
Note: Shaded items are products of mining and beneficiation.
Source: IMF (2024[12]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/SPROLLs/world-economic-
outlook-databases#sort=%40imfdate%20descending for gross domestic product (GDP) data; CEPII (2024[13]), BACI: International
Trade Database at the Product-Level (database), www.cepii.fr/CEPII/en/bdd_modele/bdd_modele_item.asp?id=37 for exports data;
and various reports for the numbers of miners.

The education levels of miners vary greatly across different mining‑based value
chains and across their steps, as South Africa shows (Figure 3.8). Nearly half (47%) of
the country’s workforce in mining industries have less than a secondary education, but
the share differs by type of mineral. Fifty‑four per cent of South Africa’s non‑ferrous ore
miners have less than a secondary school education compared with 21% of ferrous ore
miners. Of the mining‑related manufacturing workforce, 56% have less than a secondary
education. Contrary to mining industries, in mining‑based manufacturing, non-ferrous
metal workers have higher education levels than ferrous metal workers.

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 3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Figure 3.8. Employment by education level in mining and mining‑related manufacturing

in South Africa
Less than secondary education Secondary education completed
Post-secondary education
A. Mining industries

All mining

Quarrying, clay and sand

Non-ferrous metal ores

Diamonds

Ferrous metal ores

Gold and uranium ores

Coal and lignite

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of workers

B. Mining-related manufacturing

Total

Precious and non-ferrous metal products

Iron, steel and metal products

Non-metallic mineral products

Nuclear fuel

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of workers
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Statistics South Africa (2010‑23[14]), Quarterly Labour Force Survey (database), https://
www.statssa.gov.za.
12 https://stat.link/aqvemb

Shortages of workers with the necessary skills represent a key obstacle to the
development of beneficiation and downstream industries in Southern Africa. Despite the
potential of greater development of industries based on mining (Table 3.2), many of the
fossil fuels and minerals produced in Southern African countries, outside of precious
metals, are exported as ores or as crude oil, rather than feeding into local transformative
industries that are downstream. According to a survey of South African mining experts
conducted in 2015, the most cited factor in generating a sustained beneficiation industry
was the availability of a workforce with the required technical skills (Tom, 2015[15]).
Anglo American, the country’s second‑largest mining company, involved in coal,
diamond and platinum mining, also identified skill shortages as one of the challenges to
their efforts to develop a mining beneficiation industry in 2017 (AngloAmerican, 2024[16]),
followed by an unreliable power supply, lack of local markets for locally beneficiated
products and infrastructure constraints. This issue of skill shortages has persisted in
recent years, despite new opportunities for mining beneficiation arising from efforts to
decarbonise the global economy (Fabricius, 2023[17]).

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Capacity is underutilised in South Africa’s mining‑related manufacturing as a result

of numerous factors, including a limited supply of skilled labour. Data suggest that the
country’s manufacturing capacity is underutilised across different products (Figure 3.9).
This is mostly due to factors unrelated to skills, such as lack of raw materials, low demand,
maintenance problems, productivity, or seasonal issues. However, for manufacturing metal
products, lack of skilled labour is a significant factor.
Figure 3.9. Capacity underutilisation in mining‑related manufacturing
in South Africa, 2021‑23 average
Skilled labour Semi- and unskilled labour Raw materials
Insufficient demand Other

%
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Coke, petroleum Glass and glass Other non- Basic iron and Non-ferrous Fabricated Machinery and Electrical Total
products and products metallic mineral steel products metal products metal products equipment machinery manufacturing
nuclear fuel products
Note: Capacity underutilisation is calculated from the responses to a quarterly survey of large South African
manufacturing enterprises. Respondents were asked about the degree of capacity constraint they experience,
along with the main causes of this constraint. Their responses were used to calculate a percentage difference
between productive output with and without each given factor affecting capacity utilisation.
Source: Statistics South Africa (2023[18]), Manufacturing: Utilisation of Production Capacity by Large Enterprises, https://
www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P3043/P3043February2023.pdf. 12 https://stat.link/qw683n

For manufacturing iron and iron products, capacity underutilisation due to lack of skilled
labour has historically been significant in South Africa, while lack of semi‑ and unskilled
labour has remained far less important (Figure 3.10). The recent drop in South African
under‑capacity attributed to skilled labour shortages results from economic difficulties in
the post‑COVID‑19 era in the country that have decreased manufacturing output, such as
strikes, floods and power cuts (IMF, 2023[19]). A rebound in regional manufacturing could
provoke a return of skilled labour shortages that limits Southern African economic growth.
Figure 3.10. Capacity underutilisation in mining‑related manufacturing
in South Africa due to labour shortages, 2004‑23 (% of total capacity)
Coke, petroleum products and nuclear fuel Basic iron and steel products
Non-ferrous metal products Fabricated metal products
A. Skilled labour B. Semi- and unskilled labour
% %
6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

Source: Statistics South Africa (2023[18]), Manufacturing: Utilisation of Production Capacity by Large Enterprises,
https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P3043/P3043February2023.pdf. 12 https://stat.link/2ug1k5

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The demand for skills in the mining sector includes foundational, soft and
digital skills
Before looking to enhance the pool of highly skilled workers, Southern African
countries may need to ensure that elementary education infrastructure is accessible
to miners. Many mining workers, including those in artisanal and small‑scale mining,
have not completed elementary education and may lack foundational skills such as
literacy, numeracy and basic civic education. A standardised achievement test taken
by 873 workers from 3 mines in South Africa showed that close to 99% of miners were
functionally innumerate (Christoffel Smit and Mji, 2012[20]). Although such skills might
not always be necessary for specific tasks, such as digging or sluicing, they are important
for workers to improve their situations. Such skills are also necessary for acquiring other
technical and soft skills which could help them move to new positions and improve their
productivity.
More soft skills can benefit miners. These skills, in particular interpersonal skills,
self‑awareness, as well as managerial, clerical and legal skills, are generally missing.
Both large mining operations with complex structures that operate in international
legal environments and artisanal and small‑scale mining operations in the informal
economy suffer from soft skill shortages. According to Molek‑Winiarska and Kawka
(2022[21]), soft skills training in communications, team building and self‑management
skills has succeeded in reducing the stress levels of workers in a large mine. A study of
employers in the South African mining sector showed that “generic skills” (e.g. people
skills and communication, leadership and teamwork, problem‑solving and adaptability,
accountability, honesty and integrity, emotional intelligence, and resilient thinking) were
regarded as “crucial to the learning process of mining engineering students” (Dipitso,
2023[22]).
Digital skill training can equip workers for new job requirements within the mining
sector and beyond. The rise of digital technologies like artificial intelligence (AI),
cloud computing and blockchain give mining enterprises ways to enhance efficiency,
productivity and safety at work sites. Practical applications include automated drilling,
driverless trucks, predictive maintenance with sensors and scanners. Yet, AI and
automation may also reshape the task composition of jobs and fully displace some of
them. While data on Southern Africa is missing, a study by Acemoglu et al. (2022[23]) on the
impact of AI on online jobs and job vacancies in the United States shows that an increase
in AI exposure is associated with more AI job vacancies. Increased investment in training
for mining‑related and transferrable digital skills can both support productivity in mining
and improve the employability of mining workers within and outside of the sector.

Skills development for diamond beneficiation, cobalt refining, steel production

and minerals for renewable energy could strengthen mining value chains in
Southern Africa
Downstream activities in mining value chains could be supported by targeted skills
development, in alignment with product complexity. Products made downstream in
mining value chains range in complexity from copper wires and sheet metal to motor
vehicle parts. Each of the fossil fuels and minerals that are important to Southern Africa is
associated with particular beneficiation and production opportunities, with skill demand
emerging from the potential employment growth.

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3. Skills for mining in Southern Africa

Table 3.2. Beneficiation and downstream activities and in‑demand occupations

for important mineral value chains in Southern Africa
Mining Beneficiation Manufacturing
Value
chain Main ores Mining activities Beneficiation Examples Final products Examples
activities of occupations of occupations
Aluminium Bauxite Refining into Rolling, spinning, Materials scientist, Construction, Metallurgist,
alumina, smelting casting metallurgical/ consumer durables, welder
(electrolysis) mechanical/chemical aluminium foil
engineer
Coal Raw coal Crushing, screening, Fuel, metallurgical Mechanical/ Thermal power, Machinist,
processing coke metallurgical engineer steel production maintenance
technician
Cobalt Cobalt oxide, Pyrometallurgy, Cobalt sulphate/ Chemist, process Lithium‑ion Materials scientist,
cobalt sulphate hydrometallurgy oxide refining engineer batteries chemical engineer
Copper Copper oxide, Drilling, blasting Copper processing: Materials scientist, Solar panels, wind Electrical engineer,
copper sulphate pyrometallurgy, metallurgical/chemical/ turbines, heating/ solar panel
hydrometallurgy, electrical engineer cooling systems, installer, electric
electrorefining electric wires, vehicle engineer
electric cars
Diamonds Diamond‑bearing Magnetic Cutting and polishing Gemcutters (both Jewellery, drills, Jewellery designer,
ore obtained from susceptibility, X‑ray traditional and using cutting tools jewellery maker
pipe, alluvial or luminescence, high‑tech equipment)
marine mining crystallographic laser
fluorescence
Gold Amalgam, Amalgamation, Purification with Chemist, process Jewellery, Jewellery designer,
gold‑bearing cyanidation gaseous chlorine, engineer dentistry, electronic jewellery maker,
solution electrolysis or transistors, dentist, computer
pyrometallurgy semiconductor engineer
silicon chips
Iron Iron ore Concentrating: Blast furnaces, Metal making and Machinery, Engineer
obtaining ores richer smelting reduction treatment process construction,
in iron operatives agriculture
Natural gas Natural gas Vertical/horizontal Oil, condensate, Process engineer Electricity, cooking, Engineer,
drilling, hydraulic water, sulfur and heating computer scientist
fracturing carbon dioxide
removal, separation
of natural gas liquids
Nickel Sulfides, laterites Drilling, blasting Pyrometallurgy, Materials scientist, Stainless steel, Materials scientist,
(nickel‑bearing smelting, metallurgical engineer, batteries, mobile chemical engineer
ores) hydrometallurgy chemical engineer phones
Petroleum Crude petroleum Drilling Oil refining: Process engineer Transportation, Engineer,
separation, electricity, heating computer scientist
conversion, treatment
Platinum Platinum ore Blasting and ore Refining: separation Material operator, Automobile exhaust Mechanical/
crushing, flotation and purification smelter operator systems, jewellery electrical/chemical
separation, drying, engineer
smelting
Uranium Uranium‑bearing Roasting then Precipitation, Mechanical Nuclear power Chemical/nuclear
ores hydrometallurgy refining, conversion maintenance technician, engineer
to uranium metal, dynamic test engineer
conversion to
plutonium
Source: Authors’ compilation of in‑demand occupations based on online job listings.

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Southern Africa, particularly Botswana, has potential for skills development in diamond
beneficiation
Southern Africa leads the world in the extraction of raw diamonds, while its
beneficiation activity is limited. Five of the top ten raw diamond‑producing countries
are in Southern Africa,1 and together they represent nearly two‑thirds of the value of
global production (Damarupurshad, 2023[25]). However, little of the far more lucrative and
labour‑intensive beneficiation activity, such as diamond cutting and polishing, occurs
where the diamonds are extracted. For instance, 90% of the world’s cut diamonds are cut
and polished in Surat, India, due both to India’s history as a former major producer of
diamonds and to strong investments from the De Beers corporation (a British corporation
with historical ties to South Africa that dominates the global diamond trade). India hosts
a workforce of 800 000 highly skilled diamond technicians to serve the demands of a
USD 21.3 billion diamond cutting and polishing industry (Polaris Market Research, 2023[26];
Mandal, 2016[27]).
In Botswana, the diamond beneficiation workforce has grown and increased its
skill levels, driving up demand for skills development. Since the late 1990s, Botswana
has advanced on its priority of creating a diamond hub in Gaborone. Opportunities
for employing local semi‑skilled labour were identified in the intermediate stages of
processing (sorting, aggregation, cutting and polishing), as these stages require neither the
substantial long‑term capital investments necessary in mining, nor the network of retail
outlets and commercial knowledge of the retail step of the value chain. Since 2008, the
entirety of the diamonds extracted in Botswana has been sorted and valued in Gaborone
in the world’s largest sorting and valuing facility that employs 400 people. A Diamond
Academy was put in place to train sorters and valuing staff. By 2013, 21 diamond cutting
and polishing companies were established in Botswana, employing 3 500 people; with the
number of companies reaching 50 in 2023 (Maramwidze, 2023[28]) Success factors of the
Botswanan case include the government’s strong relationship with De Beers as a global
lead firm, government commitment to the sector, a strong focus on capacity building, and
political and regulatory stability (Korinek, 2013[29]).2 Yet, the question remains of whether
employment growth in diamond cutting can continue. As the industry expands its use of
lasers and computer‑assisted cutting and design, it will reduce the labour intensity of the
process (Gaywala, 2015[30]).

Zambia is set to exploit the value of cobalt mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Southern African countries are beginning to exploit the strategic potential of cobalt
as a vital mineral for electric vehicles (EVs). In 2023, the EV market accounted for 46%
of the demand for cobalt in 2023, which was an increase of 22% over 2022. With the
further growth of the global EV industry, cobalt demand is set to double by 2030 (Cobalt
Institute, 2023[31]). Zambia is seeking to develop local cobalt activities. For instance, the
Kobaloni Energy firm aims to build a cobalt sulphate refinery in the country, which will
be Africa’s first (Bloomberg News, 2023[32]). The refinery would be constructed near the
world’s eighth‑largest cobalt mine, across Zambia’s border in the Katanga region of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) (Mining Technology, 2023[33]).3 With the
gradual depletion of cobalt oxide deposits in DR Congo, and as a mineral used in battery
manufacturing, cobalt sulphate will play a major role in sustaining the region.
Developing a competitive cobalt industry will require upgrading both technical and
green skills. While the Kobaloni project promises a potential 1 000 jobs in Zambia, the jobs
hinge on a workforce with advanced technical skills such as in chemical, mechanical and
metallurgical engineering. In particular, pyrometallurgy, which uses high temperatures

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to separate target metals from waste, is required for processing cobalt sulphides (OECD,
2019[34]) but is a notably polluting activity. There are rising concerns on the global cobalt
market around environmental sustainability and safety in its value chains, which is
driving further demand for green and health‑related skills (Cobalt Institute, 2023[35];
Harvey et al., 2022[36]).

South Africa’s and Zimbabwe’s legacy in steel production could be revitalised through
skilled workers
Due to international carbon pricing, South Africa is shifting towards greener steel
production. South Africa’s historically well‑developed steel industry suffers from the
increasing demand for green steel, notably from the European Union. This follows the
introduction of the European Union carbon border adjustment mechanism, which will
effectively raise taxes on the relatively carbon‑intensive South African steel (Yermolenko,
2023[37]). In 2023, the country launched the South Africa Just Energy Transition Investment
Plan to invest in both sustainable infrastructure and skills for the green transition. South
Africa aims to invest in ”green steel” (decarbonising steel production), which would
increase green skill demand in the sector, as well as the need to upskill local workers
(South Africa, 2022[38]).
While South Africa dominates Southern Africa’s steel production, Zimbabwe seeks
to regain its former status as a major steel producer. In the post‑independence era,
Zimbabwe’s ZISCO Kwekwe District boasted the largest steelworks in Africa, which used
iron ore and limestone from nearby mines to make steel for export to Asia and Europe
(Mahove, 2016[39]). The factory stopped all operations in 2008, but in 2024, a new steel plant
was built in Manhize by the Chinese‑owned Dinson Iron and Steel Company. The plant
aims to produce 5 million tonnes of iron and steel annually and employ 10 000 workers
(Kutchner, 2024[40]). The new steel plant has already increased the demand for workers
and skills in Zimbabwe. To build the plant, 1 500 on‑site construction workers were hired
(The Zimbabwean, 2023[41]). To enable the launch of its operations in 2024, the plant is
recruiting technical staff to work on data capture and in laboratories (Kutchner, 2024[40]).

The green transition will create new demand for skills to use critical minerals in renewable
energy, including solar panel manufacturing
Southern Africa has important resources of minerals that are critical for the green
transition. These include copper, platinum, manganese, chromium, cobalt, graphite
and nickel. By weight, copper is the critical mineral most used in offshore wind and
solar photovoltaic panels and the second most used in onshore wind energy after zinc
(IEA, 2021[42]). Platinum group metals are crucial for decarbonising the industry. Both
manganese and chromium are used in renewable energy technologies. Graphite and
nickel are key components in the production of batteries used in electric vehicles (Mo
Ibrahim Foundation, 2022[43]). In addition, refining some of these ores within Southern
Africa could be cost‑competitive with the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”).
For example, according to a study, lithium carbonate in Namibia and manganese sulphate
in South Africa should be cheaper to produce per ton than in China (SEforALL, 2023[44]).
Due to the abundance of these minerals in Southern Africa, the region has potential for
sustainable development by supporting renewable energies through the mining sector
and can support the global transition to a greener and sustainable economy.
While the prices of certain critical materials have faltered in recent years, employment
in renewable energy and demand for green skills have increased (World Bank Group
2024[24]). In South Africa, the prices of copper, zinc, natural graphite and nickel have
dropped; however, between 2022 and 2023, direct employment in renewable energy

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surged by 10% (IRENA/ILO, 2023[45]). Accordingly, the mining sector anticipates an uptick
in demand for skills in green procurement (i.e. the purchasing of goods that minimises
negative environmental impacts), environmental management and regulation, operations,
and maintenance to support the transition towards a greener economy (ILO, 2018[46]).
SolarAid, a charity devoted to rural electrification through solar energy, trains
Zambians to become solar panel technicians and to repair old solar lights, extend
their life cycles and reduce electronic waste. Currently, over 250 000 solar lights
are installed in Zambia, but only 10% of their components can be reused (BMZ/GIZ/
KfW, 2024[47]).
Southern African countries have yet to achieve their potential as manufacturers of
solar panels. While China continues to dominate the global production of solar panels,
South Africa has the capacity to manufacture them due to its high manufacturing added
value, good infrastructure and competitive industrial base (SEforALL, 2023[44]). One
existing manufacturer in the country is able to produce solar panels on a large scale
(Oirere, 2023[48]). In February 2023, a second solar panel assembly plant opened in Cape
Town, with an all‑woman workforce and a focus on making smaller solar panels using
aluminium purchased locally (Cape Business News, 2023[49]). Due to Southern Africa’s
slow uptake of solar panel manufacturing, the vast majority of the region’s jobs in solar
energy tend to be in deployment, rather than manufacturing, where significant efforts in
skills development are needed (SolarPower Europe, 2023[50]).

Harmonised mining policies and better‑targeted education and training can

improve skills development for Southern Africa’s mining sector
Policy interventions for skills development in the mining sector and related
downstream activities cut across three levels. First, policy makers can more directly
target mining strategies on skills development in downstream industries in value chains.
Second, countries can use the complementarity of private and public sector‑led skills
development for inclusive creation of productive jobs in Southern Africa’s mining sector
and in sectors associated to mining. Finally, policies can extend mining‑related education
and training to under‑represented groups, especially women.

National mining strategies can further emphasise downstream value chain

potential, in alignment with existing regional frameworks
Southern African countries can more directly focus on developing industries
downstream in mineral value chains. Countries in the region that depend on mining have
established a number of mining policies and strategies, including on skills development
(Table 3.3). However, with the exceptions of Botswana’s and Namibia’s diamond legislation
and Zimbabwe’s chromium ore export ban, most policies and strategies do not target
skills development in specific mineral value chains. A more strategic focus on developing
technical skills needed for occupations in the value chains (Table 3.2) could support the
expansion of downstream industries.

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Table 3.3. Examples of mining sector policies and strategies in Southern Africa
Policy/strategy Objective Legal instruments Envisioned impacts
and implications
Diamond beneficiation To add value within the diamonds value Diamond Cutting Act Increases local employment but
chain within the country and create jobs creates challenges due to global
competition and market dynamics
Botswana

Skills development To enhance the skills of the local Specific programmes and Improves local expertise but
workforce to support the mining and required legal backing requires continuous investment
beneficiation sector and alignment with industry needs
Investment incentives To attract companies and encourage Incentives under the Botswana Potentially increases foreign
them to process minerals locally Investment and Trade Centre investment but is dependent on
(BITC) global market trends
Minerals Policy of Namibia To ensure environmental sustainability, Minerals (Prospecting and Encourages sustainable mining
promote local beneficiation and attract Mining) Act, 1992 practices and local value addition
investment
Namibia

Diamond Act, Precious Stones To regulate the diamond industry and Diamond Act, 1999; Precious Supports the establishment
Act promote local processing Stones Act, 1969 of local diamond cutting and
polishing industries
Namibian Institute of Mining To supply the mining sector with Not applicable Enhances the technical skill set of
and Technology (NIMT) technically skilled workers workers in the mining industry
Mineral and Petroleum To ensure equitable access to mineral MPRDA, 2002 Regulates exploration and
Resources Development Act resources and promote economic growth exploitation of minerals, requires
(MPRDA) and mineral resource development mining rights
Mining Charter (2018) To facilitate sustainable transformation, Broad‑Based Socio‑Economic Mandates equity stakes,
growth and development of the mining Empowerment Charter community development, etc.
South Africa

industry
Beneficiation strategy To maximise the returns from mining Policy documents from Encourages local processing,
through the value‑added processing of the Department of Mineral potentially creating jobs and
raw materials Resources boosting the economy
Skills development programmes To provide necessary skills and Skills Development Act, 1998; Enhances safety and efficiency
(Mining qualifications knowledge for the workforce in the Mine Health and Safety Act, in mining operations, supports
authority, Sector Education mining and minerals sector 1996 community development
and Training Authority)
Zambia’s mining policy To ensure sustainable mining practices, Mines and Minerals Sets the legal and regulatory
attract foreign investment and enhance Development Act, 2015, framework for mining activities,
local value addition amended in 2022 including licensing, taxation and
environmental compliance
Mineral Beneficiation Strategy To boost economic growth through Policy documents from the Encourages the development of
increased local processing of minerals, Ministry of Mines and Minerals local processing industries but
job creation and technology transfer Development requires significant investment
and infrastructure development
Zambia

Zambia Mining and To mitigate the impact of mining on Support from the World Bank Addresses the long‑term effects
Environmental Remediation the environment and public health, and other international partners of mining on the environment and
and Improvement Project particularly in legacy mining areas community health
Skills development To develop a skilled workforce capable of Collaborations with educational Is critical for supporting local
programmes in the mining supporting the mining industry, including institutions, industry beneficiation and ensuring that the
sector in beneficiation processes partnerships Zambian workforce can meet the
industry’s demands
Zambia Extractive Industries To promote openness and accountability Extractive Industries Transparency Enhances investor confidence and
Transparency Initiative in the mining sector, particularly in Initiative Standard, implemented public trust in the mining sector
revenue management in Zambia since 2009
Indigenization and Economic To increase local ownership and control Indigenization and Economic Creates challenges in foreign
Empowerment Act over the mining sector Empowerment Act (2007‑08) investment, affecting capital inflow
and technology transfer in the
mining sector
Zimbabwe Mining To develop a skilled workforce for the ZMDC Act Improves local expertise but
Zimbabwe

Development Corporation mining industry requires consistent funding and

(ZMDC) training programme industry support
Minerals Marketing To ensure fair trade and value addition in MMCZ Act Helps stabilise market prices but
Corporation of Zimbabwe mineral exports needs to align with global market
(MMCZ) trends
Chromium ore export ban To promote local beneficiation and value Government policy directives Faces infrastructural and
addition technological constraints
Source: Authors’ compilation based on mining policy documents.

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Policies and strategies to develop the mining sector, including its downstream
activities, require sufficient legislative support and resourcing. Beyond formulating
targeted policies and strategies, implementing them requires the government agencies
concerned to have sufficient resources. In Malawi, for example, agencies suffer from
inadequately skilled personnel, insufficient training facilities, and poor collaboration
with training research institutions (Republic of Malawi, 2023[51]). In response, the country’s
Mines and Minerals Bill of 2023 introduced new measures to boost skills development
and mandated medium‑ to large‑scale mines to submit an employment and training
plan, emphasising the participation of women. Although this encourages private sector
investment in skills development, the government continues to directly allocate a limited
budget for this purpose.
In South Africa, the Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 and the Skills Development
Act 97 of 1998 establish a comprehensive framework for targeted skills development
initiatives. The Skills Development Act incorporates the National Skills Authority
and Fund (a levy‑grant scheme), Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs),
labour centres, and the Skills Development Planning Unit.
Regional and international co‑ordination on mining strategies and international
partnerships have compensated for the absence of a global framework. In the absence of
a comprehensive global framework for mining development, Southern African countries
have sought to align their policies at continental and regional levels, namely through the
Africa Mining Vision and the Protocol on Mining of the Southern African Development
Community (SADC). At the global level, Southern Africa’s leading mining countries, like
Botswana and South Africa, have used their influence in international co‑ordination
through non‑legal fora. In collaboration with development partners, global partnerships
have strengthened mining sector governance in Southern African countries. For instance,
DR Congo, Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia have joined the Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative (EITI), which supports accountability in the management of
mineral resources by requiring the disclosure of information along mineral value chains
(AFRODAD, 2023[52]).
At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South
Africa, alongside Canada, successfully advocated for the creation of a global
platform aimed at enhancing the development of the mining sector. This initiative
led to the formation of the Global Dialogue on Mining/Metals and Sustainable
Development (IGF). Subsequently, member countries sought assistance from
UNCTAD to establish a more structured, member‑driven intergovernmental forum,
resulting in the launch of the IGF in 2005 with 25 founding members. Upgrading
the IGF’s status within the UN’s partnership framework could facilitate easier and
more organised mobility of skilled workers, thereby reducing skill shortages.
Policy harmonisation under the SADC Protocol on Mining can more directly emphasise
regional skills development. In 1997, SADC signed the Protocol on Mining, which entered
into force in 2000. Article 4 of the protocol calls for member states to co‑operate in
upgrading the technological capacity of human resources and providing training facilities
(SADC, 2006[53]). To operationalise the protocol, SADC and the Southern Africa Office of the
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa developed a framework laid out in the
publication Harmonization of Mining Policies, Standards, Legislative and Regulatory Frameworks
in Southern Africa. The initiative harmonises mineral industrial policies, standards and
legal frameworks in the region. In addition to its direct fiscal benefits, the framework
seeks to enhance skills training in the mining sector. However, its implementation has
been criticised as piecemeal, with only slow progress in mineral resource governance
across Southern Africa (AFRODAD, 2023[52]).

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Public and private education and training in technical mining skills are
complementary in achieving inclusion and forward‑thinking skills development
The private sector can be quick in creating a skilled workforce for industries
downstream of mining. The example above of diamond cutting in Botswana showed
that opening licensing to private mining companies, in collaboration with foreign
multinationals, can quickly generate downstream industry activity. However, the example
also demonstrated that, without specific government intervention, multinational
enterprises can locate production sites anywhere in the world, depending on cost and
scale efficiency. In addition, private companies may not be proactive in equipping local
workers for technological change, such as the advent of lasers and automation in diamond
cutting, and they may bring skilled workers in from abroad when local supply is missing.
Publicly-provided education and training in mining is needed to ensure inclusion and
anticipate the upskilling of local workers. Public education and training programmes at
tertiary and research institutions can be more easily aligned with a country’s priorities
for skills development as well as with those of the local population, while aiming to
respond to market demand. Zimbabwe, for example, has targeted the development
of skills for a critical set of mining‑related occupations and has been encouraging the
establishment of tertiary institutions with education and training that focus on mining
(Table 3.4). Mining‑specific public education and training, though perhaps insufficient
to make a country a world leader in mining production, is essential for targeting the
long‑term upskilling of workers and offering talented informal workers, including women,
opportunities to pursue specialised technical careers in mining.

Table 3.4. Tertiary education and training institutions teaching technical mining skills
in Zimbabwe
Institution Skill provision
Midlands State University, Bindura University of Science and Degrees in chemical and processing engineering, mining and mineral processing
Technology engineering, surveying and geomatics, metallurgy, and geoinformatics and geology
Kwekwe Polytechnic Tailor‑made courses for workers in artisanal and small‑scale mining
Institute of Mining Research Advanced education, training and consultancy services, and research in mineral
(partly funded by the government) economics, mineralogy and metallurgy
Zimbabwe School of Mines Technical education, practical training and in‑house training for mining personnel
(a regional school which serves the SADC mining industry)
Zimbabwe Diamond Education College Skills to add value to the diamond industry
(established in 2010 following the discovery of diamond
deposits)
Source: Zimbabwe Policy Research Unit (2015[54]), “In‑depth training needs assessment surveying the Zimbabwe mining
sector”, https://zepari.co.zw/sites/default/files/2018-03/Policy%20Brief%20in%20depth%20training%20needs%20assessment%20
survey%20policy%20brief%20new.pdf.

Mining qualifications authorities (MQAs) can promote training led by the private
sector, as is the case in South Africa. MQAs are responsible for the administration and
development of mining sector training programmes. For instance, mining companies in
South Africa are mandated to pay 1% and 5% of their payrolls as a skills development
levy to the MQA and the Mining Charter, respectively. They are also obliged to submit
skills development plans and annual training reports to the MQA. Between 2016 and
2020, South African mining companies invested more than USD 360 million per year in
developing skills for the country’s mining sector (Mineral Council South Africa, 2022[55]).
Entrepreneurship training, school infrastructure near mines and work‑integrated
training can increase foundational and transversal soft skills for miners. Working in
mining, especially for people who start at a young age, can disrupt education and reduce
educational outcomes. It is therefore important to provide miners with foundational and

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soft skills that are relevant in other sectors and can improve their economic prospects.
Entrepreneurship training for workers in artisanal and small‑scale mining can be an
essential tool to do so (Mkubukeli and Tengeh, 2016[56]). Constructing schooling infrastructure
where miners can access it, such as at mine sites, can also help. The company Royal
Bafokeng Platinum was obliged under the South African Mining Charter to build an
elementary school near its mines (Government Gazette, 2018[57]; Basic Education, 2024[58]).
Work‑integrated learning, where engineering students spend time in mining companies
while working on individual projects, is another effective way to obtain soft skills
(Dipitso, 2023[22]).

Education and training can more directly focus on under‑represented groups of

mining workers, especially women and artisanal miners
Programmes in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) targeting
women can be expanded to ensure women and men graduate from universities not only
in similar numbers but with comparable technical skills. Increasing female participation
in STEM education is a key means of attaining greater gender parity in management
and technical positions in the mining sector, such as engineers, managers, overseers
and engine drivers (Cooper, Goliath and Perkins, 2022[59]). In Zimbabwe, the share of
females graduating from STEM‑focused institutions is lower than the share graduating
in humanities (ARUD‑CIASA, 2024[60]). Introducing mining‑related programmes
(e.g. electronic, mining and chemical engineering and renewable energy‑related sciences)
at women’s universities could help women acquire mining skills. One possible university
is the Women’s University in Africa, created in Zimbabwe to directly tackle the problem
of women’s restricted access to university education. Policy makers can also contribute
by encouraging mining companies to invest in scholarships, vocational training and
entrepreneurship support for women.
In Botswana, the Debswana Diamond Company launched the Mining Suppliers
Development Programme in 2020. By improving mining value chain skills such as
sales operations and financial management, the programme seeks to develop the
capacity and competitiveness of women‑owned companies to improve their access
to markets and ensure sustainable enterprises (MmegiOnline, 2020[61]).
In South Africa, the Sasol Women in Mining Incubator Programme focuses on
promoting women‑owned mining businesses through leadership development,
intensive entrepreneurial support, financial coaching, and idea and business
incubation (WomHub, 2023[62]).
Education and training curricula, national policies and qualifications frameworks can
be better tailored towards artisanal and small‑scale mining (ASM). According to estimates
by DELVE (2024[63]), most mining sector workers in Southern Africa are informal, but the
majority of training programmes focus on formal jobs in mining or in public service. Most
national mining policies in the region recognise the importance of skills development
for ASM; however, only a few have well-defined policy frameworks covering ASM. The
Zimbabwe School of Mines (ZSM), provides ASM courses, but Zimbabwe does not provide
mining qualifications authorities (MQA) similar to those in South Africa. Government
qualification authorities, like South Africa’s MQA, can help develop education curricula
for both formal and non‑formal basic education, as well as formal technical vocational
education and training in mining. In addition, governments can provide pools of
professionals to offer technical assistance to small‑scale mining operations that do
not have the scale to be able to hire professional help on their own. South Africa has a
Small‑Scale Mining Division that assists ASM miners with applying for mining licences,
for example, in identifying mineral deposits (Jansen, 2017[64]).

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Notes
1. In terms of 2022 production: Botswana (USD 5.0 billion), Angola (USD 2.0 billion), South Africa
(USD 1.5 billion), Namibia (USD 1.2 billion) and Zimbabwe (USD 0.4 billion) out of a global
production of USD 16.3 billion.
2. Specificities of Botswana – e.g. the monopolistic structure of the diamond sector, the market
size and quality of diamonds, and the country’s historical, political and demographic
characteristics – make it difficult to draw lessons for peer countries.
3. See Chapter 4 for further discussion of DR Congo’s critical minerals.

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 Chapter 4
Skills for mining in
Central Africa
This chapter examines the skills needed to support
the development of the mining sector in the nine
Central African countries: Burundi, Cameroon,
Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It begins by taking
stock of levels of education, employment and skills
development in the region, before presenting a case
study on the skills required in the mining sector to
allow Central Africa to take full advantage of the rising
global demand for critical minerals. It assesses the skill
sets of workers undertaking different types of mining
operations, and then analyses how the types of skills
needed are changing. Finally, this chapter proposes a
range of public policies to ensure the supply of skills
better aligns with the demand for skills in the mining
and related sectors.

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

IN BRIEF Central Africa is experiencing a skills shortage,

a situation that contributes to the high proportion of
vulnerable (74%) and low‑skilled jobs. A mismatch
between level of education and employment has also
been observed. In 2020, only 18% of young people
had completed secondary school, and of these,
less than 10% had chosen to undertake technical
or vocational education and training (TVET).
Furthermore, the quality of learning could be
improved: the average learning‑adjusted years
of schooling stands at 4.5 years, compared with
5.1 years for the rest of Africa.
The region boasts large reserves of strategic
minerals that could be harnessed to meet growing
global demand. It accounts for almost 70% of
the world’s cobalt production, 30% of tantalum
production and 20% of manganese production.
The lack of skilled workers, infrastructure and
effective governance is holding back local mineral
processing and job creation. Skills development
would help the region integrate into value chains.
It would also make it possible to train the workforce
on new technologies and facilitate adaptation to
climate‑change‑associated risks.
To better align skills with jobs, policy makers
will need to focus on four priority measures:
1) implementing national and regional strategies based
on reliable data to anticipate demand; 2) stimulating
public–private co‑operation to improve TVET;
3) developing training programmes for artisanal and
small‑scale mining (ASM) workers; 4) strengthening
governance for better resource allocation.

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Skills for mining in Central Africa

% of population over 15 years old who have
completed secondary education
Access to education 10% 13% 21%
and skilled jobs
is still limited
in Central Africa

2000 2010 2020

% of secondary school students in technical or

vocational education and training (TVET), 2015-23 % of workers
in skilled jobs, 2010-19
20% 19%
25% 26%
9% 9%
7% 10%
5%
2% 1%
Urban Rural
Cameroon DR Congo Burundi Gabon São Tomé Republic of Chad
and Príncipe the Congo

Strengthening skills would improve the ability to capitalise on opportunities

in the mining sector
Increase in global
demand by 2040
Co
Cobalt
Fewer than 20% of young people
in tertiary education go into

70% X3 science, technology, engineering

and mathematics (STEM) ...

Region's share ... despite the need

Ta for mineral processing
of global production Tantalum 30% (such as battery
of critical minerals, X7 production)
2021

Mn 20% In the DR Congo, 2 million people work

X8
Manganese
in artisanal and small-scale mining,

compared with just 375 000 in the formal mining sector

Build on national and regional strategies to anticipate

demand for skills

Encourage public–private co-operation to improve TVET

Next steps
Enhance training for miners in the artisanal and small-scale
mining sector

Strengthen governance for better funding allocation

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4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Central Africa regional profile

Figure 4.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

in Central Africa, 2000-22

Central Africa Africa

A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant C. Public education spending

GDP per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
90 18 4
80 16 3.5
70 14 3
60 12
2.5
50 10
2
40 8
1.5
30 6
20 4 1
10 2 0.5
0 0 0

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed (own‑account) workers and contributing family
members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show
long‑term trends, as time series data on informal employment is missing for most African countries. Labour productivity is
measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices,
divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org; World Bank
(2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and
IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/l8h1g3

Figure 4.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation

in Central Africa, 2021

Managers Professionals Technicians

Clerical suppport Service and sales Skilled elementary occupations
Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers
й
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Central Africa Burundi Central Democratic Chad Equatorial Cameroon Congo Gabon São Tomé
African Republic of Guinea Republic and Príncipe
Republic the Congo
Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators
and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/ut3nvq

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Central African countries are facing a major skills shortage, which has
resulted in a preponderance of low‑skilled jobs and widespread informality
The level and quality of education are generally lower in Central Africa than in other
regions of the continent. The average years of schooling is 6.4 years across Central Africa;
higher than West Africa (5.5 years), but lower than the rest of the continent (6.7 years).
However, when the average number of years of schooling is adjusted to account for
the quality of learning, this average falls to 4.5 years in Central Africa, compared with
5.1 years for the continent as a whole. This figure ranges from 6 years in Gabon to
2.6 years in the Central African Republic (Figure 4.3). By 2020, the number of young people
who had completed secondary or higher education had risen to 18%, compared with 9%
in 2000 (AUC/OECD, 2021[4]). Moreover, on average, only 8% of secondary school students
are enrolled in vocational training programmes, ranging from 19% in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (hereafter “DR Congo”) and Cameroon to less than 2% in Chad and
the Republic of the Congo (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023[5]). Differences between
genders and between rural and urban areas contribute to gaps in basic skills (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling

in Central Africa, 2020

Years of schooling, population 15–64 years Learning-adjusted mean years of schooling

Average number of years
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Note: Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of education into one metric, reflecting that
similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer et al. (2020[6]) for a detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[7]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/
source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/9chrv8

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4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Figure 4.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school

achieving proficiency in reading and mathematics in Central Africa,
most recent year observed (2013‑22)
Reading Mathematics
% of students reaching minimum proficiency level
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Urban

Urban

Rural

Urban

Urban

Urban

Rural

Urban
Men

Rural

Men

Rural

Men

Men

Rural

Men

Rural

Men
Women

Women

Women

Women

Women

Women
Gabon Cameroon Congo Republic Burundi Chad DR Congo
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[8]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://
www.education-inequalities.org/. 12 https://stat.link/lpo8ba

Most jobs in the region remain low‑skilled and informal. Jobs in agriculture, forestry
and fishing accounted for more than half (57%) of all jobs in Central Africa in 2021
(compared with 74% in the early 2000s). The share of jobs in retail and wholesale,
meanwhile, rose considerably, from 9% to 20% over the same period. In 2021, 74% of
workers were in vulnerable employment (self‑employed or unpaid family workers), and
almost 95% were in the informal sector. The share of skilled workers ranges from an
average of 43% in Gabon to less than 10% in the DR Congo and Chad. The majority of
women workers and rural workers are employed as unskilled workers (Figure 4.5). Labour
productivity remains low (around USD 5 700 per worker in 2022) and below the level in
other African regions (USD 16 000 on average).
Figure 4.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in Central Africa,
by gender and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available
Rural Urban Male Female All workers

A. By location B. By gender

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0

Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between
2010 and 2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled
occupations include professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations
include sales, agriculture, household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/DHS (2023[9]),
Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program (database), https://dhsprogram.com/.
12 https://stat.link/jq28hk

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Despite the dominance of low‑skilled jobs, the majority of workers do not have the
required level of education for their occupation. In Cameroon 61% of workers and in
Chad 84% of workers are employed in jobs for which they are underqualified (Figure 4.6).
Women and self‑employed workers are more likely to be underqualified for their job. A
small proportion (around 13%) of salaried workers have a higher level of education than
required for their occupation. This finding is echoed in other surveys: in the Republic
of the Congo, 49% of young people do not have the required level of education and 24%
consider themselves underqualified for their current occupation (Morsy and Mukasa,
2019[10]).

Figure 4.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation in Central Africa, 2022 or latest year available

Overeducated Undereducated
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Female Male Employees Self- Total Female Male Employees Self- Total
employed employed
Cameroon Chad
Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each
occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of
each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other
representative household surveys with an employment component.
Source: Compiled by the authors based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates, (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/jpf10v

New skills and knowledge, which could help transform the economic sector, are
distributed unequally. This includes digital skills: in Gabon, for example, over 50% of
respondents are able to use a mobile bank account without the help of a third party,
compared with 15% in the DR Congo (Figure 4.7). Similarly, around 60% of respondents
in Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and São Tomé and Príncipe had heard of
climate change, yet this figure drops to 17% among those with no education. Awareness
of climate change also differs between people who live in rural areas (49%) and those who
live in urban areas (66%) (Afrobarometer, 2023[11]).

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4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Figure 4.7. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account

without the help of a third party in Central Africa
%
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Cameroon DR Congo Gabon Congo Republic Central Africa
Source: Demirgüç‑Kunt et al. (2021[12]), The Global Findex Database (database), https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/
globalfindex.
12 https://stat.link/fp4buv

Central African countries struggle to retain highly skilled migrants, who often leave
Africa, while less‑skilled migrants remain in Central Africa or on the continent. In 2020,
45% of Central Africans with secondary or lower education (“poorly educated”) lived
in another African region, compared with 38% in another Central African country and
17% on another continent. Among those with higher education (“highly educated”), 61%
lived on other continents, 24% in another African region and only 15% in another Central
African country (World Bank, 2023[13]). Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and the Republic of the
Congo attract poorly educated migrants, mainly to exploit their natural resources. Only
Gabon attracts a higher share of skilled migrants, most of whom come from the rest of
the continent (Figure 4.8).

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

Figure 4.8. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (Central Africa, 2020)

Intra-continental emigrants Intra-continental immigrants

Extra-continental emigrants Extra-continental immigrants

A. Low-educated
Burundi
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo Republic
DR Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
São Tomé and Príncipe
Central Africa

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

B. High-educated

Burundi
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo Republic
DR Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
São Tomé and Príncipe
Central Africa

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers show emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with
secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[13]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-
migration.
12 https://stat.link/uoi9sd

The region has significant mineral wealth to supply global demand, but little of
the material extracted is processed locally due to a lack of skills and infrastructure

Critical minerals are a strategic resource for the development of Central Africa
Against a backdrop of growing global demand, Central Africa has significant strategic
mining resources. Its mineral deposits, among the largest and most diverse in the world,
are a strategic resource for many industries. The DR Congo holds the majority (47%) of the
region’s proven mineral reserves, followed by Gabon (17%), the Central African Republic
(11%) and Cameroon (9%) (Romel Touka, 2015[14]). According to official statistics, 55
different minerals are present in the DR Congo’s subsoil, but only 12 are actually mined.
Central Africa ranks among the world’s leading producers of cobalt, tantalum, copper and
manganese, all of which have been identified as critical minerals for the energy transition
(Table 4.1; Box 4.1).

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Table 4.1. Minerals extracted in Central Africa

Country Minerals and extractive‑sector products extracted in 2021
(percentage of world production/world ranking)
Burundi • Tungsten (<1%, 11/20) • Niobium (<1%, 10 /11)
• Gold (<1%, 73/97) • Rare earth (<1%, 9/10)
• Tantalum (<1%, 12/14) • Tin (<1%, 20/22)
Cameroon • Oil (<1%, 49/101) • Diamond (industrial) (<1%, 16/17)
• Natural gas (<1%, 59/94) • Aluminium (<1%, 40/41)
• Gold (<1%, 73/97)
Central African Republic • Diamonds (gemstone) (<1%, 12/19) • Diamond (industrial) (<1%, 13/17)
• Gold (<1%, 74/97)
Chad • Oil (<1%, 42/101)
Equatorial Guinea • Oil (<1%, 40/101) • Natural gas (<1%, 45/94)
Gabon • Manganese (20%, 2/32) • Natural gas (<1%, 69/94)
• Oil (<1%, 33/101) • Gold (<1%, 86/97)
DR Congo • Cobalt (69%, 1/18) • Oil (<1%, 63/101)
• Copper (9%, 3/57) • Tungsten (<1%, 13/20)
• Tantalum (29%, 1/14) • Zinc (<1%, 37/53)
• Diamond (industrial) (24%, 2/18) • Silver (<1%, 54/69)
• Diamond (gemstone) (2.5%, 6/19) • Manganese (<1%, 31/32)
• Tin (<1%, 6/22) • Niobium (<1%, 4/11)
• Gold (<1%, 27/97)
Republic of the Congo • Oil (<1%, 31/101) • Zinc (<1%, 49/53)
• Natural gas (<1%, 65/94) • Iron (<1%, 53/53)
• Copper (<1%, 42/57) • Diamond (industrial) (<1%, 15/17)
• Gold (<1%, 88/97)
Note: Data not available for São Tomé and Príncipe.
Source: (Reichl and Schatz[15]), World Mining Data 2023, https://www.world-mining-data.info/wmd/downloads/PDF/
WMD2023.pdf.

Box 4.1. Change in global demand for critical minerals, and implications
for Central Africa

The energy and digital transitions are having a significant impact on demand for
minerals. These transitions have led to a rise in demand for “critical” minerals, i.e.
those needed to produce technologies such as digital equipment, electric cars, solar
panels, wind turbines and other low‑carbon power‑generation systems. While the
International Energy Agency (IEA) lists 33 critical minerals,1 there is no universally
agreed definition, given that every country or organisation has different strategic
priorities (Hendriwardani and Ramdoo, 2022[16]). Projections based on international
commitments to carbon neutrality suggest that by 2040, demand will rise more than
three‑fold for cobalt (+221%), 2.5‑fold for copper (+185%), two‑fold for zinc (+110%),
seven‑fold for manganese (+609%) and eight‑fold for tantalum (+700%) (IEA, 2023[17]).
Given its significant deposits of critical minerals (Table 4.1), Central Africa intends to
take advantage of these opportunities (Bazilian, 2023[18]), but is struggling to develop a
local mineral processing industry, mainly due to a lack of skills and infrastructure, and
weak governance (ECA, 2011[19]). Since 2022, the African Union – in partnership with
the African Development Bank (AfDB) and several United Nations agencies – has been
working on the African Green Minerals Strategy. This strategy aims to complement
existing mining development policies by encouraging the strategic exploitation of
critical minerals – including 14 priority minerals2 – based on four pillars:

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Box 4.1. Change in global demand for critical minerals, and implications
for Central Africa (continued)

1. Advancing mineral development (conducting feasibility studies and implementing

infrastructure).
2. Developing human capital and technological capacity by identifying the skills
needed to integrate into value chains (mining, processing and manufacturing
new technologies).
3. Building regional value chains to advance natural resource‑based industrialisation
and access to larger markets through the African Continental Free Trade Area
(AfCFTA).
4. Promoting mineral stewardship (AfDB, 2022[20]).

The mining sector accounts for a significant share of the region’s revenues and
exports, and is an integral part of national job creation strategies. Mining revenue
accounts for 9.4% of Central Africa’s GDP, compared with just 2% for Africa as a whole.
The DR Congo makes the largest contribution to the region’s total revenue, accounting for
around 29% of GDP. Copper and cobalt account for almost 90% of the country’s exports.
Similarly, minerals account for over 50% of exports from the Central African Republic and
at least 30% from Burundi (Figure 4.9). Mining operations are less labour‑intensive, but
more capital‑intensive, than other sectors. In 2017–2021, job creation linked to investment
in the extractive sector stood at 1.3 jobs per USD million invested, compared with 3.8 jobs
created per USD million invested in manufacturing (AUC/OECD, 2023[21]). However, indirect
employment, particularly in artisanal and small‑scale mining (ASM), is between three
and six times greater than direct employment and represents a strategic challenge for the
region (Östensson and Roe, 2017[22]).

Figure 4.9. Minerals as a share of total exports from Central African countries, 2022

Gold Niobium, tantalum, vanadium or zirconium Diamonds Copper Tin Cobalt Manganese

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
DR Congo Central African Burundi Republic of the Gabon Chad Cameroon
Republic Congo
Source: CEPII (2024[23]), BACI: International Trade Database at the Product‑level (database), www.cepii.fr/cepii/fr/bdd_modele/
presentation.asp?id=37.
12 https://stat.link/qfdxk9

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Most critical mineral production, however, is exported and not processed locally. At
the global level, the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”) dominates mineral
processing, refining 73% of cobalt, 40% of copper, 59% of lithium, 67% of nickel and 95%
of rare earth minerals (IEA, 2021[24]). The lack of infrastructure and governance, as well as
the high cost of skilled labour and services, have hampered the development of mineral
processing in Central Africa. To illustrate: despite being the world’s leading producer of
cobalt, the DR Congo ranks seventh among cobalt‑refining countries and accounts for just
1% of global supply, after Madagascar (2%) and ahead of Morocco (1%) (Bazilian, 2023[18]).
Similarly, Gabon, the world’s second‑largest producer of raw manganese, has only been
processing the ore since 2015 thanks to the creation of the Moanda Metallurgical Complex
(Fliess, Idsardi and Rossouw, 2017[25]).
The Africa Mining Vision and the African Green Minerals Strategy each propose a
roadmap for better integration into value chains. The African Union’s Africa Mining Vision,
published in 2009, provides a framework for the strategic use of minerals to improve:
i) the collection of high‑quality geological data ii) the quality of contract negotiations
iii) the governance of the sector iv) the management of the financial resources generated;
v) infrastructure and vi) the development of ASM. This framework stresses the importance
of human capital development and skills acquisition (Box 4.2), but its implementation has
been slow and too few stakeholders are aware of its existence. The implementation of the
African Green Minerals Strategy since 2022 has injected new political momentum into efforts
to harness the growing demand for critical minerals for regional industrialisation (Box 4.1).

Box 4.2. Skills development under the 2009 Africa Mining Vision

The Africa Mining Vision is a collaboration between the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa (UNECA), the African Development Bank (AfDB), the African
Union, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). It seeks to harness
mining resources for industrialisation.
In terms of skills, the Africa Mining Vision aims to:
1. Nurture human resource development through supporting skills acquisition,
facilitating research and development, and building knowledge networks between
academia, the private sector, governments and other stakeholders.
2. Facilitate the transfer of technology and skills from multinational to national
companies.
3. Create training centres of excellence and better align certifications and standards.
4. Mobilise financing from pan‑African banks to train engineers and technicians
specialised in mineral exploration, mining, processing and trading.
Source: African Union (2009[26]), Africa Mining Vision, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/30995-doc-
africa_mining_vision_english_1.pdf.

The skills shortage contributes to weak local recruitment by foreign investors

The development of the mining industry is mainly driven by the influx of foreign
investment. Mining production is mainly controlled by multinationals,3 a trend encouraged
by the pro‑investment policies introduced in the 1980s and 1990s (Radley, 2023[27]). In
the DR Congo, foreign direct investment (FDI) flows have mainly targeted mining, with
a 17‑fold increase between 2002 and 2012, from USD 188 million to USD 3.3 billion.

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However, it is not uncommon for national companies (Table 4.2) to have a stake in the
subsidiaries of foreign mining companies, enabling them to collect dividends from the
profits generated. In Gabon, Société Équatoriale des Mines has a 40% stake in Compagnie
Minière de l’Ogooué (COMILOG), the country’s top manganese producer. Similarly, in the
DR Congo, the state holds the Kamoa‑Kakula Copper Complex jointly with two foreign
companies: Ivanhoe Mines (Canada) and Zijin Mining (China) (Wagner, 2023[28]).

Table 4.2. National public mining companies in Central Africa

Country Mining company Date created
Burundi OBM 2016
Cameroon SONAMINE 2020
Central African Republic ORGEM 2009
Chad Société Nationale des Mines et de la Géologie (SONAMIG) 2018
DR Congo GECAMINES 1967
Equatorial Guinea Sociedad Nacional de Minas y Canteras (SMC) 2023
Gabon Société Équatoriale des Mines (SEM) 2011
Republic of the Congo Directorate General of Mines and Geology 2005
Note: São Tomé and Príncipe has no state‑owned mining companies.
Source: Compiled by the authors.

The prevalence of low‑skilled workers in the sector is holding back investment and
local recruitment. Some investors are put off by the lack of qualifications among the local
labour force. This may drive them to recruit foreign workers. Nearly 75% of investors
surveyed cite the lack of locally available skills as a barrier to investment in the DR
Congo (Figure 4.10). In Cameroon, the evidence shows that the lack of local skills has
pushed Chinese companies in the gold‑mining sector to employ workers from China,
while the majority of local staff are employed as drivers, excavator operators, guards
and, occasionally, geological technicians. Consequently, although mining investment has
increased employment opportunities for local people, these opportunities are limited to
jobs with less responsibility and lower pay than those entrusted to foreign workers (Weng
et al., 2015[29]).

Figure 4.10. Share of mining companies citing lack of skills as a barrier to investment,
2022

Low deterrent effect on investment Strong deterrent effect on investment Would not pursue investment for this reason

%
90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Mali DR Congo South Sudan Tanzania South Africa Ghana Namibia Botswana
Source: Mejía and Aliakbari (2023[30]), Annual Survey of Mining Companies 2022, https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/annual-
survey-of-mining-companies-2022.
12 https://stat.link/fcxzgd

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To make their workforce more employable, governments in the region are increasingly
emphasising the local content of mining operations. To increase opportunities for local
capacity building, the majority of Central African governments have recently amended
their local content policies (local sourcing requirements for foreign investors in terms of
goods and services, personnel, financing, etc.) through their mining code reforms. Local
content policies now impose local recruitment and subcontracting quotas and obligations
related to training and skills development (AMLA, 2024[31]). In the DR Congo, for example,
the 2018 mining code introduced local recruitment requirements (Table 4.3). Foreign
investors must organise training to enable workers to acquire the skills needed to hold
managerial and executive positions within ten years of starting commercial production
(IGF, 2021[32]). However, certain requirements that set specific levels (e.g. recruitment
quotas not supported by appropriate training policies, or local sourcing obligations) can
introduce distortions that deter investors (Korinek and Ramdoo, 2017[33]; OECD, 2016[34]).

Table 4.3. DR Congo employee quota by job category (2018 Mining Code)
Project phase
Job category Exploration Development and construction Trading
Managers 20% 25% 60–70%
Senior managers 30% 35% 70–80%
Skilled workers 60% 40% 80–90%
Manual workers 80% 85% 90–100%
Source: IGF (2021[32]), Impact of New Mining Technologies on Local Procurement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, International
Institute for Sustainable Development, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2021-12/impact-new-mining-technologies-
democratic-republic-congo-en.pdf.

The prevalence of artisanal and small‑scale mining (ASM), the main source of
employment in the sector, represents a major challenge for skills development
Most jobs in the mining sector are in ASM, which is often informal. On a global scale,
ASM employs the majority of the mining industry’s workforce (around 25% of tin, tantalum
and diamond production; 80% of sapphire production). More than 2.6 million people are
employed in ASM in Central Africa, including: 2 million in the DR Congo; 310 000 in Chad;
200 000 in the Central African Republic; 44 000 in Cameroon; 34 000 in Burundi; 15 000 in
Equatorial Guinea; and 10 000 in Gabon (DELVE, 2024[35]). In the DR Congo, artisanal miners
produce around 13% to 20% of the world’s cobalt supply (OECD, 2019[36]). On average, 80%
to 90% of artisanal and small‑scale miners worldwide work informally. As a result, this
sector is associated with many social risks (Box 4.3).

Box 4.3. Difficulties faced by ASM workers

Workers’ pay is generally low and also differs by gender. While a male miner earns an
average equivalent to USD 15.38 per week, women’s earnings are more difficult to assess.
Ore washing, for example, provides them with a share of pre‑washing production, which
is estimated at between 0.5 and 4 pans, depending on the workload.
Artisanal workers face a number of health and safety risks, including:
• Landslides due to unstable excavations.
• Serious injuries due to a lack of safety equipment (helmets, safety boots, etc.).

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Box 4.3. Difficulties faced by ASM workers (continued)

• Occupational illnesses linked to exposure to toxic substances or mineral dust. In

Central Africa, for example, the use of mercury to separate gold from other ores
often exceeds the maximum exposure threshold of 1.0 µg/m set by the World
Health Organization (WHO).
• Musculoskeletal problems due to the demanding nature of the work carried out
under difficult conditions.
• Accidents linked to the use of unsafe tools and machinery.
• Mental health problems due to stressful and dangerous working conditions.
Human rights violations are also common in the sector. Children’s involvement in mining
remains high in Central Africa. In the DR Congo, for example, at least 40 000 children
work in the cobalt mines of the Katanga region in extremely dangerous conditions,
without adequate safety equipment and for meagre wages (UNCTAD, 2020[37]). The
expansion of industrial cobalt and copper mines has also led to artisanal mine workers
and local populations being forcibly evicted, as well as violence and arson (Amnesty
International, 2023[38]).
Source: Chuhan‑Pole, Dabalen and Land (2020[39]), Mining in Africa : are local communities better off, http://
documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/517391487795570281/Mining-in-Africa-are-local-communities-
better-off; Goltz and Barnwal (2019[40]), Mines: The local wealth and health effects of mineral mining in developing
countries, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.05.005.

These jobs often rely on low‑skilled workers and occupations requiring basic
skills. ASM workers mainly use basic tools and equipment for the extraction and initial
processing of minerals. They are organised into teams of 10 to 20 miners who work
together in a specific zone, on the surface or underground, accompanied by support
teams (Rupprecht, 2015[41]). In the Central African Republic, a study of over 330 artisanal
gold and diamond mining sites shows that the majority of workers perform support tasks
(excavation, washing, sorting, transport, etc.), with women accounting for around a third
of the workforce. However, there are gender differences in the division of labour. Women
mainly wash, transport or sort ore, while men mainly excavate it (Jaillon and De Brier,
2019[42]).
The informal, sometimes seasonal, nature of these activities limits training
opportunities, especially for women. Artisanal mine workers often undertake other
livelihood activities, such as farming. Although there are some formalised ASM
communities (that set up co‑operatives, or obtain operating licences), they often lack
the incentives, funding and skills to comply with the requirements of formal operations
(Table 4.4). Moreover, they often do not benefit from national strategies for incubating
or promoting small and medium‑sized enterprises, which limits the expansion of their
operations and their formalisation. Women generally face additional barriers linked
to prevailing social norms, which prevent them from accessing better‑paid work and
training initiatives (McQuilken et al., 2024[43]).

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Table 4.4. Skills required by workers to improve the productivity of ASM in Central Africa
Skills required Example tasks Types of skills
Geological knowledge Map reading, sampling and exploration techniques Technical
Mining methods and techniques Identifying mine access, underground mining, rock-fracturing techniques Technical
Mine surveys, sampling and grade Determining the location of underground works Technical
control
Mineral processing Crushing and grinding, sifting, classification and separation of ores Technical
Waste management Disposal of waste rock and tailings Technical
Health, safety and environmental Sanitation, first aid equipment and training, risk identification and control Technical
management measures
Understanding legal requirements Understanding financial, environmental, social and mining laws and Managerial and soft
regulations
Business management skills Estimating the amount of precious material contained in the raw mining Managerial and soft
material, business management
Source: Produced by the authors based on Rupprecht (2015[41]), “Needs Analysis for Capacity Building of Artisanal Miners in
Central Africa”, https://www.saimm.co.za/Conferences/BM2015/045-Rupprecht.pdf.

Capacity building will be crucial to increase local processing and adapt to

technological developments and climate change

A broad set of skills is needed to integrate downstream segments of critical

mineral value chains
Acquiring the technical skills needed to process and add value to minerals is a priority
for countries in the region. The mining sector provides three main categories of jobs,
which require related skills.
• Specific jobs account for around 30% of the workforce. They can be found in all
segments of the value chain, and require specific technical skills for exploration,
feasibility studies, mining operations, processing, adding value, etc. (Table 4.5).
• Cross‑functional jobs account for 40% of the workforce and are present throughout
the process. They include, for example, civil engineering and electrical installation
work, machine operation, industrial maintenance and general safety.
• Administrative or support roles account for around 30% of the workforce and allow
companies to operate effectively. Key examples include roles in management,
general services (secretarial, accounting, finance, human resources), legal services,
communications and inventory management.

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Table 4.5. Technical skills and occupations required in critical mineral value chains
with a strong presence in Central Africa
Mineral Skills and occupations required by segment Alloys and finished products
Extraction Treatment and adding Processing
value
Cobalt Pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy Chemists and process Materials science, chemical Lithium‑ion batteries
engineers engineers
Copper Drilling, blasting Materials science, Electrical engineering, Photovoltaic solar panels, wind
metallurgical/chemical/ renewable energy engineers, turbines, heating/cooling systems,
electrical engineers electric vehicle engineers electric wires, electric cars
Manganese Crushing, flotation, grinding, Metallurgical engineers, Chemical and metallurgical Steel, lithium‑ion cells and batteries,
gravity separation method, laboratory technicians, engineers, lithium‑ion rails and beams for the construction
electrolysis, hydrometallurgy, flotation specialists, battery engineers, industry, sheet metal for automobile
pyrometallurgy chemists mechanical and materials bodywork
engineers, civil engineers
Tantalum Blasting, grinding, gravity Metallurgical engineers, Materials engineers, High‑capacity capacitors (smartphones,
separation method, chemists, flotation metallurgical engineers, computers, automotive), medical
electromagnetic and electrostatic specialists high‑tech, electrical and technology (implants and surgical
processes, hydrometallurgy and electronics engineers instruments), superalloys for turbines,
pyrometallurgy aircraft engines and nuclear reactors
Source: CA Mining (2024[44]), Mineral Processing Jobs In Africa, https://mining-recruitment-jobs.com/mineral-processing-africa/;
Glencore (2024[45]), Zinc, https://www.glencore.ch/fr/was-wir-tun/metalle-und-mineralien/zink; The Raw Material Outlook
(2021[46]), Raw Material Outlook Platform, https://www.rawmaterialoutlook.org/; ISE (2024[47]), Prix, occurrence, extraction et
utilisation du tantale, https://fr.institut-seltene-erden.de/.

Business, entrepreneurial and soft skills will also be important for the development
and local ownership of mining activities. In Central Africa, few private national operators
are active in the mining sector. Setting up a local company or accessing management
positions in foreign companies requires high‑level managerial skills. Interpersonal
and language skills, as well as adaptability, sometimes play a more important role
than technical skills in the recruitment of local people by foreign mining companies
(Rubbers, 2020[48]). In addition, some local managers noted their lack of skills in relation to
project set‑up and financing (Le Bec, 2012[49]). Finally, soft skills such as communication,
leadership, teamwork and problem‑solving are essential on extraction sites in order to
maintain a safe working environment and take effective decisions to prevent accidents.
Integration into downstream segments of value chains requires the development of
advanced skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Battery
production and maintenance, for example, require advanced STEM skills (including
chemistry, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering) (AfDB, 2022[20]). Yet, at
present, the number of graduates from higher education STEM programmes remains
low in Central Africa. In the countries for which data are available, the higher education
enrolment rate is below 15%, and less than 20% of higher education students are enrolled
on STEM courses (Figure 4.11).

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Figure 4.11. Percentage of STEM graduates and gross higher education enrolment ratio,
2015-23 average

Graduates of STEM programmes in higher education Gross higher education enrolment rate
%
25

20

15

10

0
Burundi DR Congo Republic of the Congo Chad
Note: Gross enrolment ratios represent the total number of students enrolled in higher education, expressed as a percentage
of the total population in the five‑year age group following completion of secondary education.
Source: UNESCO (2023[5]), Institute for Statistics (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org.
12 https://stat.link/tgr4od

If mining activities are to modernise, local skills must adapt. The growing use of
new technologies will impact workers differently depending on their skill level and
will require them to adapt their skills. The number of large‑scale operations adopting
new technologies and semi‑mechanised artisanal mines is increasing in some regions
(IPIS/USAID, 2022[50]). While the adoption of these new technologies can improve mine
efficiency, worker safety and environmental performance, this can only happen if local
workers are properly trained. As illustrated by the case of the Kibali gold mine in the
DR Congo (Box 4.4), the mechanisation of activities presents a risk for the local low‑ or
semi‑skilled workforce due to the replacement of certain positions, such as transporters
or rock crushers (Rupprecht, 2017[51]). It should be noted, however, that at the same time,
new, better‑paid jobs will be created in highly skilled occupations (information technology
and engineering).

Box 4.4. The Kibali gold mine in the DR Congo: a case study of modern mining

The Kibali gold mine has invested in a fully automated system, optimising the volume
of labour required.
• An automated ore handling system, the only one of its kind in Africa, including
driverless loaders and a single haulage drive, speeds up transport with minimal
losses.
• Drones monitor shafts and inventory on the surface, and the system is controlled
from a secure control room, enabling the safe management of loaders operating
at depths of up to 800 metres.
• The mining company has invested in training local people to fill new positions.
However, it employs only six people at its Kibali offices, given that most of its
activities are managed from abroad.
Source: IGF/IISD (2019[52]), New Tech, New Deal, https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/new-tech-new-
deal-technology.pdf?q=sites/default/files/publications/new-tech-new-deal-technology.pdf.

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New skills are needed to manage climate change‑associated risks and support
the sustainable development of the sector
Anticipating climate change‑associated risks requires the acquisition of specific skills.
Extreme events (fluctuations in temperature and precipitation) put significant pressure
on the integrity of mining operations, particularly open pit slopes and tailing storage
facilities. Tailing dam failures can have disastrous consequences (Bellois, 2022[53]). The
increased frequency and intensity of heat waves can also reduce employee productivity
and safety (Nunfam et al., 2019[54]). Climate change has already had a negative effect on
the workforce at mining sites. In Chad, for example, climate‑related hazards are pushing
people who depend on agriculture into ASM (GEF/UNEP, 2022[55]), which is exacerbating
water stress. In the DR Congo, the southern region is more exposed to the risk of drought,
with a 50% increase in the frequency of drought periods predicted by 2100 (USAID/SWP,
2022[56]). This is likely to have a major impact on local production of copper, the most
water‑intensive mineral (Figure 4.12). It is therefore essential that the workforce acquire
the new skills needed to implement tailored practices and monitor risks more closely.

Figure 4.12. Global water scarcity footprint by mineral

Mm³
2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

Note: The water scarcity footprint is calculated by multiplying global water consumption by the Water Stress Index, as
defined by Meißner (2021[57]).
Source: Produced by the authors based on Meißner (2021[57]), The Impact of Metal Mining on Global Water Stress and Regional
Carrying Capacities – A GIS‑Based Water Impact Assessment, https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10120120.
12 https://stat.link/gujdih

Green skills can help monitor and mitigate the environmental impacts of mining in
Central Africa. Mining has environmental effects that are direct (degradation of soils,
rivers and biosystems) and indirect (degradation due to infrastructure construction and
the influx of rural populations attracted by employment opportunities) (Gourdon, Kinda
and Lapeyronie, 2024[58]). In Central Africa, these indirect effects are having a significant
impact on areas with high levels of biodiversity, such as the lowlands of Cameroon‑Gabon
and of eastern DR Congo (Edwards et al., 2013[59]). Green skills can provide an effective way
of monitoring and addressing these impacts (measuring air and water quality, managing
waste and protecting biodiversity) (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2018[60]).
Abandoned mines can be a source of physical, chemical and biological hazards,
which create a need for green skills specific to the local context. Phytoremediation (the
use of living plants to absorb pollution and purify contaminated soil, air and water) is
an ecologically and economically viable solution and it would be worth developing skills
in this area at the regional level. However, the nature of the pollutants produced varies
depending on the ore and the context (in Cameroon, radioactive deposits of Uranium‑235;

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in the DR Congo, mercury (Hg), which affects crops, soils and aquatic sediments). These
wide‑ranging risks and effects call for skills and tailored knowledge; however, the fact
that these are scarce is likely to hamper the protection of natural ecosystems (UNESCO,
2019[61]; Odoh et al., 2019[62]).
Developing new skills in related sectors such as renewable energies will help reduce
the sector’s carbon footprint while cutting production costs. Electricity supply accounts
for 10% to 25% of the total cost of a mining project and may have to compete with other
economic activities and household consumption (McMahon, Banerjee and Romo, 2016[63]).
Given that power outages are common in the region (10.2 power outages per month on
average between 2013 and 2019, compared with 7.6 for the African continent as a whole4),
mining companies often resort to polluting and less‑efficient means of power generation,
such as diesel and heavy fuel oil (Alova, 2018[64]). However, projects based on clean
energy seem to be on the rise: in the DR Congo, a public–private partnership between
Kamoa Copper and Société Nationale d’Electricité (SNEL) aims to increase the supply of
hydroelectric power (Mining Review Africa, 2021[65]).

Central African governments have several policy levers at their disposal to

strengthen skills and promote better positioning within mining value chains

National and regional strategies, underpinned by reliable data, support skills

development and help anticipate changes in demand for these services
Local skills development must be supported by national and regional strategies to
promote integration into value chains. Countries in the region are beginning to develop
regional and continental co‑operation mechanisms, notably through the implementation
of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), in order to strengthen their position
within global value chains. In 2022, the DR Congo and Zambia signed a bilateral agreement
with a view to creating a regional electric vehicle battery manufacturing industry (AfDB,
2022[20]). The cross‑border project will be implemented in two special economic zones
(Katanga province in the DR Congo and Copperbelt province in Zambia) (Box 4.5). The
production of electric cars and solar panels is also driving demand for rare earth minerals;
significant reserves can be found in South Africa, Burundi and Malawi. Closer regional
co‑operation would make it easier to identify each country’s position within value chains,
so as to target the skills that need to be developed (AfDB, 2021[66]).

Box 4.5. African Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research in DR Congo

The African Centre of Excellence for Advanced Battery Research (CAEB), opened in Lubumbashi
in April 2022, trains technicians for a plant that will manufacture batteries and electric cars
“made in the DR Congo”. Affiliated with the polytechnic schools of the University of Lubumbashi,
the CAEB is the product of co‑operation between the DR Congo and Zambia, which together
contain almost 70% of global copper and cobalt reserves.
The centre offers Master’s‑level courses focused on research and innovation in materials
chemistry, process engineering, waste management and battery design. This initiative is
designed to meet growing international demand, thereby contributing to the development
of the battery industry on the African continent. The CAEB is working with the University of
Zambia and the Copperbelt University, in partnership with the private sector, to identify skills
and research needs, and design relevant training programmes.

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Collecting relevant data would make it possible to better anticipate the demand
for skills in the mining sector and to assess the potential for transfer to other sectors.
High‑quality employment data would help clarify skills needs, develop strategic plans
to strengthen these skills, and identify opportunities in related sectors (infrastructure,
local equipment manufacturing, etc.). This approach has proved particularly successful in
Chile, where the Mining Skills Council conducts surveys of mining project managers from
the feasibility stage onwards to identify skills gaps (AfDB/BMGF, 2015[67]). Most Central
African countries currently lack an operational mechanism to anticipate skills needs,
often due to a lack of co‑ordination between ministries (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]).
However, national initiatives are emerging for specific projects:
In the Republic of the Congo, the Ministry of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training is working with international partners to set up a national employment
observatory to collect accurate data that will be used to develop tailored training
programmes (Nzaou, 2020[69]).
In the DR Congo, an apprenticeship programme, funded by local mining companies
and targeting young people aged 15–17 years working in ASM, offers six‑month
training courses in sectors identified using data collected on local needs (IT,
mechanics, welding, metallurgy, livestock farming, hairdressing and sewing)
(PACT, 2020[70]).

Fostering co‑operation between the public and private sectors can improve the
supply, quality and relevance of technical and vocational education and training
It is crucial to improve the supply of training and the quality of TVET. The creation
of mining schools and training centres dedicated to mining‑related occupations bears
witness to the desire to increase the number of skilled workers in Central Africa. In
Cameroon, for example, the School of Geology and Mining Engineering, which opened in
2011, trains engineers to specialise in the management of prospecting, exploration and
mining projects (Table 4.6). At present, however, evaluations of TVET providers in the
region reveal weaknesses linked to a lack of funding, outdated teaching methods and
materials, and a shortage of adequately qualified teachers (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]).
Enhancing the quality of training courses requires a gradual increase in the number
of courses on offer, coupled with an increase in the number and expertise of trainers.
Technical skills (e.g. STEM) and soft skills (e.g. leadership, communication or complex
problem‑solving) should be covered.

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Table 4.6. Examples of mining training institutions in Central Africa

Country Public training Private training
Cameroon • École de géologie et d’exploitation • Institut supérieur de pétrochimie et d’ingénierie mathématique (Higher Institute of
minière (School of Geology and Petrochemistry and Mathematical Engineering)
Mining Engineering) • Institut universitaire des sciences pétrolières et de management (University
• Institut des mines et des industries Institute of Petroleum Sciences and Management)
pétrolières (Institute of Mining and • Gulf‑Field Higher Institute of Petroleum, Mining, Business and Management
Petroleum Industries) Sciences
Gabon • École des mines et de métallurgie de • Université Libreville Nord (Libreville Nord University)
Moanda (Moanda School of Mining • Université continentale de Libreville (Continental University of Libreville)
and Metallurgy) • Institut supérieur saint Paul de Libreville (Higher Institute of Saint Paul of
Libreville)
• Institut supérieur Théopolis (Théopolis Higher Institute)
• Institut supérieur d’ingénierie (Higher Institute of Engineering)
• Université des sciences et techniques de Masuku (Masuku University of Science
and Technology)
• Institut universitaire de technologie (University Institute of Technology)
Equatorial Guinea • Institut supérieur des mines et • École supérieure d’ingénierie de Yattaya (Yattaya College of Engineering)
géologie de Boké (Boké Higher
Institute of Mining and Geology)
DR Congo • Haute école des mines et de l’industrie • Centre de formation aux métiers de mines (Mining Training Centre)
(School of Mining and Industry)
Republic of the • Centre des métiers de mines (Mining • N/A
Congo Training Centre)
Source: Compiled by the authors.

Co‑operation between TVET institutions and stakeholders in large‑scale and ASM

operations boosts skills development. Strengthening partnerships between TVET
institutions and the private sector improves the relevance and quality of teaching and
training (Werquin and Foka, 2020[68]).
Since 2015, the Gabonese government has focused on developing local infrastructure
and skills to enable manganese to be processed locally. The creation of Moanda
School of Mining and Metallurgy, in co‑operation with the private sector (COMILOG)
and European universities, will help to achieve to this objective (EU, 2013[71]). Of the
102 graduates from the classes of 2016–2021, 92 are working in the mining sector,
including 50 at COMILOG (Gabon Review, 2022[72]).
In DR Congo, the Kamoto Copper Company (KCC), which operates in the copper and
cobalt sector, works with local technical training institutions to offer 50 students
a two‑year apprenticeship programme aligned with their training programmes
(Hako, 2023[73]).

Training ASM workers helps to improve their productivity, promote women’s

employment and encourage sustainable development in the sector
Building the capacities of ASM workers helps to improve their working conditions
and productivity. The success of the skills development programmes for ASM workers is
a function of: i) site‑specific training programmes ii) adequate consultation with miners
and the local community before designing and planning programmes iii) trainers who are
recognised within the community iv) objectives for improving production and minimising
health and environmental impacts that are feasible and cost‑effective v) technical,
regulatory and financial support from local governments and vi) a long‑term presence
enabling in‑depth monitoring, flexible implementation and consistent engagement with
communities (Stocklin‑Weinberg, Veiga and Marshall, 2019[74]).
In the DR Congo, the Project for the Responsible Supply of Tin, Tungsten and
Tantalum, implemented by the non‑governmental organisation (NGO) Pact in

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 4. Skills for mining in Central Africa

partnership with the government and the private sector, provides training for ASM
workers to increase safety and productivity, and facilitate the formalisation of
artisanal mining sites. From 2021 to 2024, the project has trained more than 7 200
miners, 400 government officials and 700 community members to strengthen the
application of the 2018 mining code (PACT, 2024[75]).
Investment in green skills by international partners and local governments can reduce
the environmental impact of mining and create jobs. For example, Belgian Development
Co‑operation is funding tertiary‑level mobility programmes focusing on sustainable
mining practices in geology in Burundi, the DR Congo and the Republic of the Congo
(Kingdom of Belgium, 2022[76]). Cleaning up abandoned mines can also improve public health,
environmental conditions and productivity, through the development of green skills.
Central African countries could take inspiration from the World Bank’s Mining and
Environmental Remediation and Improvement Project in the Copperbelt region of
Zambia, which aims to restore abandoned and polluted mining areas by creating
green income streams. This initiative focuses on improving local skills, restoring
contaminated soil and raising public awareness of the risks of pollution (World
Bank, 2016[77]).
Awareness‑raising programmes reduce discrimination and make it easier for women
to access training courses. Such training courses in turn enable women to participate
in mining, and open the door to higher‑skilled and better‑paid jobs (team supervisor,
accounting, land surveying or engineering work, machine operation, gem sorting, etc.).
In the Central African Republic, a project launched by the United States Agency
for International Development (USAID) in partnership with women’s organisations
involved in ASM has set up an Innovation Fund for women. Aimed at strengthening
women’s involvement in artisanal diamond mining, it is supporting 120 women
to undertake training to enable them to participate in prospecting, earth works
(especially terracing and backfilling) and diamond trading (Mutemeri et al., 2023[78]).

Strengthening governance is one way to ensure that resources are better allocated
to skills
Improving revenue mobilisation and reinvesting the revenue from mining resources
can help finance training. Africa’s mineral‑rich countries have a mixed record when
it comes to mobilising mining revenues. Better continental and international‑level
co‑ordination of tax policies in the mining sector would improve the mobilisation of
mining revenues. Indeed, African countries as a whole lose an average of USD 450 million
to USD 730 million a year in corporate tax revenues due to tax avoidance by multinational
mining companies (Albertin et al., 2021[79]). The application of international standards can
help improve governance. Examples include the standards laid down by the Extractive
Industries Transparency Initiative, under which participating countries “commit to
disclose information along the extractive industry value chain”.5 Training local officials,
with the support of international partners, can help achieve these goals (ATAF/IGF/OECD,
2022[80]). Central African countries can also learn from other mineral‑rich countries about
how to improve the allocation of mining resources.
Botswana, for example, spends 42% of mineral revenues on education and training,
a choice that has significantly improved local skills over the past three decades
(AfDB, 2016[81]; Korinek, 2014[82]).
In the Republic of the Congo, the National Support Fund for Employability and
Apprenticeship created in 2019 partially finances its activities (support for labour
market integration and training) by collecting an apprenticeship levy from
companies (FONEA, n.d.[83]).

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International partners can support the mobilisation and allocation of funding for
skills development. Funds from international donors support the implementation of
TVET policies in Central Africa.
In the Republic of the Congo, for example, the government and the AfDB are
planning to build two training centres for 7 500 young people in the mining, timber
and forestry sectors through the Skills and Human Resource Development Project
(AfDB, 2024[84]).
Since 2014, the Development Minerals Programme jointly implemented by the
Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States and the European Union
(OACPS‑EU) has supported workers from over 325 ASM co‑operatives to undertake
training and enter formal employment. Covering Cameroon, Guinea, Uganda and
Zambia, this programme has supported skills development (environment, health,
safety) and provided training on co‑operative governance, business planning and
the legal obligations of artisanal miners (PNUD, 2023[85]).
Implementing and monitoring local content policies can also support skills
development, provided they do not distort local markets. The judicious use of local content
policies focused on employee training can be worthwhile, if implemented in co‑ordination
with other skills development policies (Korinek and Ramdoo, 2017[33]). Encouraging a
minimum annual investment in training, in partnership with local TVET universities and
technical centres, may offer a win‑win solution. Indeed, these policies can improve the
productivity of foreign companies given that they involve developing the skills of workers
who are familiar with local contexts. Central Africa could learn from examples elsewhere
on the continent and improve how these policies are monitored (AfDB, 2016[86]).
In Angola, for example, companies in the extractive sector are required to spend
USD 0.15 per barrel of oil produced on training Angolan staff. In South Africa,
companies must spend 5% of their annual wage bill on human resource development
(Ramdoo, 2016[87]).
Developing local skills and using new technologies can facilitate the certification of
Central African mines and improve due diligence in the sector. Developing local skills
can make it easier to obtain certification for projects, as doing so demonstrates their
compliance with environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria.
In the cobalt sector, the Mutoshi pilot project, a public–private partnership initiative
launched in 2019 in the DR Congo, has trained artisanal workers in the sector and
enabled them to organise into co‑operatives (Johansson de Silva, Strauss and
Morisho, 2019[88]). Aligned with the OECD Due Diligence Guidance (OECD, 2016[89]),
this project has improved supply chain transparency and increased productivity
and incomes for trained workers (Shumsky, 2020[90]).
In Burundi, the programme to strengthen due diligence in the supply of tin,
tungsten and tantalum, also aligned with OECD recommendations, has been
making use of new technologies since 2019. Employees of the Burundi Office of
Mines and Quarries have been trained to use electronic tools to collect data in real
time, thus improving transparency in the sector (PACT, 2022[91]).

Notes
1. IEA lists 33 critical minerals: Arsenic, Boron, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium,
Germanium, Gold, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Iridium, Lead, Magnesium, Manganese,
Molybdenum, Nickel, Niobium, Palladium, Platinum, Rare‑earth elements (Neodymium,
Dysprosium, Praseodymium and Terbium, among others), Selenium, Silicon, Silver, Tantalum,
Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zinc, Zirconium (IEA, 2023[93]).

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2. Artisanal and small‑scale mining focuses on the following critical minerals: Aluminium,
Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron/Steel, Graphite, Lithium, Manganese, Nickel,
Platinum, Rare Earths, Vanadium, Zinc, (AfDB, 2022[20]).
3. Nearly two thirds of Africa’s total mining production is controlled by two multinationals:
Glencore (Switzerland) and Anglo American (South Africa). The share of African mining
production controlled by China is around 28% for copper, 82% for bauxite, 41% for cobalt and
40% for uranium (Ericsson, Löf and Löf, 2020[92]).
4. Authors’ calculations based on (World Bank, 2024[94]).
5. https://eiti.org/our-mission.

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 Chapter 5
Digital skills in East Africa
This chapter analyses how digital skills affect jobs and
productivity in East Africa (Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda,
Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania
and Uganda). First, the chapter outlines the region’s
overall educational outcomes, occupational structures
and migration trends. Second, it analyses the supply
of, demand for and provision of digital skills. Third,
the chapter discusses the expansion of Internet access
and digital education, country‑specific skill provision
and regional integration of digital skills development
as priority policy recommendations.

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

IN BRIEF East Africa can make better use of its economic

growth for skills development. The region’s labour
productivity is below the African average, even
though East Africa boasts the fastest economic growth
of all the continent’s regions. Over three‑quarters of
workers are in unskilled occupations in agriculture
and trade. The average duration of schooling
is 6.7 years – the same as for Africa as a whole.
Learning‑adjusted years of education vary widely
across the region, ranging from 2.5 years in South
Sudan to 9.7 years in Seychelles.
The unprecedented development of digital skills
has provided an opportunity to boost productivity
in East Africa, but progress has been highly uneven.
The digitalisation of firms and economies has driven
both the supply of and demand for basic digital
skills in most East African countries. Intermediate
and advanced skill supply and demand remain
confined to specific sectors, like finance, health,
energy, agriculture, transport and infrastructure.
Specialised and digital entrepreneurial skills are
lacking throughout the region, with Nairobi as an
exception. A rise in digital service exports is creating
a growing demand for intermediate and advanced
digital skills from online labour.
Digital skill provision varies widely across East
African countries. Countries where digitalisation
has advanced are now offering specialised and
sector‑specific digital skills, especially through
technical and vocational training and education
institutions. However, barriers like low enrolment in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics
persist. Access to training remains unequal throughout
the region, with a lack of focus on providing skills to
informal workers, women and youth.
Policies to improve digital skills development in
East Africa can focus on three priorities:
1. Expand Internet access and integrate digital
skills into education to increase the supply of
and demand for basic digital skills
2. Target intermediate and advanced digital skill
provision towards country‑specific needs and
global demand
3. Enhance regional integration of digital markets,
infrastructure and skill provision to improve
conditions for digital skills development and
digital entrepreneurship.

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

Digital skills in East Africa

% of literate adults (15+ years),

latest year available
Skill levels
and quality 96% 91% 82% 78% 77% 77% 73%
of education 71% 61% 52%
vary widely 35%
across countries
in East Africa
Seychelles Mauritius Kenya Tanzania Uganda Madagascar Rwanda East Sudan Ethiopia South
Africa Sudan

Effective years
A greater share of East African ... but47% of tertiary-
workers are skilled compared educated people born in the
in education to the rest of the continent ... region lived abroad in 2020
5.6 % of workers in skilled occupations, 2010-19
5.1 24%
22%

East Africa Africa East Africa Africa

National strategies can help develop digital skills

% of jobs with different digital skills needed Share of youth employed in jobs
in Kenya and Rwanda requiring digital skills, 2021

</>
{}

</>
3.2% in Kenya
Basic Intermediate Advanced 1.7% in Tanzania
5 5
18 Graduates in ICT in East Africa
29
66
5 77
2019 2030 70% 30%

Expand Internet access and integrate digital skills

into education

Adapt digital skill provision to country-specific needs

Next steps and global demand

Strengthen regional integration of digital markets,

infrastructure and regional co-operation for skills
development

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5. Digital skills in East Africa

Regional profile

Figure 5.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

in East Africa, 2000‑22

East Africa Africa

A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant GDP C. Public education spending

per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
70 18 4.5
16 4
68
14 3.5
66 12 3
10 2.5
64
8 2
62 6 1.5
4 1
60
2 0.5
58 0 0

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed (own‑account) workers and contributing family
members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show
long‑term trends, as time series data on informal employment are missing for most African countries. Labour productivity
is measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices,
divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/; World
Bank (2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators;
and IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/ihn6zy

Figure 5.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in East Africa, 2021

Managers Professionals Technicians Clerical support Service and sales

Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers Skilled elementary occupations

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals, “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers and elementary occupations, and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators
and assemblers. No data were available for Seychelles.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/fr/.
12 https://stat.link/ks5r0h

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

Most workers in East Africa are in vulnerable employment and unskilled

occupations, and the quality of education varies widely across countries
Despite significant economic growth, East Africa’s labour productivity is below the
African average, and the region has a high rate of vulnerable employment. East Africa
continues to be the African region with the fastest economic growth (4.9% in 2020‑22,
compared to 4.4% for Africa as a whole). Yet, labour productivity has stagnated for more
than 15 years, increasing only marginally from USD 7 057 per worker in 2006 to USD 7 608
in 2022. This is the second lowest value of all African regions, only above Central Africa at
USD 5 712, and less than half of the African average of USD 15 902. In 2021, 65% of workers
in East Africa were in vulnerable employment (self‑employed or unpaid family workers)
(Figure 5.1), compared to 33% for North Africa and 75% for West Africa.
The great majority of workers in East Africa are in unskilled occupations in agriculture
and trade, while rural‑urban and gender divides vary widely across countries. About
76% of workers in East Africa are in unskilled occupations. The agriculture, forestry and
fishing sector continues to employ by far the most workers (58% in 2021, down from 70%
in 2000), followed by retail and wholesale trade (11%) and manufacturing (6%) (Figure 5.3).
Rural‑urban divides are starkest in Ethiopia, Rwanda and Madagascar (where the
shares of workers in skilled occupations are 31, 18 and 16 percentage points (pp) higher,
respectively, in urban than in rural areas). Gender divides are highest in Uganda (where
the share of male workers in skilled occupations is 13 pp higher than female), Kenya
(11 pp) and Tanzania (11 pp).

Figure 5.3. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in East Africa, by gender

and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available

Rural Urban Female Male All workers

A. By location B. By gender
% %
60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0

Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between 2010 and
2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled occupations include
professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations include sales, agriculture,
household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: USAID (2019[5]), Demographic and Health (DHS) Surveys (2010‑19) (database), https://www.statcompiler.com/en/.
12 https://stat.link/4fa96z

The majority of workers in East Africa do not have the levels of education required
for their occupations. Undereducation is particularly stark in Comoros, Djibouti, Sudan
and Tanzania. Under‑ and overeducation affect women and men across the region to
similar extents (59% vs. 55% for undereducation; 12% vs. 11% for overeducation). However,
self‑employed workers are much more likely to be undereducated than salaried employees

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5. Digital skills in East Africa

(64% vs. 46%), while the latter are more likely to be overeducated (9% of self‑employed
workers vs. 16% of employees) (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4. Percentage of workers who have an equal, higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation in East Africa, 2022 or latest year available

Matched Undereducated Overeducated

East Africa

Employees

Self-employed

Employees
Uganda

Self-employed

Employees
Tanzania

Self-employed

Employees
Sudan

Self-employed

Employees
Rwanda

Self-employed

Employees
Madagascar Mauritius

Self-employed

Employees

Self-employed

Employees
Kenya

Self-employed

Employees
Djibouti

Self-employed

Employees
Comoros

Self-employed

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of workers
Note: (Mis)matches are assessed through the normative approach by comparing educational requirements set out in the
International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) for each one‑digit ISCO occupational group with the level of
education of each person in employment. Calculations are based on data collected in national labour force statistics or other
nationally representative household surveys with a module on employment. No data were available for Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Seychelles, Somalia and South Sudan.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023[6]), ILO Education and Mismatch Indicators (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/jpcm5t

The level and quality of education in East Africa are on par with the African average;
however, lacking data may mask stark differences within the region.
• The average duration of schooling is 6.7 years in East Africa, the same as for Africa
as a whole. Adjusted for the quality of education, however, the duration decreases
by over one year, to 5.6 years. This is half a year above the adjusted value for the
continent (5.1 years), but around 2 years below developing Asia (7.2 years) and Latin

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

America and the Caribbean (7.8 years). Given missing data for Djibouti, Eritrea and
Somalia, the region’s actual average could be significantly lower (Figure 5.5).
• Learning‑adjusted years of education vary widely across the region, from just
2.5 years in South Sudan to 9.7 years in Seychelles (Figure 5.5). The percentage of
adults aged 15 and over found to be illiterate in South Sudan and Ethiopia were 68%
and 48%, respectively, compared to 4% and 9% in Seychelles and Mauritius.
• If education systems could be improved to a point where all children reach a basic
level of fundamental skills (corresponding to Level 1 of the international PISA test),
the gross domestic product (GDP) of East African countries would increase by an
average of 4% per year by 2100, equivalent to a total added value of USD 26 trillion.

Figure 5.5. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling

in East Africa, 2020

Years of schooling, population aged 15-64 Learning-adjusted years of schooling

Average number of years

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of
education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes. See Filmer
et al. (2020[7]) for the detailed methodology. No data were available for Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[8]), Education Statistics – All Indicators (database), https://databank.
worldbank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/0t63ua

East Africa has the greatest rate of highly educated emigration in Africa, and Seychelles
has the most non‑African immigrant workers. With more than 2 million tertiary‑educated
(“highly educated”) East Africans residing abroad in 2020, the region has the highest rate
in the continent (Chapter 1). Seychelles has the highest rate of highly educated emigration
in the region. The country is also the top destination for migrant workers immigrating
from outside the continent. East African emigrant workers with secondary education
or less tend to come from Seychelles, Eritrea, South Sudan and Mauritius, in that order
(Figure 5.6).

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5. Digital skills in East Africa

Figure 5.6. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (East Africa, 2020)

Intra-continental emigrants Intra-continental immigrants

Extra-continental emigrants Extra-continental immigrants
A. Low-educated
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Mauritius
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia
South Sudan
Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
East Africa
Africa
World
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

B. High-educated
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Mauritius
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia
South Sudan
Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
East Africa
Africa
World
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers show emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with
secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[9]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration
and World Bank Group (2023[10]), World Development Report (2023), https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/102109.
12 https://stat.link/jto4qk

Digital skills development is advancing in East Africa but unevenly across

countries
The digital economy has grown fast in some East African countries, but lacking global
market integration and uneven digital adoption reveal the need to further develop digital
skills in the region. East Africa has made digitalisation core to its overall development
agenda, with Kenya standing out as a continental forerunner (Dupoux et al., 2022[11]). While
digitalisation has been progressing fast in many countries, the region’s aspirations to
tap into global digital markets, through business process outsourcing, for instance, have
mostly not materialised. The adoption of productivity‑enhancing digital technologies has
remained patchy across the region. Shortages of and gaps in digital skills are in part
responsible for these missed opportunities (Caribou Digital Institute, 2024[12]; Melia, 2020[13]).
Digital skills development in East African countries is highly diverse, depending
largely on their readiness to adopt information and communications technology (ICT).

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

ICT readiness refers to a country’s pre‑conditions for developing its digital economy and
closely relates to its overall level of digital skills development. ICT readiness depends on
digital access, uptake and associated skill provision (Cisco, 2024[14]; UNCTAD, 2021[15]). East
African countries can be divided into three clusters, according to their digital economic
advancement (see AUC/OECD (2023[16]) (Table 5.1):
• Cluster 1: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Ethiopia. These countries have
larger GDP and GDP growth, high Internet access rates, explicit digital economy
strategies, and significant untapped human capital. As their economies digitalise,
the demand for digitally skilled workers is projected to grow fast. These countries’
capital cities have sizable digital entrepreneurship ecosystems.
• Cluster 2: Mauritius and Seychelles. Mauritius is an upper‑middle‑income country,
and Seychelles is a high‑income country. Both have relatively small populations
and advanced human capital, digital and complementary infrastructure, mature
digital policies, and governance.
• Cluster 3: Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Madagascar, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan.
These countries offer relatively fewer market opportunities and face significant ICT
readiness barriers, often exacerbated by conflicts.

Table 5.1. East African countries clustered according to digital economy advancement
Country Internet access and digital usage Market size Digital indexes ICT Readiness
Access to Share of Share of Population GDP Real GDP Wiley’s Oxford ICT skills Digital Investment Inflows Business ICT
Internet people population (in in PPP Growth Digital Insights’ base infrastructure (0‑100) to tech environment policy/
(% of capable that can thousands, dollars rate (%) Skills Gap Government (0‑100) (0‑100) startups (0‑100) strategy
population of using a afford 1 GB 2023) per capita (most Index world AI Readiness (USD (0‑100)
aged 15+) mobile money of mobile (2023 recent ranking Index million)
(most recent account data or most year, (out of 134) ranking
year, without help monthly recent 2013‑22) (2021) (out of 193)
2013‑22) (2021) (%) (2018) year) (2023)
Cluster 1
Kenya 50.8 57.6 55.3 51 539 6 603 4.8 70 101 23 38 62 564 54 59
Uganda 30.8 42.3 25.1 45 484 3 185 6.4 100 132 .. .. .. 38 .. ..
Tanzania 19.9 28.7 31.4 63 343 3 570 4.7 111 137 20 25 34 .. 53 48
Rwanda 12.6 .. 23.2 13 499 3 156 8.2 80 84 .. .. .. 126 .. ..
Ethiopia 10.0 .. 5.7 105 707 3 754 6.4 119 140 20 33 24 .. 39 58
Cluster 2
Mauritius 64.1 9.9 90.7 1 261 29 882 8.7 55 61 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Seychelles .. .. 60.6 100 41 180 8.9 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Cluster 3
Comoros 32.7 .. 13.6 991 3 456 2.6 .. 181 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Somalia 17.9 .. .. 16 051 1 996 2.4 .. 183 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Madagascar 12.8 12.1 0.4 29 766 1 900 4.0 123 162 .. .. .. .. .. ..
South 4.9 .. .. 15 013 433 0.5 .. 191 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sudan
Djibouti .. .. .. 1 030 7 157 3.2 .. 155 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Eritrea .. .. .. 3 453 1 832 3.8 .. 190 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sudan .. .. 47 895 3 600 ‑2.5 .. 177 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Note: AI = Artificial intelligence. GB = Gigabyte. GDP = Growth domestic product. PPP = Purchasing power parity. ICT =
Information and communication technology.
Source: Oxford Insights (2023[17]), Government AI Readiness Index (database), https://oxfordinsights.com/ai-readiness/ai-
readiness-index/; Demirgüç-Kunt et al. (2022[18]), The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial Inclusion, Digital Payments, and
Resilience in the Age of COVID-19 (database), https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1897-4; AUC/OECD (2021[19]), Africa’s Development
Dynamics 2021: Digital Transformation for Quality Jobs, https://doi.org/10.1787/0a5c9314-en, for the share of the population that
can afford 1 gigabyte of mobile data monthly; Wiley (2021[20]), Digital Skills Gap Index 2021, https://dsgi.wiley.com/; Choi,
Dutz and Usman (2020[21]), The Future of Work in Africa: Harnessing the Potential of Digital Technologies for All, https://documents1.
worldbank.org/curated/en/511511592867036615/pdf/The-Future-of-Work-in-Africa-Harnessing-the-Potential-of-Digital-
Technologies-for-All.pdf, for ICT Readiness scores. Data on Inflows to tech startups are sourced from the literature.

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The supply of and demand for different levels of digital skills vary across East African
countries, depending on the advancement of a country’s digital economy. Digital skills
can be divided into three levels: basic (e.g. smartphone use and e‑mail), intermediate (e.g.
use of multiple devices and professional social media) and advanced (e.g. web design,
data science) (Chapter 1). Overall, East African countries with lower ICT readiness have a
lower supply of and demand for digital skills. For example, Tanzania scores 3.3 out of 10
on Wiley’s Digital Skills Gap Index 2021,1 but only 1.7% of its youth are employed in digital
skill‑reliant work, compared to 3.2% in Kenya and 5.6% in Nigeria (Makaro, 2023[22]).

Digital skill supply is rising across most East African countries, while advanced
and entrepreneurial skills remain scarce
Fast Internet access and adoption of digital applications like mobile money has
increased the digital skill supply in some East African countries. The arrival of fast
Internet in several countries in the region has allowed informal workers to develop
digital literacy (Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]). East Africa also boasts world‑leading
registration figures for mobile money accounts (1 106 per 1 000 adults vs. 600 for Africa,
533 for developing Asia and 245 for Latin America and the Caribbean) (StearsData, 2024[23]).
In Madagascar, the recent graduation of hundreds of new software engineers (Ericsson,
2024) coincided with its expansion of 4G and 5G networks. However, where access to
broadband and smartphones is limited, digital literacy and related skill supply are also
limited (Gottschalk and Weise, 2023[24]). High Internet costs reduce households’ and firms’
adoption of digital technologies. The share of the East African population who can afford
one gigabyte of mobile Internet data was only a third (34%) in 2020 (AUC/OECD, 2021[19]).
As a result, workers in many East African countries have scarce basic digital skills: 33% of
Mauritius’ population over 15 years old possess basic skills, compared to 16% in Djibouti
and 4% in South Sudan.2
The improving supply of digital skills can facilitate productivity gains in organisations
across East Africa. These skills include digital literacy and data analytics in public, private
and third sector organisations (TradeMarkAfrica, 2023[25]; Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]).
Notably, e‑commerce platforms can boost the productivity of the region’s farmers and
small traders, by helping them access new customers, share insights and improve their
use of digital applications such as mobile money and social media (Caribou Digital
Institute, 2024[12]; Begazo, Blimpo and Dutz, 2023[26]).
Productivity among Uganda’s 27 000 health workers improved following the
government’s introduction of the mTrac mobile application that facilitated the
development of digital literacy and related skills (Bastos de Morais, 2017[27]).
Low investment in research and development (R&D), low science, technology, engineering
and mathematics (STEM) enrolment, and limited university infrastructure are hampering
the supply of advanced digital skills across the region. From 2000‑16, East Africa spent
only 0.27% on R&D, far below the African Union’s Agenda 2063 target of 1% and much
farther below the OECD countries’ 2.5% (AUC/OECD, 2019[28]). This contributes to the
shortages of advanced digital skills, including quality engineering talent (Mia, 2024[29];
Dupoux et al., 2022[11]; UNESCO/Huawei Technologies, 2022[30]). In addition, the low tertiary
enrolment in STEM subjects, higher enrolment costs for students, and a relative lack of
STEM‑related educators with up‑to‑date knowledge and pedagogic skills contribute to a
short supply of digital skills. Ill‑equipped local universities and educational institutions
(e.g. lacking powerful computers and servers) also play a role (Choi, Dutz and Usman,
2020[21]). However, well‑designed and resourced initiatives can counter this trend (Box 5.1).

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Box 5.1. Advancing artificial intelligence and high‑end digital skills

in Seychelles

Seychelles Innovation HUB, launched in 2018, has become the epicentre of the island
nation’s artificial intelligence (AI) ecosystem and an incubator for start‑ups and
entrepreneurs. The hub has attracted significant private sector interest, assisted by
Seychelles’ reputation for regulatory discipline and ranking as Africa’s third best for
ICT readiness and 68th in the Global AI Readiness Index 2020. Firms that have joined the
hub include Accenture, with its AI‑focused innovation centre, and financial technology
(fintech) companies, such as CoinFlex, Prime XBT and LetsExchange. Seychelles’
fintech sector boasts two unicorns, KuCoin and Scroll, with a market capitalisation
of approximately USD 945 million and USD 4.8 billion, respectively (CoinMarketCap,
2024[31]; CoinBrain, 2024[32]). The hub’s Generative AI section hosts Travizory, a Seychellois
technology pioneer credited with digital tools compliant with the International Civil
Aviation Organization and the United Nations Security Council. This firm aims to
improve data protection and Internet access through AI, so far serving over 4 million
passengers by allowing easy verification of nearly 15 million documents.
Source: Mia (2024[29]), “Seychelles’ thriving artificial intelligence ecosystem”, https://capmad.com/technology-
en/seychelles-thriving-artificial-intelligence-ecosystem/.

Digital entrepreneurial skills are in short supply in most East African countries.
Digital startups are creating a wide range of digital products (applications and software,
digital media, fintech, e‑commerce, tourism, and sport) (Begazo, Blimpo and Dutz, 2023[26];
Bosson et al., 2022[33]). However, with the exception of Kenya, digital entrepreneurial skills
(i.e. an understanding of how to operate and grow a digital venture and how to do so in a
given local context) are limited across East African countries. The lack of such skills stems
from the typically limited size and maturity of digital entrepreneurship ecosystems. As
a result, experienced mentors are similarly scarce, limiting the development potential of
young digital entrepreneurs (Friederici, Wahome and Graham, 2020[34]).

The digitalisation of East African firms and economies is driving the demand for
digital skills, especially basic skills
As East Africa’s economies have digitalised, the demand for digital skills has risen.
About 87% of African business leaders identify digital literacy for enhancing productivity
as a priority area for further investment (Dupoux et al., 2022[11]). Larger corporations,
governments and start‑ups have driven the demand for digitally skilled workers across
East Africa. Key sectors include fintech, education, health, energy, agriculture, transport
and infrastructure, information technology (IT) and business process outsourcing,
international trade, tourism, manufacturing, forestry and land management, and building
and construction (IFC, 2024[35]; Sandbox, 2024[36]; IFC, 2021[37]). The imperative to digitalise
work processes to enable remote working and service delivery during the COVID‑19
pandemic accelerated this trend. Projections indicate that Kenya and Rwanda will require,
respectively, USD 1.5 billion and USD 0.3 billion to train their existing workforce in digital
skills and USD 1.3 billion and USD 0.2 billion to train new workers over the 2019‑30 period.
Demand is greatest for basic digital skills, while intermediate and advanced skill
demand is growing more slowly and in specific sectors. In Kenya, for example, 32.7 million
jobs are projected to require digital skills by 2030: 65% (21.4 million jobs) with basic digital
skills, 29% (9.6 million jobs) with intermediate digital skills and 5% (1.7 million jobs) with
advanced digital skills. The corresponding figures for Rwanda’s smaller but fast‑growing

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market are 6.5 million jobs requiring digital jobs by 2030, with 69% (4.5 million jobs) at the
basic level, 29% (1.9 million jobs) at the intermediate level and 1.5% (0.1 million jobs) at
the advanced level (IFC, 2021[37]). Madagascar is projected to create 140 000 jobs requiring
digital skills by 2027 (IFC, 2024[35]). In Mauritius, the tourism industry is demanding
advanced digital skills, specifically for web designers.
The lack of advanced digital workers, such as software engineers, is hampering the
growth of digital firms in the region. Increased demand for intermediate and advanced
digital skills arises from new digital ventures, for instance, in fintech (Mauritius Africa
FinTech Hub, 2024[38]). Digital enterprises typically depend on highly skilled, creative
knowledge workers, including software engineers, designers, product developers, project
managers, data scientists, social media managers as well as entrepreneurial workers.
However, software engineers, who would be able to build compelling digital products,
master coding languages, co‑shape a venture’s strategy and lead teams of junior
developers, are often unaffordable or inaccessible for local digital firms. Some local
ventures resort to recruiting talent from high‑income countries or outsourcing software
development (mostly to India and sometimes to Europe) but typically at a significant cost
(Friederici, Wahome and Graham, 2020[34]).
Increased digital service exports indicate a growing demand for East African workers
with intermediate and advanced digital skills, working remotely for firms around the
world. East African digital service providers (e.g. for customer support) have created a
demand for digitally skilled remote workers (Melia, 2020[13]). In Kenya, the regional leader,
ICT services generated significant export revenue (USD 629 million) in 2019 (UNCTADstat,
2023[39]), with an additional 1 million business process outsourcing jobs expected by
2028 (Mwangi, 2023[40]). Four other countries also generated significant export revenues
from ICT services in 2019‑20: Ethiopia (USD 123 million), Madagascar (USD 128 million),
Mauritius (USD 124 million) and Djibouti (USD 113 million) (Figure 5.7). Sought‑after digital
skills include intermediate (e.g. web design, social media account creation) and advanced
(e.g. software engineering).

Figure 5.7. Export of services in information and communications technology

by selected East African countries
USD millions
700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Source: Authors’ calculation based on UNCTADstat (2023[39]), FDI Online Database (database), https://unctadstat.
unctad.org/datacentre/.
12 https://stat.link/snjmex

Job displacements due to digital upskilling and automation are likely to affect East
Africa to only a limited extent. East Africa’s formal labour markets are not immune to the

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risks of outdated skills and large‑scale job displacements associated with automation, AI
and increasing digital skills requirements. However, the effects of these developments are
expected to be modest, as they are unlikely to replace as many jobs in East Africa as in more
industrialised areas of the world (Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]). In furniture production
in Kenya, for example, data indicate that robots will become more cost‑competitive than
workers in 2034, 11 years later than in the United States, due to lower labour costs and
higher operational costs for robots (Banga and Willem, 2018[41]).

East Africa’s advanced economies provide more specialised digital skills, while
inclusive provision is missing throughout the region
Digital skills training varies greatly in depth and specialisation across East African
countries. Desk research across all East African countries suggests that digital skills
training opportunities are heavily concentrated in Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 countries.
A wide array of public and private, local and international funders and providers are
offering digital skills training (Table 5.2). The region’s growing population of STEM and
ICT graduates, particularly in Cluster 1 countries, further reflects this increased focus
(World Bank, 2023[42]; UNESCO/Huawei Technologies, 2022[30]).

Table 5.2. Examples of digital skills training providers in East Africa

Provider Country Target Digital skill level Partners Impact/outcome
Local universities and tertiary institutions
AI Center of Excellence Kenya Professionals Advanced Several, e.g. Huawei Upskilling the
workforce
Jomo Kenyatta University Kenya Students, Advanced Several, e.g. IBM, Public education
faculty Chandria
Strathmore University Kenya Students, Advanced Several, e.g. Standard Public education
(private) faculty Chartered
Uganda Institute Uganda Students Intermediate, Several Public education
of Information and advanced
Communications Technology
Rwanda Coding Academy Rwanda Students Intermediate, N/A Public education
advanced
Digital multinational enterprises
Cisco Networking Academy, Kenya Students, Basic, intermediate, UNDP Eritrea, Eritrean 104 978 trained
Digital Transformation youth, faculty advanced, Workers, ITU
Centres (certification)
Andela Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda; Students, Advanced N/A 100 000 targeted
online employers
Microsoft Development Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda; Students, Advanced Cisco Systems, Career readiness and
Centres boot camp teachers, Safaricom, Nestle. capacity, curriculum,
juniors, tech capabilities.
faculty, youth
Huawei DigiTalent, Kenya, Ethiopia; Youth, rural, Basic, intermediate, Government, United 1 000+ trained
DigiTruckproject internship, online adult learners, advanced, Nations, Academia, ICOG
professionals, (certification) Anyone Can Code
women
Google Hustle Academy Ethiopia, Ghana, Youth, Basic, intermediate, N/A 1 000 trained
Madagascar, South Sudan, employers advanced
free virtual boot camp
Local digital enterprises and private sector
Rift Valley Tech Training Kenya Students Intermediate N/A 5 000 trained
Institute
Fikrcamp Ethiopia, Somalila; boot Youth Basic, intermediate, Ridwan Tukale 186 trained
camp advanced, soft co‑founder
LP Digital Tanzania; three‑month Youth, women, Basic, intermediate N/A 56 trained
online, free students,
entrepreneurs

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Table 5.2. Examples of digital skills training providers in East Africa (continued)

Provider Country Target Digital skill level Partners Impact/outcome

Maendeleo Foundation Uganda; virtual Girls, teachers, Basic, intermediate, N/A 100 girls, 50 teachers,
professionals advanced, soft 100 parents
(storytelling)
Meta Boost Ethiopia Ethiopia; online Small and Ministry of Public 7 000 trained
informal Service and Labor and
enterprises Skills, Summer Media
International partnerships and not‑for‑profits
African Institute for Rwanda Students Advanced N/A Public education,
Mathematical Sciences 47% female students
Rwanda (AIMS Rwanda)
Carnegie Mellon Rwanda Students Advanced Government of Rwanda N/A
University‑Africa
Tecnológico de Monterrey, Madagascar Youth, women Advanced IFC, World Bank’s 6 000 employees,
Mercer and Malagasy PRODIGY project, including youth and
universities Malagasy Government women trained
GaroBits School Somalia (Puntland State) Youth Intermediate Shaqadoon Organization, 200 trained
(for graphic and web design) Garowe. European
Union, United States
Note: N/A = Non‑applicable.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Most technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions that offer
digital skills training are in Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 countries and focus on applying
digital skills to various technical sectors. Among the 14 TVET institutions identified for
the present analysis,3 only 2 were in Cluster 3 countries (Madagascar and Sudan). Across
the 12 countries in Clusters 1 and 2, most (9) integrated digital skills in training courses
targeting technical skills in a variety of sectors and occupations, especially in automotive
(4), engineering (4) and electronics (3). TVET programmes run by local universities,
tertiary education institutions, development partners and not‑for‑profits tend to offer
intermediate and advanced digital skills training to young people, while private sector
programmes address a wider audience for skills ranging from basic to advanced, notably
through online training.
Digital skill provision tailored to children is scarce, and women are often
under‑represented. Primary school teachers often lack the capacity necessary to help
children gain basic digital skills, for instance, in Somalia (Khalif, 2023[43]) and Uganda
(UNDP, 2023[44]). Women represent only 30% of the region’s ICT graduate population, a major
source of digital skill supply (Begazo, Blimpo and Dutz, 2023[26]). In Kenya, for example,
although 41% of students surveyed across the country’s universities were women, just
17% were pursuing degrees in science and technology subjects (Mbogho, 2017[45]). Fewer
than 20% of digital sector workers in Kenya are female.
The #SheGoesDigital programme offers a 40‑day training course in social media
and digital marketing to financially disadvantaged Kenyan women, followed by
internships with relevant companies.
The Indo‑Africa Internship Programme selects promising East African IT graduates,
prioritising young women, for three‑ to six‑month internships with Indian
companies (ITC, 2018[46]).
While scarce, entrepreneurship training and apprenticeships provide workers with
practical, relevant digital skills. Training offered within mainstream educational curricula
can close gaps in the region’s supply of entrepreneurial skills and analytical capabilities
with regard to digital technologies, for instance, the ability to apply data and insights
to real‑world decision‑making (Dupoux et al., 2022[11]; Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]).

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However, Kenya (UNESCO/Huawei Technologies, 2022[30]), Madagascar (IFC, 2024[35]) and

Uganda (Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]) have been found to be lacking in this regard.
Apprenticeship programmes can equip workers with in‑demand digital skills, but limited
policy support and incentives often result in low private sector participation in those
programmes (UNESCO/Huawei Technologies, 2022[30]). Exceptions are Kenya,4 Rwanda5
and Uganda,6 which have established national apprenticeship programmes. Such training
programmes have been shown to effectively enhance the job prospects of participants,
leading to a decrease in unemployment rates and an increase in earnings (David and
Schoar, 2021[47]).
Digital (web design and digital graphics) and entrepreneurial skills, gained from
Strathmore University incubation centre, iBiz Africa, helped Nairobi‑based Purpink
to grow into a successful, award‑winning business. The company, which offers
customers co‑created personalised gifts via its digital platforms, is expanding to
other Kenyan and East African cities, including Kampala (Strathmore University,
2024[48]).
The Digital Opportunity Trust’s Digital Jobs Programme provides training, including
through peer mentors, to over 1 000 participants in software products that are in
demand in the Tanzanian workplace and via online freelancing. Several programme
participants saw their monthly income grow by 20% due to new digitally enabled
work opportunities (DOT Tanzania, 2024[49]).
Green digital skills training for specific entities is growing in importance. Continuing
digitalisation of the green sector is expanding demand for workers with green digital
skills or with skills for building sustainable digital solutions (INCO Academy, 2024[50]). Data
centres, smart grids, digital wind farms, digital hydropower stations and operational
efficiency applications are examples of entities that require workers with data analytics
and specific engineering skills. Green digital skill certificate programmes offered freely
by Microsoft and LinkedIn‑backed INCO Academy (2024[50]), for example, are equipping
trainees, typically from digital backgrounds, with complementary green‑specific skills to
facilitate access to green jobs.
Jomo Kenyatta University’s agricultural incubator seeks to train a digitally skilled
green labour force to achieve global competitiveness and thrive in the 21st‑century
digital landscape (JKUAT, 2024[51]).

East African countries require specific strategies to develop digital skills

based on national levels of supply and demand
Beyond expanding Internet access, East African countries can benefit from
country‑specific digital skills development strategies that determine targeted skill
provision and promote regional collaboration. East African countries have already
implemented wide‑ranging digital policies (Table 5.3), including those afflicted by
conflict (Box 5.2). To reap the maximum benefits of digital skills development for jobs and
productivity, East African countries can pursue three complementary policy priorities:
1. Expand Internet access and integrate digital skills into education to increase the
supply of and demand for basic digital skills.
2. Targeting intermediate and advanced digital skill provision towards country‑specific
needs and global demand.
3. Enhance regional integration of digital markets, infrastructure and skills
development to improve conditions for digital skills development and digital
entrepreneurship.

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Table 5.3. Digital policy and regulatory frameworks in East Africa

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3
Framework

South Sudan
Madagascar
Seychelles
Mauritius

Comoros
Tanzania

Rwanda

Ethiopia

Somalia

Djibouti
Uganda

Eritrea

Sudan
Kenya
National ICT Policy/Master plan x x x x
Digital Economy Strategy/Vision x x x x x x x x
National Skills Development Policy x x x x x x x x x
Digital Transformation or Innovation Roadmap/ x x x x x
Blueprint/Masterplan
Digital Skills/Talent Action Plan x x
Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy x x x x x x x x x x x x x
TVET policy x x x x x x x x x
Basic skills and digital literacy policy x x x x x
Recognition of prior learning x
Demand‑driven curricula x x x
ICT labour market system x x x x
Youth empowerment policy x
Pedagogy and faculty x x x X x
Industrial attachment and internships x x x x x
Incentives for the private sector x x
Source: Authors’ compilation.

Box 5.2. Digital skills policies in least developed countries affected

by conflict in East Africa

Somalia is beset by low literacy rates, limited Internet access and teacher training
deficiencies. The COVID‑19 pandemic, however, catalysed innovation in distance
learning programmes (UNESCO, 2023[52]).
South Sudan lacks a dedicated ICT Act, ICT in Education/EdTech Act or competency
framework for teachers. However, its revised national education strategy, development
strategy and curriculum framework cover digital skill provision (Republic of South
Sudan, 2017[53]). The framework aims to integrate ICT into the curriculum from early
childhood to Grade 8 and to develop competencies such as critical and creative thinking,
communication, and multimedia digital and soft skills (Republic of South Sudan, n.d.[54]).
Sudan’s vision for education prioritises electronic education and investments to develop
computer labs in schools, but no digital competency framework or STEM focus exists.
The country’s COVID‑19 response supported digital learning and requisite digital skills
training for teachers (UNESCO, 2022[55]).

Expanding Internet access and integrating digital skills into education can
increase the supply of and demand for basic digital skills in East Africa
Greater Internet access, market regulations and digital infrastructure investments are
foundational to increasing East Africa’s digital skill supply and demand. For digital skills,
in‑country supply and demand are closely interconnected and depend on the degree of
digital transformation in specific sectors and in the country overall. Given the significant
spillover effects on productivity, expanding Internet access to excluded populations is

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a priority for all East African countries. Internet access could be made more affordable
through enhanced competition and better management of public telecom assets, including
more transparent rules on licensing and market dominance, infrastructure access and
sharing (Begazo, Blimpo and Dutz, 2023[26]). In addition, digital infrastructure investments
can also attract both local and international private investments, as well as contributions
from development partners (Dupoux et al., 2022[11]).
Regional digital infrastructure projects, such as the African Development Bank’s
USD 2 billion investment or the World Bank’s USD 130 million Eastern Africa
Regional Digital Integration Project Series, promise to drive down digital access
costs through economies of scale.
Integrating digital skills training into early childhood education is cost‑effective,
especially if financed through innovative funding approaches. East Africa’s constrained
fiscal space and debt profile (particularly in Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya and
South Sudan) demand difficult trade‑offs in the provision of digital skills (AfDB, 2023[56]).
Investments in early childhood education is an essential first step for such countries, as it
allows them to address the high demand for basic and intermediate skills (Chapter 1). As
a financing option, innovative funding approaches can be effective by mobilising blended
finance from public, private and international partners (see Table 5.4 for examples of such
policies).
Since 2021, UNICEF has been testing digital learning solutions across 93 learning
centres in remote areas of Sudan. Their methods include stories and videos
to explain the exercises to children, backed with digital equipment such as
solar‑powered tablets. Results show that participants outperformed traditional
learners in learning outcomes by 1.7 times (UNICEF, 2023[57]).
The Madagascar‑based start‑up Jirogasy is collaborating with Aceleron, a
United Kingdom developer of circular economy lithium‑ion batteries, to deliver
solar‑powered Madagascan‑built computers to 10 000 children a year across schools
in Madagascar and East Africa (Envirotech, 2021[58]).

Table 5.4. Examples of inclusive digital skills development initiatives in East Africa
Focus Programme/country Funder Impact
Universal basic digital Digital Ambassador Programme, Government Deployed 110 digital ambassadors, trained 67 627
literacy Rwanda
Digital skills via lifelong Digital Skills @ Your Local Library Enabel Belgium Over 22 000 youth, 50% female
learning project (2021‑23), Uganda
Digital education capacity Strengthening Higher Education Mastercard Reached 800 000 students and 35 000 instructors in
building for universities initiative, Ethiopia Foundation 50 public universities with 2 model digital courses
Digital skills for refugees Universal Digital Acceleration World Bank Essential digital skills and related skills for over
Programme (2023‑28), Uganda 1.5 million refugees
Universal digital literacy Leaving No One Behind in the Digital UN Capital Digital literacy skills for 1 million Ugandans by 2024
Era, Uganda Development Fund
Expansion of digital skills Digital Foundations Project, Djibouti World Bank Reducing connectivity costs
(USD 10 million)
Extending the mobile money service IFC The unbanked gained digital literacy via affordable access
Mvola to the unbanked, Comoros
Digital Jobs Programme and Digital Digital Opportunity Trained over 30 000 youth from disadvantaged
Ambassadors (2013‑present), Tanzania Trust backgrounds and 400 youth leaders in digital skills
Daring to Shift project (2019‑23), Canadian Digital literacy and work readiness skills to over
Tanzania Government 1 000 youth, including women, and 40 000 community
members
Digital skills development Support for ICT‑backed education, UNESCO Facilitated access to digital skills and relevant policy
Somalia development
Source: Authors’ compilation.

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Effective school‑to‑work initiatives can both improve youth’s digital skills development
and fill firms’ labour shortages. Internships and on‑the‑job training can be win‑win
strategies for firms and students: they expose youth to higher level skills, and they can
address shortages in the digital sector, such as in active digital hubs in Nairobi. Cluster 1
countries increasingly promote such programmes. Cluster 3 countries, such as Somalia,
particularly need such skills development partnerships to help reduce skill mismatches
and facilitate students’ transition into graduate jobs (Aylaw, 2023[59]).
Kenya’s President Digital Talent Program is designed to develop future government
leaders skilled in digital technology. Over a 12‑month period, interns receive
specialised training in digital skills and project management, gaining practical
experience with 10 months in government roles and 2 months in private firms
(UNESCO/Huawei Technologies, 2022[30]).

Intermediate and advanced digital skill provision can be targeted towards

country‑specific opportunities and global demand
Data‑driven skill assessments can inform policy makers of intermediate and
advanced digital skills gaps. Demand for intermediate and advanced digital skills arises
mainly from high‑productivity sectors and global markets. Strengthened labour market
information systems and dedicated analysis of job vacancy data can help policy makers
identify emerging skill needs and gaps (Chapter 2). Digital skills are particularly well
suited to be assessed through big data and job vacancy data. East African policy makers
can use these approaches to identify digital skill gaps in priority sectors and determine
the most effective digital skill provision measures at the national level (e.g. sensors and
AI in agriculture, machine learning in fintech).
Mauritius’ Strategic Plan 2030 foresees the development of an advanced digital
ecosystem and “technopreneurial” spirit through funding 50 yearly scholarships in
blockchain technology (Republic of Mauritius, 2020[60]).
Targeting TVET can expand the digital skill supply. Policy support for TVET institutions
can contribute to meeting the demand for digital skills training opportunities. Additional
support for TVET and secondary education institutions can greatly increase the region’s
supply of intermediate digital skills (IFC, 2021[37]). International partners can help create
or improve accredited TVET courses aligned to employers’ needs through public‑private
alliances.
Uganda, sponsored by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), has
established the Nakawa Vocational Training College to provide vocational courses
in electrical engineering and automobile engineering.
Rwanda’s TVET institution IPRC Tumba, financed by JICA and the Agence Française
de Développement, in collaboration with the local government and the private
sector, is a hub for training in advanced digital skills to be employed in the digital
sector, in electrical and electronics engineering and in mechanical engineering
(IPRC Tumba, 2024[61]).
The Rwanda Coding Academy (RCA) is a unique educational institution that
combines elements of general education and TVET. Launched in January 2019,
RCA specialises in teaching advanced digital skills such as software development,
embedded systems programming and cybersecurity (IFC, 2021[37]).
Strengthened collaboration between academia and industry can help universities
produce graduates with market‑ready digital skills. Skilled practitioners as adjunct
lecturers allow industry‑driven training and practice‑oriented pedagogy. Industry
advisory committees, comprised of professionals and experts from various industries,

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

provide guidance to tertiary education institutes on curriculum development and

industry engagement programmes for faculty. East African universities, particularly
those in Cluster 3 countries, still lag behind in this respect, but successful initiatives that
link academia and industry exist in the region.
Rwanda’s Innovative Digital Platform7 – financed by the Research and Innovation
Systems for Africa (RISA) Fund – was launched in December 2023 and aims to
reduce the skill gaps between academia and industry through improved research
and consultancy, joint curriculum development, and job placement.
The East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration Project (EASTRIP),
funded by the World Bank, allowed for placing over 30 faculty staff of Tanzania’s
Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology in industries as part of mutual training and
work programmes (World Bank, 2023[42]).
Mauritius has planned a strategic review of training content to redress the
mismatch between emerging graduates’ skills and the labour market need for
software engineers.
Intensifying the development of advanced digital skills and the skills of STEM graduates
can enhance East Africa’s role as a global digital hub. Investing in the development of
advanced and specialised digital skills is critical for the region to supply high‑end digitally
skilled innovators and entrepreneurs. Cluster 1 countries particularly need to increase
investments in R&D and knowledge production to generate momentum for innovation.
Initiatives such as targeted support for bright STEM students can be effective, but to fill
gender gaps, they need to focus on women, as only 30% of STEM graduates are female in
East Africa. Educating more women would also expand the supply of experts in advanced
digital skills and of STEM workers.
In 2018, UN Women and the African Union Commission, in partnership with the
International Telecommunication Union, UNESCO, the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa and UNICEF, launched the African Girls Can Code Initiative.
This initiative equips African girls and women aged 17 to 25 with advanced digital
skills.
Strengthening digital skills can foster the creation of digital startups and increase
entrepreneurship. Strategic commitment to innovation can help advance digital upskilling
and possibly lead to the development of startups (Choi, Dutz and Usman, 2020[21]) or
improve digital entrepreneurship within existing businesses and organisations.
The Mauritius Africa FinTech Hub skills programme, supported by PwC, aims to
equip Mauritian startups with entrepreneurial skills to scale their business and
access pan‑African and wider international markets (Mauritius Africa FinTech Hub,
2024[38]).
Since 2015, the Smart Duka programme, operated by TechnoServe, has provided
business training and helped digitise informal micro‑retailers in Kenya and
Tanzania. It has also created a collaborative digital ecosystem in which shop
owners operate collectively in business groups (e.g. through WhatsApp) and are
connected to a supportive network of financial, technology and supply chain
partners (TechnoServe, 2020[62]).

A single digital market and partnerships can drive the regional integration of
digital skill supply and demand
A single regional digital market and a multi‑currency digital payment facilitator could
increase the development of digital skills. A unified digital market can promote seamless
connectivity, harmonise regulations and facilitate cross‑border payments. Creating such

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5. Digital skills in East Africa

a market could enhance the ongoing initiatives by the East African Community (EAC)
and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa to interconnect countries,
promote digitalisation and encourage innovation (AUC/OECD, 2021[19]). The resulting larger
integrated market could help expand opportunities for digital skills development, digital
entrepreneurship and digital skills demand. These could boost the region’s GDP by up to
USD 2.6 billion (TradeMark Africa, 2022[63]), including an increase in intra‑African trade,
which currently represents 30% of East Africa’s exports (Kuwonu, 2024[64]). The African
Continental Free Trade Area’s agenda, including its new international and multi‑currency
digital payment facilitator the Pan‑African Payment and Settlement System, has the
potential to deepen the supply and demand dynamics for digital skills (Choi, Dutz and
Usman, 2020[21]).
Through Strathmore University in Kenya, the African Union‑European Union
Digital for Development Hub launched the initiative Strengthening Data Protection
across East Africa. The initiative allows data protection authorities and private
sector representatives to exchange lessons learned, best practices, resources and
guidelines (D4D Hub, 2023[65]).
To support digital startups by youth and small and medium‑sized enterprises,
the African Union Commission and Google have partnered to offer Digital Skills
Campaigns, five‑day digital skills workshops. They have so far benefited 45 young
business owners, managers, entrepreneurs and students from Ethiopia and Kenya
(Mpemba, 2023[66]).
Regional partnerships between tertiary research and training institutions and regional
centres of excellence can nurture advanced digital skills, including through strong private
sector linkages. With support from development partners, regional partnerships and
centres of excellence can establish training courses for specific advanced digital skills at
the regional level. Regional data centres and supranational analytic hubs require workers
who have advanced and specialised digital skills (Dupoux et al., 2022[11]).
The Regional Flagship ICT Centre (RAFIC) for digital skills is one of 16 regional
centres of excellence of EASTRIP. RAFIC has 1 400 graduates, 5 000 students,
180 teachers, and 60 managers and other staff. It has mentored 200 women in
science and technology.
Under the EAC’s Digital Skills for an Innovative East African Industry initiative, the
Inter‑University Council of East Africa, the German Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and an East African‑German academic consortium have
partnered to provide cutting‑edge digital skills training. The initiative offers a
two‑year Master’s programme in Embedded and Mobile Systems; it has taught
digital and entrepreneurial skills to 96 students from Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda,
South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, 34% of them women. Also, through the
initiative’s Digital Skills Accelerator courses, 150 unemployed graduates have been
trained in Android Mobile Applications Development (BMZ et al., 2021[67]).
Attracting talent with advanced and specialised digital skills is essential to ensure
the region’s participation in future digital advancements. Programmes aimed at the
diaspora skills pool and other highly skilled individuals can significantly enhance the
development of local digital technologies. Digital nomad visas, skill mobility partnerships
and reintegration programmes (see Chapter 2) are crucial for attracting talent and for
circulating skills.
Mauritius recently launched a digital nomad visa allowing non‑citizens to live
in Mauritius and work remotely for a company or client or own a business based
outside the country for a year, with the option to renew the visa for a second year
(Quantamnomad, 2023[68]).

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 5. Digital skills in East Africa

Seychelles launched its Workation Retreat Program digital nomad visa in April
2021. Valid for one year and renewable for six months, it offers tax exemptions on
local and personal income as well as on business taxes (VisaGuide.World, 2024[69]).

Notes
1. Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda are covered. Countries
are ranked based on indicators in 6 pillars: (1) Digital skills institutions (including digital
skills upon graduation), (2) Digital responsiveness (including responsiveness of the education
system), (3) Government support (including importance of ICTs to government’s vision),
(4) Supply, demand and competitiveness (including size of the STEM gender gap), (5) Data ethics
and integrity (including cybersecurity performance), (6) Research intensity (including academic
articles per 1 000 graduates). Indicators are normalised into scores from 0 to 100.
2. Authors’ calculation based on “ITU ICT SDG indicators – Proportion of youth and adults with
ICT skills, by type of skills” (ITU, 2024[70]).
3. The complete overview of TVET programmes can be obtained upon request.
4. https://www.opportunitiesforafricans.com/government-of-kenya-presidential-digital-talent-
programme-cohort-viii/
5. https://www.risa.gov.rw/projects/digital-ambassadors-program
6. https://www.ugandainvest.go.ug/sme/youth-apprenticeship-programme/
7. https://www.innodip.rw/

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 Chapter 6
Skills for renewable
energies in North Africa
This chapter examines the skills needed to support
the development of the renewable energy sector in
the six North African countries: Algeria, Egypt, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia. It provides an
overview of current levels of education, employment
and skills development in the region, followed by
a case study on the skills required in the renewable
energy sector. North Africa is well‑equipped to take
advantage of the many resources available to the region
(solar, wind and hydroelectric power) to achieve a just
energy transition. This chapter assesses the skill sets
of workers in different segments of renewables value
chains, and then analyses how the skill demand is
evolving. Finally, it proposes a range of public policies
to ensure the skill supply better aligns with the skill
demand in the renewable energy and related sectors.

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 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

IN BRIEF The quality of education in North Africa has

improved significantly. Now the challenge is to
maintain this progress for all: while the average
years of schooling is 7.9 years – higher than the
average for the continent (6.7 years) – once this
figure is adjusted for learning quality, the average
drops to 6.1 years. There are still a number of
inequalities, not only between urban and rural areas,
but also between genders. Although the region has
the highest productivity on the continent (around
USD 42 000 per worker), almost 73% of workers are
in informal employment.
Renewable energy has the potential to create
2.7 million jobs in North Africa, given that the
region boasts the continent’s greatest potential for
solar and wind power, and could become the leading
exporter of green hydrogen by 2050, with a projected
annual value of USD 110 billion.
However, the growing demand for skills is not
being met. This mismatch between supply and
demand is caused by a number of factors, including
the narrow scope of national skills development
strategies, the lack of funding for relevant training,
and poor transparency in the dissemination of
information, and the mismatch between the skills
available and the needs of the labour market.
To develop skills in the renewable energies
sector, policymakers could therefore consider three
priority measures:
1. Developing and implementing participatory
and inclusive national strategies that
anticipate the growing demand for skills
and that align training with the needs of
the market, following a people‑centred,
gender‑sensitive, and focused on sustainable
local development approach.
2. Expanding the range of skills available by
investing more effectively in research and
development and centres of excellence, and by
strengthening vocational and technical training,
internships and work‑study programmes.
3. Setting up an institutional framework
supported by competent and well‑resourced
authorities for the good governance of
public‑private, regional and international
partnerships.

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Skills for renewable energies

in North Africa
% of adolescents in upper secondary education achieving
proficiency in reading and mathematics
Mathematics Reading
North Africa continues 31%
27%
its efforts to develop 21% 21% 20% 20%
high-quality skills 16%
for all 14%

Urban Rural Female Male

Average years of schooling,

2020 Migrants’ ratio per 1 000 inhabitants
by level of education, 2020
7.9
9.2 8.4 6.7 Secondary or lower
Higher
67
31 40
28 20
11 17 15 11 9 14 8 6 2
Latin America Developing North Africa Africa
and the Asia North Morocco Tunisia Algeria Egypt Libya Mauritania
Caribbean
Africa

Strengthening renewable-energy-related skills to capitalise on the region's

natural advantages

Current energy capacity Increase in solar and wind power

of North Africa (greatest potential generation if the region were to use
on the continent) 1% of its land for solar and wind power

Solar 2 200 kWh/m2

– Average annual solar radiation
2 792 GW x 12 Africa's
current capacity

Wind 7 m/s
– Average annual wind speed
223 GW x 12 Africa's
current capacity

Developing national strategies for renewable energies

that take into account future skill demand

Improving skill supply by promoting on-the-job training,

Next steps research and development, and centres of excellence

Supporting skills development through co-operation with

public and private partners at all levels

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6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

North Africa regional profile

Figure 6.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

in North Africa, 2000‑22
North Africa Africa
A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant C. Public education spending
GDP per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
70 45 5
40 4.5
60
35 4
50 3.5
30
40 3
25
2.5
30 20
2
15 1.5
20
10 1
10 5 0.5
0 0 0

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed workers and family workers, but excludes
informal employees. As a proxy for informal employment, it is used here to show long‑term trends, as time series on
informal employment are not available for most African countries. Labour productivity is measured as gross domestic
product (GDP) in constant 2017 international dollars at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices, divided by the population of
employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/; World Bank
(2023[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and
IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/iby8g0

Figure 6.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation in North Africa, 2021
Managers Professionals Technicians Clerical support Service and sales
Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers Skilled elementary occupations

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Mauritania Tunisia North Africa
Note: “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators
and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/x4v25r

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 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

North Africa must continue its efforts to deliver high‑quality skills for all
The level and quality of education in North Africa are higher than in other parts of
the continent, but inequalities persist. The average years of schooling across the region
is 7.9 years; this is higher than for the rest of the continent, where this figure stands at
around 6.7 years. However, when average years of schooling is adjusted to account for the
quality of learning, this average falls to 6.1 years in North Africa, compared with 5.1 years
for the continent as a whole. This figure ranges from 7.1 years in Algeria to 4.2 years in
Mauritania (Figure 6.3).
Differences between genders and between rural and urban areas widen gaps in
basic skills. Girls are generally more proficient in reading than in mathematics, but they
have higher results than boys in both skills. As regards the skill gap between urban and
rural areas, children living in urban areas are generally more proficient in reading and
mathematics than those living in rural areas (Figure 6.4). Despite these figures, women
remain under‑represented in the labour market. This is at the heart of a regional paradox:
better access to education does not guarantee better integration into the workforce.
Libya, Tunisia and Mauritania follow this trend, with female labour force participation
rates (as a percentage of the female population aged 15 and over) reaching 35%, 27%, and
26% respectively in 2023. These rates sit below the global average (49%). In other North
African countries, such as Morocco, Algeria and Egypt, labour force participation among
women is even lower (20%, 16% and 15% respectively) (World Bank, 2023[4]). These figures
underscore the role that structural barriers play in women’s employment, including social
norms (OECD, 2023[5]). Greater labour market participation by women would accelerate
development (OECD, 2024[6]).

Figure 6.3. Average years of schooling and learning‑adjusted years of schooling

in North Africa, 2020
Years of schooling, population 15–64 years Learning-adjusted mean years of schooling

Average number of years

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Note: “Learning‑adjusted average years of schooling” combines both the quantity and quality of education into a single
measure, accounting for the fact that similar lengths of schooling may produce different learning outcomes. See Filmer et
al. (2020[7]) for a detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[8]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/
source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/7frkic

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Figure 6.4. Percentage of adolescents in upper secondary school achieving proficiency

in reading and mathematics in North Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)
Reading Mathematics
% of students reaching minimum proficiency level
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban
Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural
Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male
Algeria Egypt Morocco Tunisia North Africa
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[9]), World Inequality Database on Education (database), https://www.
education-inequalities.org/.
12 https://stat.link/r8o9xb

North Africa has a diversified economy and high levels of productivity, but informality
remains widespread.
• Most of the working population is employed in agriculture, construction, retail and
wholesale, often in the informal sector. Agriculture, forestry and fishing accounted
for around a quarter of employment in 2021, with their share having shrunk since
the early 2000s (31%).
• The construction and retail/wholesale sectors have been growing steadily since
2000, employing 14% and 17% of the active population respectively in 2021,
compared with 8% and 13% in 2000.
• Compared with other African regions, North Africa has the highest share of the
population working in the manufacturing sector. By 2021, 12% of the population
worked in this sector, compared with a continental average of 7%.
Most employees working in these sectors are semi‑skilled (Figure 6.5). In 2021, 31% of
workers were in vulnerable employment (self‑employed or unpaid family workers), the
lowest share of any African region. Labour productivity remains high, reaching around
USD 42 000 per worker in 2022 despite the predominance of informality in the region,
with almost 73% of workers employed in the informal sector. This figure exceeds the
average for the rest of the continent (USD 16 000 per worker).

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Figure 6.5. Number of workers by skill level and occupation, latest year available

Low-skilled Medium-skilled Highly-skilled

Agriculture, forestry and fishing

Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, heating and cooling
Water supply, waste management
Construction
Wholesale and retail trade, vehicle repair
Transportation and storage
Accommodation and food service
Information and communication
Finance and insurance
Real estate activities
Professionals, scientific and technical
Administration and support
Public administration, defence and social security
Education
Health and social work
Arts, entertainment and leisure
Other services
Domestic work
Extraterritorial organisations and bodies
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of workers in millions
Note: Skill level is defined based on the complexity and range of tasks and functions that fall within the remit of an
occupation. Skill level 1 (low) covers basic occupations. Skill level 2 (medium) covers plant and machine operators, fitters,
craftspeople and related trades, skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers, service and sales workers and office
workers. Skill levels 3 and 4 (high) cover technicians and associate professions, liberal professionals and managers. Figures
for North Africa cover Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database) https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/pv14of

Despite the dominance of unskilled jobs, many workers do not have the required
level of education for their occupation. In Tunisia and Egypt, 33% and 55% of the working
population respectively are employed in jobs for which they are underqualified (Figure 6.6).
This situation is more common among self‑employed workers. Only a small proportion
(around 12%) of salaried workers have a higher level of education than required for their
occupation, consistent with findings from other surveys: in Egypt, for example, 37% of
young people do not have the required level of education for their current occupation
(Morsy and Mukasa, 2019[10]).

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Figure 6.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation in North Africa, 2022 or latest year available
Overeducated Undereducated

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male
Employees

Employees

Employees
Self-employed

Self-employed

Self-employed
Egypt Tunisia North Africa
Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each
occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of
each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other
representative household surveys with an employment component.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates, (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
12 https://stat.link/6s9e8g

Green skills are uniquely valuable in efforts to adapt to climate change in North
African countries. Climate change is having a major socio‑economic impact on this
region, reducing per‑capita GDP growth by 5% to 15% each year (AUC/OECD, 2022[11]). The
North Africa region is the most exposed on the continent to the risks associated with
rising temperatures, such as droughts, water stress and fires. Despite the severity of its
impacts, only 36% of people surveyed in Morocco, Mauritania and Tunisia had heard of
climate change. Only 22% of people with no education and 28% of rural residents had
heard of climate change, compared with 41% of urban residents (Afrobarometer, 2023[12]).
Migration in North Africa is characterised by flows of low‑ and semi‑skilled workers
into and out of the region, and to a lesser extent by the emigration of skilled workers to
countries outside the continent. Low‑ or semi‑skilled people – with secondary or lower
education – mainly immigrate from the rest of the African continent. Libya is notable for its
high levels of immigration from outside the continent. North Africa is also characterised
by high levels of emigration to countries outside the continent. Skilled workers (with
tertiary or higher levels of education) – particularly those from Morocco and Tunisia –
mainly migrate to destinations outside the continent (Figure 6.7).

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Figure 6.7. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (North Africa, 2020)
Intra-continental emigrants Intra-continental immigrants
Extra-continental emigrants Extra-continental immigrants
A. Low-educated

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Mauritania

Morocco

Tunisia

North Africa

Africa

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

B. High-educated

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Mauritania

Morocco

Tunisia

North Africa

Africa

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers represent emigration. “Low-educated” refers to individuals with
secondary or lower education. “High-educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[2]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-
migration.
12 https://stat.link/abd3qx

The renewable energies sector presents a new opportunity to develop skills

and productive employment in North Africa

Renewable‑energy‑related skills could be a source of new productive employment

and support the response to climate change
North Africa has immense potential to develop renewable energies (particularly
solar panels, wind power and hydroelectricity) while responding to increasingly
pressing climate risks. The region has the greatest solar and wind energy potential
on the continent. The average annual solar radiation is around 2 200 kWh/m2 and the
average wind speed is 7 metres per second (9.5 m/s in Algeria) (El‑Katiri, 2023[13]). Using
1% of land for solar and wind power would increase energy capacity to 2 792 GW for solar
and 223 GW for wind: 12 times Africa’s current capacity. By 2050, North Africa is set to
become the world’s leading exporter of green hydrogen, with a projected export value of

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USD 110 billion per year (Deloitte, 2023[14]). The ever‑decreasing cost of renewable energy
generation, particularly solar and wind power, is giving the sector a major boost (AUC/
OECD, 2022[11]). Realising this potential is all the more urgent given the region’s growing
exposure to climate hazards.1 Desertification is increasing and temperatures are rising,
threatening fragile ecosystems and essential natural resources and leading to significant
socio‑economic impacts, including lower agricultural yields and growing water scarcity.
The energy transition could drive economic growth and productive job creation on a
continental scale. North Africa’s generation capacity has increased by 6% per year since
2011. Over the past decade, renewable electricity generation is estimated to have risen
by over 40%, thanks to the rapid expansion of wind, photovoltaic solar and solar thermal
power. However, the share of renewable energy in the electricity mix (9.5% of electricity
generated) remains lower than in the rest of Africa (21%, of which 17% is hydropower).
That the sector has significant room to grow is also demonstrated by the low share of
renewable energies (only 4.6%) in the region’s energy mix (IEA, 2020[15]). Algeria relies
on fossil fuels to generate more than 95% of its electricity (ILO, 2018[16]) and Egypt 90%
(IEA, 2024[17]; Ambassade de France en République arabe d’Égypte, 2022[18]). According to
projections, sufficient investment in renewable energy to limit global warming to 1.5°C
would increase GDP by an average of 5% and employment by an average of 2% compared
with business‑as‑usual over 2021‑2050 (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. Socio‑economic effects of the energy transition

(under the “1.5°C scenario” compared with the “business‑as‑usual scenario”)
GDP Well‑being (percentage difference in indices) Employment
(percentage (percentage
Environmental Economic Social Distribution Access
difference) difference, average
to energy
2021‑2050)
North Africa 5% 27% 2% 43% 8% 0% 2%
West Africa 15% 40% 1.5% 25% 10% 39% 1%
East Africa 10% 42% 6.5% 3.5% 10.5% 38% 4%
Central Africa 15.5% 46% 7.5% 73% 14% 41% 6.5%
Southern Africa 10% 35% 4% 47% 119% 18% 4%
Africa 6.5% 37.5% 4% 32% 22% 30% 3.5%
Note: The average differences are expressed as a percentage of GDP, well‑being and employment and are calculated by
comparing the 1.5°C global warming scenario against the business‑as‑usual scenario over the 2021‑2050 projection period.
They show that despite a positive effect overall at the continental level, there would be significant differences between
regions.
Source: IRENA/AfDB (2022[19]), Renewable Energy Market Analysis, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/
2022/Jan/IRENA_Market_Africa_2022.pdf?rev=bb73e285a0974bc996a1f942635ca556.

International and national commitments to the energy transition are helping to grow
the renewable energy sector. Global greenhouse gas emissions must be cut by 43% by
2030, compared with 2019 levels, to limit global warming to 1.5°C. At the 28th Conference
of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 28),
governments were called on to triple global renewable energy capacity and double
their energy efficiency efforts by 2030. Most North African countries were active in the
adoption of the aforementioned commitments, in particular Egypt and Morocco (which
respectively hosted COP 27 in Sharm el‑Sheikh in 2022 and COP 22 in Marrakech in 2016).
At future COPs, governments will have to set new climate financing targets through the
publication of new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Libya is the only country
in the region that has signed but not ratified the Paris Agreement 2 and therefore does not
publish an NDC.

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Demand for renewable‑energy‑related skills is increasing, although it does vary

depending on the value chain segment and type of company
The maturity of the renewable energy sector varies between countries in North Africa.
By 2022, the sector employed at least 21 000 people in the region. Morocco accounts for
the majority of jobs in the sector (59%), followed by Egypt (18%), Algeria (12%), Tunisia (9%)
and Libya (2%) (Figure 6.8). Egypt, Morocco and Algeria have contributed to the expansion
of solar energy in the region, ranking second, third and fourth for solar power generation
on the continent. Egypt and Morocco are also leading in African wind power generation,
ranking just behind South Africa (IRENA, 2023[20]). In oil and gas exporting countries such
as Algeria and Libya, the renewable energy sector is still expected to grow alongside the
dominant fossil fuels. These countries will therefore be able to draw on the transferability
of certain skills from one sector to the other, in order to develop other lines of business in
the renewable sector and compensate for any jobs lost in the fossil fuel sector (Table 6.2).
This energy transition should also create jobs, particularly in the green infrastructure
construction phase (AUC/OECD, 2022[11]).

Figure 6.8. Total employment in renewables sector, latest available data

CSP Hydropower Liquid biofuels Others
Solar heating / cooling Solar photovoltaic Wind energy

Thousands of workers
14

12

10

0
Algeria Egypt Libya Mauritania Morocco Tunisia
Note: CSP = Concentrated solar power. The data are mainly for 2022, followed by 2021, with a few cases for which only earlier
data are available. “Other” refers in particular to jobs not broken down by individual renewable energy technology.
Source: IRENA/ILO (2023[21]), Renewable energy and jobs: Annual review 2023, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Sep/Renewable-
energy-and-jobs-Annual-review-2023.
12 https://stat.link/u0dcix

Table 6.2. Renewable energy skills development priorities

by North African country profile
Group Countries Priorities for renewable energy skills development
Net energy importers Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia Development of expertise to meet national or NDC objectives
Strong incentive to develop renewable
energies
Net energy exporters Algeria, Libya, Mauritania3 Transferring and strengthening existing expertise in fossil fuels
Weak incentive to develop renewable to renewable energies
energies Development of mini‑grid related skills (to complement national
hydrocarbon‑dependent grids)
Source: Authors’ compilation. NDC = Nationally determined contributions.

Current projections are based on a growing demand for skilled workers in the
renewable energy sector. Various climate scenarios forecast growth in employment

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6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

in the sector. Comparing the 1.5°C global temperature increase scenario with the
business‑as‑usual scenario, North Africa could create at least 2.7 million additional jobs in
the renewable energy sector (IRENA/AfDB, 2022[19]). However, the Stated Policies Scenario
currently projects a significantly lower figure, estimated at 30 000 (IEA, unpublished).4
Nevertheless, effective national strategies could increase renewable energy generation
and create thousands of jobs (67 000 in Egypt and 25 000 in Morocco over the 2020‑2050
period, and 70 000 in Tunisia by 2035) (World Bank/ESMAP, 2024[22]; AUC/OECD, 2023[23];
AUC/OECD, 2022[11]; World Bank, 2022[24]; World Bank, 2022[25]). International co‑operation
and co‑operation with the private sector will therefore be crucial for sustaining the
momentum of current policies and achieving more ambitious targets.
The potential for job creation in the renewable energy sector varies depending on the
segment of the value chain in question. The value chain can be broken down into several
segments: research and development (R&D), surveys and project design, component
manufacturing and assembly, installation, construction and commissioning, operation
and maintenance, and disassembly and recycling (AfDB, 2016[26]) (Box 6.1). Upstream,
it is important to strengthen skills in R&D, component manufacturing, technology
development, prototype testing and innovation. This requires design, engineering,
production, quality control and logistics skills. Downstream, the skills needed to
operate and maintain systems are essential. It is also vitally important to strengthen
recycling‑related skills to ensure components are properly managed at the end of their
useful life. Finally, there is a growing need for technical skills in areas such as renewable
energy engineering and storage technologies, as well as management skills including
project management, data analysis, regulations, communication and financing (Table 6.3).

Table 6.3. Skills breakdown by renewable energy value chain segment

Value chain segment Basic skills Intermediate skills Advanced skills
Project development Basic skills, management, Project development/facilitation Designing engineering projects, architecture for small
communication projects, atmospheric sciences, resource assessment,
ecology, precedents for public funding, land valuation,
land negotiation, lobbying, mediation, specialised
procurement, specialised resource assessment
Manufacturing and Manufacturing, logistics, Computer software, industrial Engineering research and development,
distribution equipment transport engineering, technical manufacturing‑related engineering, prototype
manufacturing, logistics, modelling and testing, specialised procurement,
manufacturing‑related quality specialised marketing, specialised sales
assurance
Construction and General construction Qualification in construction, Civil, mechanical and electrical engineering,
installation transport, logistics, storage construction project management, business
development, commissioning‑related engineering
Operation and Basic skills, management, Welding, pipework, plumbing, Plant management, measurement and control
maintenance communication mechanisation, electricity, engineering
construction equipment operation,
heating, ventilation and air
conditioning
Cross‑functional Associative management, Public policy, insurance, information Education and training, specialised finance, scientific
activities/facilitation leadership, administration, technology, health and safety, sales writing and publishing
activities customer relations and marketing
Source: Authors’ compilation based on World Bank/ESMAP (2024[27]), Job Creation and Skills Development During the Energy Transition –
Egypt, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099012324070535949/pdf/P17054613550c90311bcca14bbb87596a7a.pdf.

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Box 6.1. Specific skills required for the development of renewable

energy value chains

As part of its national strategy to meet its electricity needs while reducing its dependence
on fossil fuels, Morocco plans to increase its renewable energy generation. The Tan Tan
solar power plant project, set up to this end, will employ between 20 and 150 people per
site, depending on the pace of installation and nature of the work.
• The component construction phase of the project (solar power plant, power lines,
access roads), lasting 12 to 16 months, will require a range of technical skills,
including civil engineering, electrical engineering, logistics and transport, and
knowledge of how to operate site machinery.
• The operating phase will require only a limited number of operational staff (around
15 to 20 people per site), mainly for maintenance, servicing and security.
Source: Masen (2023[28]), Étude d’impact environnemental et social du projet solaire photovoltaïque de Noor
Atlas : Plan de Gestion Environnementale et Sociale, https://www.masen.ma/sites/default/files/documents_
rapport/Masen_Programme%20Noor%20Atlas_Projet%20Noor%20TanTan_PGES_V.f%C3%A9vrier%20
2023.pdf.

Large companies mainly look for people with technical skills, while small businesses
and start‑ups also need people with skills related to innovation, digital technology and
sustainable financing. The survey5 conducted in preparation for this chapter found
that the specific skills required by multinationals pursuing renewable energies include
energy auditing, project management, electrical engineering and electronics, energy
storage, environmental assessment, standards and regulations, sustainable development
communication and training. Small businesses and start‑ups require soft skills related
to innovation, project management, digital technologies and sustainable development,
as well as skills related to green finance, seeking financing and conducting a financial
analysis of clean energy. They also value skills related to strategic partnerships and
networking to facilitate collaboration with local governments and financial institutions.

The range of training courses on renewable energies has expanded in recent

years, but not enough to meet the growing demand for skills
The availability of training on renewable energies at universities and technical
institutions varies between North African countries. A comparative analysis of degree‑level
courses found differences between countries in terms of course and specialisation supply.
Bachelor’s and master’s degrees in renewable energies are available in most countries,
but doctorates and technical and vocational education and training (TVET) are emerging
more slowly, often with the support of international partners (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4. Degree‑level courses on renewable energies in North Africa

Country TVET Bachelor Master Doctorate
Algeria × × ×
Egypt × × ×
Libya ×
Morocco × × × ×
Mauritania × ×
Tunisia × × × ×
Note: This table excludes short courses and projects aimed at improving skills in the renewable energy sector in
the region.
Source: Authors’ compilation.

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Training provision suffers from a shortage of experienced trainers to the detriment

of the quality of teaching and learning. Teachers and trainers teaching technical subjects
in the region are often self‑trained. This lack of teacher training negatively impacts the
quality of the training and the knowledge passed on to graduates. Co‑ordination between
the various actors involved in training also needs to be improved.
Small and medium‑sized enterprises (SMEs) have fewer resources to deliver in‑house
training programmes, which would help bring their employees’ technical knowledge
into line with their specific needs. Our survey found that SME owners do not have the
necessary resources for in‑house training. Formal education, especially at master’s level
(five years of higher education), is criticised for being too theoretical and failing to meet the
practical needs of the labour market in terms of intermediate skills (Table 6.3). Conversely,
learners on TVET, diploma (two years of higher education) or multi‑stakeholder training
programmes benefit from better practical knowledge (Box 6.2), while start‑ups often try
to attract foreign talent to fill skills gaps.

Box 6.2. The Kaizen approach to skills development

In North Africa, SMEs account for more than 90% of businesses and 70% of GDP
(Lukonga, 2020[29]). The lack of knowledge and skills regarding how to improve quality
and productivity is a key barrier preventing them from realising their full potential.
The Kaizen approach, promoted by Japanese co‑operation efforts, seeks to resolve these
problems while increasing management skills within companies, by sharing specific
experiences and tools. It is based on a culture of gradual improvement at all levels of the
organisation and can be applied to the renewable energy sector. Originally designed to
optimise organisational management in the workplace, the Kaizen approach has since
been integrated into Japan’s educational programmes to support the development of
fundamental skills for employability (Suzuki and Sakamaki, 2020[30]).
The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the African Union Development
Agency – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AUDA‑NEPAD) launched the
Africa Kaizen Initiative (AKI) in 2017. This ten‑year programme aims to accelerate the
dissemination and impact of Kaizen activities across the continent (AUDA‑NEPAD,
2021[31]). In Tunisia, the initiative’s first partner, eight industrial sectors were targeted.
In Libya, under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, the country’s
“Kaizen Masters” ran two training sessions for companies and start‑ups headed by
young entrepreneurs and women, focused on the energy sector (WFP, 2023[32]). The
annual JICA‑AUDA‑NEPAD Africa Kaizen Conference serves as a platform for sharing
knowledge on lessons learned from Kaizen policies at the national level. From 2017
to 2022, Kaizen‑related co‑operation projects in 27 African countries reached 1 400
trainers, 18 000 companies and more than 280 000 managers and workers in these
companies (JICA, 2023[33]).

Public policies to improve skills in the renewable energy sector in North Africa
To develop renewable‑energy‑related skills, North African countries should consider
adopting three key public policy priorities: developing strategies to anticipate the demand
for skills; increasing the quality of training on offer and improving access to information
and training; and mobilising funding, alongside regional and international co‑operation
with public and private actors.

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Implementing national strategies to anticipate the growing demand for skills

Innovative strategies to develop renewable‑energy‑related skills at the national level
will be crucial. This can be achieved by closely co‑ordinating public policies relating to the
environment, renewable energies and skills, and by setting up mechanisms to anticipate,
map, standardise and monitor skills. The bodies responsible for these activities should
work with the Ministries for the Environment. In addition, the ratification and strict
enforcement of environmental regulations could stimulate skills development in the
sector (ERF/GIZ, 2023[34]). Some countries in the region are starting to pursue greater policy
coherence by integrating skills and human resource development into their renewable
energy policies. However, these initiatives are often confined to specific areas, such
as the identification of skills needs and initial vocational training. Egypt, Morocco and
Tunisia stand out for their successful integration of skills development into their national
renewable energy strategies (Table 6.5). Furthermore, a review of intellectual property
laws could facilitate knowledge transfer in the green economy, encourage the transition
to renewable energy and promote environmentally sustainable technologies.

Table 6.5. National renewable energy strategies incorporating skills development

in the sector
Country National strategy National Renewable‑ Notes Term Status Lead body
for renewable‑ renewable energy‑related
energy‑related energy strategy training or skills
skills development integrated into
the strategy
Algeria Yes Programme de Yes Algeria’s strategy for developing 2015‑2030 Ongoing Ministry of
développement renewable energy focuses on Energy and
des énergies establishing the sector in combination Mines
renouvelables with a training and upskilling
[Renewable programme.
Energy It aims to harness local Algerian skills,
Development particularly in the fields of engineering
Programme] and project management, to support
the sector’s growth.
The renewable energy programme,
designed to meet the electricity needs
of the national market, is also expected
to directly and indirectly create
thousands of jobs.
Egypt Yes Stratégie intégrée Yes Under this strategy, Egypt has 2008‑2035 Ongoing Egyptian
pour une committed to developing skills for Supreme
énergie durable jobs in the renewable energy sector, Council of
(Integrated notably through the creation of centres Energy
Strategy for of excellence as part of an initiative to
Sustainable reform technical education.
Energy – ISES)
Libya1 No Plan stratégique No ‑ 2013‑2025 Ongoing Renewable
pour les énergies Energy
renouvelables Authority of
(Strategic Plan Libya (REAOL)2
for Renewable
Energies)2

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6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

Table 6.5. National renewable energy strategies incorporating skills development

in the sector (continued)
Country National strategy National Renewable‑ Notes Term Status Lead body
for renewable‑ renewable energy‑related
energy‑related energy strategy training or skills
skills development integrated into
the strategy
Morocco No Stratégie Yes Under its strategy, Morocco has 2020‑2030 Ongoing Ministry
nationale de committed to: of Energy,
l’efficacité • promote the Centre of Excellence for Mines and the
énergétique Energy Efficiency (Marrakech) Environment
(National Energy • develop vocational and technical
Efficiency training
Strategy) • set up certification labels and targeted
training programmes for professionals
• develop e‑learning courses
• set up core teams with energy‑related
skills within communes or
associations of communes
• carry out a study to identify the skills
and occupations required to meet
emerging local demand
Mauritania No No ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑ ‑
Tunisia No Stratégie Yes Tunisia plans to maximise the 2023‑2035 Ongoing Ministry of
Énergétique socio‑economic benefits of the Industry, Mines
de la Tunisie à strategy by taking a proactive approach and Energy
l’horizon 2035 to capacity building and skills
(Tunisia’s 2035 development, technology transfer,
Energy Strategy) research and development, and
industrial policy to support the energy
transition.
Notes:
1. In 2023, the Libyan government launched the National Strategy for Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency (NSREEE)
outlining plans to achieve a combined solar and wind power capacity of 4 GW by 2035, with the specific target of reaching
20% renewable energy in the total energy mix by 2035. The strategy comprises four pillars aimed at diversifying energy
sources, investing in renewable energy and increasing energy efficiency (Intec, 2024[35]; Renewables Now, 2023[36]). As the
official document had not been published online before the publication of this report, it was not possible to analyse the
inclusion of training or skills.
2. The Libyan government created the Renewable Energy Authority of Libya (REAOL) in 2007. Its main objective was to
implement targeted policies to meet the government’s objective of 10% renewable energy in the total energy mix by
2020, a target that has not yet been met. REAOL implements renewable energy projects, incentivises and supports related
industries, proposes supportive legislation and regulations, and assesses Libya’s renewable energy potential to identify
priority areas (IEA, 2024[37]).
Source: ERF/GIZ (2023[34]), Green Jobs and the Future of Work in Egypt: A Focus on the Agriculture and Renewable Energy Sectors, https://erf.
org.eg/publications/green-jobs-and-the-future-of-work-in-egypt-a-focus-on-the-agriculture-and-renewable-energy-sectors/;
Republic of Tunisia (2023[38]), Stratégie Energétique de la Tunisie à l’Horizon 2035 : Synthèse, https://www.energiemines.gov.tn/
fileadmin/docs-u1/synth%C3%A8se_strat%C3%A9gie_2035.pdf; Kingdom of Morocco (2020[39]), Stratégie nationale de l’efficacité
énergétique à l’horizon 2030, https://www.mem.gov.ma/Lists/Lst_rapports/Attachments/33/Strat%C3%A9gue%20Nationale%20
de%20l%27Efficacit%C3%A9%20%C3%A9nerg%C3%A9tique%20%C3%A0%20l%27horizon%202030.pdf; IRENA (2018[40]), Renewable
Energy Outlook: Egypt, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Oct/IRENA_Outlook_Egypt_2018_En_
summary.pdf?la=en&hash=58DBAA614BE0675F66D3B4A2AC68833FF78700A0; IEA (2016[41]), Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Development Plan 2015-2030, https://www.iea.org/policies/6103-renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency-development-plan-2015-
2030; Renewable Energy Authority of Lybia (2012[42]), Libya Renewable Energy Strategic Plan 2013-2025, https://climate-laws.org/
documents/libya-renewable-energy-strategic-plan-2013-2025_100b?q=libya&id=libya-renewable-energy-strategic-plan-2013-
2025_2e80; Ministère de l’Énergie et des Mines (2011[43]), Programme des Énergies Renouvelables et de l’Efficacité Énergétique,
https://climate-laws.org/document/renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency-development-plan_7cf0.

To ensure an effective transition to renewable energies, it will be important to set

up a dedicated co‑ordinating body responsible for aligning skills supply with needs in
the renewable energy sector. This body would also be tasked with resolving current
challenges, such as limited funding for co‑ordination between educational institutions
and companies, and developing renewable‑energy‑related skills in the education and

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 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

training system. In addition, effective co‑ordination will improve resource use, helping to
strengthen the sustainability of initiatives by harmonising and co‑ordinating them with
sectoral approaches (ILO, 2018[16]).
In Morocco, the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (Masen) plays a central role
in efforts to achieve the objectives of the National Renewable Energy Programme,
which aims to generate 52% of electricity from renewables by 2030. Through
tripartite partnerships and the establishment of training institutes for renewable
energy occupations, Masen is training a skilled workforce that meets the needs of
the sector (Masen, 2024[44]).
Policies and programmes aimed at delivering renewable‑energy‑related skills should
take a multisectoral approach that is mindful of skill transferability. Such an approach
would offer countries in the region the opportunity to achieve economies of scale and
develop specialisations by capitalising on their comparative advantages in the sector.
Extractive economies seeking to make the energy transition, such as Algeria and Libya,
should target engineering and project management skills, to minimise the disruption to
workers affected by the transition (Table 6.6). There are synergies between skills in the
coal sector and the solar photovoltaic sector, and between skills in the offshore wind and
offshore oil and gas industries (IRENA, 2018[45]). On the other hand, economies aiming to
strengthen their position in renewable energy and energy efficiency value chains should
strengthen their capacity through technology, engineering and innovation centres (AUC/
OECD, 2022[11]).

Table 6.6. Transferable skills by value chain segment in the renewable energy sector
Segment Transferable skills
Project development Technical studies (geotechnical, water requirements, etc.)
Social and environmental impact assessments
Site preparation (clearing, grubbing, etc.)
Grid connection and reinforcement studies
Manufacturing and distribution Component assembly
Construction and installation Component procurement
Construction
Civil engineering work
Operation and maintenance Basic operations
Site cleaning and security management
Regular mechanical and electrical maintenance
Power supply operation and maintenance
Source: World Bank/ESMAP (2024[27]), Job Creation and Skills Development During the Energy Transition – Egypt, https://documents1.
worldbank.org/curated/en/099012324070535949/pdf/P17054613550c90311bcca14bbb87596a7a.pdf.

Governments can adopt participatory, inclusive and proactive national strategies to

anticipate the demand for skills. This is particularly true in key sub‑sectors such as green
hydrogen, cooling technologies, water desalination and efficient energy storage. This
approach would take citizens’ interests into account when planning renewable energy
projects, especially with regard to local development projects, employment and gender
equality. Incentives can encourage private investors to hire local workers to implement
renewable energy projects. Skills needs can also be anticipated through social dialogue,
which positions workers and employers as sources of informed opinion and expertise
(ERF/GIZ, 2023[34]). This dialogue should be gender‑sensitive, both in terms of approach
and budgeting, to facilitate women’s participation in the labour market (Figure 6.4 and
Figure 6.6). Similarly, a decentralised territorial approach can encourage women to

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6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

participate actively in the renewable energies sector, in both upstream and downstream
segments of value chains (IRENA, 2019[46]).
In Morocco, Action 48.5 of the National Energy Efficiency Strategy calls for the
creation of rural energy co‑operatives that bring together local skills in order to
develop local energy service offerings tailored to the needs of farming communities.
There is a particular focus on advice about, and maintenance of, solar pumps and
high‑tech equipment (Kingdom of Morocco, 2020[39]).

Expanding the supply of renewable‑energy‑related skills through high‑quality

training programmes, including in research and development, vocational
training and apprenticeships
Investing in technology centres and research and development should guarantee
the emergence of a skilled workforce and encourage innovation. There is particularly
high demand for solar energy researchers, wind farm project and operations managers,
geothermal engineers, energy modellers and engineers specialising in climate and
solar thermal energy. In recent years, efforts have been made to create research and
development bodies to improve research into renewable energies, promote energy
efficiency and stimulate co‑operation between companies.
In Tunisia, the Borj‑Cédria Technopole is a major hub for research and development
in the areas of renewable energy and sustainable development. It brings together
450 permanent researchers and 600 PhD students and postdoctoral positions, and
is responsible for 16% of national scientific output. In 2023, the Centre for Research
and Energy Technologies (CRTEn) launched the Energy Training & Consulting
laboratory to strengthen technology transfer in the renewable energy sector (World
Bank/ESMAP, 2024[22]).
In Algeria, the Renewable Energy Development Centre (CDER) designs and
implements solar, wind, geothermal and biomass energy programmes. It has three
research units and a commercial subsidiary, ER2, which now has nationwide reach
as a centre of excellence in the field of renewable energy (CDER, 2024[47]).
The active engagement of national authorities is crucial for developing TVET
institutions and making them viable. National authorities play a central role in creating
an enabling environment for these institutions to grow. International partners also
provide financial and technical support. Increased funding for national operators would
incentivise TVET providers to increase the supply of skills in the sector.
In Egypt, sectoral centres of excellence have been set up within the Ministry of
Education and Technical Education (MoETE). They provide specialised TVET services
in specific sectors, including renewable energy and related sectors that they aim
to develop. These centres support technical high schools through an education
system that integrates both the educational and commercial spheres. They are also
tasked with establishing links with universities and research centres to provide
schools with up‑to‑date knowledge at an advanced level (ERF/GIZ, 2023[34]).
Internships and work‑study programmes give young people the opportunity to
develop their professional skills in the sector. These programmes should pay particular
attention to the development of technical skills, such as mechanics and electricity, as well
as soft skills, such as project management. It is essential to incentivise paid internship
programmes, especially for recent engineering graduates. A number of tax incentives
are available to stimulate corporate participation, within a clearly defined framework.
In addition, work‑study programmes in sub‑sectors of excellence should be promoted to
encourage the development of the strategic skills needed in the renewable energy sector
(AUC/OECD, 2022[11]).

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In Mauritania, the Ministry of Employment and Vocational Training, in partnership

with the National Union of Mauritanian Employers and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), launched the STAGI digital platform in 2022, to
facilitate the social and professional integration of young graduates via a mentoring
system and by connecting them with companies for internships (UNDP, 2022[48]).

Mobilising regional and international financing and co‑operation, from

both the public and private sectors, to support the development of
renewable‑energy‑related skills
Regional partnerships help disseminate knowledge and identify synergies. Such
initiatives help strengthen research and training efforts, and promote innovation and
the creation of networks of experts. Setting up regional platforms would facilitate the
sharing of best practices and knowledge, while pooling human, financial and logistical
resources. Closer regional co‑operation would enable us to better identify each country’s
position within value chains, making it easier to identify which skills to develop. For
example, some countries in the region have phosphate and cobalt reserves, which could
allow them to develop specific industries in sectors related to the energy transition, such
as battery and solar panel manufacturing.
An example of bilateral co‑operation, the MICEP (Morocco‑Ivory Coast Energy
Park) is a research partnership between Morocco’s Research Institute for Solar
Energy and New Energies (IRESEN) and Côte d’Ivoire’s Félix Houphouët‑Boigny
National Polytechnic Institute (INPHB) to promote training, knowledge transfer and
innovation in the field of energy efficiency and renewable energy (World Bank/
ESMAP, 2024[49]).
At the regional level, the Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy
Efficiency (RCREEE) offers capacity‑building programmes on request to countries
in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region that want to establish and
strengthen their qualifications, skills and expertise in renewable energy and
energy efficiency (AUC/OECD, 2022[11]).
Mutual recognition of skills, diplomas and certificates can improve labour mobility in
the region. Mobility improves access to a specialised workforce, getting people into jobs
where their skills will be most useful and stimulating investment in the sector. It also
drives higher demand, by increasing the flow of human capital into countries, notably
through efforts to harmonise education, social protection and employment policies in
the region. Despite the divergent policies observed in the region, relevant initiatives have
emerged, most notably in the form of international technical bodies.
The Mediterranean Network of National Information Centres on the Recognition of
Qualifications (MERIC‑Net), which was funded by the European Commission from
2016 to 2019, aimed to encourage and improve the recognition of qualifications in
the Mediterranean region, in order to facilitate mobility within the higher education
institutions of the countries involved. This project has enabled new recognition
procedures to be introduced based on the expertise acquired during the project
(MERIC‑Net, 2024[50]), (IEA, 2020[15]).
Implementing a dedicated regulatory framework can strengthen ties with public
and private partners at the international level. Developing an enabling environment
for partnerships with the private sector through reforms or the creation of dedicated
institutions could help stimulate research and innovation and facilitate investment and
access to finance in the sector (Box 6.3). Currently, more than 75% of the growth of the
renewable energy sector in North Africa is the result of supportive policies and regulatory
frameworks that facilitate private investment (IEA, 2020[15]).

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In Morocco, the partnership between Huawei and the National Office of Electricity
and Drinking Water (ONEE), established in 2023, serves as a lever for strengthening
the sector’s technical and technological skills. The agreement provides for access to
ONEE’s electricity science and technology centre and its technical laboratory equipment,
as well as the design and implementation of joint projects (La vie éco, 2023[51]).
Since 2020, the World Bank has been providing technical assistance to Tunisia’s
General Authority of Public‑Private Partnership (IGPPP) to improve the viability
and efficiency of public and private partnerships. This initiative has a project
development fund focused on three areas of intervention: i) building capacity to
establish a robust pipeline of projects, including 1 700 megawatts of solar and wind
power; ii) strengthening project preparation (profitability analysis, feasibility, calls
for tender, etc.); and iii) improving project monitoring (Grimm, Bertolini and Tejada
Ibañez, 2024[52]).

Box 6.3. Casablanca Finance City’s AFIC Initiative:

a talent pool to catalyse competitiveness

The Africa Finance Institute in Casablanca (AFIC), an initiative of the Casablanca

Finance City Authority and the Casablanca‑Settat Region, aims to promote the adoption
of professional standards in the financial and professional services sector.
Scheduled to open in June 2025, the institute will offer training programmes and
certifications, focusing on green and sustainable finance, to enable finance professionals
to stay up to date with the latest industry trends and best practices. AFIC aims to
promote the highest standards of ethics and integrity in the financial and professional
services sector, and to strengthen and diversify the pool of highly qualified multilingual
professionals who meet the needs of Casablanca Finance City, Morocco and the entire
African continent.
The initiative is supported by an ecosystem of national and international strategic
partners and professional bodies such as the Institute of International Finance (IIF), the
Chartered Financial Analyst Institute (CFA Institute), the Chartered Insurance Institute
(CII), the Chartered Banker Institute (CBI) and the Chartered Institute for Securities &
Investment (CISI).

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 6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

Annex 6.A. Qualitative survey of key actors in North Africa’s renewable

energy sector

Survey methodology
The survey is based on a qualitative approach using semi‑structured interviews with
key actors in the renewable energy sector. Interviews were scheduled for January 2024.
To ensure that the research would comply with high ethical standards, participants were
asked for their explicit consent for the interview audio to be recorded. The interviews,
which lasted between 45 minutes and an hour, were transcribed.6

The target population

The survey is based on a non‑representative sample of 18 participants covering most
North African countries. It includes representatives from the public sector, industry
associations, and private and public companies operating in the renewables sector or
using renewable energy:
• Representatives from the public sector (from either the Ministry of Education or the
Vocational Training Office) are involved in developing training programmes. These
institutions offer training programmes covering initial, continuing and vocational
training.
• The industry associations are directly and indirectly involved in training the staff of
member companies. These associations act as intermediaries between their member
companies and government ministries, and defend their members’ interests.
• Organisations facilitating access to public and private financing provide support
with preparing funding applications and finding investors.

Notes
1. The number of warmer days and nights (+2°C) has almost doubled since the 1970s. The rainfall
trends observed are more varied and less pronounced, characterised by marked decreases in
Morocco and Algeria, as well as parts of Libya, and a slight increase in Egypt (Plan Bleu, 2008[53]).
2. Eight Parties have yet to ratify the Paris Agreement: Iran (1.30% of global emissions), Türkiye
(1.24%), Iraq (0.20%), Angola (0.17%), Yemen (0.07%), Eritrea (0.01%), South Sudan (data available)
and Libya (data not available).
3. Although Mauritania is aiming to become one of the world’s largest exporters of renewable
hydrogen, at the time of publication of this report there was no clear strategy in place to achieve
this objective.
4. The Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS) is based on current policy parameters, and takes account
of ambitious targets and commitments only insofar as they are backed by detailed policies.
Mauritania is not included in this calculation. Unpublished data.
5. The survey findings are based on interviews conducted across the region, covering both the
public and private sectors, as well as academia. The annex presents the survey methodology
and the target population.
6. The questionnaire is available on request.

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sec/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2023/12/15/no4_aki.pdf. [33]
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%C3%A9lectrique%20marocain. [51]
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6. Skills for renewable energies in North Africa

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 Chapter 7
Skills for agri‑food
in West Africa
This chapter examines the skills that underpin the
development of the agri‑food sector in the 15 West
African countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde,
Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea‑Bissau,
Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and
Togo. It provides an overview of levels of education,
employment and skills development in the region,
followed by a case study on the skills required in the
agri‑food sector. It analyses opportunities for the West
African agri‑food sector and constraints affecting it,
and assesses the extent to which workers’ skills align
with those needed by sector. The chapter concludes
with policy recommendations to align skill supply
and demand, based on improvements in three areas:
development of training strategies, co‑operation
between research organisations and companies, and
funding programmes focused on targeted skills.

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

IN BRIEF Improving education and training systems

would offer West Africa enormous opportunities,
but the region has major skills shortages. In 2020,
the average length of schooling was 5.5 years, below
the continental average of 6.7 years. Twenty‑three
per cent of young people in the region had completed
secondary or tertiary education, but only 9% of
secondary school students were undertaking technical
or vocational education and training (TVET).
The agri‑food sector is a major lever for productive
transformation in West Africa. By the end of 2020, the
agricultural sector alone accounted for around 25%
of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 45%
of employment. West Africa is facing climate-related
and technological challenges that call for technical
and soft skills, as well as investment in agri‑food
research. The lack of technical skills and awareness
of good conservation practices among farmers,
processors and traders results in post‑harvest
losses of 24% in the region, the highest figure on the
continent.
Enhanced skills across the primary, secondary
and tertiary segments of the agri‑food sector would
promote food self‑sufficiency and the growth of
the agri‑food sector. Political decision makers could
prioritise three key lines of action: i) developing
national sectoral professionalisation plans and
programmes that promote local processing models
and encourage public–private partnerships;
ii) institutionalising co‑operation agreements
between regional research organisations and
companies in the agri‑food sector; and iii) increasing
financing of skills development programmes to
respond to global challenges, particularly climate
change.

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

Skills for agri-food sector in West Africa

% of students achieving at least

the minimum proficiency level, 2023
Skills acquisition remains
Mathematics Reading
uneven, despite advances
in STEM (science, 43%
technology, engineering
23% 28% 27%
and mathematics)
education 16% 14% 16%
9%

Urban Rural Female Male

% of under-educated employees, 2013-22 % of workers in skilled jobs,

2010-19
57% 46% 35% 31%
28% 26%
10%
14%

West Africa Developing Latin America Urban Rural

Africa Asia and the
Caribbean

There are few researchers specialising in food science and veterinary medicine,
reinforcing the lack of technical skills
250

200
Number of food science Number of veterinary
150 researchers medicine researchers

100

50

Nigeria Ghana Benin Burkina Mali Niger Sierra Guinea Senegal Togo Gambia
Faso Leone

Strengthen professionalisation through

public-private partnerships and local initiatives

Reduce the skill gap through increased co-operation

Next steps between research institutions and the private sector

Mobilise investment to enhance workers' skills and respond

to global challenges, particularly climate change

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

West Africa regional profile

Figure 7.1. Vulnerable employment, labour productivity and education spending

in West Africa, 2000‑22

West Africa Africa

A. Vulnerable employment B. Labour productivity, constant C. Public spending on education
GDP per worker at PPP
% of total employment USD thousands % of GDP
90 18 4
80 16 3.5
70 14 3
60 12 2.5
50 10
2
40 8
30 6 1.5
20 4 1
10 2 0.5
0 0 0

Note: Vulnerable employment includes formal and informal self‑employed (own‑account) workers and contributing family
members but excludes informal salaried employees. As an approximation of informal employment, it is used here to show
long‑term trends, as time series data on informal employment is missing for most African countries. Labour productivity is
measured as the constant gross domestic product (GDP) in 2017 international USD at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices,
divided by the population of employed people in thousands.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org; World Bank
(2024[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators; and
IMF (2023[3]), World Economic Outlook (database), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO.
12 https://stat.link/vns4aw

Figure 7.2. Breakdown of working population by type of occupation

in West Africa, 2021

Managers Professionals Technicians

Clerical support Service and sales Skilled elementary occupations
Craft and related trades Operators and assemblers

%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Note: : “Technicians” include associate professionals; “Skilled elementary occupations” include skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers, and elementary occupations; and “Operators and assemblers” include plant and machine operators
and assemblers.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT (2023[1]), ILO Modelled Estimates (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org.
12 https://stat.link/6wn4io

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

West African countries have a major shortage of skills

Despite the progress made in terms of access, the level and quality of education remain
low overall in the region. In 2020, the average number of years of schooling was 5.5 years
in West Africa, below the average for the continent (6.7 years), Latin America and the
Caribbean (LAC) (9.2 years), and developing Asia (8.4 years). Nevertheless, there are
considerable differences in the average years of schooling adjusted for learning quality.
While the learning‑adjusted years of schooling is six years in Ghana and Togo, it is less
than three years in Liberia, Mali and Niger (Figure 7.3). As a result, less than a third of
primary school leavers have basic reading skills. Similarly, less than 30% of teenagers
starting secondary school achieve a satisfactory reading level and less than 15% have a
satisfactory level in mathematics (Figure 7.4). Significant differences exist between urban
and rural areas, though gender gaps are less pronounced.
Figure 7.3. Average years of schooling and learning-adjusted years of schooling
in West Africa, 2020
Years of schooling, population aged 15-64 Learning-adjusted years of schooling
Average number of years
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Note: LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Learning‑adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality
of education into one metric, reflecting that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes.
See Filmer et al. (2020[4]) for a detailed methodology.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on World Bank (2023[5]), Education Statistics (database), https://databank.world
bank.org/source/education-statistics-%5E-all-indicators.
12 https://stat.link/5exgmy

Figure 7.4. Percentage of adolescents in lower secondary school achieving proficiency

in reading and mathematics in West Africa, most recent year observed (2013‑22)
Reading Mathematics
% of students reaching minimum proficiency level
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban

Urban
Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural

Rural
Women
Men

Women
Men
Rural

Women
Men

Women
Men

Women
Men
Rural

Women
Men

Women
Men

Women
Men

Benin Burkina Faso Côte d'Ivoire Guinea Niger Senegal Togo West Africa
Source: Authors’ calculations based on UNESCO (2023[6]), World Inequality Database on Education (database),
https://www.education-inequalities.org/.
12 https://stat.link/hf0pnc

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

In West Africa, the performance of the education system is determined by

socio‑economic factors such as parental involvement, school support and literacy.
Research by the CONFEMEN Programme for the Analysis of Educational Systems (PASEC),
conducted by the Conference of Ministers of Education of French speaking countries
(CONFEMEN) in several African countries, including seven in West Africa,1 found that
performance in reading and mathematics is better among students who receive help at
home. High‑performing children have access to books and live with literate parents or
in the care of institutions that support school learning, which improves the quality of
education (PASEC, 2020[7]).
Poor educational performance is compounded by limited uptake of vocational
programmes. Although the number of young people in the region completing secondary
or tertiary education rose from 13% to 23% between 2000 and 2020, this has not translated
into greater uptake of vocational training (AUC/OECD, 2021[8]). On average, only 9% of
secondary school students are enrolled in vocational programmes, ranging from 47% in
Gambia to less than 3% in Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde and Ghana (UNESCO, 2023[6]).
Most jobs remain low‑skilled, with gaps between men and women. Around 18%
of workers in West Africa are skilled, compared with around 22% for the continent as
a whole (Figure 7.5). Côte d’Ivoire (29%) and Ghana (27%), which have more‑developed
manufacturing sectors, employ the highest share of skilled workers in the region. There
are marked differences in access to employment between urban and rural workers, as
well as between men and women. The share of workers in skilled jobs is relatively higher
in urban areas, reflecting the presence of factories in cities; the unskilled workforce is
concentrated in rural areas, and is mainly employed in agriculture. In West Africa, 26%
of men work in skilled jobs, compared with 14% of women. This can be explained by
inequalities in access to education, particularly higher education, and by social norms
that disadvantage women, namely discrimination within families, physical violence,
restricted access to productive and financial resources, and attacks on civil liberties
(OECD Development Centre, 2022[9]; BAfD/ECA, 2020[10]).

Figure 7.5. Percentage of workers in skilled occupations in West Africa,

by gender and place of residence, 2019 or latest year available

Rural Urban Female Male All workers

A. By location B. By gender
% %
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0

Note: Data are drawn from nationally representative demographic and health surveys (DHS) collected between
2010 and 2019. Occupational categories were divided into skilled and unskilled occupations as follows: skilled
occupations include professional, technical, managerial, clerical and skilled manual work; unskilled occupations
include sales, agriculture, household and domestic work, services and unskilled manual labour.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on USAID/DHS (2023[11]), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) (database),
https://dhsprogram.com/.
12 https://stat.link/p8m6gi

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

The majority of workers do not have the level of education required for their
occupation. On average, 78% of workers in West Africa are employed in jobs for which
they are not adequately qualified (Figure 7.6). This situation is more common among
women and self‑employed workers. The majority of workers (72%) do not have the level
of education required for their occupation. The rate varies across the region: it stands at
37% in Cabo Verde and 45% in Ghana, but exceeds 90% in Burkina Faso and Mali. Only a
small proportion of workers (between 4% and 11%) have a higher level of education than
required for their occupation.

Figure 7.6. Percentage of workers who have a higher or lower level of education
than required for their occupation in West Africa, 2022 or latest year available

Overeducated Undereducated
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Nigeria

Liberia
Mali

Burkina Faso

Sierra Leone

Senegal

Ghana
Guinea

Gambia
Côte d’Ivoire

Niger

Togo

Benin

Guinea-Bissau

Cabo Verde

Total
Female

Male

Employees

Self-employed
Country West Africa, group average
Note: Mismatches are assessed using the normative approach, by comparing the educational requirements for each
occupational group set out in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) with the educational level of
each person with that occupation. Calculations are based on data available from national labour force statistics or other
representative household surveys with an employment component.
Source: Compiled by the authors based on ILOSTAT (2023[12]), ILO Education and Mismatch Indicators, https://ilostat.ilo.org/
resources/concepts-and-definitions/description-education-and-mismatch-indicators/.
12 https://stat.link/p275qc

The shortage of technical skills can be partly explained by the low capacity of
the education system. In West Africa, the education system is under‑resourced both
in terms of human resources and teaching materials making it unable to produce the
skilled workforce required to grow the industrial sector. For example, in West Africa,
research and development (R&D) expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 0.23% between
2010 and 2022, compared with around 2.2% worldwide. As a result, West Africa has just
102 researchers per million inhabitants, compared with a global rate of 1 392 (Figure 7.7).
The lack of skilled workers means that most workers are employed in jobs for which they
do not have the required skills, reducing sectorial productivity.

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

Figure 7.7. R&D expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) and number of R&D researchers
per million inhabitants, average 2010–22
R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP - left axis R&D researchers per million inhabitants - right axis
% Number of researchers per million inhabitants
2 1 200
1.8
1 000
1.6
1.4
800
1.2
1 600
0.8
400
0.6
0.4
200
0.2
0 0
World Senegal West Africa Cabo Verde Ghana Burkina Gambia Togo Mali Niger Côte
Faso d'Ivoire
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2023[13]), UIS.Stat (database), http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx.
12 https://stat.link/jzkvec

Digital skills can help transform economies, but they are developing unevenly across
the region. The percentage of respondents able to use a mobile money account without
the help of a third party ranges from over 45% in Ghana to less than 15% in Burkina Faso,
Guinea, Mali and Sierra Leone (Figure 7.8). The low penetration of digital skills reflects the
limited capacity of West African countries to adopt technologies that could strengthen
the skills needed to develop the agri‑food sector.

Figure 7.8. Percentage of respondents able to use a mobile bank account

without the help of a third party in West Africa
%
50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Ghana Côte Senegal Benin Togo Liberia Guinea Mali Burkina Sierra West Africa World
d’Ivoire Faso Leone Africa
Source: Demirgüç‑Kunt et al. (2022[14]), The Global Findex Database 2021 (database), https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1897-4.
12 https://stat.link/mh0lar

The region has high levels of internal migration, but skilled workers are migrating
outside the continent. Low‑ or semi‑skilled people – with secondary or lower education –
mainly migrate within the region. Conversely, the majority of skilled workers – with
tertiary or higher levels of education, and particularly those from Cabo Verde – mainly
migrate to destinations outside the continent (Figure 7.9).

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

Figure 7.9. Migrants by level of education, origin and destination (West Africa, 2020)

Intra-continental emigrants Intra-continental immigrants

Extra-continental emigrants Extra-continental immigrants
A. Low-educated

Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Côte d’Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
West Africa
Africa
-260 -160 -60 40 140 240

B. High-educated
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Côte d’Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
West Africa
Africa
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Note: Migrants per 1 000 inhabitants. Negative numbers represent emigration. “Low‑educated” refers to individuals with
secondary or lower education. “High‑educated” refers to those with tertiary or higher education.
Source: World Bank (2023[15]), Global Bilateral Migration (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/global-bilateral-migration.
12 https://stat.link/l6eoga

The agri‑food sector: A major lever for productive transformation in West

Africa
In West Africa, the agri‑food sector is of strategic importance for the economic
development of countries. More than 50% of the West African population lives in rural
areas, and 65% of the active population works in the agricultural sector (AUC/OECD,
2022[16]). At the end of 2020, the sector accounted for around 25% of the region’s GDP and
45% of employment. It is expected to contribute USD 430 billion and provide 131 million
jobs by 2030. Jobs in the food economy are mainly concentrated in agriculture (78%)
and are mainly found in rural areas (81%), including 15% in food processing, trade and
out‑of‑home consumption, with this figure reaching 60% in urban areas (Allen, Heinrigs
and Heo, 2018[17]). Developing the skills needed to grow the agri‑food sector could help the
region to better integrate value chains, and take greater advantage of the establishment
of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS).

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

West Africa is a world leader in the production of several agricultural and food
products, but it depends on imports for staple foods. In 2019, the region’s share of global
production of fonio, shea nuts, yams and cocoa beans was between 66% and 100% (AUC/
OECD, 2022[16]), while between five and nine West African countries regularly rank among
the world’s top 20 producers of a dozen agricultural products (AUC/OECD, 2019[18]) (Table
7.1). Local stakeholders also have a strong foundation in the processing of vegetable oils,
cassava by‑products, sugar cane and tropical fruits. However, despite the wide range of
agricultural products grown, West Africa faces major shortages of commodities such
as rice (it is the continent’s leading importer at 20 million tonnes/year), maize (in 2022
exports reached USD 9.87 million, while imports totaled USD 208.26 million) and vegetable
oils (including soybean and sunflower, despite significant palm oil production).

Table 7.1. West Africa’s highest agri‑food product exports, by country 2018-22
Country Product Exports in USD million, 2018‑22
West Africa Cocoa beans 30 070
Côte d’Ivoire Cocoa beans 19 129
Ghana Cocoa beans 7 301
Nigeria Cocoa beans 2 981
Senegal Fish 1 461
Benin Edible nuts 1 279
Guinea‑Bissau Edible nuts 812
Burkina Faso Oilseeds 781
Togo Soybeans 678
Niger Oilseeds 678
Mali Live cattle 279
Guinea Edible nuts 276
Cabo Verde Prepared or preserved fish 261
Liberia Palm oil 225
Note: Products correspond to the four‑digit code under the Harmonized System nomenclature.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Gaulier and Zignago (2023[19]), BACI (database), www.cepii.fr/cepii/fr/bdd_
modele/presentation.asp?id=37.

The region is facing major challenges that are holding back the expansion and
modernisation of agriculture, such as climatic conditions and small‑scale production
models. High temperatures and humidity can make fruit, vegetables and meat deteriorate
faster. However, farmers and agri‑food processors often have limited access to modern
preservation technologies (e.g. refrigeration, freezing, drying, irradiation processing),
which reduces agricultural productivity. The lack of skills and awareness of good
preservation practices among farmers, processors and traders results in post‑harvest
losses of 23.6%, the highest rate on the continent (FAOSTAT, 2023[20]). In addition, farmers
(the majority of whom run small family operations) play a crucial role in the region’s food
security but have insufficient access to adequate infrastructure, agricultural extension
services, financing, agricultural inputs and foreign markets (Box 7.1). Less than 10% of
potentially irrigable land is effectively irrigated – due in part to the under‑utilisation of
underground water resources – limiting the region’s agricultural potential (Gadelle, 2005[21]).

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Box 7.1. Developing strategic value chains to boost local industry

Foreign competition remains a major challenge for the local agri‑food industry,
constraining its ability to develop the skills it needs to grow. Domestic industries,
which have not yet reached the efficiency level of foreign industries, have no access to
foreign markets due to their weak product development and inability to comply with
various regulatory, sanitary and plant health standards. Between 2016 and 2020, West
African countries had to import nearly USD 60 billion worth of food products, of which
around 67% were semi‑processed or processed products (Badiane, Collins and Glatzel,
2022[22]). Partnerships with multinationals will facilitate the emergence of local agri‑food
industries and provide access to the technical expertise needed to compete with foreign
industries, allowing them to upgrade and develop skills.
An increasing number of training initiatives meets the demands of specific value
chains. A meeting on agri‑food value chains in October 2023 highlighted the key
challenges affecting the processing of infant formula – of which imports into Africa
are expected to exceed USD 1.1 billion by 2026 (ITC/AU/EU, 2022[23]) – namely safety,
management and measuring potential contaminants. For its part, Danone highlighted
positive results in the dairy sector, where 10 000 West African farmers have already
been trained on irrigation techniques to help them manage water stress. The goal is to
reach 100 000 farmers soon (OECD/AUC/AUDA‑NEPAD/EC, 2023[24]).

Closing the agri‑food skill-gap could boost the sector’s productivity and resilience
A range of skills will be needed across the primary, secondary and tertiary segments
to develop the agri‑food sector in West Africa. The agri‑food sector encompasses a wide
range of activities requiring specific skills (Table 7.2). Skilled workers are needed in food
safety management and control, process and product quality management and assurance,
efficient resource use and organisation. Strategic planning, insight and thinking skills are
the most sought‑after (Ramalho Ribeiro et al., 2023[25]).

Table 7.2. Skills needed for the development of the agri‑food sector
Area of responsibility Skills required Example professions Type of skills
Agricultural production • Land preparation, proper use of inputs (seeds, fertilisers) Farmer, agricultural Technical
and machinery technician
Food safety • Proficiency in food safety standards and health regulations Food safety manager, Technical; managerial
• Implementation of food‑chain safety protocols health inspector and soft
Food processing • Food processing and preservation Food processor, food Technical
• Use of food processing equipment engineering technician
Quality control • Quality control of raw materials and finished products Food quality manager, Technical
• Proficiency in quality control tools and methods food laboratory technician
Supply management • Supply chain management to ensure constant availability Food logistics specialist Technical
of raw materials
• Efficient logistics for product transport and storage
Regulatory compliance • Compliance with government standards and regulations Health inspector, food Technical
governing the production and sale of food safety specialist
Food quality and safety • Implementation of food quality and safety management Food safety manager, food Technical; managerial
management systems quality manager and soft
• Staff training on food quality and safety standards
Financial management • Financial management for budgeting, planning and Agri‑food management Technical; managerial
monitoring costs. Analysis of production costs and profit controller and soft
margins

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Table 7.2. Skills needed for the development of the agri‑food sector (continued)

Area of responsibility Skills required Example professions Type of skills

Managerial positions • Efficient management of production and distribution Food production manager, Managerial and soft
teams. Strategic planning for company growth shelf placement manager
• Effective communication with stakeholders, customers
and suppliers
• Management of public relations and crisis
communication; food marketing. Knowledge of food
market trends and consumer preferences
Marketing and sales • Effective communication with stakeholders, customers Food salesperson, food Managerial and soft
and suppliers product manager
• Management of public relations and crisis
communication; food marketing. Knowledge of food
market trends and consumer preferences
Source: Produced by the authors.

There is a shortage of agricultural product processing skills, usually acquired

through informal learning. The rudimentary technologies used by stakeholders in this
sector severely limit their efficiency and capacity to innovate. Conversely, multinationals
operating in the food processing sector are equipped with modern skills that allow them
to take advantage of new, modern and more efficient technologies (Aryeetey, Twumasi
Baffour and Ebo Turkson, 2021[26]).
Technical, resource management and soft skills are crucial to the growth of the
agri‑food sector. In Ghana, the supply of basic skills meets the demand from companies
in the sector, but there are major shortages of technical and system management skills2
(Aryeetey, Twumasi Baffour and Ebo Turkson, 2021[26]). In Senegal, skills level required by
several occupations far exceeds the current supply, with a gap ranging from seven to nine
years of schooling – a significant skills shortage (Figure 7.10). Food technicians need the
widest possible range of skills, including basic, system management and problem‑solving
skills (Aly Mbaye et al., 2021[27]). Other occupations, such as accountants and electrical
engineers, have similar requirements, particularly with regard to problem‑solving in the
context of food processing.

Figure 7.10. Professional skills deficits in selected agri‑food occupations

Skill supply Skill demand Skill gap

Years of schooling
20

15

10

-5

-10
Industrial Slaughterers Cabinetmakers Food Sawing machine Fabric and Patternmakers, Model makers, Fabric makers, Food science
engineers and meat and bench batchmakers operators, wood apparel wood wood except garment technicians
packers carpenters patternmakers
Source: Produced by the authors based on Aly Mbaye et al. (2021[27]), Employment Creation Potential, Labor Skills Requirements,
and Skill Gaps for Young People: A Senegal Case Study, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/21.04.02-Senegal-
IWOSS_FINAL.pdf.
12 https://stat.link/ole3kc

The growth of the agri‑food industry requires investment in research and

development (R&D) to strengthen technical skills
Poor assimilation of technical skills, limited investment in R&D, and gaps in basic
knowledge have worsened the productivity gap in West Africa’s agricultural sector.

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Despite improvements, agricultural sector productivity remains relatively low. The

widening productivity gap is a symptom of an under‑skilled workforce. The productivity
gap between West Africa and European and Central Asian countries is widening in both
the primary and secondary segments, highlighting the scale of the efforts required to
develop a competitive agri‑food sector (Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.11. Productivity gap between ECOWAS countries and European and Central
Asian countries in agriculture and industry (difference in value added per worker)
ECOWAS Europe – Central Asia
A. Agriculture B. Industry
USD USD
16 000 60 000
14 000
50 000
12 000
40 000
10 000
8 000 30 000
6 000
20 000
4 000
10 000
2 000
0 0

Source: World Bank (2024[2]), World Development Indicators (database), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-

indicators.
12 https://stat.link/vytrg2

There is a marked shortage of technical skills in West Africa in the field of agri‑food
research. The number of food science and nutrition researchers is low in several countries,
particularly Cabo Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Senegal and Togo (Figure 7.12). The
percentage of total full‑time equivalent researchers in food science and nutrition in these
countries is below the regional average (3.6%). Nigeria and Ghana are notable exceptions,
with a relatively more developed agri‑food sector.

Figure 7.12. Researchers in food science and nutrition, latest year available (2014‑16)
Total (full-time equivalent) - left axis Percentage of total (full-time equivalent) - right axis

Number of researchers %
80 8
70 7
60 6
50 5
40 4
30 3
20 2
10 1
0 0
Nigeria Ghana Benin Burkina Mali Niger Sierra Guinea Senegal Togo Gambia Cabo West
Faso Leone Verde Africa
Note: “Total” indicates the total number of researchers specialising in food science and nutrition. “Percentage of total”
indicates the proportion of researchers specialising in food science and nutrition among agricultural researchers.
Source: IFPRI (2024[28]), Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) (database), https://www.asti.cgiar.org/.
12 https://stat.link/rx9u6i

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Regional differences in the number of veterinary medicine researchers highlight

the need for investment in skills and regional collaboration. In West Africa, veterinary
medicine researchers account for around 2.6% of agricultural researchers, below the
average for Africa as a whole (3.7%), with significant differences across West African
countries (Figure 7.13). Initiatives to increase the number of researchers and promote
regional collaboration in this specific field are essential to improve animal health,
productivity, and food security.

Figure 7.13. Researchers in veterinary medicine, latest year available (2014–16)

Total (full-time equivalent - left axis) Percentage of total (full-time equivalent - right axis)

Number of full-time researchers %

250 20
18
200 16
14
150 12
10
100 8
6
50 4
2
0 0
Nigeria Mali Togo Guinea Niger Burkina Ghana Benin Gambia Cabo Senegal Sierra West Africa
Faso Verde Leone Africa
Note: The “Africa” category covers 30 African countries. “Total” indicates the total number of researchers specialising in
veterinary medicine. “Percentage of total” indicates the proportion of researchers specialising in veterinary medicine
among agricultural researchers.
Source: IFPRI (2024[28]), Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) (database), https://www.asti.cgiar.org/.
12 https://stat.link/wvd1ui

Developing adaptability skills is essential to meet the challenges facing the

agricultural sector, such as technological transformations, international
standards and climate change
Demand for agri‑food processing and logistics skills is growing in West Africa. The
presence of supermarkets in agri‑food value chains is increasing. This is standardising
production, imposing strict quality standards (AUC/OECD, 2022[16]) and creating new
challenges in terms of skills. Education policies need to adapt to these changes if the West
African agri‑food sector is to remain competitive and continue to comply with regulations.
It will be crucial to maintain the focus on secondary education and technical training
to meet the growing demand for skills. Governments can better equip the workforce to
adapt to changing markets by investing in education and training.
Compliance with international rules and standards requires specific skill sets.
Oversight of mandatory standards (monitoring, traceability and quality assurance
systems) is essential to developing and scaling up agri‑food production. Measuring quality
through sampling, microbiological and biochemical analysis, environmental testing, and
caloric and nutritional content requires investment in equipment and skilled personnel.
To succeed, the sector will need to standardise policies, introduce new regulations,
regional procedures and bodies, and strengthen the technical skills needed to comply
with these standards. Within the framework of the West African Economic and Monetary
Union (WAEMU), ECOWAS and the AfCFTA, standards mainly concern food, human and
plant health.

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Continuous learning and green skills are needed to adapt farming practices to climate
change. In West Africa, agricultural productivity is heavily affected by climate change.
Droughts, excessive rainfall and floods are already impacting agricultural productivity
and, consequently, the food security of rural households. Although around 51% of people
surveyed in 13 West African countries have heard of climate change, this figure drops to
42% for people with no education, and to 47% for rural inhabitants, compared with 55% for
urban inhabitants (Afrobarometer, 2023[29]). Climate change requires continuous learning
and specific skills to implement different adaptation strategies, such as changing crop
varieties, sowing dates, crop density and irrigation, fertiliser management (Sultan and
Gaetani, 2016[30]) and organic farming techniques (Box 7.2). Climate‑resilient farming
techniques entail two additional challenges in that they require strong management
skills and have high startup costs to equip specialised plantations (Abegunde, Sibanda
and Obi, 2019[31]).

Box 7.2. Organic farming in West Africa

West Africa has great potential to develop organic farming. Despite the fact that only
0.23% of farmland was used for organic farming in 2021, this represented a 543% increase
compared with 2012. Given the high international demand for organic products,
developing organic farming would enable West Africa to increase its exports to
higher‑income regions (FiBL, 2023[32]). However, export‑oriented programmes should be
designed such that they do not undermine the region’s food security (Aïhounton and
Henningsen, 2024[33]).
Organic farming helps farmers adapt to environmental challenges. Organic farming
methods allow soil and water resources to be used more sustainably. The most‑exported
organic agricultural products, in particular soybeans, have adapted to global warming
(FiBL, 2023[32]; De Bon et al., 2018[34]).
The development of organic farming must be accompanied by a change in skill sets.
This type of farming relies on more labour‑intensive and relatively less capital‑intensive
farming methods. It is, therefore, relatively well suited to the West African context.
Nonetheless, advanced agronomy skills are needed to achieve sufficient yields without
resorting to chemical fertilisers (Agricultural Recruitment Specialists, 2024[35]). While
many organisations with the know-how to successfully implement organic agriculture
are active in the region (De Bon et al., 2018[34]), farmers will require technical training to
ensure their efforts yield profits.

West African decision‑makers can draw on public policy tools to improve

agri‑food skills
The West African economy is transitioning, as demonstrated by the initiatives and
projects being implemented in the agri‑business sector. However, when it comes to
harnessing agri‑business as a lever for economic development in the region, progress
remains slow and little has been done to adapt to economic changes. To take full
advantage of the potential offered by agri‑business, policy recommendations should focus
on three kinds of interventions: developing professionalisation plans and programmes;
institutionalising co‑operation agreements between research organisations and
companies in the agri‑food sector; and funding skills programmes to better respond to
global challenges.

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National and regional plans and programmes to professionalise the sector could
do more to support local processing businesses and encourage public‑private
partnerships
Strengthening foundational knowledge must serve as the basis for developing
national skills plans and programmes tailored to target sectors. Depending on their
natural and comparative advantages in the agri‑food sector, countries should identify the
skills required to achieve their structural transformation objectives and determine how
to develop these skills. These skills plans will enable countries to better target areas that
will support their development. Comparative advantages are central when identifying
priority value chains: coastal countries could, for example, focus on agri‑food businesses
linked to fish, vegetables, fruit, juices and their by‑products, while Sahelian countries
could focus on meat, milk, dried fruits and their by‑products. The skills receiving support
in a given country should align with its priority industries.
ECOWAS has drawn up a regional strategy to boost the employability of young
people in the agro‑sylvo‑pastoral sector. Adopted in 2019, this strategy aims to address
the specific challenges that young people in the region face in relation to employment
in the agricultural sector (ECOWAS ARAA, 2024[36]). It encourages the youth to engage
in agricultural entrepreneurship by providing financial, technical and institutional
support to start and grow their businesses. This includes training and capacity‑building
programmes to develop their technical, entrepreneurial and leadership skills. The strategy
aims to improve young population’s access to productive resources such as land, water
and agricultural inputs, as well as consulting and trade‑related services. It promotes
innovative farming practices and use digital skills to increase efficiency and productivity
in the agricultural sector. The strategy calls for collaboration between governments,
regional and international organisations, the private sector, civil society and other
stakeholders to implement effective programmes to improve the youth’s employability in
the agro‑sylvo‑pastoral sector.
There are other initiatives to promote local products and on‑site processing. To add
value locally, a number of countries are setting up agricultural growth poles (“agropoles”
in French), as centres of excellence in agro‑industrial production, or special economic
zones. Given that the food systems of many West African countries have been affected
by the COVID‑19 pandemic and the disruption of grain exports from Ukraine and Russia,
these countries have stepped up investment and collaboration between the public and
private sectors. Examples of initiatives include:
• In Benin and Togo, the Glo‑Djigbé and Adétikopé industrial zones, respectively, are
being developed through a partnership between the two countries and the Arise
Integrated Industrial Platforms (ARISE IIP) group, which specialises in logistics and
industrial platforms. The aim is to maximise the value of natural resources such as
cotton, cashew nuts, soybeans, cereals and fruit (mangoes, oranges and pineapples)
by processing them locally for export.
• In Senegal, agropoles are designed to boost sales in the local market, where small
and medium‑sized agribusinesses are key players in the transformation of dairy
products, processed cereals, vegetable oils, and fruit juices. Three integrated
agropoles are already up and running (in the Centre and South regions of the
country), while agropoles in the North and West regions are under construction.
• The Bagré agropole in Burkina Faso stands out for its wide range of skill sets and its
commitment to agricultural development. It is a strategic hub that brings together
professionals and researchers specialising in various agricultural sub‑sectors. This
agropole mainly focuses on such skills as agronomic research, good agricultural
practices and innovative technologies to increase the sector’s productivity and
sustainability (Kaboré and Sédogo, 2014[37]).

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The prevalence of the informal sector in West African countries is a barrier that
must be overcome by setting up mechanisms to transform family‑centred production
units into co‑operatives. Although informal businesses currently offer a wide range of
processed or semi‑processed products in African countries, they are not well equipped to
withstand the challenges of an industrialising agri‑food sector. Improving the quality of
agri‑food products and adapting supply to demand is a major challenge for family farms,
which account for 95% of the West African population working in agriculture (ROPPA,
2018[38]). The agri‑food sector is influenced by quality, traceability, hygiene and packaging
standards, which small informal production units find it more difficult to comply with.
Moreover, the costs involved in setting up a modern, competitive agri‑food business
are beyond the reach of small, informal operations with no access to bank financing.
As a result, grouping informal production and processing units operating in the same
sub-sector into co‑operatives often allows them to achieve better economies of scale,
increase the size of their production facilities, compete more effectively and develop the
skills needed to establish cutting‑edge agri‑food businesses in West Africa.
Private initiatives that combine vocational training, the development of innovative
processes and local production are essential to enhance skills in the agri‑food sector.
Business incubators in the agri‑food sector need to be set up as part of research projects
that have training and professionalisation components. These research projects will
enable production activities to be monitored more rigorously and skills to be updated
and upgraded to optimise production and satisfy market demand. The Songhaï project in
Benin follows this approach and is an example that could be replicated across the region
(Box 7.3).

Box 7.3. The Songhaï Centre: An agri‑food skills incubator in West Africa

The Songhaï Centre’s mission seeks to draw on the environmental wealth of the African
continent, by combining new technological developments with more sustainable
production systems. Its production model strengthens dynamic links and synergies
between primary production units (crop, animal, fish farming), and industry and
services (agri‑business).
Founded in 1984 by Brother Godfrey Nzamujo on 1 hectare of land, the Songhaï Centre
approach has since expanded to cover more than 22 hectares, with its innovative
model reaching other regions of Benin, as well as Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.
It is particularly recognised for its focus on training young agricultural entrepreneurs
since 1989.
In addition to its role as a laboratory trialling environmentally conscious farming
methods, the Songhaï Centre plays a key role in skill training for the sustainable
development of the agri‑food sector. The Songhaï Leadership Academy training
programme is supported by a number of development partners, including the Agence
française de développement (AFD) (Ambassade de France au Bénin, 2021[39]). The course
lasts six months, with a new intake of 80 to 120 full‑board students every two months.
This training programme intends to catalyse the creation of an experience‑sharing
network.
The Songhaï model goes beyond farming to operate as a skills incubator namely in
fruit juice, pastry, rice, palm oil and soap production. It is shaping a new generation of
agricultural entrepreneurs, or “agripreneurs”, yearning to thrive in an environmentally
conscious and economically viable system.

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Operationalising co‑operation agreements between regional research

organisations and agri‑food companies could improve access to the labour market
Strengthening collaboration with regional and international training centres is of
strategic importance. West Africa is home to a number of technical research centres and
institutions specialising in agriculture within universities (Annex Table 7.A.1). These
centres play a crucial role in research and innovation, and management training in the
agricultural sector. They offer training courses for different skill levels (agricultural
technicians, researchers, food industry professionals). Training courses cover areas such
as crop improvement, water management and food security. These centres would benefit
from intra‑African and intercontinental research exchange and mobility programmes
(see Chapter 2).
Skills development initiatives must better prepare the workforce for an ever‑changing
working environment by tailoring the training offer. To maximise the effectiveness of
these programmes, it is crucial to establish close links between the agricultural and
agro‑industrial sectors, on one hand, and between vocational training centres and
agri‑food businesses, on the other hand. This could be achieved by developing TVET
programmes, that incorporate in‑company placements and partnerships with companies
in the agri‑food sector. Placement contracts should serve as a bridge between training
centres and production units. Regarding tax benefits (accessible to only a minority of
formal companies), government‑backed financial support mechanisms could be set up to
encourage the development of innovative production processes within the framework of
co‑operation agreements between companies and research centres. In this vein, in 2009
the Nigerian government launched a programme to develop and modernise the country’s
agricultural sector and promote food self‑sufficiency (Box 7.4).
Despite the current need for TVET in West Africa’s agricultural sector, supply remains
insufficient. The agricultural sector alone employs almost half of the region’s workforce,
but most countries continue to import a large share of their food products, mainly due to
a lack of skills (Gustafson, 2023[40]). This can be explained in part by the limited availability
of training in the agricultural sector. In Nigeria, of the 171 technical colleges surveyed,
only 37 (21.6%) offer courses in agriculture and related disciplines (Akinde and Vitung,
2020[41]). Conversely, Benin is working to increase the supply of vocational training, and
the number of technical agricultural colleges in the country is due to increase three‑fold
to around 30 by 2025, according to the country’s National Strategy for Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (SN‑EFTP 2020–2030) (Marie, 2022[42]).

Box 7.4. Agricultural training initiatives in Nigeria

Nigeria has made major changes to its national agricultural policy in recent years.
Nigeria’s Vision 2020 programme, launched in 2009, sought to develop and modernise
the country’s agricultural sector and promote food self‑sufficiency. The Agricultural
Transformation Agenda (ATA), established in 2011, is part of a series of long‑term efforts
to transform the sector. Training future generations is a crucial element of this strategy.
The policies implemented integrate a gender‑sensitive approach. In 2009, women
accounted for 70% of the agricultural workforce in Nigeria, despite being seriously
affected by a lack of access to resources (FAO, 2018[43]). In 2012, Nigeria’s Federal
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) merged two of its divisions
to create the Gender and Youth Division, in an effort to improve youth participation in
the agricultural labour market. In 2013, this division launched the Youth and Women

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Box 7.4. Agricultural training initiatives in Nigeria (continued)

in Agri‑business Investment Programme (YWAIP), which trained 5 000 young people

for two to six weeks, introduced them to mentors and provided them with financial
support to launch their businesses. More than half of the trainees were women. In 2015,
5 500 programme participants including more than 3 000 women, were still employed
in agricultural businesses (Adesugba and Mavrotas, 2016[44]).
Training policies in the agricultural sector have focused on young people and
agri‑businesses. From 2015 to 2020, FMARD’s Gender and Youth Division led a
major initiative aimed at training young people in leadership, entrepreneurship and
management skills to promote self‑employment and improve young people’s perception
of the agricultural sector. The initiative was supported by the International Labour
Organization (ILO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO). More than 80% of participants were able to set up businesses after their training.
However, barely 6 600 trainees took part in 2014 (Mavrotas, 2015[45]).

It is vital to institutionalise co‑operation agreements between regional and

international research organisations and companies in the agri‑food sector. The latter
often operate in silos, independently from research and training centres in West
Africa. This makes it difficult to transfer skills and keep employees updated about new
processes. The mismatch between training and jobs is a recurrent criticism addressed
at the education sector. Moreover, new processes developed by research centres are not
always applied in the private sector, due to the disconnect between the two spheres.
Co‑operation agreements would make it possible to train managers on the skills needed
to develop production models. They would provide practical support for research trials
and operationalising new methods. This would enable companies to support scientific
research, which they could then use to improve their productivity. Research‑based training
contracts, designed to lead to applied master’s and even doctorate‑level diplomas, could
also be trialled in West Africa. They are already in use in France in the form of Conventions
Industrielles de Formation par la Recherche (CIFRE).
Regional and continental training networks are essential for strengthening
agricultural and agri‑food skills in West Africa. The Agricultural and Rural Training
International Network (FAR)3 for instance, has set up a skills development platform
dedicated to promoting agriculture (Box 7.5). It offers academic training in agricultural
and rural engineering for trainers, school directors, and training co‑ordinators. The
Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) is a network
of 129 African universities, including 27 in West Africa. It trains university students and
supports collaboration and co‑ordination in agricultural research.

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Box 7.5. A commitment to agricultural and rural training

The Agricultural and Rural Training International Network (FAR) is a platform for
exchanging and strengthening skills, centred around sustainable agriculture and
rural environments. Founded in 2005 in Ouagadougou in the framework of a major
conference,4 the FAR network brings together 18 countries from Africa and beyond that
are committed to promoting professional and social integration through training. With
over 3 000 active members, the network strives to develop the necessary skills to face
the challenges of modern agriculture.
In addition to providing tailored support to member countries working to modernise
their training systems, the network offers high‑level training courses, such as the
MIFAR international master’s degree. Through capacity‑building workshops and
innovative projects, FAR catalyses the development of cutting‑edge skills, essential for
transforming rural environments.
By generating knowledge, communicating, and advocating for agricultural and rural
training, FAR has positioned itself as a major international changemaker in the
agricultural sector. The network is working to create a more dynamic, inclusive, and
sustainable agricultural sector by sharing best practices and facilitating dialogue
between stakeholders.

International organisations working to promote the agricultural sector and food

self‑sufficiency can play a decisive role in improving skills in the West African agri‑food
sector. For example, the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) works mainly in
developing countries to promote food security and improve the livelihoods of agricultural
populations. Its efforts focus on developing and disseminating effective, sustainable
technologies for soil fertility management, and creating markets for agricultural inputs
and products, to foster rural development and increase agricultural productivity. IFDC
co‑ordinates the implementation of its activities in several African countries and in Asia.
In Benin, IFDC has created 461 farmer field schools, training 6 915 farmers and 294 seed
producers on good agricultural practices. Over 4 050 more farmers have adopted the
practices they learned at the field schools in 2021.

To better respond to today’s global challenges, in particular climate change, it

will be necessary to scale up financing of skills development programmes
A forward‑looking vision that takes into account the pressing needs of climate change
would help develop the skills required. To respond to climate change, skills development
programmes could include training modules on the responsible management of natural
resources, promoting organic and ecologically sustainable agriculture, and climate change
adaptation strategies. Stakeholders in the agri‑food sector need to be trained on sustainable
agricultural practices that protect biodiversity, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
bolster the resilience of food systems in the face of environmental and climate‑related
challenges. ECOWAS, for example, has been implementing the Agroecology Programme
(PAE by its French acronym) in West Africa since 2018 to improve agricultural training and
capacity building in order to sustainably intensify agriculture and promote agroecology.
Financing the development of the agri‑food sector is a major challenge; countries can
nevertheless rise to it by implementing effective policies and innovative funding models.
Since 2010, formal investment in the region’s agri‑food sector has stagnated. Local bank
loans are the main formal source of financing for the agriculture, forestry and fisheries

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

sector, accounting for USD 6.7 billion in 2020, while development finance stood at just
USD 1.7 billion and public spending at just USD 1.1 billion in the same year. Foreign direct
investment (FDI) fluctuates greatly and tends to be concentrated in the largest West
African economies, leading to a general shortage of funding for agricultural productivity
and downstream activities (e.g. processing, marketing and distribution) (AUC/OECD,
2023[46]). The “Babban Gona” (“Great Farm” in Hausa) franchise model, which brings together
investors, development finance institutions and foundations, is proving effective. Babban
Gona aims to double the net income of participants – mainly youth in rural northern
Nigeria – compared with the national average, through loans, inputs, harvesting and
storage services and training via the BG Farm University platform (courses in agronomy,
financial literacy, business skills and leadership). Since 2010, the organisation has created
300 000 agricultural jobs. An additional 850 000 people have benefited indirectly (Babban
Gona, 2024[47]).
More public investment will help grow the sector and improve food self‑sufficiency.
In view of the persistent risk of food insecurity, following the Maputo Declaration on
Agriculture and Food Security in 2003, governments pledged to earmark at least 10%
of their national budgets for implementing the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture
Development Programme (CAADP). This initiative aims to increase annual growth in
the sector to 6%. With the exception of Benin, Guinea‑Bissau, Mali and Togo, ECOWAS
countries have allocated less than 5% of their expenditure to the agricultural sector.
Moreover, the agriculture orientation index for government expenditure5 is relatively low
in West Africa (0.13) compared with the global average (0.5) (Figure 7.14).

Figure 7.14. Agriculture orientation index for government expenditure and share
of total public expenditure spent on agriculture in West Africa, average 2017‑21

Orientation index for government expenditures - left axis Agriculture share of public expenditure - right axis

AOI %
0.6 12

0.5 10

0.4 8

0.3 6

0.2 4

0.1 2

0 0

Note: An agricultural orientation index (AOI) greater than 1 indicates greater government orientation towards the
agricultural sector, i.e. the sector receives a higher share of public spending relative to its contribution to economic value
added. If it is less than 1, the orientation towards agriculture is weaker; if equal to 1, government orientation towards the
agricultural sector is neutral.
Source: World Bank (2024[48]) SDG Metadata translation project, https://worldbank.github.io/sdg-metadata/metadata/fr/2-a-1;
FAOSTAT (2023[20]), Food and agriculture data (database), https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home.
12 https://stat.link/b91eqx

While informal private financing plays an important role for smallholders in West
Africa, compared with other regions, it is not generally aimed at improving skills.
Most informal private investment in the region (USD 23.1 billion in 2020) is focused on

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

agricultural production and is often risky, possibly entailing excessively high interest rates
or low financial accountability (AUC/OECD, 2023[46]). Nevertheless, initiatives in the formal
sector aim to address the shortages of credit and green skills in West Africa. For example,
the ECOWAS‑led West African Initiative for Climate‑Smart Agriculture is a blended
finance fund that encourages smallholders to adopt climate‑smart farming practices,
thereby broadening their environmental skills. The fund, which plans to mitigate up to
2 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year (equivalent to more than 6 billion kilometres, of
driving), pools public and concessional capital and provides subsidised interest rate loans
of up to USD 1 million to farmers’ organisations and agri‑businesses (The Lab, 2024[49]).

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 7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

Annex 7.A. Technical research centres specialising in agri‑food research

Annex Table 7.A.1. Examples of technical research centres in West Africa specialising
in agri‑food research
Country Technical research centres Mission and/or research targets
Benin Institut national de la recherche agronomique du Improving the productivity, climate resilience and sustainability of
Bénin (National Institute of Agricultural Research of food systems
Benin – INRAB)
Centre de contrôle biologique de l’IITA (International Specialising in crop productivity and sustainability, crop resilience
Institute of Tropical Agriculture’s Biological Control to climate change, pest and disease control, and farmer capacity
Centre – Cotonou) building
Burkina Faso Centre de coopération internationale en recherche Specialised in improving the productivity, sustainability and
agronomique pour le développement (Centre for resilience of agricultural systems
International Co‑operation in Agronomic Research for
Development – CIRAD)
Institut de l’environnement et de recherches agricoles Specialised in agroecology, crop improvement and sustainable
(Institute for the Environment and Agricultural agricultural development
Research – INERA)
Côte d’Ivoire Institut national polytechnique Félix Agricultural productivity, development of sustainable farming
Houphouët‑Boigny (Félix Houphouët‑Boigny National practices
Polytechnic Institute – INP‑HB),
formerly INRA – Côte d’Ivoire
Centre national de recherche agronomique Agriculture and agri‑food issues
(National Agricultural Research Centre – CNRA)
Mali Institut d’économie rurale Specialised in soil management, animal husbandry and plant
(Institute of the Rural Economy – IER) and animal disease control. Seeking sustainable agricultural
approaches that promote food security
Institut polytechnique rural de formation et de Agricultural and animal husbandry training and research
recherche appliquée (Rural Polytechnic Institute for
Training and Applied Research – IPR/IFRA)
Niger Institut national de la recherche agronomique du Specialised in food security and agricultural and rural development
Niger (Niger National Institute for Agricultural in Niger
Research – INRAN)
Centre national de spécialisation en Specialised in agrometeorology, farm management and food
agro‑météorologie et en environnement (National safety
Centre for Specialisation in Agrometeorology and the
Environment – CNSAME)
Centre régional AGRHYMET (Agriculture, Hydrology, Research and training on food security, natural resource
Meteorology Regional Centre) management and climate monitoring
Nigeria Institut national de recherche sur les plantes‑racines Root and tuber crops
(National Root Crop Research Institute – NRCRI)
Institut de recherche sur le riz du Nigeria (National Rice and rice growing
Institute for Rice Research – NIRRI)
Institut international de recherche sur les cultures des Vital crops for communities in arid zones, ranging from chickpeas,
tropiques semi‑arides (International Crops Research pigeonpeas, peanuts and sorghum, to pearl millet, eleusine (finger
Institute for the Semi‑Arid Tropics – ICRISAT) millet), little millet and oilseeds
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Tropical agriculture: crop improvement, soil management and
food security
Lake Chad Research Institute (LCRI) Cereals
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) Palm oil
National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Agricultural extension services
Services (NAERLS)
Senegal Centre d’étude régional pour l’amélioration de Improving drought‑resilient crops, water management and food
l’adaptation à la sécheresse (Regional Study Centre security
for Drought Adaptation Improvement – CERAAS)
Institut sénégalais de recherches agricoles Improving the productivity, sustainability and resilience of
(Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research – agricultural systems
ISRA)
Note: This table lists the most representative research centres in the region.
Source: Compiled by the authors.

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7. Skills for agri‑food in West Africa

Notes
1. Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Senegal and Togo
2. System skills are a sub‑category of soft skills (see Box 1.1 in Chapter 1). They include: i) reasoned
decision making; ii) optimising and anticipating impacts; and iii) evaluating and adjusting
performance to meet objectives.
3. Priority countries concerned (members of the FAR network): Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso,
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Guinea, Haiti, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Togo and Tunisia.
4. The workshop “Mass training in rural areas: Food for thought in defining a national policy” was
held in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) in June 2005. It was organised by the French international
co‑operation cluster (Pôle National de Coopération Internationale – Marseille) at the request of
the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Agriculture.
5. The agriculture orientation index for public expenditures describes the share of public
expenditure allocated to agriculture divided by agriculture’s share of GDP – with agriculture
defined here in the strict sense to cover forestry, fisheries and livestock. It measures progress
towards Target 2.a of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

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Annex A. Statistical annex

Data used in this edition of Africa’s Development Dynamics have been compiled and
presented in tables available for free download on the Development Centre’s website
(https://oe.cd/AFDD-2024) along with some additional social and economic indicators that
add context to the report’s analysis.
All indicators that were chosen for the annex provide national data figures for all
or nearly all African countries, as well as most countries in the rest of the world. These
choices were made in order to allow for both comparisons between African countries
and comparisons with groups of similar countries outside of Africa that could serve as
benchmarks. These data give context to the analyses presented in the report and allow
readers to investigate the underlying data in more depth.
Data were obtained from various sources, including harmonised data sets of annual
national data from reputable international institutions, as well as some indicators that
were calculated by researchers working on the publication. Figures will get updated as new
data come available so that readers can always track the latest versions of key indicators.
Therefore, some differences between figures in the statistical annex and figures reported
in the publication may reflect changes to the data tables made after the publication of the
written report.
Access the online Africa’s Development Dynamics statistical annex here: https://oe.cd/AFDD-2024.

Data tables available for free download on line

Click on title to download table
Table 1 Indicators of growth, employment and inequality
Table 2 Annual real GDP growth rate, 1990‑2029
Table 3 Annual population growth rate, 1990‑2029
Table 4 Annual real GDP growth per capita, 1990‑2029
Table 5 Demographic estimates
Table 6 Basic education indicators
Table 7 Labour force characteristics
Table 8 Sectoral breakdown of the economy
Table 9 Indicators of inequality and poverty
Table 10 Gender indicators
Table 11 Communications infrastructure
Table 12 Digitalisation
Table 13 Basic health indicators
Table 14 Subjective well‑being
Table 15 Growth decomposition by expenditure
Table 16 Public finances
Table 17 Trade by manufacturing intensity
Table 18 Export diversification
Table 19 Global and regional trade
Table 20 External financial inflows
Table 21 Investment and capital stock
Table 22 Returns on direct investments
Table 23 Ecological sustainability
Table 24 Sustainable public investments and adjusted net savings
Table 25 GHG emissions by sector
Table 26 Electricity and sustainable energy
Table 27 Origin and destination of added value
Table 28 International trade costs
Table 29 National wealth
Table 30 Environmental causes of premature deaths
Table 31 Informal economies and informal employment
Table 32 Employment by occupation
Table 33 Education mismatch
Table 34 Mean years of education

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Statistical annex

Data tables available for free download on line (continued)

Click on title to download table
Table 35 Employment by sector
Table 36 Employment by business activity and skill level
Table 37 Migration by education level
Table 38 Projected education profiles
Table 39 Projected youth education profiles
Download all annex tables in a single Excel file here:
https://github.com/AfDDAnnex/AfDDDDAf2024/raw/main/AfDD_2024_Statistical_Annex_all_tables.xlsx
Download a table of data sources here
Download a table of country groupings here
Download the data dictionary for the variables in these tables here

More extensive data, including time series for all variables back to 2000,
are also available on line
The figures presented in these statistical tables, with the exception of Tables 2‑4,
represent the most recent years for which data are available. However, a complete dataset
containing all these indicators for the years 2000‑present in one compressed flat csv file
can be downloaded from this link: https://github.com/AfDDAnnex/AfDDDDAf2024/raw/
main/AfDD_2024_Stats_by_year.zip. Otherwise, the same indicators can be found online
through the OECD’s online statistical portal at https://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and clicking
on “Development”, followed by “Africa’s Development Dynamics” on the menu.

The data in the statistical annex are also available for key country groupings
The statistical annex reports statistics for nearly all world countries, and also
aggregations of indicators over country groups developed for benchmarking and analysis.
The table indicating the countries that belong to each group is among the files available
in the statistical annex. The country groups featured in the analysis are the following:
• The five regions of the African Union (Central Africa, East Africa, North Africa,
Southern Africa, and West Africa, as defined by the Abuja Treaty)
• Africa and benchmark country groupings (Africa, Asian countries excluding
high‑income countries, Latin America and Caribbean countries, and the World)
• Resource‑rich countries
Countries that obtain a significant fraction of their GDP from underground
natural‑resource extraction are referred to as “resource‑rich”. These resource
endowments can have major implications for economic, political, and social
development. In this report, countries are identified as resource‑rich based on
whether, over the previous decade, the estimated contribution of the extraction of
hydrocarbons, coal and minerals to economic output exceeds 10% of GDP in at least
five years.
• Income level
The World Bank divides the countries of the world into four categories based on GNI
per capita, using their Atlas Method:1 low‑income countries, lower middle‑income
countries, upper middle‑income countries, and high‑income countries.
• Geographic access
The report provides a breakdown between countries that are landlocked, countries
that have a portion of coastline, and island nations. Gaining access to world trade
can be complicated by a country’s access to the ocean or lack thereof, while island
nations have been shown to have different development patterns than other coastal
nations. In addition to this three‑way breakdown of countries, this report provides
data on countries deemed “Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC)” and “Small

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 Statistical annex

Island Developing States (SIDS)” by the UN Office of the High Representative for
the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island
Developing States (UN‑OHRLLS).2
• Least developed countries3
The UN‑OHRLLS classifies some countries as “Least Developed Countries (LDC)”.
This categorisation of countries was officially established in 1971, by the UN
General Assembly, and represents countries that face low levels of socio‑economic
development. Countries are designated as LDC countries based on income criteria,
the health and education of their populations, and their economic vulnerability.
• Fragile states4
The OECD studies fragility as a multi‑dimensional concept of risks that could
pose a critical challenge to the ability of countries to achieve their development
aspirations, in particular the goals outlined by the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Based on the results of this research, presented in the OECD States of
Fragility report, countries are categorised as being “fragile” or “extremely fragile”.
• Regional Economic Communities and other intergovernmental organisations
Partnerships of countries formed for the purposes of regional integration or
co‑operation that have economic or political significance and that are particularly
relevant to an analysis of African economic performance are included here.
This includes the 8 Regional Economic Communities (REC) recognised by the
African Union, as well as other regional and international organisations, such
as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Mercado Común del Sur
(MERCOSUR), the European Union (EU) and the OECD that serve as benchmarks.
Aggregate figures for PALOP (Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa, the
Portuguese‑speaking African countries) were included in response to a request
from members of this country grouping.

Notes
1. Please see http://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378832-what-is-theworld-
bank-atlas-method.
2. Please see www.un.org/ohrlls/.
3. Please see www.un.org/ohrlls/content/least-developed-countries.
4. Please see www.oecd.org/dac/conflict-fragility-resilience/listofstateoffragilityreports.htm.

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AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT DYNAMICS 2024: SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY © AUC/OECD 2024
Africa’s Development Dynamics 2024
SKILLS, JOBS AND PRODUCTIVITY

Africa’s Development Dynamics uses lessons from Central, East, North, Southern and West Africa to develop
policy recommendations and share good practices across the continent. Drawing on the most recent statistics,
its analysis of development dynamics aims to assist African leaders in reaching the targets of the African Union’s
Agenda 2063 at all levels: continental, regional, national and local.
This edition explores how African governments, firms and educational institutions can increase the supply of
quality skills, in line with current and future demand, to create jobs and increase productivity. Global trends,
like the digital and green transitions, Africa’s demographic growth, and the regionalisation of international trade
are shaping future skills demand. The report’s two continental chapters examine the gaps in foundational, soft
and technical skills and identify policy solutions to develop a skilled workforce. Five regional chapters offer
recommendations for skills development in strategic areas including mining, digital technologies, renewable
energy and agri-food.
Africa’s Development Dynamics feeds into a policy debate between the African Union’s governments, citizens,
entrepreneurs and researchers. It proposes a new collaboration between countries and regions, focusing on
mutual learning and the preservation of common goods. This report results from the partnership between the
African Union Commission and the OECD Development Centre.

Consult this publication on line at https://au.int/en/documents/20240625/africas-development-dynamics-2024 and

https://doi.org/10.1787/df06c7a4-en
This work is published on the African Union Commission’s website and OECD iLibrary.
Visit www.au.int and www.oecd-ilibrary.org for more information.

PRINT ISBN 978-92-64-46105-5

PDF ISBN 978-92-64-34815-8