ABSTRACT

This study was an investigation of the perceptions of Grade 10 English Second

Language teachers about the effects of Code Switching in their classrooms in the Caprivi

Education Region of Namibia.

A purposeful sample of twelve ESL teachers from twelve schools, four teachers from

urban, four teachers from semi-urban and four teachers from rural schools were used. An

observation checklist and a questionnaire were used to collect data from the respondents.

Both instruments were piloted before being administered.

Some of the findings that emerged from this study were that the respondents showed a

lack of knowledge about theories relating to language teaching and learning. In

addition, the non-availability of guiding framework or policies on the use of Code

Switching in schools created uncertainty among teachers. Generally Code Switching

was seen by the respondents as having good effects on learning and teaching in all

subjects. It was also indicated that the Language Policy did not empower teachers to use

language as the situation dictated, but rather the Language Policy dictated to teachers to

subscribe to its directives. This could be one of the reasons why teachers used English

in the presence of a ministerial official but as soon as s/he left the classroom they

reverted to using mother tongue.

i
From the findings of this study, it is recommended that teachers should be exposed to

eclectic approaches of teaching. They should have a range of approaches from which to

choose depending on the situation in which they find themselves. This would broaden

teachers’ scope unlike the current situation where they are only exposed to one

teaching technique. It is further recommended that the Namibian Language Policy be

revised to accommodate the current language situation (that of teaching only in English

even when learners do not understand) in the country. Due to the identified

shortcomings in the Namibian Language Policy, the matrix-embedded model is proposed

as an alternative to the English as the only medium of instruction in classrooms.

Language classrooms should become learning environments where learners actively

participate and grasp the knowledge that they are taught in a language they are

comfortable with.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the first instance my sincere gratitude to God, the creator of all things, to whom all

things are possible, for enabling me to complete this research.

Most of all I want to thank my main supervisor, Professor Choshi Kasanda, and Dr.

Talita Smit, my co-supervisor for the excellent guidance, patience and instruction during

the course of the research. Ms Chuma Mayumbelo deserves to be thanked for the

enormous language corrections and comments. I am thankful to Mr Camillus Mahindi

who did the statistical analysis.

I also want to thank the University of Namibia management for granting me study leave

for one month to carry out this research. Let me also take this opportunity to thank the

management and staff of the Language Centre of the University of Namibia who agreed

to take care of my classes during my leave of absence and the financial support which

they gave me when I was in dire financial need. The Secretariat of the National Council

for Higher Education (NHCE) and the Advisory Council on Teacher Education and

Training (ACTET) also deserve special thanks for partly financing my study.

I would like to, sincerely, thank all the teachers at all the 12 schools in the Caprivi

Education Region who generously gave their time to complete the questionnaire and

also allowed me to sit in their classrooms. I am thankful to the principals of those

schools for their openness and hospitality.

iii
 DEDICATION

To my mother, Catherine Namata Mwanambala Sinvula and to my late father, Bornwell

Simasiku Liswani

To my lovely wife, Sibiziwe (Tshuma) Simasiku

To my two boys: Simasiku Liswani Simasiku and Sibusiso Liswani Simasiku

All things are possible if you have positive people behind you. This is for you.

iv
 COPYRIGHT

I, Liswani Simasiku, grant the University of Namibia the right to reproduce this

dissertation in whole or part, in any manner or format, which the University of Namibia

may deem fit, for any personal or institution requiring it for study and research;

providing that the University of Namibia shall waive the right if the whole thesis has

been or is being published in a manner satisfactory to the university.

No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form, or by means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise) without the prior permission of the author, or the University of Namibia.

v
 DECLARATIONS

I, Liswani Simasiku hereby declare that this is a true reflection of my own research, and

that this work, or part thereof has not been submitted for a degree at any institution of

higher learning.

___________________ _________________

Liswani Simasiku Date

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... iii

DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. iv

COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................................ v

DECLARATIONS ....................................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... xv

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xvii

ABBREVIATIONS / ACRONYMS ....................................................................................... xviii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1

1.1 The Background of the study ............................................................................................ 1

1.1.1 Historical circumstances ..................................................................................................... 2

1.1.2. Distinctive educational choices ......................................................................................... 3

1.1.3. Challenges brought about by the choice of English .......................................................... 4

1.2. The context that gave rise to this research........................................................................... 6

1.3. The Case for Code Switching ............................................................................................ 7

1.3.1 Advantages of Code Switching ........................................................................................ 13

1.3.2 Challenges for teachers .................................................................................................... 15

vii
1.4. The proposed matrix-embedded model for Namibian schools .................................... 17

1.5. Theoretical framework of the study ............................................................................... 18

1.6. Statement of the problem ................................................................................................ 20

1.7. The research questions .................................................................................................... 20

1.8. Research assumptions ...................................................................................................... 21

1.9. Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 21

1.10. Limitations of the study ..................................................................................................... 22

1.11. Delimitations ....................................................................................................................... 23

1.12. Definition of terms and concepts ...................................................................................... 23

1.13. Organisation of the study .................................................................................................. 25

1.14. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 27

2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 27

2.2. The policy on medium of instruction in Namibia .............................................................. 32

2.2.1. Historical and linguistic factors ....................................................................................... 40

2.2.2. Political factors ................................................................................................................ 41

2.2.3. The Constitution of Namibia ........................................................................................... 41

2.2.4. The actual language situation of Namibia ....................................................................... 43

2.2.5. The government policy and objectives on language ....................................................... 45

viii
2.3. Code Switching ..................................................................................................................... 55

2.4. Teachers’ views on Code Switching in the classroom ....................................................... 59

2.5. How Code Switching enhances learners’ academic achievement .................................... 60

2.5.1 The prototypical approaches to learning .......................................................................... 65

2.6. How Code Switching enhances the learning of English, the target language ................. 69

2.6.1 Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills ...................................................................... 76

2.6.2 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency ..................................................................... 77

2.7. Learners’ participation in classes where Code Switching is practiced ........................... 80

2.8. Barriers to Code Switching in the classroom practices .................................................... 86

2.9. The matrix-embedded language model for Namibia ........................................................ 90

2.10. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 92

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 93

3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 93

3.2. Research design .................................................................................................................... 93

3.2.1. The Qualitative Method................................................................................................... 94

3.2.1.1 Advantages of the qualitative method ..................................................................................................... 96

3.2.1.2 Disadvantages of the qualitative method ................................................................................................ 97
3.2.2. The Quantitative Method................................................................................................. 97

3.2.2.1 Advantages of the quantitative method ................................................................................................... 99

3.2.2.2 Disadvantages of quantitative research ............................................................................................... 100

3.3. Population ........................................................................................................................... 101

ix
3.4. Sample and sampling procedure....................................................................................... 102

3.5. Data collection instruments ............................................................................................... 104

3.5.1. Questionnaires ............................................................................................................... 105

3.5.2. Observation checklist .................................................................................................... 106

3.6. Pilot study ........................................................................................................................... 106

3.6.1. Refinement of the research instruments ........................................................................ 107

3.6.1.1 Validity ............................................................................................................................................... 108

3.6.1.2 Reliability ............................................................................................................................................. 109

3.7. Data collection process ....................................................................................................... 110

3.8. Data analysis ....................................................................................................................... 111

3.9. Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................ 113

3.10. Summary ........................................................................................................................... 113

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND ANALYSIS .......................................... 114

4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 114

4.2. Data presentation ............................................................................................................... 114

4.3. Data Structure .................................................................................................................... 117

4.4. Presentation of the themes, categories and data chunks ................................................ 117

4.4.1 Theme 1: Biographical information of the respondents ................................................. 117

4.4.1.1 Category 1.1: The position of the teachers ........................................................................................... 118

4.4.1.2 Category 1.2: The ages of the ESL teachers ......................................................................................... 118
4.4.1.3 Category 1.3: Qualifications of the ESL teachers ................................................................................ 120

x
 4.4.1.4 Category 1.4: Teaching experience of the ESL teachers ...................................................................... 121
4.4.1.5 Category 1.5: The location of the schools ............................................................................................ 122
4.4.1.6 Category 1.6: The mother tongue of the ESL teachers ......................................................................... 123
4.4.2 Theme 2: The medium of instruction in Namibian schools ........................................... 125

4.4.2.1 Category 2.1: English as the only medium of instruction in Namibian schools ................................... 125
4.4.2.2 Category 2.2: English medium of instruction a barrier to learning ..................................................... 126
4.4.2.3 Category 2.3: Effect of Code Switching on ESL teaching and learning ............................................... 127
4.4.2.4 Category 2.4: Code Switching enhances academic performance ......................................................... 129

Table 13: The effects of English as a subject and as the medium of instruction on

learners’ academic performance ............................................................................................. 131

Table 14: Teachers’ perceived advantages of Code Switching in English medium

classrooms .................................................................................................................................. 132

4.4.2.5 Category 2.5: Learners’ preferred language of communication .......................................................... 133

Table 15: Teachers’ perceived reasons why learners preferred a particular

language in the classroom talk ................................................................................................. 135

4.4.2.6 Category 2.6: Teachers’ preferred language of communication for learners ...................................... 135
4.4.3 Theme 3: Teachers‟ understanding of school language related policies ........................ 138

4.4.3.1 Category 3.1: Teachers’ understanding of the Language Policy ......................................................... 139
4.4.3.2 Category 3.2: Teachers’ understanding of Code Switching ................................................................. 140
4.4.3.3 Category 3.3: Teachers’ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution ............................. 141
4.4.3.4 Category 3.4: The Language Policy on Code Switching ...................................................................... 142
4.4.3.5 Category 3.5: Effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners’ participation in the
classrooms. ....................................................................................................................................................... 143
4.4.4 Theme 4: The effects of Code Switching on English language ..................................... 144

4.4.4.1 Category 4.1: Code Switching aids proficiency in the English language ............................................. 144
4.4.4.2 Category 4.2: Correct teaching of the mother tongue (MT) aids the learning of the English
Language (EL) .................................................................................................................................................. 145
4.4.4.3 Category 4.3: The use of Code Switching in English medium classrooms ........................................... 148
4.4.4.4 Category 4.4: Learners’ reactions when Code Switching was allowed in the classrooms ................... 150
4.4.4.5 Category 4.5: Learners’ enthusiasm when Code Switching was allowed ............................................ 153
4.4.4.6 Category 4.6: Barriers to Code Switching ........................................................................................... 154
4.4.5 Theme 5: The matrix–embedded model ......................................................................... 155

xi
 4.4.5.1 Category 5.1: Teachers’ awareness of the matrix-embedded model .................................................... 155
4.4.5.2 Category 5.2: The matrix–embedded model on the acquisition of the English Language (EL) ........... 156
4.4.5.3 Category 5.3: Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model .................................... 157
4.4.5.4 Category 5.4: The implementation of the matrix-embedded model ...................................................... 159
4.4.5.5 Category 5.5: Obstacles to the implementation of the model ............................................................... 160
4.4.5.6 Category 5.6: Teachers’ comments on the needed changes to the existing Language Policy .............. 160
4.4.5.7 Category 5.7: The use of Code Switching in English classrooms ........................................................ 161
4.4.5.8 Category 5.8: The matrix (English)-embedded (mother tongue) model ............................................... 162
4.4.5.9 Category 5.9: The language that sets the syntax of the sentence.......................................................... 164

4.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 165

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ........................................................................ 166

5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 166

5. 2. The medium of instruction .............................................................................................. 166

5.2.1 English as the only medium of instruction in Namibian schools ................................... 167

5.2.2 English medium of instruction as a barrier to learning .................................................. 168

5.2.3 The effects of Code Switching on ESL teaching and learning ....................................... 169

5.2.4 Code Switching enhances academic performance ......................................................... 171

5.2.5 Learners and teachers‟ preferred language of communication....................................... 172

5.3. Teachers’ understanding of school language related policies ........................................ 172

5.3.1 Teachers‟ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution ............................. 174

5.3.2 Teachers‟ understanding of the Language Policy .......................................................... 174

5.3.3 Teachers‟ understanding of Code Switching.................................................................. 176

5.3.4 The Language Policy on Code Switching ...................................................................... 176

5.3.5 The effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners‟ participation ............................... 178

5.4. The effects of Code Switching on English language teaching and learning.................. 179

xii
 5.4.1 Code Switching aids English language proficiency ....................................................... 179

5.4.2 Correct teaching of the MT aids the learning of the EL ................................................. 180

5.4.3 The use of Code Switching in English medium classrooms ......................................... 183

5.4.4 Barriers to Code Switching ............................................................................................ 187

5.4.4.1 Educators’ attitudes.............................................................................................................................. 187

5.4.4.2 Political leaders’ attitudes towards Code Switching ............................................................................ 189
5.4.4.3 Incompatible policies and lack of clarity in policy documents ............................................................. 190
5.4.4.4 Inability of teachers to critically examine policies ............................................................................... 191
5.4.4.5 Code Switching increases learners’ participation/engagement ........................................................... 191
5.4.4.6 Examinations ........................................................................................................................................ 193

5.5. The matrix–embedded model ........................................................................................... 194

5.5.1 The matrix–embedded model for the acquisition of the EL ........................................... 195

5.5.2 Teachers‟ awareness of the matrix-embedded model .................................................... 196

5.5.3 The language that sets the syntax of the sentence .......................................................... 197

5.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model .................................... 198

5.5.5 The implementation of the matrix-embedded model ..................................................... 199

5.5.6 Teachers perceived obstacles to the implementation of the matrix-embedded

model ....................................................................................................................................... 199

5.5.7 Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy ...................................................... 201

5.6. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 201

CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 203

6.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 203

6.2. Summary ......................................................................................................................... 203

xiii
6.3. Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 206

6.4. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 207

6.4.1. Recommendations for the Ministry of Education.................................................................................... 207

6.4.2 Recommendations for ESL teachers .................................................................................................... 207
6.5. Recommendations for further research ........................................................................ 208

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 209

MacSwan, J., & Rolstad, K. (2001). Lingusitic diversity, schooling and social class: ........... 219

Rethinking our conception of language proficiency in language minority education.

Unpublished mimeo (Arizona State University). .................................................................... 219

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 229

Appendix A: Questionnaire for teachers ................................................................................. 229

Appendix B: Observation checklist ........................................................................................ 241

Appendix C: Map of Caprivi Region and the School Clusters ............................................... 243

Appendix D: Sampled schools in the Caprivi Education Region ........................................... 244

Appendix E: Letter to the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education Asking

for permission to conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools ....................... 245

Appendix F: Letter of approval from the Permanent Secretary of Education to

conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools .................................................... 246

Appendix G: Letter to the Caprivi Education Director of Education asking for

permission to conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools ............................. 248

Appendix H: Letter of approval from the Director of Education in Caprivi to conduct

research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools ................................................................. 249

xiv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The distribution of percentage for Silozi and ESL (2007 -2010 Examinations results) ............... 29

Table 2: The distribution of percentages of the six (6) content subjects (2007-2010)................................ 30

Table 3: Prototypical approaches to learning .............................................................................................. 65

Table 4: Themes and categories ................................................................................................................ 116

Table 5: Positions of the ESL teachers .................................................................................................... 118

Table 6: Ages of the ESL teachers ............................................................................................................ 119

Table 7: Qualifications of the ESL teachers ............................................................................................. 120

Table 8: Teaching experience of the ESL teachers ................................................................................... 121

Table 9: Teachers‟ responses to the effects of English on teaching and learning .................................... 125

Table 10: English medium of instruction as a barrier to learning ............................................................. 127

Table 11: Effect of Code Switching on teaching and learning ................................................................. 128

Table 12: The effects of Code Switching on learners‟ academic achievement ........................................ 130

Table 13: The effects of English as a subject and as the medium of instruction on learners‟

academic performance .............................................................................................................................. 131

Table 14: Teachers‟ perceived advantages of Code Switching in English medium classrooms .............. 132

Table 15: Teachers‟ perceived reasons why learners preferred a particular language in the

classroom talk ........................................................................................................................................... 135

Table 16: Reasons why the teachers preferred learners to use the English language in class .................. 137

Table 17: Teachers‟ support of the reasons mentioned in Table 16.......................................................... 138

Table 18: Teachers‟ understanding of the language policy for schools .................................................... 139

Table 19: Teachers‟ understanding of Code Switching ............................................................................ 141

xv
Table 20: Teachers‟ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution ........................................ 142

Table 21: The provision for Code Switching in the Language Policy ...................................................... 143

Table 22: The effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners‟ participation .......................................... 144

Table 23: Code Switching aids the learning, the development of cognitive skills and proficiency

in the English Language............................................................................................................................ 145

Table 24: Correct teaching of mother tongue grammar and sentence structure aides the learning

and proficiency in English Language........................................................................................................ 146

Table 25: Teachers‟ reaction when learners Code switched ..................................................................... 147

Table 26: How teachers handled learners who Code Switched ................................................................ 148

Table 27: The use of Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms ..................................... 149

Table 28: Reasons why learners were sad, happy or indifferent when Code Switching was

introduced in their classrooms .................................................................................................................. 152

Table 29: Teachers‟ experiences about their learners‟ enthusiasm when they were allowed to

code switch in their classrooms ................................................................................................................ 153

Table 30: Barriers to Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms ..................................... 154

Table 31: Teachers‟ awareness of the matrix-embedded model and its implementation ......................... 155

Table 32: Teachers‟ comments on the effects of the matrix-embedded model for the acquisition

of the English language ............................................................................................................................. 157

Table 33: Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model of the English language ........ 158

Table 34: The implementation of the matrix-embedded model in Grade 10 English medium

classrooms ................................................................................................................................................. 159

Table 35: Obstacles to successful implementation of the matrix –embedded model ............................... 160

Table 36: Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy and reasons............................................. 161

Table 37: Poplack‟s equivalent constraint model ..................................................................................... 183

xvi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Mother tongue of the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers. .................................................. 124

Figure 2: The language in which learners prefer to speak during the lesson ....................... 134

Figure 3: The language in which the teachers prefer the learners to speak ......................... 136

Figure 4: The ESL teachers’ reaction to learners’ Code Switching ...................................... 150

Figure 5: What the teacher does through the utterances ............................................................. 163

Figure 6: The language that sets the grammar of the sentence structure of the

switched ...................................................................................................................................... 164

xvii
 ABBREVIATIONS / ACRONYMS

ELTDP English Language Teacher Development Project

H/IGCSE Higher/International General Certificate of Secondary Education

MEC Ministry of Education and Culture

MBESC Ministry of Basic Education and Culture

SWAPO South West People‟s Organisation

CS Code Switching

SBS School Based Studies

CALP Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

BICS Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

ELL English Language Learners

L1 First Language

L2 Second Language

DNEA Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment

ESL English Second Language

EL English Language

xviii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This study addressed the issue of English and Code Switching in Grade 10 classrooms of

the Caprivi Education Region. It investigated the perceptions of Grade 10 English

Second Language teachers about the effects of Code Switching in their classrooms in the

Caprivi Education Region with special emphasis on English Second Language learners.

It also looked at ways in which the alternate use of languages was related to the learning

and teaching process in the English language.

1.1 The Background of the study

After independence the Namibian educational system advocated participatory

democracy in schools, not only in the classrooms, but also outside the classrooms. The

new educational system focused on encouraging and recording achievement rather than

failure. It advanced the teaching of English as a subject and the use of English as

medium of instruction (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1992). The change in the

education system meant a change in the language of instruction in schools from

Afrikaans medium of instruction in 1990. It must be noted here that prior to

independence, some sections of the country used Afrikaans as medium of instruction,

while others, for example; (Caprivi and Owamboland) used English.

1
In support of the change in medium of instruction, the Ministry of Education (2007)

states that “the overall aim of the teaching of English as a Second Language in Namibian

schools is the development of the learners‟ communicative skills for meaningful

instruction in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural society” (p. 3). Specific historical

circumstances have led to these distinctive educational choices and second language

provisions in the Namibian schools.

1.1.1 Historical circumstances

Before Independence in 1990, Namibia, then known as South West Africa, was

segmented into 11 ethnic based educational regions, with each region being semi-

autonomous. Under the South African government, language was used to isolate and

divide the people from one another and from the entire international community. The

main features of the South African laws were the segregation of people along racial and

ethnic lines and the preferential treatment enjoyed by the white population. Thus a

minority language, Afrikaans, was used as the medium of instruction in Namibian

schools (Amukugo, 1993).

The issue of language in Namibia is complex, due to the apartheid system which was in

existence before Independence. This system gave greater status to some languages than

to others, thus creating unequal language development. Therefore, as Harlech-Jones

(1998) stated, people who advocated the use of local languages as media of instruction

in Namibian schools were regarded with suspicion, because of the key role that these

languages played in the apartheid policy (Harlech-Jones, 1998). The key role that these
2
languages played during apartheid was that the inferior and humiliating curriculum was

being mediated through the indigenous/local languages.

1.1.2. Distinctive educational choices

Confronted by the legacy of apartheid, the South West Africa People‟s Organisation

(SWAPO) led government needed to make distinctive educational choices after

Independence that would “… enhance socio-economic possibilities with the broader

international community needed to institutionalize a language policy which could unify

Namibians across the ethnic and racial divide enforced by the extension of apartheid in

the form of the eleven educational departments, and to adopt a language policy which

would facilitate mobility among Namibians within the country and across international

borders” (Jansen, 1995, p.48).

To do that, the language policy document which was used by SWAPO schools in exile

had to be translated into a government policy. Murray (2007) in the NAWA (2007)

quotes the then Prime Minister, Hage Geingob:

When SWAPO decided during its struggle for independence to make English the

official Language of Namibia, and when the framers of the Constitution decided

to choose English as the Official Language, it was not an ad hoc decision. It was

a considered decision.

We live in a world where distances have shrunk, and the global village is a

reality. For Namibia, therefore, we had to choose a language that would remove
3
 the isolation imposed by the colonizers, which restricted our capacity to

communicate with the outside world, restricted our capacity to produce our own

literature, our own men of letters. Language in Namibia was taught to the

majority with only one objective – to give them instructions at the work place.

Isolation imposed on us, by denying most Namibians education in a global

language, seems to have been durable. At Independence, therefore, we had to

choose a language that would open up the world to us. English was the obvious

choice. After all, English is the most widely spoken language, spoken by some

six hundred million people. There is no corner of the globe where you could not

get by if you knew English… (p. 70).

Because Namibia had been linguistically and politically isolated before independence,

the Namibian government deemed it necessary to introduce English since it is the

language of wider communication. However, this firm decision had strings attached.

Indeed, the linguistic and political isolation had to be redressed. However, during the

redress process educational problems emerged. As Harlech-Jones (1998, p. 6) argues,

“… the problem, by no means not unique to Namibia, is the difficulty for teachers to

develop lessons based on communication and interaction when they themselves lack

fluency in English.”

4
1.1.3. Challenges brought about by the choice of English

To ascertain the argument highlighted by Harlech-Jones above, in 1999, the English

Language Teacher Development Project (ELTDP), in collaboration with the Ministry of

Basic Education, Sport and Culture (MBESC, 2000), conducted a national survey on the

English Language proficiency of Namibian teachers across the different phases of

education. The results of the study were that in written tests junior secondary school

teachers performed better than their lower primary school colleagues. Furthermore, the

study revealed that the use of English for several teaching purposes, particularly

explaining concepts was disappointing. It also revealed that, “… teachers in the other

phases often use English beyond the textbook and this leads to a higher number of

errors” (ELTDP, 2000, p. 31). The findings by the ELTDP could be attributed to the fact

that lower primary school teachers were at liberty to switch to the mother tongue as it

was the medium through which they taught (ELTDP, 2000).

Furthermore, Wolfaardt (2004) states that in examinations, Namibian learners scored

differently in their first languages and in the content subjects where learners are taught

through the medium of English. She cites the MBESC Report of 2002 in which

Namibian teachers stated that the English Language was a stumbling block for learners

when answering the questions in examinations. Similarly, the teachers wondered

whether learners had really not mastered the work or did not understand what the

examination questions required of them (Wolfaardt, 2004).

5
Wolfaardt (2004, p. 370) quotes the following comment from MBEC (2002) Circular:

DNEA 14/ 2000: JSC Examination 2002: Examiners’ Reports, which seems to reflect

the views of Namibian teachers with regard to the History examinations,"… A large

total of learners did, however, have problems with English which brought about that

they could not express themselves properly and could not understand what was required

of them". Jansen (1995) maintains that since the introduction of English as a medium of

instruction in Namibian schools, there has been an outcry and assertions that the high

failure rate is due to the new medium of instruction.

1.2. The context that gave rise to this research

Situations in which we find ourselves sometimes lead us to reconsider how we perceive

the world. The researcher says this because at no time did he think of blending English

with the mother tongue in his teaching and learning. He strongly advocated for English

only in classes where English was the medium of instruction; however, this perception

changed in 2002.

One of the researcher‟s duties as a teacher educator was to observe and assess student

teachers during School Based Studies (SBS) or teaching practice. As he was observing

and assessing one student teacher in the Khomas Education Region, he observed

something which made him revisit the teaching/learning approaches and the medium of

instruction in Namibian schools. This particular student teacher presented her lesson

very well to a Grade 8 class. However, when she started asking questions, learners

6
would start a sentence and stop in mid-sentence, but the researcher could hear them

murmuring something to each other in their mother tongue. This pattern continued until

the end of the lesson. After the lesson, as usual, the student teacher and the teacher

educator discussed the lesson. The student teacher and teacher educator talked about the

lesson and he advised her how she could improve her presentation. Towards the end of

the discussion, he asked her why the learners at that school could not complete sentences

and what they murmured in their local language. The student teacher who could speak

the mother tongue of the learners was quick to tell the teacher educator that the learners

were saying the answers in their mother tongue.

After this session, I started asking myself the question why those learners were not

allowed to complete sentences in their mother tongue. What came to mind as I was

trying to answer the question was that learners were facing a language problem. I

started looking into Code Switching as a possible answer, and this precipitated this

study.

1.3.The Case for Code Switching

Code Switching can be seen as bridging the communication barrier of the learners and

that the basis of learning and development is language and communication. It must be

understood that teaching and learning experiences are built on the basis of language

alternations, with the fundamental idea that the alternate use of languages reinforces

awareness of the free, non-fixed relationship between objects and their labels and the

necessary ability to separate words and concepts (Moore, 2002). Teaching and learning

7
are based on language alterations; it is for this reason that Code Switching is being

advocated in classrooms that used a second language as medium of instruction. The

issue of Code Switching is at the heart of education reform and is being debated in most

sectors of education the world. The MEC (1992) states:

In these transitional conditions, while the stated language policy will not change,

the use of language understood by the majority of learners in a class can be

permitted temporarily. Indeed, even where resources are satisfactory, experience

in other countries has shown that the use of such local languages from time to

time may help with the understanding of difficult concepts… (p. 10).

The Namibian government has, therefore, recognized the use of local languages in

English medium classrooms in helping learners to understand difficult concepts and

terms. As can be seen from the quote above, it is obvious that local language use has

bridged communication barriers in other countries.

As an illustration, researchers such as Fantini (1985), Geneshi (1981) and Huerta (1980)

focused on the role of Code Switching in young bilingual Spanish children. Their

findings were that Code Switching should not be seen as a handicap, but rather as an

opportunity for children‟s language development.

8
As a matter of fact, McClune and Wentz (1975) and Poplack (1981) focused their

research on the social functions of Code Switching. The social function of Code

Switching was found to be good for negotiations between participants about the nature

and the form of the interaction, which, in most cases, are explicitly revealed by

conversation cues, social roles and norms, setting, topic of discussion and perceived

status of the interactants.

For this reason, Huerta (1978) focused his research on the patterns of Code Switching in

the home among adults while Zentella (1978) focused on third Grade children at play. It

was found that children code switched in both oral discourse and written form in order to

communicate in an effective way and that parents‟ Code Switching could be used as a

stimulus for further development of children‟s home language in the home context.

In other words, Code Switching seems to have played an important function in the

different circumstances mentioned above. It is therefore in this context that this study

investigated the ways in which the alternate use of languages was related to the learning

and teaching process in the English language medium classrooms.

In exploring Code Switching in the classrooms, Anguire (1988), Hudelson (1983) and

Olmedo-Williams (1983) found Code Switching to be an effective teaching and

9
communicative technique which can be used among bilingual learners. Their studies

found that Code Switching in the classroom was used for, amongst others,

 regulatory purposes (to control group behaviour);

 emphasis (to stress a message);
 attention attraction;
 lexicalization (lexical need, cultural association, or frequency of use in one language
or the other);
 clarification;
 instructional (to teach second language vocabulary);
 sociolinguistic play (for humour, teasing, punning);
 Addressee specification (to accommodate the linguistic need or choice of the
addressee or to exclude individuals from the interaction) and others.

Huerta-Macias and Quintero (1992) focused their study on the social context that

combined school and families and valued language switching as part of the whole

language approach to the acquisition of literacy and biliteracy. Their study on Code

Switching analysed its effectiveness on teaching, learning and communication strategies

in the classroom; the context included not only children and instructors but also parents.

They found that language switching aided the acquisition of literacy and biliteracy.

Also, Wolfaardt (2001) advocates bilingual language programmes as alternatives to the

current language policy in Namibia which promotes the use of English as the only

medium of instruction to second language speakers of English. Wolfaardt suggests that

bilingual education in Namibian schools should be determined by social, historical,

ideological and psychological factors that interact with one another. She further

suggests that bilingual education could benefit learners and improve their academic

10
achievement. To further consolidate the advance for bilingual education Moore (2002

says:

With two lexical forms in the bilingual repertoires, the learners can activate two

images, corresponding to two types of knowledge. These images can be

superimposed or not. Each of them adds new insights and focuses on a particular

characteristic and contributes to building a more complete and nuanced vision.

A dual repertoire helps the students elaborate knowledge from different levels of

comprehension and information. They can relate new linguistic and conceptual

materials to what they already know, and recognize its limitations when

presented additional or differential meaning in a different language (p. 89).

According to Moore (2002), when a learner is exposed to bilingual instructions, he or

she gains an insight into things from a dual perspective as this enriches his or her

understanding of the world from a two-dimensional view. What he or she already

knows from another language can now be translated into a new language which he or

she is learning. Therefore, the introduction of Code Switching in the classroom would

accord learners the dual perspective, drawing from their mother tongue experiences to

enrich their understanding of the new language. When Code Switching is used in

English medium classrooms, it helps learners relate to what they already know and fits

together new ideas to old ones.

It must be understood that one of the major functions of language in the classroom is its

use for learning, for fitting together new ideas with old ones, which is done to bring
11
about new understanding. Additionally, Bennett and Dunne (2002) maintain that these

functions suggest active use of language by learners, as opposed to passive reception.

They further indicate that learners’ performance could be substantially improved if

they were given regular opportunities in the classroom to use their mother tongue over a

range of purposes in a relaxed atmosphere (Bennett and Dunne, 2002).

According to Jones, (as cited in Wolfaardt, 2005) many Namibian learners fail to attain

the minimum language proficiency in English before the introduction of linguistically

and cognitively more demanding English medium subjects in Grade 4. It is likely that

they acquire basic proficiency in English only when they enter the junior secondary

phase of school, at which time they should really be functioning at an intermediate level,

but they do not seem to do so; hence Code Switching which is the focus of this study.

As a result of problems beginning in the primary school, learners continue to lag behind

their required level of English language proficiency, and the majority never really reach

the language proficiency in English which their age and school level demand (Jones, as

cited in Wolfaardt, 2005). Equally important, it is argued, that Namibian learners‟

cognitive academic language proficiency in their first language is also not highly

developed, thus creating a problem in developing their Cognitive Academic Language

Proficiency in the second language, which is the medium of instruction (Ministry of

Basic Education, Sport and Culture, 2003).

12
To bridge this gap, Code Switching could be a way of solving the problem of classroom

communication. Harlech-Jones (1998) maintains that research has shown that strong and

well-balanced bilingualism, if maintained properly, has very definite academic

advantages for learners.

1.3.1 Advantages of Code Switching

It cannot be denied that children who come to school speaking more than one language,

or who learn a second language at school benefit academically more as long as both

languages are developed to the fullest, than those who speak only one language. If

research has shown that speaking more than one language is an added advantage, it is

suffice to say that the use of Code Switching in English medium classroom would

benefit learners academically. Moore (2002) notes that:

A code switch can help bridge the gap in the discourse. It can set off negotiated

lateral sequences about content or form. It can generate interactional changes

that may potentially entail inquisitional dimensions. In situations when the focus

is not only on the development of linguistic skills but also on the transmission of

subject contents, switches can add significantly to the enrichment of new

concepts and become an active part in the learning experience (p. 290).

13
The assertion above reinforces the advantages of the first language mastery, and how it

serves as a scaffold of second language learning. Code Switching could thus help

learners master the target language.

Learning involves language, and the language we use influences learning. Hein (1991)

notes there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vygotsky (1978),

that language and learning are inextricably intertwined. A challenge for the majority of

Namibian children is that the language of instruction is seldom the language used

outside the classroom. Wolfaardt (2002) and Mercer (2002) concur that if learners are

not exposed to speaking English outside the class, it makes it difficult for them to

understand instructions in English. I would say that because of this, it becomes even

more imperative to code switch. In Namibia, most learners, especially in rural schools,

are not exposed to (speaking) English outside the classroom which makes it difficult for

them to understand instructions in English. It is for this reason that mother tongue use or

Code Switching is being examined to see if it has effects on Grade 10 English medium

classrooms‟ learning. In cases where learners do not fully understand the medium of

instruction, the mother tongue should be used parallel with the target medium of

instruction until the learners have mastered the target medium of instruction. Mercer

(2002) suggests that where learners are not exposed to speaking English outside the

classroom, Code Switching can assist learners in the comprehension of new concepts or

terminologies. He concludes that the most important function of teachers during lesson

presentation is to help learners understand the specialized vocabulary of curriculum

14
subjects in a language that a learner understands, when teachers are helping learners

understand specialized vocabulary, this may at times lead to Code Switching.

1.3.2 Challenges for teachers

The issue of language is not restricted to learners only; but it is also a problem for

teachers. ELTDP (2000) reports that large numbers of Namibian teachers across all

phases are falling below an acceptable level of using English to convey the meaning of

language items and subject-related concepts. Wolfaardt (2001) and the ELTDP (2000)

are also in agreement that the English proficiency of Namibian teachers is so low that

they have to revert to using mother tongue to explain concepts to learners that are not

understood in English. The ELTDP (2000) further reports that due to poor elicitation

skills by Namibian teachers, they are likely to be unable to give the learners the needed

opportunity to use the English language to articulate the concepts they are learning.

Often the specialized vocabulary does not exist in the mother tongue or the teacher

himself or herself does not understand that specialized vocabulary.

Despite the views given above that Code Switching is at times used because of both

teachers and learners‟ poor language proficiency, it should be noted here that a person

who code switches demonstrates more linguistic creativity and sophistication than the

one who speaks only one language.

15
The use of Code Switching in the classroom reflects social reality. In real life Code

Switching is prevalent in most talks, therefore, if society outside the classrooms code

switched why should school regard the use of mother tongue unacceptable? Learners

learn to communicate with the community around them and English is just one of the

tools of communicating ideas just like any other language. Bennett and Dunne (2002)

argue that learners do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land

of the mind separated from the rest of their lives: they learn in relationship to what else

they know, what they believe, their prejudices and their fears. On reflection, it becomes

clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and social.

We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

According to Bennett and Dunne (2002), during classroom instruction, the emphasis

should not be on the language being used, but a language used as an instrument of

learning. Once the learner has developed new understanding he or she needs to reflect

and exchange ideas and views with other learners and the teacher in order to consolidate

his or her learning. Classroom talk, be it in the mother tongue, or English, or Code

Switching, indicates to the teacher the state of the learners‟ understanding..

It is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed

from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn.

Therefore, any effort to teach should be connected to the learner‟s previous knowledge

in order to provide a path into the new knowledge. Learners‟ mother tongue in the

16
English medium classroom should be used as a path to learning the target language. In

the case of Namibia, where government advocates for English, switching between

mother tongue and English should be used as a resource to aid the learning of the target

language.

1.4.The proposed matrix-embedded model for Namibian schools

The ultimate aim of many countries, Namibia included, that advocate second language

as the medium of instruction in schools is to see learners being proficient in the target

language at the end of their schooling. In agreement with the above view, the MEC

(1991, p. 1) states that “…schools will be expected to play their role in the

popularization of English as the official language”. It is further indicated in the

language policy that “…education should enable learners to acquire reasonable

competency in the official language” (Swarts as cited in Trewby and Fitchat, 2000, p.

39).

Schools have a duty towards fulfilling of government policies and objectives. However,

schools are also there to serve the communication needs of learners in the classrooms.

Therefore, schools should seek ways that best address the needs of their learners. It is

for this reason that this researcher proposed the matrix-embedded model, a type of Code

Switching. According to Myers-Scotton (1993), in this model, one of the languages

involved in Code Switching plays a dominant role. This language is labelled the Matrix

Language (ML), and sets the morpho-syntactic frame while there are insertions from the

17
other language, labelled the Embedded Language (EL). In this study, the idea is that

English is the matrix language while the mother tongue is the embedded language.

1.5.Theoretical framework of the study

A theoretical framework forms the basis of any investigation, as it provides the

researcher with a path to follow. The constructivism theory underpinned this study. The

essence of the constructivism theory concerns self-realization through social

participation and the principles of learning by doing (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988). In

other words, this approach is concerned with engaging learners in conversations so that

they can effectively participate in their own learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988). The

central principle of the constructivism theory is that learners can only make sense of new

situations in terms of their existing knowledge and experiences. Learning involves an

active process in which learners construct meaning by linking new ideas with their

existing knowledge and language forms the basis and foundation of any knowledge.

For learners to be able to participate constructively in the English medium classroom,

they must be proficient in the target language, if English proficiency has not been fully

developed, learners should be allowed to code switch. According to Cummins (1981),

for one to be able to use a second language as the medium of learning, he or she must

have achieved Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency [CALP] status in his or her

first language. For the learner to achieve CALP status in the second language, it requires

5 - 7 years of adequate exposure (Cummins, 1981). Cummins argues that even if

18
learners have developed their literacy abilities, it does not warrant that they have

developed their Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), as literacy is learned

at schools to write tests. Therefore, language proficiency must precede language literacy.

Kilfoil and van der Walt (1997) argue that Code Switching should be allowed since

effective communication in a variety of contexts for a variety of purposes is more

important than accurate „standard‟ English. One of the goals of the Namibian education

system is democratic participation; democratic participation entails teacher sharing of

power with learners and supporting them in managing their own learning. For

democratic learning to take place, learners should be able to participate in their own

learning. If the target medium of instruction is not fully developed, there is a definite

need to code switch between the languages in which learners feel more comfortable.

One of the major functions of language that should concern teachers is its use for

learning, for putting new ideas into words, for exposing one‟s thinking to other people,

for fitting together new ideas with old ones. These functions of language suggest their

active use by learners, as opposed to passive reception (Bennett and Dunne, 2002).

Therefore, learners should participate in their own learning process in the language they

feel most comfortable using, thus Code Switching is advocated for.

19
1.6. Statement of the problem

The use of English as the medium of instruction in schools implies that all learning and

teaching should be conducted solely in English. Jansen (1995) states that the

introduction of English in Namibian schools as the sole medium of instruction from

Grades 4 to 12 has been blamed for the poor performance of learners in examinations in

all subjects. This seems to have legitimized the outcry that the high failure rate of

learners in school subjects in Namibia is due to the use of English as the sole medium of

instruction after Grade 4.

1.7.The research questions

The following research questions were addressed:

1.7.1. What are ESL teachers‟ perceptions of the use of Code Switching in their

classrooms?

1.7.2. Do ESL teachers perceive Code Switching as having effects on the learning of
the target (English Second Language) language?

1.7.3. To what extent do ESL teachers think Code Switching has effects on learners‟

academic performance in English Second Language classrooms?

1.7.3. How do ESL teachers‟ perceive learners‟ level of participation in ELS classroom

where Code Switching is allowed compared with classrooms where it is not

allowed?

1.7.5. What are ESL teachers‟ perceived barriers to Code Switching in the ESL

classrooms?

20
1.7.6. What are the implications of Code Switching in Namibian ESL classrooms?

1.7.7. The use of the matrix-embedded model

1.8.Research assumptions

The assumption the researcher made was that if Code Switching was allowed and

implemented accordingly in Grade 10 English Second Language classrooms teaching

and learning will improve significantly because learning involves engagement in a

language one is conversant in.

1.9.Significance of the study

According to the EMIS report of 2007, the Caprivi Education Region ranked 13th in

terms of the Grade 10 examination pass rate in 2007. Since the introduction of the

Cambridge Examination in 1994, learners from this region have been performing poorly

(see Table 2). The researcher deemed it fit to ascertain the effects of English only on

learners‟ classroom participation in the Caprivi Region in particular, where this study

was undertaken.

This study is significant in the sense that there has been very little research carried out at

national level in Namibia in general, and the Caprivi Education Region, in particular, to

investigate the effects of Code Switching in Grade 10 English Second Language

classrooms for example Wolfaardt (2001) and Simasiku, (2006). It is hoped that the

findings of this study might help teachers realize the importance of Code Switching in

21
the mastery of content through English, thereby helping learners master the content

subjects through the use of their mother tongue and English. It is also hoped that the

findings of this study might inform policy makers about the benefits of having a Code

Switching policy, and accepting its advantages in teaching and learning. Furthermore,

this study might help improve instruction and learning in a way that might help learners

do well in their Grade 10 end of year Examinations and improve participation in the

classroom. It is also hoped that both teachers and stakeholders might understand that the

use of Code Switching in the English classroom does not reduce learners‟ exposure to

English, but rather assists in the teaching and the learning process.

1.10. Limitations of the study

Due to the vastness of the country, financial and time factors, access to all the schools in

the region was difficult; therefore, only 12 schools were considered for this study.

Furthermore, the researcher realized that the possibility existed that some teachers might

have withheld information useful to this study; teachers often feel threatened by

anybody observing them or asking them questions thinking that such information might

be used against them.

The presence of the researcher in the classroom might have created unease among

learners thus affecting the outcomes of the research. To reduce uncertainty that might

have arisen due to the presence of the researcher in the classrooms, the purpose of the

study was communicated to the participants before the data collection process began.

22
The results of this study can only be generalized to the sampled 12 schools in the

Caprivi Education Region.

The other limitation was the unavailability of printed and electronic literature related to

Code Switching in Namibia, more specifically on the matrix-embedded model; the

literature and related research focused mainly on events in other countries. Another

limitation is related to the use of observations and questionnaires in data collection.

Some questions were misunderstood by the teachers who provided answers which were

not useful to answering the research questions.

1.11. Delimitations

Only 12 schools that met the set criteria (schools that had a high pass rate in ESL and

Namibia National Languages, Silozi in particular and those that had low pass rate in the

said languages in the National examinations) were included in the study.

1.12. Definition of terms and concepts

This section provides the definitions of the terms and concepts that were used in this

study.

 Additional bilingualism: It refers to a gradual introduction of a second language

to supplement the first language. In this case, language is used for certain

functions, such as elicitation, exemplification, and many others (Baker, 1993).

23
 Code Switching: This refers to the alternative use of two languages, including

everything from the introduction of a single word up to a complete sentence or

more into the context of another language. Grosjean (1982) and Myers-Scotton

(1993) define Code Switching as the use of more than one code or language in a

conversation or speech act that could involve a word, a phrase, a sentence, or

several sentences.

 Embedded Language (EL): The „contributing‟ language (or languages) is

called the embedded language (EL). Ogechi (2002) defines the EL as that

language which contributes the inserted single words or phrasal elements onto

the matrix language – frame complementiliser.

 Matrix language (ML): The „base‟ language is called the matrix language

(ML). Ogechi (2002) defines the ML as the language that sets the grammar of the

sentence containing switches. The syntax of the Matrix Language is active in

Code Switching and it sets the frame of the switched projection of

complementiliser. The matrix language is the language that sets grammar and

syntax of a sentence (Myers-Scotton, 1993).

 Medium of instruction: This is a language that is used as an instrument through

which school subjects are taught and learned, and the medium in which

discussions in the classroom between the teacher and learners are conducted

(Fullan, 1991).

 Rural: the countryside, remote/isolated areas where modern technologies are

hard to come by.

24
  Semi-rural: These are areas which are not in towns or cities (Katima Mulilo) but

outside areas where some of the basic modern technologies are available.

 Subtractive bilingualism: This is a process where a second language gradually

replaces a first language in those domains in which initially the first language

was used (Baker, 1993).

 Urban: These are areas which are located within the town (Katima Mulilo).

1.13. Organisation of the study

The study comprises six chapters.

Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter provides the background and context of the

study. It addresses the purpose of the study and conceptualizes the problem within a

broader social background and theoretical framework. The research questions,

significance of the study and the limitations of the study are also discussed.

Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter reviews the literature on teachers‟ views

and practices regarding the use of Code Switching the world over and in Namibian

classrooms in particular. The chapter examines the extent to which Code Switching

enhances learners‟ academic performance, the implications of Code Switching in

Namibian classrooms, the perceived barriers to Code Switching practices in Namibian

classrooms, and the level of learners‟ participation in classes whose teachers code switch

compared with those whose teachers do not.

Chapter 3: Methodology. This chapter describes the methodological procedures used

to collect data from the respondents in this study. It describes the research design,

25
population, sample and sampling procedures, collection and analysis of data and ethical

considerations.

Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Interpretation and Discussion. This chapter focuses

on the presentation and interpretation of the data collected from the sampled teachers.

Chapter 5: Discussion of data. This chapter disassembles and reassembles data that

has been presented in Chapter 4. Data were sorted and sifted for themes and categories.

The aim of this process was to assemble or reconstruct the data in a meaningful or

comprehensive fashion (Jorgensen, 1989).

Chapter 6: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations. This chapter summarizes

the study and provides conclusions and recommendations emanating from the study.

Suggestions for further research are also made in this chapter.

1.14. Summary

Chapter 1 highlighted the background regarding the Namibian education system and the

impact of the new language policy for schools on school instruction and assessment. A

brief history of the medium of instruction before Independence and what necessitated

the change to the current medium of instruction in schools were presented. Furthermore,

the issue of low scores in examinations because of English as medium of instruction was

also described, citing different sources. The issue of mother tongue instruction and

Code Switching between mother tongue and English were discussed in this chapter.

Finally, the benefits of Code Switching between mother tongue and English language

were also suggested. The next chapter deals with the literature review.

26
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

For this study, Code Switching is used to refer to word switch, sentence switch in a

speech or sentence. It also refers to the ability to switch languages or dialects quickly

from one conversation to the next depending on the situation or conversation partner.

According to Grosjean (1997) Code Switching refers to people who speak more than one

language.

Research in the area of Code Switching has focused on different aspects, such as the role

of Code Switching in young children developing bilingualism (Fantini, 1985; Genishi,

1981; Huerta, 1980), the social functions of Code Switching (McClure & Wemz, 1975;

Poplack, 1981), the patterns of Code Switching in the home among adults (Huerta,

1978), to mention but a few.

Studies on Code Switching conducted in Namibia include an investigation of the

language policy in Namibian schools by Wolfaardt (2001), the use of English as a

medium of instruction in Namibian schools by Simasiku (2006) and the simultaneous

use of more than one language in the classroom in the Khomas Education Region by

Mouton (2007). The findings of the above studies were used when formulating these

study‟s research questions as stated in Chapter 1.

27
On the international front, studies that have dealt extensively with Code Switching

include, among others, Aguirre (1988), Hudelson (1983) and Olmedo-Williams (1983).

These studies have explored Code Switching in the classroom and have found it to be an

effective teaching, learning, and communicating strategy which can be used among

bilingual learners. The findings by Aguirre (1988), Hudelson (1983) and Olmedo-

Williams (1983) formed the basis of this study since they claimed that Code Switching

in the classroom was an effective teaching, learning and communicative strategy among

bilinguals. This study sought to find out from Grade 10 ESL teachers in the Caprivi

Region if claims about the effects of Code Switching in medium classrooms were also

shared by them. It was not the aim of this study to negate the influence of other factors

such as poverty and resources, etc., but to determine whether there was evidence to

support theories on Code Switching, thereby linking poor academic performance to

theories regarding Code Switching and learning.

Table 1 shows the average examination percentage obtained by Grade 10 learners in two

languages that are Silozi First Language and ESL over the past four years (2007 to 2010)

in the twelve sampled schools. Table 1 also presents the distributions of the two

languages used in the Caprivi Education Region both as subjects and the medium of

instruction in Junior Secondary Phase. The average pass rate for Silozi First Language

for the four consecutive years ranged from 60 to 67%, while the average pass rate for

ESL ranged from 49 to 55%.

28
 Table 1: The distribution of percentage for Silozi and ESL (2007 -2010
Examinations results)
Silozi First Language ESL

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 Av 2007 2008 2009 2010 Av

Schools
School 1 63.3 68.2 67.3 66.8 66.4 47.6 58.3 59.5 53.2 54.7
School 2 71.0 71.8 63.7 67.9 68.6 51.0 48.6 52.8 48.5 50.2
School 3 63.9 67.6 56.5 69.0 64.3 42.6 45.9 48.1 43.8 45.1
School 4 63.9 66.7 62.9 66.8 65.1 47.5 43.6 46.2 53.2 47.6
School 5 64.4 69.8 63.1 67.9 66.3 45.6 44.9 55.2 48.5 48.6
School 6 70.1 66.8 57.4 65.0 64.8 55.9 51.8 53.9 56.7 54.6
School 7 65.8 63.6 65.9 62.9 64.6 44.1 59.3 74.8 65.3 60.9
School 8 69.1 67.7 64.9 68.9 67.7 65.3 54.6 60.4 64.8 61.3
School 9 76.0 70.7 66.9 68.0 70.4 56.8 49.8 60.7 54.5 55.5
School 10 61.7 66.6 54.5 61.1 61.0 40.7 41.5 40.7 46.0 42.2
School 11 66.8 66.5 62.0 68.6 66.0 37.4 49.5 53.9 51.0 48.0
School 12 65.0 66.7 58.6 65.6 64.0 48.6 48.8 49.2 50.3 49.2
Average 67.0 67.2 61.8 66.1 65.5 49.1 49.3 55.0 54.5 52.0

Jansen (1995) states that with the introduction of English as the medium of instruction in

schools, he foresees English competency as a barrier to effective communication for

both teachers and learners not only in English classes but across the teaching spectrum.

Jansen‟s predictions seem to have been realized in both English and content subjects

(see Table 2).

Table 2 presents the distribution of the six content subjects per sampled school taught

through the medium of English from 2007 to 2010. The averages at the sampled schools

ranged from: Agricultural Science 44 – 52.8%, Life Science; 39.8 - 43.7%, Mathematics

28.2 – 37.6%, Geography 41.0 – 49.2%; History 47.6 – 51.0%; and Business

Management/ Entrepreneurship 42.0 – 49.9%. These low averages in content subjects

29
 Year 2007 2008 2009 2010
Subject A LF M G H MB A LF M G H BM A LF M G H E A LF M G H E Av
Schools
1 N/A 43.3 31.4 48.4 43.5 54.4 N/A 48.2 43.3 48.7 52.5 61.5 N/A 47.3 44.5 46.7 52.1 72.0 N/A 50.0 32.8 44.8 55.5 42.8 48.2
2 43.6 32 20.6 46.3 47.8 52.4 49 36.2 34.5 54.2 47.5 52.3 45 38.6 35.9 40.2 52.8 59.8 48.4 37.1 32.4 41.9 57.1 54.4 44.2
3 40 48.3 16.3 38.9 35.7 45.2 43.9 39.1 32.5 45.4 42 39.2 41.8 35 24.6 37.5 51.2 38.5 51 46 31.3 49.1 52.6 41.8 40.3
4 56.3 49.7 26.1 56.8 58.8 43.1 48.9 41.3 21.1 49 47.7 38.5 55.8 43.4 33.1 34.7 47.2 36.9 61 40.6 24.8 41.4 48.6 47.9 43.9
problem to many learners.

5 39.7 41.2 22.1 39.2 40.9 43.3 45.7 37.2 26.8 41.2 43.9 35.8 39.4 34.1 25.6 33.7 40.7 44.9 47.8 46.1 28.4 47.6 52.9 46.3 39.4
6 53.3 52.6 29.1 57.4 62.4 52.9 55.6 45.8 45.2 62.1 54 54.7 55.2 46.1 33.2 46.6 48.5 54.9 61.1 43.3 25.9 53 61.8 52.6 50.3
7 N/A 43.5 34.1 52.6 59.8 55.4 N/A 36.8 57.6 56 54.1 54.1 N/A 42.1 60 49 58.5 53.6 N/A 35.8 32 44.1 50 29.5 47.9
8 49.2 50.8 62.4 58 47.2 50.9 56.1 45.5 62 52.3 54.4 56.1 51.8 50 53.9 52.6 57.5 44.4 48.6 46.1 58.5 52.8 52.6 42.9 52.4
9 45.9 45.1 29.6 44 67.4 43 41.9 36 31.8 44 49.9 37.7 39.1 41.4 27.4 48.8 65.5 47.3 45 35.7 24.8 42.8 46.3 39.9 42.5

30
10 42.6 44.8 20.7 43.3 48.6 53.9 47.6 43.6 30.7 45.2 41 44.5 52.3 42.8 25.2 32.7 35.5 47.8 64.7 47.9 31.9 41.9 46.8 35.7 42.2
11 40.5 35.5 22.2 40.6 33.8 43.7 46 33.8 36.1 44 33.6 49.4 48 39.6 32.2 33.9 37.1 63.3 53.8 45.8 25.4 41.6 46.2 47.9 40.6
12 38.3 37.8 24.1 46.5 42.9 46.7 40.8 33.5 29 47.9 50.3 38.4 35.8 31.6 26.3 35.7 42.3 35.7 46.9 46 27.2 55 41.1 30.6 38.8

AVERAGE 45 44 28.2 47.7 49.1 49 48 39.8 38 49 48 47 46 41 35 41 49 50 53 43 31 46 51 43 44.2

Key for Subjects Key for Schools

A Agricultural Science 1 Sampled School # 1 7 Sampled School # 7
LF Life Science 2 Sampled School # 2 8 Sampled School # 8
M Mathematics 3 Sampled School # 3 9 Sampled School # 9
G Geography 4 Sampled School # 4 10 Sampled School # 10
Table 2: The distribution of percentages of the six (6) content subjects (2007-2010)
where English is medium of instruction could be signalling that the use of English is a

H History 5 Sampled School # 5 11 Sampled School # 11

BM Business Management 6 Sampled School # 6 12 Sampled School # 12
E Entrepreneuship repalced Business Mangement as from 2009
(Information taken from the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture, Directorate
National Examinations and Assessment, 2007, 2008, 2009 & 2010)

All six subjects displayed in Table 2 are taught through the medium of English and the

low averages seem to indicate that the medium of instruction could be a contributory

barrier to better performance in examinations since they are written in English, the

medium of instruction. Since the introduction of the new language policy in 1992, very

little has been done to investigate the impact of Code Switching in the Namibian

classrooms. It is against the low academic achievement of learners in examinations that

this study investigated the Grade 10 English Second Language teachers‟ perceptions

about the effects of Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms in the

Caprivi Education Region and the extent of the use of Code Switching in English

Second Language classrooms.

Tables 1 and 2 provided comparative information on the performance of Grade 10

learners in the Caprivi region in Silozi as a First Language, English Second Language,

and content subjects. That comparative information clearly indicated that in the twelve

schools in the study sample, the year-on-year average score over four years (2007 –

2010) for Silozi First Language, at 66%, was considerably higher than the average

scores for both English Second Language and content subjects, which are 52% and 45%

respectively. With this variable performance as a backdrop, this chapter considered

whether or not the use of Code Switching as a teaching and learning strategy has an

31
effect on learning achievement in both Grade 10 ESL and English language medium

classrooms. The review focused on the following aspects:

1. Historical and political imperatives that influenced the choice of English as a

medium of instruction in Namibia.

2. Code Switching as an effective teaching, learning, and communicating strategy

which can be used in the classroom.

3. Teachers‟ use of Code Switching in their teaching and its benefits to learners.

4. The effects of the use of English as a medium of instruction on learner achievement.

5. The effects of Code Switching on learning achievement.

6. The effects Code Switching on the English language proficiency of the learners.

2.2. The policy on medium of instruction in Namibia

In Namibia, just like in other countries, the issue of language of instruction is

increasingly taking prominence in educational debates in parliament or on other

platforms. According to Simasiku (2010), in 1994, 1995 and 2008, a motion on

Language Policy was tabled in the Namibian Parliament. In 2008, the motion was

referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Human Resources, Social and

Community Development for further consultations and the findings have not yet been

made public. The researcher is of the opinion that debate on the language policy will

continue to resurface in Parliament, as the issue has not been conclusively addressed.

32
Furthermore, it has become the tendency in many post-colonial countries to associate

colonial languages (e.g., English, French or Portuguese) with a high status, so much so

that if a person does not speak one of these languages, that person is not considered

educated. Robinson (1996), Granville, Janks, Joseph, Mphahlele‟s, Ramani, Reed, and

Watson (1998) maintain that colonial languages are perpetuating the existence of an elite

group; colonial languages are characterized by relatively high economic status, high

educational level and high competence in colonial languages. The language of the

former colonial masters, the medium through which education is rendered, is thus

recognized as an important vehicle for individual advancement in the society.

On the political front, it has been argued by Freire (1985) that colonial language is seen

as a neutral language because of the many indigenous languages spoken in the

previously colonized countries. Therefore, the choice of one indigenous language would

be seen to politically advantage one group over the others. However, on the educational

front, Freire (1985) has characterized the imposition of a foreign language as the

medium of studying other subjects as a violation of the structure of thinking. He argues

that such imposition of a medium of instruction in schools limits school achievement,

because it sets a low ceiling for what learners can learn in a language in which they are

not competent (Freire, 1985).

It must be noted here that language is at the heart of school learning, and if learners

cannot use it properly for the purpose of learning, it becomes a barrier to thinking, rather

33
than a channel for thinking. In addition, Phillipson (1992) argues that the continued use

of an imposed language as the medium of instruction is linguistic imperialism, a form of

cultural imperialism. He maintains that when learners are taught in a foreign language as

a medium of instruction, it downgrades the learners‟ own language and culture and

concludes that a language which is not used for education is undervalued.

According to Roy-Campbell (1995), the paradox here is that before African

Independence, although in most cases the colonizers‟ languages served as the languages

of power, there were cases where some of the local languages were appropriated by the

colonialists to assist them in their crusade to „civilize‟ Africans. A typical example of

this was the use of local languages in the conversion of colonized people to Christianity.

Roy-Campbell (1995) observes that converting Africans to Christianity was a key

strategy in the subjugation of Africans without overt physical coercion. Therefore, the

use of native languages in this crusade was deemed important because it was easier for

Africans to identify themselves with the new religion as their languages were used as a

medium of learning and they could also communicate without the Code Switching

strategy.

This thought can be translated to mean that if schools and schooling are to be

meaningful to learners, learners should be taught in a language or languages which they

can relate to. The point being made here is that policy makers and educators should be

aware that one‟s language is paramount in the learning and teaching process. Therefore,

34
choosing a specific language as a medium of instruction is something that must be given

very serious consideration.

Having looked at the arguments presented by both Freire (1985) and Phillipson (1992),

the researcher poses the question: should learners be taught in English or in their mother

tongue or in a combination of English and mother tongue (Code Switching)?

It appears that the best option would be to teach learners in any language(s) they can

easily be taught in, in terms of cognitive effectiveness. Teaching, and learning, should

be in a language which is less painful to them at that particular time. It is, therefore,

imperative that learners are engaged in pedagogical activities in a language which they

understand and speak well, which in most cases will be their mother tongue.

In response to the question of medium of instruction that has haunted many countries

and educational institutions in Africa in general, and Namibia in particular, UNESCO

attempted to give direction at a meeting held in Paris in 1951:

It is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is his mother tongue.

Psychologically, it is the system of meaningful signs that in his mind works

automatically for expression and understanding. Sociologically, it is a means of

identification among the members of the community to which he belongs.

35
 Educationally, he learns more quickly through it than through an unfamiliar

linguistic medium (UNESCO, 1953, p. 11).

In trying to subscribe to the UNESCO report of 1953, The Pilot Curriculum Guide for

Formal Basic Education (Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture, 1996, p. 22)

states that:

All learning in the early stages is best done in the mother tongue, and this

provides the best foundation for later learning in another language medium.

Therefore, whenever possible, the medium of instruction should be the mother

tongue/familiar local language. In schools with learners with different mother

tongues, efforts must be made to give teaching (sic) in the mother tongue

medium. Where there are enough learners, classes with each (sic) their own

mother tongue medium can be organized. Where it is not possible to offer

teaching through the medium of the mother tongue or familiar language, schools

must apply to the Regional Director for permission to use English as a medium.

However, the Pilot Curriculum Guide for Formal Basic Education as a policy document

falls short of being precise in giving direction; what it actually does is to suggest the best

option.

36
What Namibian policy makers in education should be made aware of is that when a

child enters the classroom, even though he or she has not fully mastered her/his mother

tongue, he or she has however created a bond with that language. Therefore, it is easy

for a learner to relate to the language which he or she already knows. This makes the

learning easier because the child does not need to learn two things at the same time, that

is, content and the language. Despite the clearly spelt out directives given in the

Namibian policy on language (MEC, 1991b), the Namibian government falls short of

implementing its own directives and has thus indirectly imposed English as the sole

medium of instruction in schools.

After having indicated that the child learns best in his or her mother tongue, UNESCO

(1953) is quick to mention that the linguistic and cultural diversities of some countries

pose a challenge when it comes to using the mother tongue as a medium of instruction.

UNESCO further acknowledges that:

The implication is that educationists and administrators, however well-armed

with theory and guiding principles, will always have to study the complex

historical, geographical, sociological, political, religious, cultural and linguistic

factors peculiar to a given community before attempting to formulate a suitable

language policy in education (UNESCO, 1953, p. 76).

37
The UNESCO report can be interpreted to mean that knowledge of theories of learning,

teaching and guiding principles alone are not sufficient to warrant the proper

implementation of a language policy; proper consideration of historical, geographical,

sociological, political, religious, cultural and linguistic factors are essential ingredients

in formulating a sound language policy for schools.

In line with UNESCO‟s proposed factors for consideration mentioned above, Simasiku

(2006) asserts that historical, political and linguistic factors should have guided the

Namibian Language Policy for schools to avoid learners and teachers Code Switching

and Code mixing as alternative ways to comprehend lesson contents. The Language

policy for independent Namibia was formulated by SWAPO during the liberation

struggle; the most important single document in this respect was Towards a Language

Policy for Namibia, published by the United Nations Institute for Namibia in 1981. The

most influential section of this book was chapter five, titled “The rationale for English as

the official language for independent Namibia”. This chapter set eight criteria that

should be met by an official language: (1) Unity (2) Acceptability (3) Familiarity (4)

Feasibility (5) Science and technology (6) Pan Africanism (7) Wider communication (8)

United Nations. On the basis of these criteria, it was stated that English should be the

official language of independence Namibia.

English as the sole medium of instruction in Namibian schools may hamper learning and

teaching. Teachers should be aware of this situation and allow the use of mother tongue

38
if learners fail to articulate their ideas in English. The use of mother tongue in the

English medium classrooms should be seen as complementary to the acquisition of both

content and English rather than an inhibitor to second language learning. Namibian

teachers should not be discouraged by their learners‟ use of mother tongue in content

subjects because mother tongue might create a conducive learning and teaching

environment. If learners feel that they are not allowed to use their mother tongue as the

need arises, they will revert to rote learning or being silent, a situation which no teacher

wants in his or her classroom. Learners should be allowed to use their mother tongue in

English classrooms as well; the functions of teachers in such a situation should be to

reshape their learners‟ first language expression and help them form bridges between the

known language into the new language.

When looking at the argument above, one would agree that the constructivism theory is

about constructing knowledge, not reproducing it; about thinking and analysing, not

about assimilating and memorizing; about understanding and applying, not merely

repeating and being active, not passive (Marlowe and Page, 2005). Therefore, the

constructivist theory teaches learners to discover their own answers and produce their

own concepts and interpretations (Marlowe and Page, 2005).

39
2.2.1. Historical and linguistic factors

Prah (2007, p. 9) gives a historical account of South Africa which, in essence, is similar

to that of Namibia, as Namibia was regarded as part of South Africa. He says “the idea

was to treat each Bantustan as a separate „nation‟ so that practically, the principle of an

African majority was obviated. In effect, although African language-speaking citizens

form three quarters of the South African population, their languages and cultures were

practically treated as those of insignificant minority”. Furthermore, Prah (2007) says

that specific African languages were restricted to territorial units in which they were

spoken and the concept of quasi-independence was developed. Homelands or

Bantustans regarded themselves as independent countries; therefore, they did not see a

need for a unifying language.

The concept of independent homelands best served the apartheid policy of fostering the

use of African languages, but without affording them the resources and encouragement

to develop them into languages of science and technology (Prah, 2007).

In Namibia, the complexity of the problem of language in education becomes apparent

when we consider the variety of languages and dialects found in the country. Seven

different dialects of Oshiwambo are spoken in Namibia: Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga,

Oshikolonkadhi, Oshimbalantu, Oshikwaluudhi, Oshingangera and Oshikwambi, but

only Oshikwanyama and Oshindonga have standard written forms and are taught as

school subjects. Other languages spoken in Namibia have been identified by Gordon

(2005) as follows: Afrikaans, Diriku, English, Fwe, Hai||om, Herero, Ju ‟hoansi, Kung-

40
Ekoka, Kwambi, Kwangali, =|Kx‟au||‟ein, Kxoe, Lozi, Mashi, Mbalanhu, Mbukushu,

Nama, Naro, Subiya, Totela, Tswana, Vasekela, Bushman (San),!Xóõ, Yeyi and Zemba.

Because of the many languages and dialects spoken in Namibia which language can be

used as medium of instruction is the problem. To choose one language over another

language might lead to tribal conflict which might result in civil war. Again not all

languages can be used as media of instruction because of the cost of producing

materials. Therefore, the best option is to use English while at the same time code

switch whenever a need arises.

2.2.2. Political factors

Amukugo (1993) argues that prior to independence the country was governed by South

Africa under the laws of that country. She further argues that the main features were

segregation of people along racial and ethnic lines and the preferential treatment of the

whites. Thus Afrikaans, a minority language, was used as the medium of instruction in

most schools, apart from the Caprivi Region where English was used as a medium of

instruction from Standard 3, now Grade 5, onwards.

2.2.3. The Constitution of Namibia

According to Chamberlain (1992), there are six factors that governments should

consider when formulating a language policy for a country, but for this study the

41
Constitution of the country was selected as it was applicable. The Constitution of a

country is supreme, and all laws and by-laws that govern a particular country should be

in line with its provisions. Therefore, the Namibian Language Policy should have been

guided by the Constitution of Namibia. However, the decision to use English as a

medium of instruction in Namibia was planned before the Constitution was drafted.

Legère, Trewby, and Van Graan (2000) note that Namibia was one of the rare countries

which, prior to independence, discussed in detail the pros and cons of various languages

for an official language and medium of instruction in an independent country.

Since the issue of the medium of instruction in Namibia was premeditated, the provision

of Article 3.2 of the Constitution, which states that “nothing contained in this

Constitution shall prohibit the use of any other language as a medium of instruction in

private schools or in schools financed or subsidized by the state, subject to compliance

with such requirements as may be imposed by law, to ensure proficiency in the official

language, or for pedagogical reasons” had to be ignored during the 1993 Language

Conference.

The Constitution does not prescribe that English should be the medium of instruction in

schools; however, as it has been already said this was premeditated and had to be

implemented as such. Harlech-Jones (as cited in Trewby and Fitchat, 2000, p. 29) points

out that Article 3.2 in the Namibian Constitution states that “any other language besides

English may be used as a medium of instruction…subject to compliance with the

42
requirements as may be imposed by law, to ensure proficiency in the official language,

or pedagogical reasons”. Harlech-Jones further maintains that the above clause should

have been the key to language policy formulation in education because according to

him, it means that there is no relationship that can be automatically inferred between the

official language and the medium of instruction.

2.2.4. The actual language situation of Namibia

Namibian languages can be linguistically divided into three groups, namely, the Bantu

languages, the Khoisan and Indo-European languages. In Namibia, the Bantu languages

are a large family including the Caprivi, Kavango, Owambo and Herero languages. The

Khoisan languages are spoken only in western and southern of Namibia. Tötemeyer

(2009) states that there are 14 written languages in Namibia with standardized

orthographies, and 16 oral languages for which no orthography exists. Tötemeyer

further claims that the use of local languages in schools is pedagogically not viable

because of the many languages spoken in Namibia and the underdevelopment of

Namibian National languages for concept expression in schools. However, such

arguments are only advanced because of little political will by those in authority to use

local languages as media of instruction in schools. It is true that African languages need

to be developed in order to express academic concepts and the processes of achieving

such language development are already known (Heugh & Siegrühn, 1995; Mwansoko,

1990; Wolff, 2006).

43
Before independence, each region used its own local language for administration and as

a medium of instruction in grades 1 through 4. This could not go well in a centrally

located government. Therefore, the new government looked for a language which could

create mobility between regions and would ensure easy communication between citizens

and the international world. Schemied (1991) notes that in Africa in general, and in

Namibia in particular, the process of nation building was crucial; therefore, the selection

of any Namibian language could have been ideal. However, the selection of a Namibian

language as a medium of instruction or official language could have threatened the unity

of the state, because Namibian citizens do not share a common Namibian language as a

mother tongue. For that reason English was seen as a politically neutral language.

The idea of English being the official language and the medium of instruction has been

contested by Donaldson (2000), who asserts that Afrikaans should have been accorded

the status of official language and medium of instruction in schools because it is the

lingua franca of many Namibians and a mother tongue to tens of thousands of

Namibians, most of them non-whites. Legère, Trewby, and Van Graan (2000), are in

agreement with Donaldson (2000), maintaining that Afrikaans is estimated to be

understood by 70% of Namibians. This, according to Legère, Trewby, and Van Graan

makes Afrikaans an ideal medium of instruction and official language.

Prah (2007) notes that it is naïve to think that when educated through Afrikaans one

cannot operate at an international level. He argues that “the Afrikaans-speaking and

44
Afrikaans-educated Dr. Chris Barnard accomplished his epoch-making heart transplants,

the significance that Afrikaans had become a language of science and technology, equal

to any other in the world….” (p. 10).

According to Donaldson (2000), Afrikaans is still being used in many places in Namibia

and still enjoys the status of being the lingua franca in Central, Southern, Western and

Eastern Namibia. Therefore, the current status that Afrikaans enjoys in the country

makes it the ideal language of instruction, as long as English language teaching is

strengthened. Afrikaans in Namibia is regarded as one of the indigenous languages;

therefore, the use of an indigenous language would have been ideal, even though it

might have benefited some and disadvantaged other Namibians. In addition, Prah

(2007) maintains that Afrikaans had by the mid-seventies developed into a fully-fledged

language of science and technology. Therefore, if the Constitution allows the use of

other languages as media of instruction, it is legal to code switch in English medium

classrooms.

2.2.5. The government policy and objectives on language

The new government had to act fast in ensuring unity of purpose and sever the

furtherance of Afrikaans as the official language for an independent Namibia. The

SWAPO government had an agenda for an independent Namibia; its election into power

meant the implementation of that agenda. On this agenda was the language policy,

45
which was articulated in SWAPO‟s election manifesto of 1989. To appease its

electorate, SWAPO had to implement its election manifesto, including the

implementation of the new language policy (Tötemeyer, 1978, cited in Donaldson,

2000). The replacement of Afrikaans by English as a medium of instruction was due to

a decline in the popularity of Afrikaans in Owamboland, SWAPO‟s political base. The

rejection of Afrikaans was clearly articulated by Tötemeyer (as cited in Donaldson

2000), who at that time said Afrikaans has begun to decline in acceptability among the

modernizing elites because of opposition to the South African government. The

tendency is to replace it with English, no matter how imperfectly used and possible use

of Code Switching as a way of survival by those who cannot manage to communicate

solely in the English language.

The decline in the popularity of Afrikaans in the SWAPO base spelt the death of

Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in schools; however, Afrikaans enjoyed popularity

in the South, Central and East of Namibia (Tötemeyer as cited in Donaldson, 2000). It

must be noted here that language in a multilingual country like Namibia is complex, as it

requires concerted efforts from all citizens to agree on the medium of instruction.

To consolidate its political agenda mentioned in the language policy proposal earlier, ten

years later at the Etosha Conference in 1999, the then Minister of Education, Nahas

Angula, reiterated that “the isolationist position has deprived the country of meaningful

interaction with the outside world … the isolation has been further reinforced by

46
communication problems and that Afrikaans, which was widely used for business and

government, is not an international language” (MBESC, 1999, p. 10).

As can be seen from the then minister‟s statement, for SWAPO, the linguistic and

communication isolation of Namibia from the rest of the world topped its political

agenda. Therefore, the introduction of English as the sole medium of instruction in

schools over-shadowed any negative repercussions it would bring educationally such as

learners and teachers Code Switching and code mixing in class.

Other people have defended the Namibian Language Policy. For example, Swarts (as

cited in Trewby & Fitchat, 2000, p. 39) says that it subscribes to certain important

principles which were highlighted by UNESCO, among which the following are:

 Primary education should enable learners to acquire reasonable competence in

the official language.

 Education should promote the language and cultural identity of learners by using

their home language as the medium of instruction in at least Grade 1 to 3, and by

teaching it throughout the years of formal education, and

 Ideally, schools should offer at least two languages as subjects in order to

promote and foster bilingualism.

47
The Language Policy for Namibian schools (MBESC, 2003, p.14) also reinforces other

government policy documents and states that:

 Grades 1-3 will be taught through the mother tongue or a predominant local

language.

 Grade 4 will be a transitional year when the change to English as a medium of

instruction must take place.

 In Grades 5-7 English will be the medium of instruction.

 Grades 8-12 will be taught through the medium of English and the mother tongue

will continue to be taught as a subject.

Namibia has also followed the trend common in Sub-Saharan Africa where there is a

strong belief that first language medium of instruction in Grades 1 to 3 should be

instituted and Grade 4 upward there should be a switch to English as the medium of

instruction. According to Clegg (2007, p. 5), this has shown some advantages, such as:

 It provides a connection to their community and culture.

 It provides cognitive and literacy foundations for education as a whole.

 It is an essential foundation for education in a second language, especially for

children with low socio-economic status, for whom it has an important

compensatory value.

 It is an essential foundation for second language learning.

48
However, Clegg (2007) is quick to mention that early-years of education in the first

language, without continuing first language medium of instruction in cognitively

demanding subjects is unlikely to raise school achievement. In Namibia, first languages

are used as media of instruction and learning in Grades 1 to 3. Grade 4 is a transitional

grade where some subjects are learnt and taught through mother tongue and others

through English. Thereafter, learners „exit‟ the first language medium of instruction

programme, and English becomes the sole medium of instruction and learning. This type

of instruction, where learners are taught through the first language for 2-3 years and then

switch to English, is known as an „early exit‟ bilingual programme. It is thought by

Ovando and Collier (1998) that the early-exit bilingual programme does not support

learners sufficiently to cope in content subjects and achieve academic proficiency.

According to Ovando and Collier (1998), research has shown that early-exit bilingual

programmes do not provide learners with enough time to learn the second language to a

level of academic proficiency (Ovando & Collier, 1998). On top of missing years of

valuable, high quality instruction that English-speakers receive, English language

learners (ELLs) do not reach functional levels of proficiency under early-exit bilingual

education programmes. This is partly because “there is a serious lack of continuity

between the English taught as a subject in the junior primary and the demand of English

medium of instruction teaching in the upper primary schools” (Langhan, as cited in

MEC, 1993, p. 134). Langhan further notes that the amount of English teaching and its

quality is not adequate to prepare learners to cope with the sudden shift to English

medium, forcing them to code switch most of the time. This is echoed by McDonald and

49
Burroughs (1991), who note that the shift occurs when learners do not have adequate

proficiency in English to meet the requirements of using it as the medium of instruction.

According to McDonald and Burroughs (1991), learners may have acquired a

vocabulary of only up to 800 words in English by the end of junior primary through the

learning of English as a subject, when they in fact require 5 000 words in English for

understanding the work required for upper primary phase.

The first language medium of instruction in the Namibian education system fails

because of its „early exit‟ without the continuation of instruction in the first language in

cognitively demanding subjects. The discussion document on the Language Policy for

Schools, MBESC (2003) states that in the upper primary phase the mother tongue may

only be used in a supportive role and should continue to be taught as a subject. The use

of the mother tongue in a supporting role is also insufficiently effective in terms of

academic achievement compared to the late-exit model.

How can the linguistic „stunting‟ brought about by an early exit bilingual model, such as

the one followed by Namibia, be alleviated? It is thought by Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey

(1991) that late-exit bilingual programmes may provide learners with instruction in their

mother tongue to facilitate understanding but with the goal of eventually mainstreaming

learners in English speaking classrooms. Late-exit programs differ from early-exit

programs "primarily in the amount and duration that English is used for instruction as

well as the length of time students are to participate in each program" (Ramirez, Yuen,

50
& Ramey, 1991). Students remain in late-exit programs throughout elementary school

and continue to receive 40% or more of their instruction in their first language, even

when they have been reclassified as fluent-English-proficient. For example, during

kindergarten less than 10% of instruction is provided in English. This percentage

gradually increases to 60% of instruction in English by fourth grade (Cazden, 1992). In

studying late exit bilingual programmes, Cazden (1992), found that after fourth grade,

programmes begin to vary as some increase abruptly to more than 90% English

instruction in fifth and sixth grades while others continue with gradual increases

reaching only 75% English instruction even in seventh grade.

While late-exit bilingual programmes, like two-way immersion programmes, do not

provide any benefits to mother tongue English speakers. They do appear to be

successful in providing quality education for non-mother English speakers (Cazden,

1992). Learners who received late-exit bilingual education tended to show growth in

Mathematics, English Language and reading skills that was equivalent to or more

accelerated than the control population (Cazden, 1992). This growth continues at least

through the sixth grade when late-exit instruction remains true to the gradual model and

appears to enable learners to make gains of the general, English speaking population

(Cazden, 1992).

Despite research pointing to the benefits of late exit bilingual programmes, as opposed

to the disadvantages of early exit bilingual models, the Namibian government, like other

51
African governments, thinks that instruction through the mother tongue in the first three

years of schooling is sufficient to acquire Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills to

shift into a second language as medium of instruction and learning (McDonald and

Burroughs, 1991). This shows that this is not the case, as research suggests early exit

programmes fall short of fulfilling the pedagogical aspects of a second language as

medium of instruction in many aspects (McDonald and Burroughs, 1991).

However, in a country like Namibia, where language was used as a political tool of

oppression, suppression and division, advocacy for using mother tongue or first

language instruction is fraught with difficulties. For example, Harlech-Jones (1998)

notes that in Namibia, those who advocate the use of local languages as media of

instruction in schools are viewed with suspicion by those in power, because of the key

role languages played in apartheid policies. In agreement with Harlech-Jones, Angula

(1999) says that before Independence, language was deliberately used as a way of

dividing the population into language groups, which would not be able to cohere and

oppose the policies of apartheid South Africa.

However, with the introduction of English as a medium of instruction, teachers

“adopted” a teaching style where they blended English and the mother tongue. This

teaching style had its problems as it was not supported by a policy. According to

Mouton (2007), in the absence of a policy on Code Switching, adoption fallacy becomes

the order of the day as there are no guidelines on how Code Switching could be

52
implemented to the benefit of the learners. Furthermore, in the absence of such a policy,

Namibian teachers often ignored the use of the mother tongue as a medium of

instruction in lower grades claiming that they do not want to advance the apartheid

policy in an independent Namibia, as witnessed in many urban schools .

However, Trewby (1998 in MBESC, 1998) argues that it is very difficult to assess the

extent to which English is used in Namibian schools, because whenever an official from

the Ministry of Education visits schools, teachers feel compelled to use English. Once

the official has left, teachers start using the vernacular again. It is also highlighted by

England and Lawrence (1996) that teachers in Ondangwa use their mother tongue in

their classes because of their low proficiency in English, the medium of instruction. In

another similar study conducted in Namibia it is claimed that 85% of Namibian teachers

are not able to teach effectively through the medium of English (Kotze, 1994).

It must be noted here that teachers have a responsibility for guiding the learners‟ use of

language as a social mode of thinking, and to express their understanding in the

appropriate language, genre or discourse (Mercer, 2002). Mercer (2002) concludes that

the policy and practices in schools are often influenced by political imperatives and

allegiances, as well as ideas about the supposed cognitive and social effects on learners.

Additionally, Haacke (1996) argues that in most cases a country‟s official language

policy can become an important political instrument for social engineering, be it to

53
pacify minorities and avoid language conflict, to secure the predominant role of the

language of the ruling elite, to neutralize or eliminate certain languages, or to unite or

divide people within a country. He contends that a language policy and its formulation

are more of a political matter than a linguistic issue (Haacke, 1996).

Paulson (1988, p. 2) maintains that it is not unusual for a language policy to be

politically influenced as “language policy decisions are primarily made on political and

economic grounds, reflecting the values of those in power”. This expression is also

shared by Jansen (1995, p. 248) who claims, “…the school‟s curriculum is not simply a

technical document…it is, fundamentally, a political document which reflects the

struggle of opposing groups to have their values, their interests, history and politics

dominate the school curriculum”. The language policy for an independent Namibia

could be said to be focused more on the political and economic front than on the

educational front.

The National Institute for Educational Development (1998) also reported that teachers in

Ondangwa and Oshakati used their home language rather than English in content

subjects in their classes to assist learners in understanding difficult concepts. In the

above-mentioned study, the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction is

portrayed as a hindrance to learning rather than an aid to teaching and learning.

54
Langhan (1992 in MEC, 1992) concludes that since teachers are expected to teach

through the language that learners do not fully understand, flexibility in the

implementation of the language policy should promote implementation rather than the

enforcement of a severe prohibition policy on the use of local languages in certain

situations. Code Switching is likely to flourish in such conditions. It is with this

background that this study intends to find out the effects of code switching may pose.

2.3. Code Switching

According to Grosjean (1997),

people who speak more than one language find themselves in their everyday

lives at various points along a situational continuum that induces different

language modes. At one end of the continuum, bilinguals are in the totally

monolingual language mode, in that they are interacting with monolinguals of

one-or the other-of the languages they know. At the other end of the continuum,

bilinguals find themselves in a bilingual language mode, in that they are

communicating with bilinguals who share their two (or more) languages and with

whom they normally mix languages (for example, code-switch and borrow).

These are the endpoints, but bilinguals also find themselves at intermediary

points, depending on such factors as who the interlocutors are, the topic of

conversation, the setting, the reasons for exchange, and so forth (p. 227),.

55
For example, a child who has a Ndebele mother and a Cisubia-speaking father may

speak only Ndebele with the mother and only Cisubia with the father even though they

all speak both languages and are all participating in the same conversation. There are a

number of ways that Code Switching can occur in a conversation. It can happen from

one sentence to the next, within a sentence from phrase to phrase, or one word at a time.

Intersentential switching is switching from one language to another for whole sentences

at a time. For example, if you‟re telling a story in language A about something that was

said in language B, you might quote someone in language B because they were speaking

in that language. For example; „My mother hugged me and whispered, “Cuìdate, mi

hija.”‟ (Take care of yourself, my daughter.)

(http://iniciacionlr.wordpress.com/actividades-en-linea/actividad-12/)

According to Mouton (2007), Code Switching is depicted as a hindrance to learning and

teaching because there are no guidelines in the Language Policy on how Code Switching

should be used in the classrooms. In the absence of guidelines, it is assumed that Code

Switching may negatively prevent learners from developing language proficiency in

English, the target language. It is for this reason that Mouton (2007) suggests that there

is an urgent need for the Ministry of Education to formulate a workable policy that is

based on providing guidelines for the use of Code Switching in classrooms. If such a

policy is developed, teachers will be required to use certain educational ground rules or

conventions for using Code Switching in the classroom.

56
Intrasentential Code Switching might also be used to emphasize a particular sentence, or

to more accurately convey meaning when sufficient words or idioms do not exist in the

other language. Intrasentential switching is switching languages in the middle of a

sentence. This can mean changing languages for a phrase or for just one word (which is

also called “tag-switching” for example, Spanish and English).

“Yo comprè los groceries para la cena”. (I bought the groceries for dinner.)

“I like you porque eres muy amable”. (I like you because you are very nice.)

(http://iniciacionlr.wordpress.com/actividades-en-linea/actividad-12/).

The term Code Switching originally referred only to a linguistic phenomenon among

multilingual conversationalists, the reality is that almost everyone engages in Code

Switching every day. We all deal with different kinds of people with whom we have

different levels of relationships in different contexts all the time, and we are all

constantly switching from one register (level of formality) to another. For example, with

the boss, we use one kind of English, with our friends, another, and with our children,

another still. Although we are using the same language, higher and lower registers

employ different idioms, a greater or lesser amount of slang, varied spelling and

pronunciation, and even different syntax. Thus, an email to our best friend would look

very different from a cover letter to a potential employer.

When young children learn multiple languages simultaneously, they also learn to

compartmentalize them so that they use the appropriate language with the person they

talk to. That is why a bilingual child (whose mother is Ndebele and father is Musubia)

57
will speak his/her mother‟s native language to her and his/her father‟s native language to

him. As native speakers of a language, we do the same thing with different levels of

formality. We know what is appropriate to write in a personal e-mail versus what is

appropriate in a doctoral dissertation. We probably learned these things in school

through basic reinforcement and punishment. When we used the correct tone on a paper,

we got a good grade. When we used the kind of grammar in writing that is used in

everyday speaking, the paper was returned with all kinds of corrections. In this way, we

learned a type of Code Switching.

Other types of writing and speaking have always been taught more directly. For

example; business letters, poetry and research papers each have their own correct format

that must be followed. However, some schools are now beginning to teach different

registers and the appropriate times to use them more directly as well through

comparative analysis. Students practice “translating” from informal to formal speech –

from slang to academic English – and vice versa.

Teachers make poster charts comparing how various phrases are formally and informally

said. Test scores are improving as students learn not what is “right” and “wrong,” but

what is appropriate in a given situation. It may not be what linguists had in mind when

they coined the term Code Switching, but as we‟ve learned more about dialects and

thought more about registers, it‟s becoming apparent that switching between them is

very similar to switching between languages.

58
2.4. Teachers’ views on Code Switching in the classroom

In this section research findings on the views of teachers are examined to gauge how

they feel about the use of Code Switching in the classroom and its effects on learning

and teaching. The teachers‟ views are paramount as teachers are the implementers of

the language policy in the classroom. A person‟s view shapes his or her educational

practices, and provides a basis on which he or she bases assumption about the learners,

learning, teaching and schooling (Wright, 1996). If this person‟s view is not taken into

consideration he or she may feel threatened and may resist change. As Wright notes:

… Views… are like the foundations of a house: vital but invisible. They are that

through which, not at which a society or individual normally looks; they form the

grid according to which humans organize reality, not bits of reality that offer

themselves for the organization. They are not usually called to consciousness or

discussion unless they are challenged or flouted fairly explicit, and when this

happens it is usually felt to be an event of worryingly large significance (p.125).

What many policy makers forget is that no matter how good or bad the curriculum is,

what happens in the classroom depends on the teacher. Therefore, teachers should be

part of any system that advocates change in instruction and instructional materials. If

teachers feel that their views are not considered, they will not implement changes and

this will make the intentions of the policy makers fail. In support of the view expressed

earlier, Stubbs (2001, in Delpit and Dowdy, 2001, p. 66) notes that:

59
 The first distinction it is crucial to be clear about is the distinction between

language itself and the deeply entrenched attitudes and stereotypes which most

people hold about language. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of

people‟s attitudes and beliefs about language. It is almost impossible, for

example, to hear someone speak without immediately drawing conclusions,

possibly very accurate, about his social class background, level of education and

what part of the country he comes from.

Language experts across the globe have studied views and practices of teachers towards

Code Switching (Sert, 2005; Wright, 1992; Darwish and Huber, 2003) and found that

teachers had different views on the subject. According to Lawrence(1999) and

Romaine (1989), teachers‟ have viewed Code Switching as a sign of inadequacy or

inefficacy on the part of the speaker, owing to lack of education, laziness, bad manners

and improper control of languages.

2.5. How Code Switching enhances learners’ academic achievement

Though other aspects of language are discussed in this study, the key aspects central to

this study are the relationships between language and academic achievement, which the

researcher discusses in detail in this section.

60
Johnson (in preparation) argues that students with an inadequate grasp of English do not

adequately come to grips with the meaning of the text. Rather, they develop “survival”

strategies, which deliberately avoid the assimilation of meaning. Teachers, for their part,

develop their own survival strategies, such as appearing to question for meaning but in

fact not doing so, because the social rules surrounding the teacher-student relationship

frequently act to inhibit too drastic a confrontation. Both parties, Johnson argues, need to

preserve some residue of face. Questioning for comprehension may often be satisfied,

for instance, by recombining different intact segments of text. This kind of strategy

would be irrelevant to the usual meanings of surface and deep approach.

When the majority of Namibian learners enters junior secondary schools where English

is the only medium of instruction, there is a huge difference between the English

vocabulary they know and the English vocabulary they need, to master the content

subjects in junior secondary schools. English only classrooms demand from learners to

use a special kind of language for learning purposes. Cummins (2000, p. 67) asserts

that, “in the context of schooling, discussions of greater or lesser degrees of language

proficiency or adequacy of an individual‟s proficiency Cognitive Academic Language

Proficiency (CALP) is functional within the context of typical academic tasks and

activities”. Learners can only progress successfully if their language proficiency in the

language of instruction is sufficiently developed to be able to communicate

academically. Although many parents and learners may have wanted English as the

medium of instruction and learning, many learners struggle to cope academically as they

61
have very little support from parents and more particularly from their schools and

teachers. According to Cummins (2000), since learners receive little support from

parents and teachers, submersion bilinguals have fewer abilities to understand

instruction in the medium of instruction, learners in turn receive fewer benefits from the

school and the results show lower academic growth.

In trying to overcome the problem of not being able to understand the content properly

and not being able to express themselves adequately through English during the lessons,

learners fall back on rote learning or being silent. Venzke (2002, p. 72) suggests that:

Apart from adopting new behaviour patterns at school which are not understood

by older family members, learners are frustrated by knowing the answer, but not

having the adequate vocabulary to express it, they are pressured by parents and

school to learn English quickly and sometimes they are even encouraged to

abandon the use of mother tongue completely.

When learners are pressured by both parents and the school to learn in a foreign

language, the only way out is to develop learning patterns to please the two institutions.

These patterns are either rote or being silent. Venzke‟s view is in line with the situation

that many Namibian learners find themselves in. As indicated in Chapter 1, the

researcher heard learners murmuring something to themselves but did not have the

vocabulary to speak out. Education systems and parents have become enemies of

62
learners as they pressure them into using a language which in many instances is foreign

to them.

Dumatog and Dekker (2003) maintain that comprehensible input is mandatory in order

for learners to learn in the classroom. They argue that if the learner does not understand

the language the teacher uses, he or she cannot learn the subject matter. It is for these

reasons that some teachers try to overcome the language problems of their learners by

allowing them to code switch. Dumatog and Dekker (2003) state that if learners do not

understand the medium of instruction, a language they do understand must be used

transitionally until a new medium of instruction can be used with comprehension in the

classroom.

In many instances Code Switching has demonstrated to be an effective teaching and

learning technique in schools that use a second language as a medium of instruction

(Aichum, 2003; Brock-Utne, 2002; .Huerta-Macias and Quintero, 1992; Ogechi, 2002;

Zabrodskaja, 2007).

Additionally, Code Switching is considered to be an extremely important aspect in both

cognitive development and social communication. In trying to situate the dilemma that

most learners who use a second language as medium of instruction in schools

experience, Diaz (1983, p. 35) notes the following in his research:

63
  Bilingual children are thinking verbally while performing non-verbal

tasks;

 Bilinguals switch from one language to the other while performing

these tasks; and

 Bilinguals‟ habit of switching languages while performing these tasks

results in improved task performance.

Diaz (1983) seems to suggest that if learners are given a task to perform in a second

language, the switch to the mother tongue helps them to understand better what the task

requires them to do, thereby clarifying doubts or misunderstandings created by the

second language. According to Lee (2012) Code Switching brought about better

learning outcomes than English-only instruction. The three prototypical approaches to

learning as explained by Biggs (1991) in Table 3 are in support of Diaz‟s line of

thinking.

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2.5.1 The prototypical approaches to learning

In Table 3, the approaches to learning are examined looking at the motives and the
strategies that are used in classroom.

Table 3: Prototypical approaches to learning

Approaches Motives Strategy

Surface Extrinsic: avoid failure, but Focus on selected details
don‟t work too hard and reproduce accurately
Deep Intrinsic: satisfy curiosity Maximise understanding:
about topic read widely, discuss, reflect
Achieving Achievement: compete for Optimistic organization of
higher grades time and effort („study
skills‟)
(Adapted from Biggs and Moore, 1993, p. 316), three prototypical approaches to
learning

To better explain Diaz‟s (1983) line of thinking, one has to understand that if learners

are forced to learn through a second language, a language in which they have low

proficiency, they will use either the surface approach to learning or achievement

approach to learning, rather than the deep approach to learning. Both the surface and

achievement approach to learning are characterized by rote learning, while the deep

approach to learning requires one to have an in-depth understanding of what is being

learnt. The deep approach to learning cannot be used by those whose language

proficiency in the language of instruction is low. According to Biggs (1991), the deep

approach to learning is based on intrinsic motivation to understand the strategy and to

seek meaning. The learner attempts to relate the content to a personal meaningful

context or to existing prior knowledge, thereby theorizing about what is learned, playing

65
with the task by performing hypotheses about how it relates to other known or

interesting items and deriving extensions and exceptions.

In their contribution to the discussion, MacSwan and Rolstad (2001), describe

difficulties facing the second language learners in this way: those learners who speak the

language of instruction have a single objective that of mastering the academic content

for example (Mathematics, Social Studies, Science, Reading and Writing) in school,

while learners who do not speak the language of instruction have two objectives which

they must meet in order to be academically successful, that is, the academic content and

the language of instruction. This is the case for the majority of learners in Namibia.

It is in this context that Rowell (cited in Squazzin and Van Graan, 1998) contends

that when and if learners are forced to use a language in which they lack

competency, they Code Switching. Venzke (2002) is in agreement with Rowell‟s

assessment. She also states that in a classroom where only the second language is

used, learners tend to fall on Code Switching.

Venzke (2002) further maintains that learners who do not understand what the teacher is

saying cannot internalise new knowledge and fall back on rote memorisation in their

content subjects. Venzke supports Biggs (1991) who refers to such type of learning as

the surface approach to learning which is basically instrumental or extrinsic. With this

approach, learners‟ main aim is to meet the requirements with the least effort and

reproduce facts accurately whether or not they understand them.

66
Venzke (2002, p. 54) concludes that “understanding content is very important, as neither

reading, writing, mathematics or anything else can be learnt by drilling, unless there is

an underlying understanding, which will then make the drilling unnecessary‟‟. She

continues further by saying that “learners need to learn to organise the information they

have learnt and to build conceptual models for themselves, so that they can see the

meaning of what they are doing, otherwise they will not be able to apply their theoretical

knowledge or retain what they have learnt‟‟ (Venzke, 2002, p. 54). This type of learning,

as advocated by Venzke, is in agreement with Biggs (1991), who wrote that learners

should be intrinsically motivated to relate the context to personally meaningful contexts

or to existing prior knowledge, theorising about what is learned, „playing‟ with the task

by forming hypotheses about how it relates to other known or interesting items and

deriving extensions and exceptions.

It must be understood that academic language contained in textbooks can present

problems for second language learners who have not mastered the second language

completely. In such cases Code Switching could be used for academic success of

second language learners. Brock-Utne (2002, p. 18) quotes a teacher who supported

Code Switching by saying that “for me the important thing is to get the subject matter

across. I am teaching Science, not English‟‟. Such a view can only be beneficial to

learners if teachers can code switch to make learners understand the content that they

teach.

67
Learning is an integrated social activity which requires learners‟ interaction and

engagement in classroom activities. In circumstances where the classroom language is

not the learners‟ first language, a teacher who is bilingual could code switch to the first

language if problems of comprehension occur. Mercer (2002) holds the view that:

…the extent to which features such as Code Switching between English and

other languages occur in any particular classroom will depend on a range of

factors, including the degree of fluency in English that members of the particular

class have achieved, the bilingual competence of teachers, the specific teaching

goals of teachers and the attitudes of teachers to other languages involved (p.

184).

There are many factors that might lead teachers to code switch, as spelt out by Mercer

(2002) and Brock-Utne (2002). These may include the English and bilingual

competence of the teachers and the goals of teaching. Therefore, Code Switching could

be used to help learners master content subjects and aid teaching and learning. If

teachers are assured that they are doing the right thing by Code Switching and are

viewed as linguistically competent, their use of Code Switching may accomplish what it

is intended for, namely: enhancing teaching, learning and concept clarification.

Jamshidi and Nevehebrahim (2013) argue that teachers may decide immediately when

68
L1 should be used and when L2 is appropriate in order to enable comprehension and

meaningful involvement of the learners.

2.6. How Code Switching enhances the learning of English, the target language

Kavaliauskienè (2009) argues that state-of-the-art teaching of languages is based on the

communicative method, which emphasizes the teaching of English through English.

However, the idea of abandoning the native tongue appears to be too stressful to many

learners, who need a sense of security in the experience of learning a foreign language.

In the past, those who opposed the prevalence of the Grammar-Translation Method

argued that it led to an extraordinary phenomenon: students were unable to speak

fluently after having studied the language for a long time. This led to the idea that all use

of the mother tongue in the language classroom should be avoided (Harmer, 2001).

According to Harmer (2001), translation has been thought of as uncommunicative,

boring, pointless, difficult and irrelevant.

In defence of mother tongue use, Dumatog and Dekker (2003, p. 3) propose the

following teaching methodology in Filipino classrooms that use English as a medium of

instruction and argue that:

 by using the students‟ mother tongue in the classroom to teach literacy skills as

well as subject content, the students‟ cognitive skills would be developed.

69
  by teaching concepts in the mother tongue, the students would be exposed to

comprehensible input and enabled to develop concepts further.

 separating content learning, language learning, and acquisition of literacy skills

would enable the students to focus on one discipline at a time. Thus, basic

literacy skills and content were to be mastered through the mother tongue,

Filipino and English were to be taught as foreign languages, rather than used as a

medium to learn subject matter or acquire literacy skills.

 in the Filipino or English language lessons, content already mastered in the

mother tongue would be used in order to focus on foreign language acquisition.

The acquisition of reasonable competency in English seems to haunt many educationists

as to what technique to employ in schools to enhance the acquisition of the target

language; Namibia is no exception. Due to lack of knowledge on how knowledge is

acquired, some educationists have supported the formulation of the third grammar rules,

a grammar of Code Switching (MacSwan, 1997, 2000), arguing that this third grammar

would take account of grammatical rules with respect to the two languages (mother

tongue and English). Moreover, the suggestion for formulation of the third grammar

rules constrain artificially a linguistic behaviour, which is originally and widely based on

pragmatic rules and not primarily on grammatical ones.

Furthermore, Jernudd (2002) notes that those familiar with language acquisition

theories, would agree with the belief common in applied linguistics that Code Switching

and interlanguage errors testify to the learner‟s advancement of acquisition of the target

70
language. This is subject of course to making sure that the target norm does not

disappear from the acquisition process.

Learning a second language for academic purposes requires the correct usage of that

language‟s grammar in writing. Therefore, a good application of one‟s mother tongue

can bridge the learning of the new language. It is with this understanding that the

researcher suggests borrowing from the Grammar Translation Method. At the core of

the grammar translation method is the translation back and forth between the target

language and the learners‟ native language, comparing and contrasting the structures of

the two languages, thereby enabling them to make connections. The major characteristic

of the Grammar Translation Method is, precisely as its name suggests, a focus on

learning the rules of grammar and their application in translating passages from one

language into the other. Vocabulary in the target language is learned through direct

translation from the native language (Thuleen, 1996).

According to Ross (2000) there has been a revival of interest to Grammar Translation

Method (GTM) due to its emphasis on the use of a mother tongue as a resource for the

promotion of language learning. Readings in the target language are translated directly

and then discussed in the native language, often precipitating in-depth comparisons of

the two languages themselves. Grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the

native language and later applied in the production of sentences through translation from

71
one language to the other (Thuleen, 1996). Thuleen argues that despite the drawback

associated with the Grammar Translation Method:

There are certain positive traits to be found in such a rigid environment. Although

far from trying to defend or reinstate this method, I must still say: my high school

German class was almost entirely grammar-translation based, with the exception

of a few dialogues from the textbook, and I don't really feel it "harmed" or even

hampered my acquisition of the language … and it certainly gave me a strong

grounding in German grammar! For left-brained students who respond well to

rules, structure and correction, the grammar-translation method can provide a

challenging and even the intriguing classroom environment. For those students

who don't respond well to such structures, however, it is obvious that the

grammar-translation method must be tempered with other approaches to create a

more flexible and conducive methodology.

The inclusion of the grammar translation method in this study is not to say that it must

be reintroduced in classroom teaching but to exploit those aspects of the method which

can aid learning and teaching of the target language. Thuleen‟s argument holds water

because despite the negative criticism that the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) has

received, the GTM approach seems to be useful especially when the aim is to learn to

read and write the second language for specific purposes. To entirely criticize the GTM

would be naive, because as Nunan (1991) reminds us, there is no method for all learners

and teachers, each method can supplement the other. Therefore, the perceived

72
disadvantages of the Grammar Translation Method should be seen as a weakness which

can be turned into strength. In his contribution, Venzke (2002, p. 63) indicates that:

As learning through English is thought to impede learning and also to cause poor

mastery of both English and the L1, the poor … results and the general lack of

academic skills and intellectual growth among black learners at secondary and

higher education levels, are most often attributed to the use of English as medium

of instruction.

What Venzke (2002) seems to illustrate here is that there is indeed an erroneous

assumption that learning through English will help learners master English. Mastery of

English requires the correct teaching of English by English experts. The saying that, “all

teachers are English teachers” is wrong because not all teachers are proficient and

competent in English; therefore, they might end up teaching the learners wrongly. What

should be encouraged, therefore, is to allow teachers to code switch so that content

matter is grasped by learners.

The introduction of Code Switching in the classroom might enhance learners‟

understanding of the content of their subjects and hence create grounds on which they

can build their learning of English and other languages. The switching of codes from

learners‟ mother tongue and the language of learning and teaching in any subject

73
provides the support needed while learners continue to develop proficiency in the

language of learning and teaching. Kavaliauskienè (2009, p. 2) maintains that:

Native speakers of English argue that foreign language learning needs as much

exposure to the second language as possible during classroom time, and any

usage of L1 or translation is a waste of time. In the past, most methods in second

language pedagogy dictated that the first language should be prohibited in the

classroom. Communicative approaches to language learning in 1970s and 1980s

considered the use of second language as undesirable. However, recently the

attitude to mother tongue and translation in language classes has undergone a

positive change.

Kavaliauskienè (2009) also does not agree with the thinking of many native speakers of

English and argues that the usefulness of Code Switching lies in exploiting it in order to

compare grammar, vocabulary, word order and other language points in English and the

learner‟s mother tongue. Code Switching as a teaching tool takes into account a number

of different aspects, such as grammar, syntax, collocation and connotation

(Kavaliauskienè, 2009). If learners have a better understanding of their mother tongues‟

grammar, syntax, collocation and connotation these may easily be translated into the

second language and thus facilitate the learning of the second language.

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To better explain why Code Switching can enhance the acquisition of the target

language, Meisel‟s (1994, p. 415) definition of Code Switching should be carefully

scrutinized:

The ability to select the language according to the interlocutor, the situational

context, the topic of conversation, and so forth, and to change languages within

an interactional sequence in accordance with sociolinguistic rules and without

violating specific grammatical constraints. This also implies the capacity of

language differentiation, language choice, and the mastery of the two

grammatical systems of the languages involved.

To expand Meisel‟s definition, Jernudd (2002) explains that if a learner knows a concept

in one language, say, in English, that does not do any harm to the learner or to anyone

else, as it provides an opportunity for the learner to learn the equivalent name in the

other language. Furthermore, Eldridge (1996) views Code Switching as a natural and

purposeful phenomenon which facilitates both communication and learning.

Furthermore, Eldridge (1996) is of the view that the reduction of Code Switching would

hinder the acquisition of the second language and suggests that there is a strong

relationship between learning style and Code Switching. This view is echoed by

Bennett and Dunne (2002), who note that once a learner has developed new

understanding, he or she needs to reflect and exchange ideas and views with other

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learners and the teacher in order to consolidate his or her learning. Eldridge (1996)

further maintains that Code Switching is a strategy that has benefits for second-language

learners, as it provides a natural shortcut to content and knowledge acquisition. Code

Switching through the harnessing of the learners‟ mother tongue or local language is a

resource for exploratory talk. Eldridge‟s sentiment is also shared by Zabrodskaja (2007)

who reiterates that teachers code switch in order to illustrate those parts which remain

unclear to learners. In fact, Gabusi (2005) and Sert (2006) contend that Code Switching

is a good device to underline the importance of particular pieces of information where

messages have not been understood in one code.

To further help understand how Code Switching enhances the acquisition of the target

language, it would be better to examine Cummins‟ (2000, p. 232) two levels of language

proficiency:

 Surface aspects (e.g. pronunciation, fluency); and

 Underlying cognitive/academic proficiency.

The two levels are formally known as Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)

and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) (Cummins, 1991) and are

explained as follows:

2.6.1 Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

According to Cummins (2000), Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are

language skills needed in social situations. It is the day-to-day language needed to

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interact socially with other people. English language learners (ELLs) employ BIC skills

when they are on the playground, in the lunchroom, on the school bus, at parties, playing

sports and talking on the telephone. Social interactions are usually context embedded.

They occur in a meaningful social context. They are not very demanding cognitively.

Problems arise when teachers and administrators think that a child is proficient in a

language when they demonstrate good social English (Cummins, 2000).

2.6.2 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading, and

writing about the subject area content material. This level of language learning is

essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time and support to become

proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to seven years. Thomas and

Collier (1995) have shown that if a child has no prior schooling or has no support in

native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up with

their peers.

Academic language acquisition is not just the understanding of content area vocabulary.

It includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring.

Academic language tasks are context-reduced. Information is read from a textbook or

presented by the teacher. As a student gets older, the context of academic tasks becomes

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more and more reduced. The language also becomes more cognitively demanding. New

ideas, concepts and language are presented to the students at the same time.

Cummins (1991) argues that in order for a bilingual to achieve CALP status in the

second language, he or she must first achieve CALP status in the first language. In

support of Cummins, De Witt (2000, p. 21) maintains that, “instruction that develops L1

reading and writing skills is not only developing L1 skills, but a deeper conceptual and

linguistic proficiency that is strongly related to the development of literacy in the second

language”.

De Witt (2000) argues that transferring cognitive skills to second language is made

easier if literacy-related skills have been adequately developed in the L1 through a

gradual learning process conducted over a number of years. Therefore, the switching of

codes from the L1 to second language during classroom interaction is thought to

enhance the development of second language, provided the language structures in the L1

are correctly taught. As a matter of fact, Hudson and Smith (2001) (in Venzke, 2002)

suggest that if teachers teach the essential elements of successful reading in the learners‟

L1, they will be supporting the development of the learners‟ L1 cognitive academic

language proficiency, which will then transfer to both acquiring a second language and

to developing second language literacy skills.

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In conclusion to the discussion on how Code Switching enhances the learning of

English, the target language, MacSwan (1997) argues that the syntax of human language

could not be properly modelled by either a generative context free grammar (such as

those which underlie the languages of elementary arithmetic and formal logic) or a

context sensitive grammar (one which makes reference to constituents in strings).

Hence, he proposed a hybrid generative-transformational grammar as a plausible model

of human language. Therefore, Code Switching is in fact quite regular.

MacSwan (1997, p.53) goes on to explain how Code Switching is used in a Spanish-

English conversation thus

*This morning mi hermano y yofuimos a comprar some milk*

„This morning my brother and I went to buy some milk‟

*The student brought the homework para la profesora*

„The student brought the homework for the teacher‟

To explain the scenario above, it would be better to first explain the two constraints by

Poplack (1981). According to Poplack, an alternation of code may occur at any point of

the discourse at which it is possible to make a surface constituent cut and still retain a

free morpheme. Therefore, any constituent within the sentence can be altered to another

code provided that the constituent consists of at least one free morpheme. This is called

the Free Morpheme Constraint (Poplack, 1981).

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The second syntactic constraint mentioned by Poplack (1981) operates simultaneously

with the first and is called the Equivalence Constraint. Codes will tend to be switched at

points where the juxtaposition of L1 and L2 elements do not violate a syntactic rule of

either language, for example, at points where the surface structures of the languages map

onto each other (Poplack, 1981). According to the first constraint, a code can alter at

any place after any free morpheme, but, if there are differences in L1 and L2 morpho-

syntax, the choices will be limited because the second constraint applies.

Having looked at MacSwan‟s (1997) illustration, it is evident that a code switcher tends

to use either the equivalence constraint or the free morpheme constraint when Code

Switching. Switches occur between a determiner and a noun, or a noun and an

adjective. Also, there are switches between the subject and the verb, the verb and the

object, or the verb and the adverb in simple sentences. Moreover, instances of switches

are also found in a clause boundary involving various types of subordinate clauses,

namely adverbial, conditional and relative.

2.7. Learners’ participation in classes where Code Switching is practiced

Conventional wisdom would have it that Namibian classrooms encourage a

predominantly rote approach to academic learning. Various reasons can be adduced for

this: teaching style, especially that induced by heavy external assessment (Morris, 1985),

traditional conceptions of the role of the teacher and the student (Murphy, 1987) and the

use of a second language medium of instruction.

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It is clear that learning through a second language presents specific problems for learners

and it is argued by Murphy (1987) that strong cognitive and academic development of

the L1 is crucial for academic success. Learning through English as an L2 is thought to

impede learning and also to cause poor mastery of both the L2 and the L1. The poor

participation of learners in classrooms in many Namibian schools can be attributed to the

use of the English language as the medium of instruction (Murphy, 1987).

In classes where learners actively participate, the learners need to exercise critical

thinking that require them to go beyond the basic recall of information. Learners need to

take in information, question it, and then use it to create new ideas, solve problems,

make decisions, construct arguments, make plans and refine their views of the world. In

contrast, thinking critically on their own and keeping everything to themselves is an

example of passive class participation. Active class participation requires a learner to

adopt an open mind and share what he or she thinks with his or her classmates.

Jacobs, Vakalisa, and Gawe (2004) presented the following as the most dynamic and

visible elements of the participative approach: flexibility, relevance of content to real-

life situations, democratic learning, a spirit of cooperation and individual responsibility.

Their assertion is that “a teacher who creates fear among learners is unlikely to create a

democratic classroom climate which encourages all learners to participate” (Jacobs,

Vakalisa, & Gawe, 2004, p. 15). Similarly, if a language creates fear among learners

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such a language will unlikely create a democratic classroom climate which encourages

learners to participate in English.

Furthermore, Meyer and Jones (1993) maintain that active learner participation in the

classroom facilitates both acquisition of knowledge and development of problem solving

skills. If schools use a language in which learners lack competence, the learners become

passive. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers make use of instructional

techniques that require active learner participation such as class discussion, cooperative

learning, debates, role playing and problem solving (Meyer and Jones, 1993).

Likewise, Broke-Utne (2000, p. 19) quotes Osaki (1991) as having said the following

after observing a Science class where English was the only medium of instruction in

Tanzania:

Students either talk very little in class or copy textual information from the

chalkboard, or attempt discussion in a mixed language (for example, English &

Kiswahili) and then copy notes on the chalkboard in English…teachers who

insist on using English only end up talking to themselves with very little student

input.

The Tanzanian case described above by Broke-Utne (2000) should make educationists

and policy makers aware of the two different dimensions of classroom talk when dealing

with issues of language of instruction for schools. These are:

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  The exploratory talk which is such a necessary part of talking to learn and which

is likely to be most effective in the learners‟ main languages because learners

need to feel at ease when they are exploring ideas (Barnes, 1992).

 The discourse-specific talk is part of learners‟ apprenticeship into the discourse

genre of subjects in the school curriculum (Wells, 1992).

With English as a target language, and in support of the principles of learning and

teaching embedded in the Namibian curriculum, Code Switching practices are not only

inevitable but necessary in schools where English is being learned at the same time as

being used as the medium of instruction. Code Switching is a language practice that

supports classroom communication in general and exploratory talk that is a necessary

part of learning and teaching.

In addition, Grosjean (1985 in Setati, Adler, Reed, and Bapoo, 2002, p.11) describes

Code Switching by creating the following scenario:

The coexistence and constant interaction of two languages in the bilingual has

produced a different but a complete language system. An analogy comes from

the domain of athletics. The high hurdler blends two types of competencies: that

of high jumping and that of sprinting. When compared individually with the

sprinter or the high jumper, the hurdler meets neither level of competence, and

yet when taken as a whole, the hurdler is an athlete in his or her own right. No

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 expert in track field would ever compare a high hurdle to a sprinter or to a high

jumper, even though the former blends certain characteristics of the latter two.

In many ways the bilingual is like the high hurdler.

Additionally, Jernudd (2002) argues that individuals accomplish adequate

communication quite happily through participation in a communicative interaction that

is meaningful to them. In his contribution to the debate, Harlech-Jones (1998) maintains

that the mother tongue facilitates adjustment between home and school and that it assists

the formation of the learners‟ concepts and categories of thought. Zabrodskaja (2007)

notes that in an academic sphere, bilingual pedagogical practices can help learners

overcome communication barriers in their classroom environments, a scenario which

Namibia could also employ. Huerta-Macias and Quintero (1992) propose that Code

Switching should be viewed as part of a whole approach in bilingual contexts.

According to Aichum (2003), Huerta-Macias (1992), Zabrodskaja (2007), Moore

(2002), Gabusi (2005) and Brock-Utne (2002), Code Switching is an essential tool in the

classroom for teachers and learners, who use a second language as medium of

instruction, as it allows both teachers and learners to negotiate meaning. It also

facilitates interaction between the teacher and learners and between the learners

themselves.

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Brock-Utne (2002) further argues that if African languages are used as media of

instruction in Science, they may eliminate the great barrier that exists between the

privileged English classes and the ordinary people. Moore (2002) suggests that similar

switches trigger divergent interactive treatments; therefore, Code Switching can help

bridge the gap in the classroom discourse. Moore (2002, p. 290) continues;

A code switch can help bridge the gap in the discourse. It can set off negotiated

lateral sequences about content/or form. It can generate interactional changes

that may potentially entail inquisitional dimensions. In situations when the focus

is not only on the development of linguistic skills but also for the transmission of

subject contents, switches can add significantly to the enrichment of new

concepts and become an active part in the learning experience.

In agreement with Moore (2002), Bennett and Dunne (2002) maintain that learning in

the classroom involves the extension, elaboration or modification of learners‟ ideas and

schemata. This process is one by which learners actively make sense of the world by

constructing meanings. Learning is optimized in settings where social interaction,

particularly between a learner and “knowledgeable others” is encouraged and where

cooperatively achieved success is a major aim (Bennett and Dunne, 2002). According to

Bennett and Dunne (2000), the medium for this success is talk. Therefore, the emphasis

should be on the language being used, not to communicate what they already know, but

as an instrument of learning. Once the learner has developed new understanding he or

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she needs to reflect and exchange ideas and views with other learners and the teacher in

order to consolidate his or her learning. Such talk at the same time indicates to the

teacher the state of the learners‟ understanding (Bennett and Dunne, 2002).

Jernudd (2002) concludes that a democratic society should strive to give all learners

equal opportunity of access to information and to participation in political processes.

Educational language selection policy and practice should reflect that value.

2.8. Barriers to Code Switching in the classroom practices

Delpit and Dowdy (2001) argue that if schools consider someone‟s language inadequate,

schools will probably fail. In agreement with Delpit and Dowdy, Brock-Utne (1992)

characterizes denying the right of learners to use the language with which they are most

familiar as medium of instruction as linguistic oppression, a type of violence akin to

Bourdieu and Passeron‟s (1977) notion of symbolic violence. In other words, when

schools or education systems impose a language on learners, they are complicit in

symbolic violence and the process of confirming and reproducing power relations. What

can happen is that learners may feel threatened and may withdraw from participating in

learning, thereby defeating the purpose of schooling.

Nonetheless, Kalong (2008) maintains that many teachers, especially those who are in

favour of the applications of the communicative techniques in the classroom

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environments, are against the use of any mother tongue or Code Switching in the

classroom.

One reason why monolingual teaching has been so readily accepted is due to the

„language myths of Europeans‟, and the belief in their inherent superiority over non-

European languages (Pennycook, 1994). Notably so, the stigma of Code Switching in

the ESL context originates from the ardent belief in the importance of English and the

disrespect shown towards other languages (Pennycook, 1994). Weschler (1997) argues

that English only came about through the blind acceptance of certain theories, which

serve the interests of native speaking teachers.

According to Clegg (2007), stakeholders in African education, especially governments

and educational development agencies, need to be informed about the pros and cons of

the choice of a medium of instruction. Clegg (2007) and Wolff (2006) note that

governments and other institutions in the education service tend to be ill-informed about

the role of languages in learning and about the choice of language medium.

Lack of knowledge about the medium of instructions amongst governments, parents and

teachers in schools prevents teachers from using Code Switching in super-

comprehensible ways such as repetition. Some teachers have shown lack of

understanding of the policy on medium of instruction in schools, and because of that,

they tend to impose the English medium of instruction even when learners do not

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understand, when they could have given extra emphasis to CALP in both first language

and second language (Cummins, 2000).

In addition, there appears to be a stigma attached to Code Switching by teachers, parents

and learners. Venzke (2002, p. 67) quotes a lecturer at a black training college in South

Africa who said; “Students or pupils fail to understand the subject matter clearly because

the teacher cannot explain or express himself effectively. Take for instance a science

teacher with all the necessary information becoming frustrated in front of his class as a

result of his inadequacy in language use”. To avoid teaching that results in little or no

understanding of the content, innovative teachers code switch when a need arises.

However, Code Switching is often considered inappropriate by those that are in

authority in schools.

There are also misconceptions about Code Switching, such as those noted by Duran

(1994), who maintains that the use of Code Switching and the mixing of languages are

considered ill-mannered, show off, ignorant, aggressive and proud through the eyes of

other speakers. In addition, Duran (1994) argues that Code Switching can cause a

speaker to feel demotivated and self-conscious as he or she will be considered as less

fluent, less intelligent and less expressive when he or she code switches into other

languages.

Venzke (2002) maintains that both teachers and learners feel constrained by the fact that

learners are evaluated largely on the basis of their written work in English. The

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learners‟ chances of success, therefore, become very slim if their language deviates from

the standard norms, because the examiner may not be able to comprehend what they are

trying to convey in any language other than English.

There are also other barriers to the use of Code Switching in classrooms as described by

Poplack (1980, p. 586):

i. Equivalence constraint

 According to this constraint, Code Switching happens when there are two

languages sharing a similar word.

 This constraint limits Code Switching between typologically distant

languages such as English and Japanese. The word order for English is

Subject-Verb-Object while the Japanese‟s word order is Subject-Object-

Verb.

ii. Free Morpheme Constraint

 Codes may be switched after any constituent in discourse provided

that the constituent is not a bound morpheme.

 The bound morpheme barrier limits the switch between a lexical item

and a bound morpheme except the previous one has been included

phonologically into the language that is being currently used.

The problem of teachers‟ language proficiency cannot be denied in certain instances but

this does not necessarily mean that every teacher who has low English language

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proficiency needs to code switch. Teachers with low English proficiency can also

employ other teaching strategies that facilitate learning because learning does not

entirely depend on Code Switching.

Brock-Utne (2002, p. 1) highlights three fallacies that are often heard in discussions

about the languages of instruction in Africa. The fallacies are:

a. To get a good job one needs a good command of the European languages.

b. Most of the African languages have not yet developed the scientific terminology

needed in modern advanced society.

c. There is a high cost of translating materials into African languages.

The question, therefore, remains: what needs to be done in Namibian schools to enhance

learners‟ participation and the acquisition of subject matter knowledge in our schools?

Before that question can be answered, there is a need to investigate the matrix-embedded

model, because there might be other programmes that could best be applied to address

the Namibian language situation in schools.

2.9. The matrix-embedded language model for Namibia

According to Ogechi (2002), the matrix language is the language that sets the grammar

of the sentence containing the switches, in the case of Namibia it is English. Ogechi

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further states that the syntax of the matrix language is active in Code Switching as it sets

the frame of the switched projection of the complementation while the syntax of the

embedded language is dormant. In Namibia, English is the target language and the

medium of instruction (host language). Therefore, it should be the matrix language and

the mother tongue or the local language should be the embedded language (guest

language). Wentz (1977) called the matrix language the language of the sentence since

it sets the grammar and the syntax of the sentence.

In addition, Kilfoil and van der Walt (1997) maintain that proponents of the

communicative approach do not agree that the target language should be the exclusive

means of communication in the classroom. They note that the teacher can even start a

lesson in the learners‟ L1 and switch the code as the lesson progresses. Furthermore, a

class of learners may feel intimidated by the exclusive use of the target language and

they may appreciate more first language use. Furthermore, Kilfoil and van der Walt

(1997) claim that “learners should not be pressured into speaking in the target language,

since this causes anxiety and lowers motivation…” (p. 17). They further caution

teachers, “not to force learners to speak the target language, but to accept responses in

the first language” (p. 23).

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2.10. Summary

This chapter reviewed aspects related to the Namibian Language Policy and Code

Switching in schools and the gaps that exist. It further highlighted some advantages of

Code Switching for learners who are not native speakers of the medium of instruction as

well as the constraints of using Code Switching in the classroom. In the next chapter, the

researcher describes the methodology used to collect data from the sample in this study.

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 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the methods that were used to collect and analyse the data

collected from the participants. The research design, the population, the sample,

sampling procedure, the research instruments, the pilot study, and data collecting

procedures, data analysis and ethical considerations are described.

3.2. Research design

The most appropriate method for this research was the mixed method design, using both

quantitative and qualitative methods. Creswell (2006, p. 9) highlights the following

advantages of the mixed method design:

 it provides strengths that offset the weaknesses of both quantitative and

qualitative research;

 it provides comprehensive evidence for studying a research problem than either

quantitative or qualitative research;

 it helps answer questions that cannot be answered by quantitative or qualitative

approaches alone;

 it encourages researchers to collaborate across the adversarial relationship that

exists between quantitative and qualitative researchers.

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In this study, both numbers and words were combined, which is in line with what

Creswell (2006, p. 10) advances as “practical” because, according to him, individuals

tend to solve problems using numbers and words; they combine inductive and deductive

thinking, and employ skills in observing people as well as recorded behaviour.

When the effects of Code Switching were talked about, both numbers and words were

used to persuade the Grade 10 ESL language teachers to give a vivid picture about the

language of instruction situation in Namibian schools. The researcher was aware that

both the qualitative and quantitative approaches have strengths and weaknesses;

therefore, the use of both approaches minimized the weaknesses, as the weakness of one

approach is the strengths of the other approach. The two approaches are discussed in

detail below.

3.2.1. The Qualitative Method

Qualitative research shares the theoretical assumptions of the interpretative paradigm,

which is based on the notion that social reality is created and sustained through the

subjective experience of people involved in communication (Morgan, 1980). Qualitative

researchers are concerned in their research with attempting to accurately describe,

decode, and interpret the meanings of phenomena occurring in their normal social

contexts (Fryer, 1991). Researchers operating within the framework of the interpretative

paradigm are focused on investigating the complexity, authenticity, contextualization,

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shared subjectivity of the researcher and the researched, and minimization of illusion

(Fryer, 1991). Qualitative research is characterized by the description and interpretation

of the phenomena in the world of participants to get shared meaning with others

(Bassey, 1995). In addition, interpretavists seek to explore individuals‟ subjective

perceptions. In line with this paradigm therefore, this study used observations and

questionnaires to collect individual perceptions.

McMillan and Schumacher (1997) note that, “the goal of research is to collect

information that will investigate a research problem or question” (p. 161). Because of

this, qualitative researchers go to the particular setting under study because they are

concerned with the context in which the study takes place. It is for this reason that this

researcher observed lessons in order to understand the context in which teaching took

place in a classroom environment.

Qualitative research in general is more likely to take place in a natural setting (Denzin,

1971; Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Marshall and Rossman, 1989). This means that topics

for study focus on an everyday activity as "defined, enacted, smoothed, and made

problematic by persons going about their normal routines" (Van Maanen, 1983, p. 255).

Qualitative research is less likely to impose restrictive a priori classification on the

collection of data. It is less driven by very specific hypotheses and categorical

frameworks and more concerned with emergent themes and idiographic descriptions

(Cassell and Symon, 1994).

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By extending the fundamental beliefs of the interpretative paradigm, one can name three

characteristics of qualitative inquiry. First, qualitative research is the study of symbolic

discourse that consists of the study of texts and conversations. Second, qualitative

research is the study of the interpretive principles that people use to make sense of their

symbolic activities. Third, qualitative research is the study of contextual principles, such

as the roles of the participants, the physical setting, and a set of situational events that

guide the interpretation of discourse (Ting-Toomey, 1984).

3.2.1.1 Advantages of the qualitative method

The qualitative method has much strength, which include, amongst others:

 enabling the researcher to obtain a more realistic feel of the world that cannot be

experienced in the numerical data and statistical analysis used in quantitative

research;

 providing flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and

interpretation of collected information;

 providing a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation (Bogdan and Taylor,

1975; Patton, 1980);

 affording the researcher the opportunity to interact with the research subjects in their

own language and on their own terms (Kirk and Miller, 1986);

 having descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.

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3.2.1.2 Disadvantages of the qualitative method

The qualitative method has a number of limitations and weaknesses. Some of the notable

ones include:

 departure from the original objectives of the research in response to the changing

nature of the context (Cassell and Symon, 1994);

 arriving at different conclusions based on the same information depending on the

personal characteristics of the researcher;

 inability to investigate causality between different research phenomena;

 difficulty in explaining the difference in the quality and quantity of information

obtained from different respondents and arriving at different, non-consistent

conclusions;

 requiring a high level of experience from the researcher to obtain the targeted

information from the respondent;

 lacking consistency and reliability because the researcher can employ different

probing techniques and the respondent can choose to tell some particular stories

and ignore others (Cassell and Symon, 1994).

3.2.2. The Quantitative Method

The functional or positivist paradigm that guides the quantitative mode of inquiry is

based on the assumption that social reality has an objective ontological structure and that

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individuals are responding agents to this objective environment (Morgan and Smircich,

1980). Quantitative research involves the counting and measuring of events and

performing the statistical analysis of a body of numerical data (Smith, 1988). The

assumption behind the positivist paradigm is that there is an objective truth existing in

the world that can be measured and explained scientifically. The main concerns of the

quantitative paradigm are that measurement is reliable, valid, and generalizable in its

clear prediction of cause and effect (Cassell and Symon, 1994). According to Weinreich

(2007), the quantitative approach is suitable for finding out who, what, when and where,

and it only deals with issues that are known at the beginning of the research project as

this is when the questions are decided and documented. Questions have to be direct and

easily quantifiable, and made available to a sample of no fewer than two hundred

participants to permit reliable statistical analysis (Weinreich, 2007).

Being deductive and particularistic, quantitative research is based upon formulating the

research hypotheses and verifying them empirically on a specific set of data (Frankfort-

Nachmias and Nachmias, 1992). Scientific hypotheses are value-free; the researcher's

own values, biases, and subjective preferences have no place in the quantitative

approach. Researchers can view the communication process as concrete and tangible and

can analyse it without contacting actual people involved in communication (Ting-

Toomey, 1984).

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3.2.2.1 Advantages of the quantitative method

The quantitative method offers many benefits for researchers, some of which are listed

below:

The research problem is stated in very specific and set terms (Frankfort-Nachmias and

Nachmias, 1992). The method enables the researcher to clearly and precisely specify

both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation. With this research

paradigm, the researcher sticks firmly to the original set of research goals, thereby

arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypotheses, and determining the issues of

causality. A key strength of quantitative studies is that, in comparison to qualitative

studies, quantitative studies are particularly useful in achieving high levels of reliability

of data, which is usually gathered through controlled observations, laboratory

experiments, mass surveys, or other forms of research manipulations (Balsley, 1970).

The high reliability of the data gathered plays a significant role in minimizing

subjectivity of judgment when the results are interpreted (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996).

Quantitative studies are also easily replicable. This concept refers to the extent to which

the findings of an initial study can be repeated. Replicability is a useful characteristic in

quantitative research because through it, consistency between researchers is achieved.

Consistency has a high premium in quantitative studies, because through it, “more faith

is placed in the truth of the findings (http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/the-sage-

encyclopedia-of-social-science-research-methods/n851.xml).

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3.2.2.2 Disadvantages of quantitative research

While quantitative research has a number of useful advantages for researchers, it also

has several serious limitations. Firstly, quantitative research decontextualises human

behaviour in a way that removes events from the real world and ignores the effects of

variables that are not included in the model (Weinreich, 2007). Secondly, it does not

provide the researcher with information on the context of the situation where the studied

phenomenon occurs. Thirdly, this research paradigm does not enable the researcher to

control the environment where the respondents provide the answers to the questions in

the survey. A fourth limitation is the outcomes of a study are limited to only those

outlined in the original research proposal due to closed type questions and the structured

format. The effect of this is that there is no room to explore the evolving and continuous

investigation of a research phenomenon.

As can be seen that the disadvantages of each of approach becomes the advantage of the

other, this demonstrates that mixing the two approaches eliminates the advantages

thereby creating a high bride approach. The mixed approach was chosen for this study

because it offered a range of perspectives on the study‟s processes and outcomes. Not

only does the research talk about the number of respondents (quantitative) but what

respondents actually said in the conversation (qualitative) this combination gives a vivid

picture about the research outcomes.

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In this study the researcher chose the Caprivi Education Region because he could speak

the languages of the research objects, thus making it easy for him to interact with

research objects. When respondents or research objects code switched during classroom

talk, the researcher was able to understand how the embedded language fitted in the

matrix language. The ESL classroom provided a natural setting for both learners and

teachers as it was the place where their every activity (teaching and learning) took place.

Responses in the questionnaire could be written up in manner that was ideal in an ESL

classroom environment, thus the use of the controlled observation was thought to be

perfect for this study as it would reveal what was actually happening in the classrooms.

Furthermore, this researcher had prepared research questions way before the study was

conducted. The questions that were in the questionnaire were follow-up in the

observation checklist.

3.3. Population

According to Best and Kahn (1993, p. 13), “a population is a group of individuals who

have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher”. The

population of this study consisted of Grade 10 ESL teachers in the Caprivi Education

Region. All teachers in the Caprivi Education Region that taught Grade 10 ESL classes

formed the population of this study. Grade 10 is the first grade where learners who have

been in English as a medium of instruction (from Grade 4 to 10) are formally examined

at a national level. The Grade 10 end of year results give a more accurate effect of

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English as a medium instruction. It is for this reason that Grade 10 ESL teachers were

chosen for this study.

3.4. Sample and sampling procedure

According to Best and Kahn (1993, p. 19) “…the ideal sample is large enough to serve

as adequate representation of the population about which the researcher wishes to

generalize, and small enough to be selected economically … in terms of subject

availability and expense in both time and money”.

Purposeful sampling was used. Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that one

wants to discover, understand, and gain insight about his/her sample. Therefore, one

needs to select a sample from which one can learn (Chein, 1981 as cited in Sharan,

1988). Sharan (1988) says that purposeful sampling is also called criterion sampling,

where the researcher establishes the criteria, or standards necessary for units to be

included in the investigation, and then the researcher finds a sample that matches these

criteria.

In this study, 12 schools were chosen based on the following criteria:

a) their end-of-year examination results in Grade 10 in 2007, 2008 and 2009. Schools

are ranked according this category, best performing schools, average performing

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 schools and poor performing schools. The researcher chose four from each of these

categories.

b) location (four schools were located in an urban area, another four in a semi-urban

area and the last four in a rural area, giving a total of twelve schools). The location

of a school is essential in Namibia when dealing with issues that relate to the use of

the English language. English language use varies from context to context and

from place to place, because English is not used widely used in rural areas apart

from the classrooms while English can be heard on streets in urban areas, making it

necessary for researchers to address the issue of the Language Policy. In Namibia,

English is the official language and the medium of instruction in all schools whether

urban or rural. English is the second language for many Namibian children living

in urban areas; but the same fact may not be true for rural children.

The researcher chose the 2007, 2008, and 2009 examination results because they were

the most recent at the time of the study.

 In the twelve schools selected for the sample, twelve ESL teachers were

purposefully sampled. The teachers were selected on the basis that they

were Grade 10 ESL teachers and that they spoke one or two of the many

languages spoken in the Caprivi Education Region. At schools where

there more than one Grade 10 ESL teachers, I used random sampling

lottery (lottery method) to select the class and the teacher to visit.

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For uniformity, the study focused on the subject, ESL, in the sampled schools. The

information about school performance in examinations was obtained from the

Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment (DNEA), which resorts under the

Ministry of Education. Where there was more than one Grade 10 ESL class at a school,

the researcher used random sampling to select the classes to visit. Grades were given

alphabetical numbers (for example 10A, B, & C), The numbers were placed in a bowl

and thoroughly mixed. I was then, blind-folded and selected n numbers. The selected

numbers was included in the sample.

3.5. Data collection instruments

Two research instruments were used to collect data in this study. These were

questionnaires and observation checklists. The questionnaire was developed by the

researcher, while the observation checklist was adapted from Yonesaka and Metoki

(2007, p. 143). Each teacher filled in the questionnaire and each teacher was observed

three times, bringing the total number of observations to thirty six. The respondents‟

biographical information was collected to establish a profile of the sample in relation to

age, sex, years of service, and educational qualifications.

It would have been ideal to use a questionnaire and follow it up with an interview for

this study; however, the researcher felt that using these two research instruments would

not give a true picture of what was actually happening in the classroom. Since the

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research also wanted to propose a model for Namibian classrooms, the researcher felt

that hearing what teachers were saying in the questionnaire and triangulating that with

an observation would give a true picture of what was happening in Namibian

classrooms. Thus, the choice of using a questionnaires and observations in this study.

3.5.1. Questionnaires

The primary reason for choosing questionnaires was due to their potential to elicit first-

hand information such as knowledge, perception and beliefs of respondents on specific

items. Furthermore, Nunan (1992) notes that questionnaires are a fairly popular means

of collecting data among graduates and teachers, because data can easily be quantified as

opposed to field notes. The information gathered in the literature review regarding Code

Switching was used to design the questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised three

sections. In Section A, information such as the teachers‟ positions in the school, their

age, their gender, the subjects they were teaching, their qualifications, teaching

experience, and location of the school (whether urban, semi-urban or rural), was elicited

from the teachers.

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3.5.2. Observation checklist

An observation checklist was used to collect data through observing teachers in their

classrooms in particular English lessons. Observation is one of the procedures used to

obtain data in experimental, descriptive and qualitative research (Best and Kahn, 2006).

The observation checklist comprised two parts. Part A assessed the use of language in

teaching. The researcher observed and listened to how teachers gave instructions, how

they code switched if learners did not understand the specialized vocabulary or new

concepts and how learners reacted to such utterances by the teacher.

Part B examined which language formed the matrix and which formed the embedded

language during classroom talk. The role of the researcher was to observe and not to

interfere with the work of those being researched (Burgess, 1993).

3.6. Pilot study

The questionnaire and checklist were piloted using Grade 10 teachers at two schools in

the Caprivi Education Region which were not part of the sampled schools, but which

taught Grade 10 ESL. The pilot schools had the same characteristics as those which

participated in the final study. The main objective of the pilot study was to determine

whether the research instruments were effective in collecting appropriate data from the

participants. The pilot study allowed the researcher to alter and make changes to items

in the final research instruments (Mitchell and Jollet, 2001).

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Researchers (e.g., Robson, 1993, pp. 164 – 165) and Brace (2004, p. 164)

recommend that pilot studies be administered before actual research is carried

out. Pilot studies are used to determine whether:

 there are ambiguities in any of the items;

 the instruments elicit the type of data anticipated by the researcher;

 the respondents understand the questions;

 the data collection instruments capture the attention of the respondents

throughout;

 the respondents understand the instructions in the data collection

instruments; and

 the type of data collected could be meaningfully analysed in relation to

the stated research questions.

Based on the reasons given above the pilot study was undertaken. It was found out from

the pilot study that some of the questions needed to be fine-tuned for them to be

relevant, effective, applicable and to be clearly understood by the teachers.

3.6.1. Refinement of the research instruments

To achieve the desired results, the research instruments had to be refined after they had

been piloted. According to Patton (2001), validity and reliability are the two most

important factors that researchers should take into consideration when planning,

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designing, analysing results and judging the value of the study. In their contribution to

issues related to validity and reliability, Lincoln and Guba (1985, p. 290) posed the

following question, “How can an inquirer persuade his or her audiences that the research

findings of an inquiry are worth paying attention to?”

To ensure that the study produced the desired results, triangulation was used. According

to Mathison (1988, p. 13), “triangulation has raised an important methodological issue in

naturalistic and qualitative approaches to evaluation [in order to] control bias and

establishing valid propositions because traditional scientific techniques are incompatible

with this alternate epistemology”. The use of triangulation is further acknowledged by

Patton (2001, in Golafshani, 2003, p. 603) who states that “triangulation strengthens a

study by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data,

including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches”.

3.6.1.1 Validity

Joppe (2000) provides the following explanation of what validity in quantitative research

is: “Validity determines whether the research truly measures that which it was intended

to measure or how truthful the research results are. In other words, does the research

instrument allow you to hit „the bull‟s eye of your research object? According to Joppe

(2000, p. 1), “researchers generally determine validity by asking a series of questions

and often look for the answers in the research of others”. In addition, Best and Kahn

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(2006) maintain that questionnaires should be designed in such a way that they ask the

right questions phrased in the least ambiguous way and that terms are clearly defined so

that they have the same meaning. To ascertain whether the research instruments

addressed the research questions, the researcher gave colleagues and the supervisors the

research instruments to critically comment on the suitability of the questions. After

having received comments from colleagues and the supervisors, questions were

reworded to be understood by participants.

3.6.1.2 Reliability

Joppe (2000) defines reliability as “…the extent to which results are consistent over time

and an accurate representation of the total population under study is referred to as

reliability and if the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology,

then the research instrument is considered to be reliable” (p. 1). Charles (1995 in

Golafshani, 2003, p. 598) equates reliability to an instrument which is stable and says

“this attribute of the instrument is actually referred to as stability. If we are dealing with

a stable measure, then the results should be similar. A high degree of stability indicates a

high degree of reliability, which means the results are repeatable”.

However, Best and Kahn (2006) argue that since questionnaires differ from

psychological tests and inventories, that they have a short life; reliability can therefore

be obtained by defining the meaning of terms so that they have the same meaning to all

respondents. Comments from both colleagues and the supervisors were very helpful, as

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terms and abbreviations which were ambiguous were made clear and unambiguous. Due

to the fact that these instruments had undergone rigorous refinement before they were

administered, this researcher is of the opinion that these instruments can be depended

upon to secure consistent results upon repeated application.

3.7. Data collection process

Before the data collection process took place in the Caprivi Education Region,

permission was sought from the Regional Education Director through the office of the

Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education. Details and the purpose of the study

were communicated to the Permanent Secretary.

A letter of approval from the Permanent Secretary was mailed to the participating school

principals. At each participating school, the researcher explained the purpose of the

study to participating Grade 10 ESL teachers. The researcher distributed the

questionnaires to the sampled Grade 10 ESL teachers and collected them the same day

after being completed by the participants.

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3.8. Data analysis

In response to the research questions posed, two data analysis tools were used. Firstly,

descriptive statistics and frequency tables, graphs and tables were used to illustrate the

distribution of variables (age, sex, years of teaching experience and education status).

Quantitative analysis: Answers were coded and then transferred into the Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS) for statistical analysis. And finally, frequencies and

percentages were presented in pie and bar graphs.

Qualitative analysis: answers from questionnaires and observation checklist were coded

and categories. Sub-categories were established and grouped together as themes. Once

themes were identified, they were again coded with numbers and analysed by Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS). In addition, content analysis was used to group

responses from interviews and the observation checklist into themes and categories to

determine the meaning of the participants‟ views and practices towards Code Switching.

Content denotes what is contained and content analysis is the analysis of what is

contained in a message. Broadly content analysis may be seen as a method where the

content of the message forms the basis for drawing inferences and conclusions about the

content (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1976). Content analysis is defined by Krippendorfff

(2013, p. 1) as an “analysis of the manifest and latent content of a body of

communicated materials (as a book or film) through classification, tabulation, and

evaluation of its key symbols and themes in order to ascertain its meaning and probable

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effect.” Kondracki, Wellman and Amundson (2003) have described content analysis as

a process for systematically analyzing messages in any type of communication; a

technique which lies at the crossroads of qualitative and quantitative methods and

provides a scientific method for the evaluation of data collected using a variety of

qualitative research approaches including observations.

The simplest type of evaluation consequently consists of counting the numbers of

occurrences per category (assuming there is a relationship between frequency of content

and meaning). (Titscher et al., 2000).

The researcher uses observation and document analysis instead of asking people to

respond to questions, he/she takes the communications that people have produced and

asks questions of communications. During lesson observation, this researcher ticked on

his observation checklist the occurrences of a repeated code switch.

According to Krippendorfff (2013), once the text has been recorded and analytical

constructs have been applied the researcher needs to “compare the findings with data

obtained by other means or from other situations to support conclusions drawn from

other research, to gain confidence in the validity of the content analysis at hand, to add

another dimension to the intended inferences, or to provide missing information” (p.

188). The findings from the ministerial documents have to be compared to what teachers

actually said and to what was actually observed in ESL classrooms.

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3.9. Ethical considerations

The researcher informed the participants about the nature of the research and their rights

to either participate or to withdraw, should they so wish (Best and Kahn, 2006). Before

lessons were observed the consent of teachers was sought. To achieve confidentiality

and anonymity, the researcher referred to schools as A, B, and C while teachers were

referred to as teacher A1, teacher A2 and teacher A3 for School A and the same was

done for the other schools and teachers. The actual names of the schools and the teachers

do not appear in the research report for ethical reasons (Best and Kahn 2006).

3.10. Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to describe the research methodology of this study,

explain the sample selection, describe the procedure used in designing the instrument

and collecting the data, and provide an explanation of the statistical procedures used to

analyze the data.

The following chapter, Chapter 4 - Presentation of Findings, discusses in detail the

findings of all data collection phases, questionnaire and observations.

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 CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter contains a presentation and an analysis of all data collected as part of this

dissertation. The data were presented as themes and categories, supplemented by

literature to verify the results when necessary. As discussed in the methodology chapter

there are two main sources for the primary data:

 Questionnaires were completed by Grade 10 ESL teachers in the Caprivi

Education Region.

 Conducted an observation to Grade 10 ESL teachers at the 12 schools using an

observation checklist.

4.2. Data presentation

Part A of the questionnaire provided the responses from the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers,

that is, one teacher from each of the 12 secondary schools. This worked out to four

teachers from rural, four from semi-urban and four urban schools in the Caprivi

Education Region. Of the 12 questionnaires distributed, only 11 were fully completed

and received from the teachers. A follow-up to have one of the 12 respondents complete

all the questions proved futile. Despite the fact that the 12th questionnaire was not fully

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completed it had to be used due to the limited number of the sample and that the

respondent was also observed (see Table 4).

The researcher categorised the data under different themes. Once the categorisation was

completed, the researcher examined the categories to understand the data and relevant

categories and themes. The following themes and categories emerged.

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Table 4: Themes and categories

Theme 1: Biographical information of the respondents

Category 1.1. The position of the teachers
Category 1.2. The ages of the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers
Category 1.3. Qualifications of the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers
Category 1.4. Teaching experience of the 12 Grade10 ESL teachers
Category 1.5.The location of the schools
Category 1.6. The mother tongues of the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers

Theme 2: Medium of instruction

Category 2.1. English as the medium of instruction
Category 2.2. English medium of instruction a barrier to learning
Category 2.3. Code Switching enhances the teaching and learning of English
Category 2.4. Code Switching enhances academic performance
Category 2.5. Learners’ preferred language of communication

Theme 3: Teachers’ understanding of school language related policies

Category 3.1. Teachers’ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution
Category 3.2. Teachers’ understanding of the Language Policy
Category 3.3. Teachers’ understanding of Code Switching
Category 3.4. The Language Policy on Code Switching
Category 3.5. Effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners’ participation

Theme 4: The effects of Code Switching on English language teaching and learning
Category 4.1. Code Switching aids proficiency in the English language
Category 4.2. Correct teaching of the mother tongue aids the learning of the English language
Category 4.3. The use of Code Switching in English classrooms
Category 4.4. Existence of terminologies in mother tongue
Category 4.5. Barriers to Code Switching
Category 4.6. Learners’ participation and enthusiasm while Code Switching
Theme 5: The matrix–embedded model
Category 5.1. The matrix–embedded model on the acquisition of the English Language
Category 5.2. Teachers’ awareness of the matrix-embedded model
Category 5.3. Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model
Category 5.4. The implementation of the matrix-embedded model
Category 5.5. Obstacles to the implementation of the model
Category 5.6. Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy
Category 5.7. The matrix (English)-embedded (mother tongue) model
Category 5.8. The language that sets the syntax of the sentence

All verbatim responses relating to a theme are presented in tables or figures. This was

done to avoid a biased selection of data, which could decrease the trustworthiness of the

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research. Including all the data and avoiding “anecdotalism” enhances the

trustworthiness of the final presentation (Van der Wal, 2000).

4.3. Data Structure

The researcher categorized the data into three levels of abstraction with level three

(themes) the most abstract and level one (verbatim contained within categories) the most

concrete, representing respondents‟ experiences and perceptions.

The categorization resulted in five themes and 30 categories. The results of the data are

discussed according to the main themes and categories that emerged from the data.

Appropriate verbalisms are used where relevant to clarify the results, and literature is

provided to augment the findings.

4.4. Presentation of the themes, categories and data chunks

4.4.1 Theme 1: Biographical information of the respondents

The section on the background information in the questionnaire for the Grade 10 ESL

teachers consisted of 7 questions that covered the following: position of the teacher at

the school, age, gender, qualifications in the subjects they taught, teaching experience,

location of the school and the teachers‟ mother tongues. The category that follows

presents the positions of teachers at their respective schools.

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4.4.1.1 Category 1.1: The position of the teachers

In Table 5, the position of ESL teachers are examined to determine whether teachers‟

positions at schools have bearings on teaching. The position of each of the ESL teachers

in the schools where they taught is presented.

Table 5: Positions of the ESL teachers

Position in School Frequency

Head of Department 1
Teacher 11
Total 12

The data in Table 5 show that 11 of the Grade 10 ESL teachers were not school

managers. Only one respondent was a school manager, the position being that of head

of department (HoD). School managers are always inundated with a lot of tasks;

however, it was interesting to note that from Table 5 one of the sampled teachers was a

head of department. Not having school managers teaching could be worrisome because

if those in school management are not well informed of what the classroom environment

dictates, they could resis innovative teaching techniques proposed by the teachers.

4.4.1.2 Category 1.2: The ages of the ESL teachers

The issue of age of teachers is vital in the Namibian context as there were those teachers

who studied through the Bantu Education System and those who studied through the

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Cambridge Education System; this has a bearing on the teachers‟ English proficiency.

The ages of the ESL teachers are given in Table 6.

Table 6: Ages of the ESL teachers

Age groups Frequency

21 - 30 2
31 - 40 5
41 - 50 4
51 - 60 1
Total 12

Table 6 shows that two Grade 10 ESL teachers were between the ages 21 – 30, five

teachers were between the age range 31- 40years, followed by four teachers who were

between the ages of 41 - 50 years and one teacher was between 50 – 60 years. The

worrying factor in the sample was a gender imbalance of the ESL teachers; nine were

males while three were females. Results obtained could be influenced by gender

stereotyping.

From the information in Table 6 it is clear that the ESL teachers in this study were in the

age range 31 to 40 making them relatively young. It could be argued that with the

majority of teachers being young, teaching through the English language should have

improved if the young teachers were exposed to different teaching methods and if they

also had devoted their time to learning new methods of second language teaching. This

assumption was based on the fact that the young teachers were trained at the former

Colleges of Education and UNAM after independence when the medium of instruction

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changed from Afrikaans to English; therefore, they should have been equipped with the

necessary and appropriate teaching methods in English classrooms.

4.4.1.3 Category 1.3: Qualifications of the ESL teachers

Teachers‟ qualifications are associated with a solid foundation in their subject area and

training in learning theory and effective practices. If teachers have a solid foundation in

their subject areas they can employ good teaching strategies in their classes because of

the exposure that they had during training. It is for this reason that the researcher

wanted to find out whether teachers were professionally qualified to teach. Table 7

shows that all 12 teachers were professionally qualified to teach Grade 10 classes, with

eight possessing Higher Education Diploma (HED), three possessing Basic Education

Teaching Diploma (BETD), one possessing a Bachelor of Education (B. Ed)

qualification.

Table 7: Qualifications of the ESL teachers

Qualifications of teachers Frequencies

Basic Teachers 3
Education
Diploma (BETD)
Higher Education 8
Diploma (HED)
Bachelor of 1
Education (B.Ed.)
Total 12

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The data seem to suggest that schools in the Caprivi Education Region were staffed with

teachers who had gone through professional teacher training. One can add that if

training translated into better teaching and / or better learner results, then Caprivi

schools would be in a position to deliver better academic results.

4.4.1.4 Category 1.4: Teaching experience of the ESL teachers

Teachers improve their teaching with experience, especially in the first several years in

both general teaching and grade-specific experience. It is for this reason that the

researcher found it fit to examine the teaching experiences of the ESL teachers. Their

teaching experience ranged from two to more than fifteen years as shown in Table 8.

Table 8: Teaching experience of the ESL teachers

Teaching Experience Frequency

2 years 1
3 - 5 years 1
6 - 10 years 4
11 - 15 years 1
15 years and more 5
Total 12

As can be seen in Table 8, there were four teachers who had been in the teaching field

for more than six years and five had taught for 15 years and more.

It could be concluded that with well experienced teachers, both the teaching of English

and learning through English should have improved, and that teachers would have
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developed teaching strategies that best fitted their school environment. Based on the

teaching experiences of the teachers in this study, it can also be inferred that some of

them taught before the new curriculum was introduced. The results in Table 8 show that

the English teachers‟ teaching experience varied greatly.

4.4.1.5 Category 1.5: The location of the schools

The location of a school is essential when dealing with issues that relate to the use of the

English language. English language use varies from context to context and from place

to place, because English is not widely used in rural areas apart from the classrooms

while English can be heard on streets in urban areas, making it necessary for researchers

to address the issue of the Language Policy. In Namibia, English is the official language

and the medium of instruction in schools. English is the second language for many

Namibian children living in urban areas; but the same fact may not be true for rural

children.

Other factors worth mentioning are the disparity in terms of resource allocation,

exposure of learners to the media, be it print or electronic, and the use of English outside

the classroom. However, for this study an equal number of schools were drawn from

urban, semi-urban and rural areas, for example, four schools from each area of the

Caprivi Education Region.

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According to Kuliman et al. (1977), one of the most common phenomena in many

African countries has been that rural schools are in a dilapidated state. However, in

Namibia this is not so because most schools were built after independence. Also, the

extensive rural electrification has modernized most rural schools in Namibia. What

seems to be a problem in Namibian schools, however, is the issue of fewer resources,

which leads to deployment problems because well-trained, qualified teachers prefer to

teach in urban areas than in rural areas. As Kuliman et al. (1977) observe, teachers do

not accept positions in the rural areas because the conditions in the rural schools are not

up to the expected standard and the social life in the rural areas is virtually restricted as a

result of inadequate amenities. If facilities are deficient, playgrounds are without

equipment, libraries are without books while laboratories lack equipment and

consumables.

4.4.1.6 Category 1.6: The mother tongue of the ESL teachers

The mother tongue of the ESL teachers is also vital as it influences the way teachers

explain concepts which learners do not understand in their classroom. Figure 1 presents

the mother tongues of the ESL teachers in this study.

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 Cifwe, 2 Silozi, 2

Cisubia, 8

Figure 1: Mother tongue of the 12 Grade 10 ESL teachers.

The results in Figure 1 seem to suggest that the Cisubia mother tongue speakers

dominated the sample; there were eight Cisubia mother tongue speakers and two for

Cifwe and Silozi respectively. This deployment of teachers in areas where teachers do

not speak the first language of the learners could have serious consequences if learners

needed translation. This is not a serious issue in the Caprivi Education Region though,

which is unique in the sense that language does not affect teaching as most teachers can

speak or understand the first language of their learners.

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4.4.2 Theme 2: The medium of instruction in Namibian schools

The major theme that emerged from the data is that of medium of instruction used in

Namibian English medium classrooms. The categories below address the issue of

medium instruction in schools.

4.4.2.1 Category 2.1: English as the only medium of instruction in Namibian

schools

Since English is a second or third language in the Caprivi Education Region, the

researcher wanted to find out from Grade 10 ESL teachers in the Caprivi Education

Region whether the use of English as the only medium of instruction in their schools had

an effect on the English Second Language teaching. In addition, the researcher also

wanted to establish whether English as the only medium of instruction influenced

learners‟ participation in ESL classrooms. The teachers‟ responses are given in Table 9

below.

Table 9: Teachers’ responses to the effects of English on teaching and learning

Responses
Questions Yes No No idea Total
 Is English as the only medium of instruction a 2 9 1 12
barrier to effective teaching/learning?
 Is the policy on English as the only medium of 2 10 0 12
instruction a barrier to teaching/learning?
 Does English as the only medium of instruction 8 1 2 11
affect learners‟ participation in the classroom?

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It can be seen in Table 9 that nine Grade 10 ESL teachers said “no” to the first question,

which dealt with whether English as the only medium of instruction was a barrier to

effective teaching and learning, two agreed and one had no idea. The second question

sought to find out whether the policy on English as the only medium of instruction was a

barrier to English Second Language teaching and learning. Ten teachers in the sample

disagreed while two agreed.

The third question wanted to ascertain whether Grade 10 ESL teachers thought that

having English as the only medium of instruction had a negative effect on learners‟

participation. Eight out of the 11 teachers agreed that having English as the only

medium of instruction affected learners‟ participation in their classrooms.

4.4.2.2 Category 2.2: English medium of instruction a barrier to learning

In Table 10, the researcher wanted to find out whether teachers perceived the English

medium of instruction as a barrier to learning and asked respondents to give the reasons

for their answers.

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Table 10: English medium of instruction as a barrier to learning
Respondents Responses
A1 All other subjects are taught in English.
A2 Explaining only in English is a problem for some learners as they do not understand only when
you switch to the mother tongue do they understand.
A3 Learners get to practice the language more, “practice makes perfect, they say”.
A4 The introduction of preschool has changed the situation in some schools and yet those whose
schools that delayed the introduction of pre-schools has suffered.
A5 The English medium of instruction at school must be compulsory because this prepares learners for
the University, and not all other languages are used at the University.
A6 Learners will develop a culture of using the target language in their daily lives.
A7 Most learners in secondary school come from different languages, cultures, so teaching and
learning in English will favour all learners at once.
A8 Learners lack vocabulary and it is good sometimes to code-switch so that they can get the meaning
better and translate.
A10 Ministerial policies (government) are problematic. They encourage failure and
dependency/laziness as well as irresponsibility, immorality and even un-accountability.
A11 No, because learners have been passing well despite the foreign language being used as the
medium of instruction.
A12 Teachers have difficulties so they seem restricted/are very conservative in conversation with the
regards to English.

In Table 10, 10 Grade 10 ESL teachers indicated that they did not perceive English

medium of instruction as a barrier to learning and gave varying reasons for their

responses. Seven of teachers advocated for Code Switching in English medium

classrooms while two of the respondents seemed to blame the rigid Language Policy as a

barrier to learning and teaching.

4.4.2.3 Category 2.3: Effect of Code Switching on ESL teaching and learning

This category sought to find out whether Code Switching had any effect on the teaching

and the learning of English Second Language in ESL classrooms. Table 11 presents the

responses from the teachers garnered from the six questions asked in this category.

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Table 11: Effect of Code Switching on teaching and learning
Responses
Questions Total

YES No No Idea

 Does switching from English to mother 6 5 1 12

tongue help learners learn the EL?
 Does Code Switching improve learners‟ 9 2 0 11
participation in your English classroom?
 Do concepts in the mother tongue in an 5 4 0 9
English medium classroom develop
cognitive skills in the English language?
 Does a better understanding of the mother 4 7 0 11
tongue‟s grammar and sentence structure
translate easily into the learning of the
English language?
 Does Code Switching provide the support 5 6 0 11
needed for learners to develop proficiency
in the English language?
 Does Code Switching from mother tongue 8 3 0 11
to English language in an English medium
classroom enhance the development of
English if the mother tongue‟s structures
are correctly taught?

To the question seeking to determine whether switching from English to mother tongue

helped learners learn the English language, six teachers agreed, five said no and one did

not respond. To the second question, which sought to find out from the teachers whether

Code Switching improved learners’ participation in their classrooms, the majority of

the teachers (nine) responded “yes”, while two said “no”. The third question looked at

whether concepts in the mother tongue in English medium classrooms developed

learners‟ cognitive academic skills. Here, five teachers agreed and four disagreed. The

fourth question focused on whether better understanding of mother tongue‟s grammar

and sentence structures helped learners to easily understand the grammar and sentence

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structures of the English language. To this question seven teachers disagreed and four

agreed. In response to question five, which sought to find out from the teachers whether

Code Switching provided the support needed for learners to develop proficiency in the

English language, six ESL teachers disagreed and five agreed. Question six asked the

teachers whether Code Switching from mother tongue to English in an English medium

classroom enhanced the development of the English language, if the mother tongue‟s

structures were correctly taught. In response to this question, eight teachers said “yes”,

while three disagreed.

4.4.2.4 Category 2.4: Code Switching enhances academic performance

According to Cheng and Butler (1989), Code Switching is used to maximize

communication and to strengthen not only the content but the essence of the message; it

can be considered an asset, not a deficiency. The views of teachers as to whether Code

Switching had effects on learners‟ academic achievement are given in Table 12.

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Table 12: The effects of Code Switching on learners’ academic achievement

Respondents Responses
A1 Learners will only understand what is explained when you code switch but won‟t understand it in
English.
A2 Learners‟ academic achievement will be affected as there are so many different types of languages
spoken throughout the nation. There is no communication if people speak different languages.
A3 Both positive and negative. If done to a lesser extent it won‟t have a negative effect on the
improvement of medium of instruction.
A4 Though some psychologists argue that Code Switching improved learners' understanding. I feel
Code Switching will positively work well with learners whose English is up to date because they
can translate from mother tongue to English.
A5 It enhances the teaching and learning of English as the Second Language
A6 Learners might continuously use code – switching in their writings as well as speaking
A7 Learners are improving in much on their answering of questions in exams
A8 When done regularly and carefully learners can improve their writing skills of words in their
mother tongues in activities like essays, letters, etc.
A10 Poor language proficiency, “poor language expression”, “poor command of the English language
and Incorrect interpretation of questions in examinations.
A11 Code Switching produces average speakers of the English language.
A12 Code Switching improves performance of learners.

In answering whether Code Switching had an effect on learners‟ academic achievement,

the 11 ESL teachers gave mixed responses. Five teachers felt that Code Switching had

positive effects on learners‟ academic achievements. They argued that Code Switching

enhanced learners‟ learning of the English language, improved the way learners

answered questions, and that it enhanced teaching and learning of English as a Foreign

Language. However, one ESL teacher was adamant that there were many dialects

spoken in the Caprivi Region and questioned as to which dialect could be used in mixed

mother tongue classrooms and reiterated that the use of Code Switching would hinder

communication in the classrooms. Another teacher in the sample argued that learners

might carry over Code Switching into their writing, and that Code Switching would lead

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to poor language proficiency, poor expression and poor command of the English

language both spoken and written.

With respect to whether Code Switching enhanced learners‟ academic performance in

ESL classrooms, three teachers agreed. Nine of the ESL teachers felt that Code

Switching did not help learners academically. Table 13 gives the reasons given for their

answers.

Table 13: The effects of English as a subject and as the medium of instruction on
learners’ academic performance
Respondents Responses

A1 Academic performance will be improved because learners will get used to the language as
they learn the subject matter.
A2 The language used in subject content is different from the one used in the English language
itself. Little is done to control the language usage in content subjects. Language errors in
content subjects are overlooked.
A3 I teach ESL and the effects are positive.
A4 Learners will do well because the same language they learn in the ESL classroom is the
same language they will meet in the content subject classrooms.
A5 It seems learners are coping up that‟s why they are doing well in English medium
classrooms.
A6 The academic performance of learners will improve due to the fact that they have the
subject matter, for example, the grammar rules. Sentences construction reading.
A7 They do better.
A8 Some learners‟ mother tongue writing skills can improve if the mother tongue is used to
explain the topic.
A10 Learners are aided by the double role that English provides.
A11 Learners improve their English language proficiency.
A12 Their academic performance will definitely improve as the content subjects are also taught
in English.

Out of the 12 respondents, nine teachers said that the learning of English as a subject and

at the same time as the medium of instruction was positive, as learners would get used to

the language. One teacher even went further to claim that learners were coping with the

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use of English as medium of instruction that was why they were doing very well in

examinations. This teacher‟s claim was contrary to the results displayed in Tables 1 and

2, where the averages ranged between 38.2% and 52.4%. The results from nine teachers

supported the use of both English as a medium of instruction and as a subject in schools,

the results seemed to support views expressed by Wringe (1989), Pennycook (1994),

Krashen (1985) and Romaine (1996) who maintain that English should be the only

medium of instruction to avoid error transference.

The perceived advantages of Code Switching were sought from the ESL teachers. In

Table 14, the teachers‟ perceived advantages of Code Switching in English medium

classrooms are given.

Table 14: Teachers’ perceived advantages of Code Switching in English medium

classrooms
Respondents Responses
A1 Learners don‟t know any of the things in English, especially the ones that make them to
Code Switch.
A2 It is ease to explain something for learners to understand better.
A3 Learners get to understand what they couldn‟t.
A4 The teacher has a few roles in explaining to the learners, learners will take the roles as
they can explain.
A5 The teacher receives support which makes teaching even easier, though it would deprive
learners from acquiring new vocabulary.
A6 Learners will carry out instructions effectively, keep learners actively involved in the
lesson, and understand the subject matter.
A7 It makes teaching easier especially if the mother tongue is spoken by all the learners in the
classroom.
A8 Makes the topic easier to understand.
A10 Better explanation of the topics/item, better interpretation, and stimulation and
participation.
A11 It benefits the teacher to equip himself with the language techniques, teaches and
language proficient.
A12 Opportunity to explain concepts which learners do not understand.

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From the responses in Table 13, it can be seen that ten of the respondents saw many

advantages, ranging from better explanations, better understanding of learners, and

better support for teachers to learners carrying out instructions. The respondents further

claimed that learners would be actively involved in their learning, understand the subject

matter better and the difficult English concepts would be better interpreted by learners in

the language that they fully understood.

The following arguments were presented by teacher A6, A8, A10 and A11 respectively,

for example, Learners would carry out instructions effectively, keep learners actively

involved in the lesson, and understand the subject matter, makes the topic easier to

understand, better explanation of the topics/item, better interpretation, and stimulation

and participation and that it benefits the teacher to equip himself with the language

techniques. The arguments presented by teachers above were in agreement with those

by Johnson (in preparation), Cummins (2000), Venzke (2002), Dumatog and Dekker

(2003), Gonzalez (1996), Diaz (1983) and Biggs (1981) to mention but a few. These

researchers argued that the use of a second language as a medium of instruction poses

challenges for many learners.

4.4.2.5 Category 2.5: Learners’ preferred language of communication

The majority of Namibian learners are second or third language speakers of English and

struggle to communicate through English. In Figure 2, the results show the language in

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which learners preferred to communicate in their classrooms as narrated by ESL

teachers.

English Some English and Some Mother Tongue Mother Tongue

Mother Tongue, 1

Some English and

Some Mother
Tongue, 3
English, 7

Figure 2: The language in which learners prefer to speak during the lesson

It can be deduced from Figure 2 that the majority of the teachers in the study (seven out

of 11) indicated that their learners preferred English, while three mentioned English and

a mother tongue (a mixture) and one mentioned that they preferred mother tongue.

There was a follow-up question that sought to find out the reasons why learners

preferred the language /s mentioned in Figure 2. The teachers in the study presented the

following reasons, as shown in Table 15.

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Table 15: Teachers’ perceived reasons why learners preferred a particular
language in the classroom talk

Respondents Responses
A1 Because it is the medium through which they should learn the English language.
A2 They lack the vocabulary of the English language that is why they switch to Mother
tongue.
A3 For all to understand as it is a multilingual school.
A4 They take it as a must or an instruction that should be used.
A5 They know English is compulsory and knows the benefit of it.
A6 Because they know it‟s the medium of instruction.
A7 They know it is what the school policy stipulates.
A8 They are allowed to use their mother tongue when working in groups in an English class
and they are also willing to know the language better.
A10 Not competent in English.
A11 For easy communication.
A12 No more worried/afraid of making mistakes know what they want to say and how.

In defence of the learners‟ preference for English, the seven ESL teachers indicated that

the learners preferred the English language because it was the medium through which

they should learn and that they were multilingual schools. However, four ESL teachers

argued that learners preferred the local languages because; they lacked the vocabulary of

the English language that was why they switched to mother tongue, and that they too

allowed mother tongue to be used by learners when working in groups because their

learners were not competent in English.

4.4.2.6 Category 2.6: Teachers’ preferred language of communication for learners

Figure 3 presents the responses of the teachers participating in the study regarding the

language in which they (teachers) preferred their learners to communicate during

classroom discussions and interaction.

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 English English but lack vocabulary No Response

No Response, 1
English but lack
vocabulary, 1

English, 10

Figure 3: The language in which the teachers’ preferred the learners to speak

All eleven teachers in the study indicated that they preferred their learners to speak

through the medium of English. One respondent indicated that though he/she preferred

his/her learners to communicate through English when answering and asking questions,

he/she went on to say that his/her learners did not have sufficient English language

vocabulary to express themselves.

Table 16 presents the reasons given by the ESL teachers why they preferred their

learners to communicate in English.

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Table 16: Reasons why the teachers preferred learners to use the English language
in class
Respondents Responses
A1 Learners cannot learn English when using other languages.
A2 English is the only medium of instruction /international language used worldwide and is
the Official Language in Namibia.
A3 It is a policy that helps learners to improve their spoken and written English.
A4 For learners to understand instructions used in the books, for practice and it is a policy
that should be followed.
A5 The content or the books are written in the English language therefore, learners should
speak in English.
A6 So that they can practice more and develop their communication skills.
A7 Lessons are in English, therefore learners should learn to express themselves in the
English language
A8 All subjects are taught through English, apart from the Silozi language it is therefore good
for learners to practice more with the English language.
A10 Practice makes perfect they are tested in English, the Official language, realization of the
learning and teaching objectives is in the English language.
A11 Learners are shy and their English vocabulary is poor.
A12 English is the medium of instruction in the Namibian schools.

Eleven teachers catalogued the following reasons for their preference of English:

“Learners might not learn English when using other languages; it is the only medium of

instruction /international language used world-wide and for occupations”; “it was a

policy and helps them improve their English; to understand instructions used in the

books, for practice and it is a policy that should be followed”; “the content or the books

are written in the English Language”; “so that they can practice more and develop their

communication skills”; “they are in English lesson classrooms therefore, they should

learn to express themselves in the English language”; since all subjects are taught

through English, it‟s imperative for learners to practice as practice makes perfect and

that they are examined in English and it is the official language, to realize learning

objectives; they are shy to express themselves in English because of poor English

vocabulary which is the medium of instruction”. Therefore, the teachers seem to hold

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the view that the continuous use of English by the learners could improve their learners‟

English proficiency. In Table 17 the ESL teachers were asked to support the reasons

they mentioned in Table 16.

Table 17: Teachers’ support of the reasons mentioned in Table 16

Respondents Responses
A1 No response.
A2 If learners cannot communication, they cannot be employed.
A3 Learners vary, practice makes perfect so there is great improvement in their learning.
A4 Learners develop fluency, vocabulary and confidence to use the English
Language and even find it easy to answer questions in examinations and Tests.
A5 They are motivated.
A6 It helps them very much when speaking and writing.
A7 They do much better in answering some exam questions.
A8 Something they would prefer to use American English or use sms language,
Because, of new technology.
A10 Positive learning objective is realized.
A11 Learners tend to hate the English language.
A12 English is the medium of instruction in the Namibian schools.

The responses in Table 17 were given by the teachers, in which they detailed the effects

of the preferred language on their learners‟ learning of the English language. Ten of the

ESL teachers substantiated the reasons they gave (see Table 16) by arguing that it was a

positive move which helped learners to prepare for examinations, for speaking and

writing purposes, for employment and vocabulary expansion.

4.4.3 Theme 3: Teachers’ understanding of school language related policies

The fourth theme that emerged from the data was that of understanding of the school

language related policies applicable to teachers. For teachers to effectively and

efficiently execute their mandate, they have to understand school language related

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policies. The categories that follow elicit teachers‟ understanding of school language

related policies.

4.4.3.1 Category 3.1: Teachers’ understanding of the Language Policy

In this category, the researcher wanted to find out whether the teachers understood the

Namibian Language Policy for schools. The responses are displayed in Table 18.

Table 18: Teachers’ understanding of the language policy for schools

Respondents Responses
A1 It is a tool through which I must teach the language.
A2 Enabling learners to acquire a functional vocabulary and pronunciation in the language
through informal and formal learning to understand, speak, read and write fluently and
correctly.
A3 English is a second language and should be treated as such.
A4 English should be used as the medium of instruction. If learners don‟t get the explanation
on the item being presented to them, the teacher should look for other ways in English.
A5 It means a lot to me because the policy encourages the use of English and by following it
we can be able to achieve goals.
A6 It means that grades 8 – 12 will be taught through the medium of instruction (English).
The mother tongue will continue to be as taught as a subject on its own.
A7 It means a lot especially that it describes English to be the medium of instruction in
schools.
A8 To be used as a medium of instruction when teaching and one chooses a mother tongue.
A10 It means English is and has to be the medium of communication in the classroom.
A11 From Grades 4-10 English medium of instruction.
A12 Language policy for schools say that English should be used as a medium of instruction
from 4-12, this to me means that the communication in school should be done through the
English language.

Nearly all the teachers in the sample (ten out of eleven) were of the opinion that the

language policy prescribed that English should be the only medium of instruction. Only

one teacher expressed that English should be treated as a Second Language.

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4.4.3.2 Category 3.2: Teachers’ understanding of Code Switching

It is imperative that teachers understand the provisions for Code Switching in the

Namibian School Language Policy for them to effect any change of implementing the

instruction in their ESL classrooms. Table 19 presents the teachers‟ understanding of

Code Switching.

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Table 19: Teachers’ understanding of Code Switching
Respondents Responses
A1 It is the shifting of language from one language to the other.
A2 It means mixing English words with the mother tongue words when speaking or
explaining something.
A3 Switching from the language used as a medium of instruction to one which is not.
A4 The practice of moving between variation languages in a particular region. In schools it
would mean changing from using one language to use another when speaking.
A6 Code Switching refers to changing of one language to the other language for example
from English to Silozi and vice versa.
A7 The move from mother language to English used as the medium of understanding.
A8 Changing from one language to another while teaching or in discussions
A10 Breaking or violating of a law/ regulation.
A11 To change Silozi language to English language –means to switch from one language to
the other.
A12 This when the second language speakers of any language, switch between the 2 nd
language used in conversation to their first language in order to emphasize on issues to
make it more meaningful.

The data in Table 19 indicate that the majority of the teachers in this study (nine out of

ten) had a good understanding of the term Code Switching. Some used terms such as

shifting, mixing, variations and changing to refer to Code Switching. Only one

respondent had a different understanding of the term referring to it as a violation of the

law/regulation.

4.4.3.3 Category 3.3: Teachers’ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian

Constitution

The researcher wanted to find out if the teachers understood what Article 3.2 of the

Constitution meant in relation to the use of English as a medium of instruction. Article

3:2 states that nothing contained in it “shall prohibit the use of any language as medium

of instruction. Table 20 gives teachers interpretations of Article 3.2 of the Namibian

Constitution.

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Table 20: Teachers’ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution
Respondents Responses
A1 My understanding is that if someone has to switch codes should deem it necessary for
other people to understand.
A2 It stimulates the residents of Namibia not to do away with their home languages because
in future there might be selected languages to be used as a medium of instruction in
schools.
A3 Other languages should be used to teach learners if they don‟t understand what‟s being
said in English.
A4 We are looking at requirements to have any other language as a medium of instruction but
the group will be affected with job opportunities.
A5 I do not support the idea simply because having any other language as medium of
instruction does not help us. English is the gateway to the whole world.
A6 English should be the medium of instruction and other language should not be used.
A7 In lower primary where we have children of lower ages from different backgrounds
maybe entitled to their mother tongue as the medium of instruction.
A8 For effective learning-teaching to be successful it‟s good for a teacher to use another
language which learners understand better, and later in English.
A10 It means changes can still be made in connection with the medium of instruction and that
there is room for that depending on the language policy/internal policy of the school in
respect of the ministry‟s approval.
A11 All languages are equal of importance in Namibia and can be used freely in all offices.
A12 The Constitution states that mother tongue can only be used up to grade 4 and from Grade
upwards English is the medium of instruction.

A closer look at teachers A1, A2, A3, A7, A8 and A10 who seemed to have understood

the implication of the Article indicated that the Article provided leeway for the use of

other languages as media of instruction in the classroom. Teachers A5, A6, A11 and

A12 responses were not in accord with Article 3.2. of the Namibian Constitution.

4.4.3.4 Category 3.4: The Language Policy on Code Switching

It is necessary that teachers apply the correct interpretation of the Namibian schools

Language Policy regarding its provisions for Code Switching. This is because if teachers

do not interpret the Language Policy correctly, they might work against its provisions.

Teachers were therefore asked if there was provision for Code Switching in the

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Namibian Language Policy for schools. Table 21 displays responses from the ESL

teachers.

Table 21: The provision for Code Switching in the Language Policy
Respondents Responses
A2 Developing positive attitudes towards language learning and enabling learners to use the
language with confidence for learning in school and in daily life.
A3 To be used to a lesser extent meaning, after all has failed.
A4 At secondary its existence is slim and most commonly at lower grades.
A6 The language policy will not have provisions for Code Switching except in the Lower
Primary cycle where it will be used for concept formation as well as literacy and
numeracy attainment.
A7 It provides that all secondary school subjects be taught in English
A8 Every learner takes two languages and English is compulsory, because all students must
be taught in English, apart from their mother tongue.
A10 In the case of learning differences whereby learners don‟t seem to understand in the
medium of instruction an alternative can be considered, for example, explaining in a better
understanding /preferred language.
A11 All the languages are freely usable in the republic of Namibia since they enhance the
culture of that society.
A12 No idea.

Only three of the teachers participating in this study said that the Namibian Language

Policy for schools made provision for Code Switching in the classroom

4.4.3.5 Category 3.5: Effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners’ participation
in the classrooms.

Responding to the question whether the language used in the classroom could affect

learners‟ participation in the classroom, half of the teachers said the language of

instruction did not have an effect on learners‟ participation in the classroom. Three

indicated that it did, and one said s/he was not sure. The responses of the teachers are

given in Table 22.

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Table 22: The effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners’ participation
Responses Number
ESL Code Switching
Yes 3 6
No 6 5
Not sure 1 1
Total 10 12

However, when applying the same question to Code Switching, more teachers in the

sample (6 out of twelve) said that Code Switching had positive effects on learners‟

participation; five indicated otherwise.

4.4.4 Theme 4: The effects of Code Switching on English language

The fourth theme that emerged from the data was that of the applicability of Code

Switching in classrooms where both teachers and learners were using a second language

as a medium of instruction. There were six categories addressed under this theme.

4.4.4.1 Category 4.1: Code Switching aids proficiency in the English language
Data units on how Code Switching can aid learning, the development of cognitive skills

and English proficiency are contained in Table 23.

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Table 23: Code Switching aids the learning, the development of cognitive skills and
proficiency in the English Language
Responses Number
Learning Cognitive Proficiency in English
development
Yes 6 5 6
No 5 4 5
No Response 1 3 1
Total 12 12 12

What emerges from Table 23 is that half (six) of the ESL teachers indicated that Code

Switching aided learning while five said no. The second variable was whether Code

Switching aided the development of cognitive skills in English, to which five said yes,

while four said no and three did not respond to the question. The third variable was

whether Code Switching aided proficiency in the English Language, six said yes while

five said no.

4.4.4.2 Category 4.2: Correct teaching of the mother tongue (MT) aids the learning
of the English Language (EL)

Table 24 presents the various responses given by the ESL teachers as to whether correct

understanding of the mother tongue‟s grammar and sentence structure aided to the

learning of the English Language.

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Table 24: Correct teaching of mother tongue grammar and sentence structure
aides the learning and proficiency in English Language
Responses Number
Learning of English Proficiency in English
Yes 4 6
No 7 5
Total 11 11

Table 24 addressed two questions, question one dealt with the correct teaching of mother

tongue grammar and sentence structure how it aided the learning of the English

language, while sub question 2 dealt with whether correct teaching of mother tongue

grammar and sentence structure enhanced proficiency in English. Responses to question

one indicated that seven ESL teachers disagreed that correct teaching of mother tongue

grammar and sentence structure translated into the learning of English language while

four ESL teachers agreed with the statement. Responses to question 2 indicated that six

ESL teachers agreed that correct teaching of mother tongue grammar and sentence

structure aided proficiency in English language while five disagreed.

In Table 25 comments made by the ESL teachers regarding the learners who started

answering questions in English and then switched to the mother tongue to complete their

answers are presented.

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Table 25: Teachers’ reaction when learners Code switched
Respondents Responses
A2 I will tell him/her not to combine the two languages at the same time.
A3 Let him/her finish and ask him/her later to try and translate that part he/she said in the
mother tongue in English.
A4 Though annoying, I will let the learner finish with whatever s/he is saying, then ask any
learner to say what has been said by the fellow learner in English.
A5 As a teacher I shall just help the learner or correct him/her to do the right thing.
A6 Encourage the learners to use the correct wording in English for example explaining that
which is he/she said in the mother tongue in English.
A7 It will always give a chance to that specific learner to try and give the same answer in
English.
A8 Emphasis must be given to learners not to combine the two languages, if it‟s English it
must be English no matter whether learners do not understand through the medium of the
English language.
A10 Very uncomfortable and the learners would not be allowed to finish the sentence in the
mother tongue but would ask the learner to answer in English as we all know that practice
makes perfect.
A11 To handle it professionally.
A12 I will not be happy with learners through Code Switching may be good; leaners should
express themselves in the target languages as far as possible.

Seven ESL teachers said that they would allow a learner to continue without interrupting

him/her and would later on help the learner to use English. Three said they would

immediately stop the learner and instruct them to use English.

Table 26 presents responses by the teachers as to how they handled learners who started

answering in English and switched to mother tongue in ESL classrooms.

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Table 26: How teachers handled learners who Code Switched
Respondents Responses
A2 Warn the learner that he/she should not repeat the same mistakes. Help the learner with
the English word from the mother tongue.
A3 Sometimes I cut him/her off before finishing and remind him/her to use English.
A4 Though on several occasions, I at times stop the learner immediately to avoid the use of
the mother tongue or I correct the learner, meaning I tell him/her what he/she was
supposed to say.
A5 I correct the mistake immediately.
A6 Yes, I have to explain to the learner the correct wording in English and alert the learners
to use English or explain the word(s) to the learner, often I use contextual clues.
A7 I accepted the answer and let the same learner try and explain or look for an English
equivalent word.
A8 I interrupted and instructed everyone to use English always in an English class unless
otherwise.
A10 Encourage learners to communicate in English, motivate and show the need and benefits
of practicing the English language.
A11 Not angry but cohesively let them defend their answers.
A12 Encourages learners to use English unless otherwise.

The ESL teachers‟ responses (Table 26) differed from teacher to teacher. However, five

said that they stopped the learner immediately and warned the learner to only use the

English language during classroom discussions, while another five respondents said that

they tolerated the learners‟ Code Switching

4.4.4.3 Category 4.3: The use of Code Switching in English medium classrooms

It is a fact that English has become both the language of power and the language of

education and socioeconomic advancement, that is, a dominant symbolic resource in the

linguistic market (Bourdieu, 1991). However, in Namibia, English remains the language

of the minority. Therefore, dominant use of English in the corridors of power ramifies in

complex ways classroom practices.

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The category on use the of Code Switching in English medium classrooms addressed

the following questions: the presence of Code Switching in ESL classrooms, teachers‟

use of Code Switching while teaching, existence of terminologies in the mother tongue

and learners‟ participation when Code Switching was used. Table 27 gives responses of

the teachers on the above questions.

Table 27: The use of Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms

YES NO NO TOTALS
IDEA
Code Switching is present in the classrooms 9 1 0 10
Teachers Code Switch while teaching 9 2 0 11
Terminologies exist in Mother tongues to facilitate Code 3 6 0 9
Switching
Code Switching improves learners‟ participation in the classroom 7 4 0 11

As can be seen in Table 27, nine ESL teachers indicated that Code Switching was

present in their classrooms and that they, along with their learners, code switched in

their classrooms. Only one teacher said Code Switching was not present in his English

medium classroom. Two said they did not use Code Switching in their classrooms at all.

Although nine teachers agreed that they code switched in their teaching, only three

agreed that there were terminologies in the mother tongue to aid Code Switching, while

six felt that the mother tongue did not have sufficient terminologies to support Code

Switching from mother tongue to English. Three did not respond to the question (see

Table 27).

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As to whether learners‟ participation improved when Code Switching was used, seven

teachers agreed that Code Switching improved learners‟ participation in their

classrooms, while four said no.

4.4.4.4 Category 4.4: Learners’ reactions when Code Switching was allowed in the
classrooms

Figure 4 provides learners reaction when Code Switching was allowed in their

classrooms.

Learners' reactions when Code Switching was introduced in

the classrooms

No Response, 3

Indifferent, 1 Happy, 7

Sad, 1

Figure 4: The ESL teachers’ reaction to learners’ Code Switching

In Figure 4 seven ESL teachers agreed that learners appeared happy when Code

Switching was allowed in the classrooms; one teacher said the learners appeared sad,

while another teacher said that learners appeared indifferent.

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In Table 28, the idea was to find out how teachers experienced their learners‟ reactions

when the use of the mother tongue was allowed in English medium classrooms. Table

28 gives the reasons why learners‟ appeared sad, happy or indifferent when Code

Switching was introduced in their classrooms as perceived by their teachers.

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Table 28: Reasons why learners were sad, happy or indifferent when Code
Switching was introduced in their classrooms

Respondents Responses
Yes No

A1 Reason not given.

A2 Everyone needs to speak. They feel free

because they are now speaking their
own mother tongue.
A3 They are free to express themselves.

A4 It is the time they feel comfortable to

speak because they are confident that
they will not make mistakes.
A5 I do not code switch.

A6 Very much, because they are able to

express themselves pretty well.
A7 They always do class discussions

A8 They quickly mastered everything.

A10 Learners are not afraid of making

mistakes because they know what they
want to say and how they want to say it.
A11 Learners need Code Switching but no
too much since it will slow down their
mastery of the English language.
A12 Maybe they find it easier when they use
their mother tongue.

Table 28 shows that nine out of eleven indicated that their learners participated actively

in their classrooms when Code Switching was introduced. One teacher said that he did

not code switch at all. Another teacher did not give any reason for his response.

However, the one who claimed that learners felt sad claimed that it was because learners

expected the lesson to be conducted through the medium of English but were

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disappointed when teachers code switched. One teacher said that he had not

experienced learners appearing sad, happy or indifferent as he did not use Code

Switching in his classroom. Another teacher claimed that learners felt indifferent as

they spoke in unison and loudly.

4.4.4.5 Category 4.5: Learners’ enthusiasm when Code Switching was allowed

In Caprivi there are more than seven languages (dialects) spoken. English is only used

for official rather than for social purpose. The use of English also differs from urban to

rural. In urban areas English can be heard in some quarters while in rural areas English

can only be heard on the radio or in classrooms. Therefore, the use of English in the

classroom might strain learners, and it is for this reason that the researcher wanted to

find out from the teachers‟ their views about their learners‟ reactions when mother

tongue use was allowed in the English medium classrooms.

Table 29 presents the ESL teachers‟ experiences regarding their learners‟ enthusiasm

when they were allowed to code switch in their classrooms.

Table 29: Teachers’ experiences about their learners’ enthusiasm when they were
allowed to code switch in their classrooms
Responses Numbers
Yes 7
No 4
Total 11

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Seven respondents said yes that they had experienced learners being enthusiastic when

Code Switching was allowed, while four said no.

4.4.4.6 Category 4.6: Barriers to Code Switching

Table 30 presents the responses by ESL teachers as to what they perceived as barriers to

Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms.

Table 30: Barriers to Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms

Respondents Responses
A2 The medium of instruction is English, no Code Switching, explanations are written in
English not mother tongue. Employment needs people who can express themselves in
English.
A3 Learners should get used to English; therefore teachers should find alternative ways of
explaining things to learners in English instead of Code Switching.
A4 The school rules, the fact that every learner should use English does not create room for
utterances in the mother tongue; policy on subjects, mostly are written in English, so
learners use English inside and outside the classrooms.
A6 Learners do not understand concepts in English, at time learners do not understand
instructions said in English.
A7 Learners are shy to speak in class; at time learners say English words with their mother
tongue influence “pronunciation”.
A8 Spelling when some fail to write the correct spelling of the words in English, they will
end up writing it in Silozi.
A10 Inability to read, speak and write- lack of vocabulary and reading skills forces learners to
consider Code Switching;
In exposure/in informed- not oriented are of things happening (contemporary) that could
acquire in primary (poor foundation/background).
A11 Misconceptions about not giving jobs.

There was an equal split in teachers „responses, four seemed not to have understood the

question, judging from the responses that they gave. Nevertheless, the four who

understood the question and were for Code Switching listed the following as barriers to

Code Switching: the language policy, school rules, lack of vocabulary in the mother

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tongue and misconception about job opportunities. However, the four respondents were

against Code Switching.

4.4.5 Theme 5: The matrix–embedded model

The dilemma in which Namibian schools find themselves is that the Namibian Ministry

of Education has adopted English as the medium of instruction, irrespective of whether

learners are competent in English or not. This, therefore, puts teachers in a difficult

situation. For pedagogical reasons, a language that learners are competent in is

recommended, while at the same time schools must answer to the calls of government of

popularizing English.

4.4.5.1 Category 5.1: Teachers’ awareness of the matrix-embedded model

Table 31 presents the teachers‟ responses to two questions of teachers being aware of the

matrix-embedded model and the successful implementation of such a model in the

Namibian Grade 10 ESL classrooms.

Table 31: Teachers’ awareness of the matrix-embedded model and its

implementation
YES NO NO TOTAL
IDEA
Are teachers aware of the matrix-embedded model? 3 7 0 10

Can the proposed matrix-embedded model be successfully 6 3 0 9

implemented in Grade 10 English medium classroom?

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In Table 31, three of the ESL teachers indicated that they were aware of the matrix-

embedded model, while seven said they were not aware. As far as the implementation

of the matrix-embedded model six teachers indicated that such a model could be

implemented successfully in Grade 10 English medium classrooms.

4.4.5.2 Category 5.2: The matrix–embedded model on the acquisition of the English
Language (EL)

As this researcher set out to do this study, he had convinced himself that there should be

a model that could address the communication barrier in the classrooms since English as

a Second Language was used as a medium of instruction and yet learners‟ English

proficiency was low. It should be pointed out that learners experience challenges where

a second language is used as a medium of instruction. However, to deny learners the use

of their mother tongue in the classroom is regarded as another form of discrimination

(Freira, 1985). Therefore, a more balanced approach is best route to take in such a

situation. It is for this reason that the Matrix-embedded model was advanced.

Table 32 presents teachers‟ comments on the effects of the matrix-embedded model for

the acquisition of the English language in the subjects that they taught.

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Table 32: Teachers’ comments on the effects of the matrix-embedded model for
the acquisition of the English language
Respondents Responses
A2 Their writing will be full of grammatical and spelling mistakes.
A3 No response.
A4 The matrix-embedded model can be effective even though mother tongues still lack some
vocabulary and written structures.
A6 The target language will be learnt much better because the mother tongue will not be used
most of the time.
A8 Yes, but no reason given.
A11 The matrix-embedded Language model is alright for the English language acquisition.
A12 I think the matrix-embedded language model will enhance understanding of the English
language.

Table 32 shows that three respondents felt that the matrix-embedded model could be an

effective way of learning and teaching a language and that the target language would be

learnt better since the mother tongue would be minimized. One teacher argued that the

matrix-embedded model was appropriate as it would foster the acquisition of the target

language and enhance content understanding.

4.4.5.3 Category 5.3: Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded

model

Table 31 presents the reasons given by the ESL teachers regarding the envisaged advantages and

disadvantages of the matrix-embedded model on the English language teaching and learning.

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Table 33: Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model of the
English language

Resp. Advantages Disadvantages

A2 Learners can understand the subject matter very The matrix-embedded model does not enable
well which can lead to mastery of the content learners to progress in English language usage and
being presented. limits vocabulary expansion.
A3 Learners become aware of grammar rules in Does not create awareness of the differences in
both the mother tongue and the English grammar rules in both languages.
language.
A4 The matrix-embedded model creates confusion Creates confusion of structure from one language to
of structures and grammar and syntax from one another and grammar rules.
language to another.
A6 The learners can master the grammar rules and Code- switching might not have an effect on the
learn the basic rules of language structures. target language
A7 The matrix-embedded model helps learners It makes the mother tongue dominate because every
from different language groupings to better learner would never want to speak the English
understand one another. language.
A8 Learners come from different cultures and The matrix-embedded model makes other learners
languages; therefore English can make it easier who cannot express themselves better in English not
for them to understand one another. to participate.
A10 English as a subject to be taught and learnt shall The matrix-embedded model creates dependency on
accomplish its learning objectives. the mother tongue.
A11 To make foreign language easier. The mother tongues derail the learning of the
English language as the mother tongue dominates.
A12 The matrix-embedded model helps to improve If mother tongue is used often it will become a
learners‟ performance, as learners will really tendency thus affecting learners‟ performance
understand the topic and contribute to negatively.
discussions in class.

Teachers A2, A3, A4, A6, A7, A8, A10, A11 and A12 felt that the matrix-embedded

model would enhance the understanding of the content matter and would alert learners

of the English grammar rules. They claimed that the matrix-embedded model would

foster unity among learners from different ethnic and cultural groups. They concluded

that the matrix-embedded model would make learning easier as learners would

understand topics and contribute to classroom discussions. However, teachers A2, A3,

A4, A7, A10, A11 and A12 argued that the matrix-embedded model would limit the use

of the target language and create dependence on the mother tongue (see Table 33).

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4.4.5.4 Category 5.4: The implementation of the matrix-embedded model

Table 34 presents the ESL teachers‟ comments on the successful and failure of the

implementation of the matrix-embedded model in Grade 10 English medium classrooms

in Namibia.

Table 34: The implementation of the matrix-embedded model in Grade 10 English

medium classrooms
Responses Numbers
Yes 6
No 3
No Response 3
Total 12

In response to the successful or failure of the implementation of the matrix-embedded

model in Grade 10 English medium classrooms, six Grade 10 Second Language teachers

felt that the implementation of the matrix-embedded model can be successful, while

three said no.

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4.4.5.5 Category 5.5: Obstacles to the implementation of the model

Table 35 presents the ESL teachers‟ responses to the problems or obstacle to the
successful implementation of the proposed matrix-embedded model in Grade 10 English
medium classrooms.

Table 35: Obstacles to successful implementation of the matrix –embedded model

Respondents Responses
A2 Translation will be an obstacle as terminologies are not available in some mother tongues.
A3 The influence of one language over the other language(s).
A4 Nothing, just a matter of updating or reviewing the language policy.
A6 Learners might not have the basics of grammar rules right from the primary phase (Grades 1
to 7).
A7 Lack of learners‟ participation and learners‟ shyness might hamper the English language
learning process.
A8 Technology – they are able to express themselves fluently in English when they are talking,
but when they write they come to use American English and sms language.
A10 Abuse of Code Switching and misinterpretation of the purpose of Code Switching in an
English medium classroom might affect the learning of the English language.
A11 Teachers might fear losing jobs if found Code Switching by school managers and phobia of
the proposed matrix-embedded model in schools.

Various responses were given by four (A3, A4, A10 and A11) ESL teachers on the

obstacles affecting the implementation of the matrix-embedded model. These ranged

from xenophobia, fear of losing jobs, and misinterpretation of government policies.

Teacher A2, A6, A7 and A8 argued that it would require the revision of the language

policy and translation would be an obstacle (see Table 35).

4.4.5.6 Category 5.6: Teachers’ comments on the needed changes to the existing
Language Policy

Teachers are catalysts of change in education. They are implementers of policy. It is

therefore necessary to hear their views on the existing Language Policy for schools.

Their views are contained in Table 36.

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Table 36: Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy and reasons
Respondents Responses
A1 I want to change the implementation of Code Switching hence it makes learners understand the
content better because sometimes they do not follow only when a teacher switches codes.
A2 All school learners should know how to speak English because it is the Official language and the
medium of instruction in Namibia.
A4 English should be used most of the time and that mother tongue to be minimally used in all the
grades.
A6 English should be taught from pre-primary school and should become the medium of instruction
in the teaching and learning process in all phases.
A7 I recommend that English should properly be taught at lower primary for learners to have a proper
foundation.
A8 English as medium of instruction should not start from primary phase , but it should start from
pre-primary phase for learners to acquire all the necessary skills in English therefore pre-primary
teachers „qualifications be upgraded and in-services training should be revamped.
A10 English remains the only medium of instruction in the Namibian school nothing else, no Code
Switching should be allowed.
A11 I would support the idea.

Reponses to this question fell into four categories A1 and A4 claimed that the Language

Policy should include the aspects of Code Switching. Two others suggested that the

status quo remain, e.g. A2 and A10, another pair called for the early immersion

programme (see Table 36), where English is used as medium of instruction from pre-

primary onwards claiming that such a programme would enhance the acquisition of

English, e.g. A6 and A8. Lastly A7, advocated for the proper teaching of English for

learners to build a better foundation.

4.4.5.7 Category 5.7: The use of Code Switching in English classrooms

Central to this study was the use of Code Switching in an English medium classroom, it

was for this reason that an observation checklist was designed in order to understand the

model of Code Switching that teachers used in their classrooms. For Code Switching to

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be properly implemented in the classroom, policy makers should craft “ground rules”.

This research therefore sought to propose a model for Namibian Schools. To develop

such a model, the researcher had to observe the model(s) of Code Switching that

teachers were currently using “unknowingly” in their classrooms. The researcher

observed that the ESL teachers were already using the matrix (English)-embedded

(mother tongue) model.

4.4.5.8 Category 5.8: The matrix (English)-embedded (mother tongue) model

In order to determine whether teachers used the mother tongue in their classrooms, and

the frequency with which this was done, the researcher observed the lessons of all the

teachers in the sample. Each respondent was observed three times, totalling 36

observations in all. There were ten (10) items that were covered by the first part of the

observation sheet. Figure 5 shows the data that were gathered through observing the

lessons of the ESL teachers.

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 35
30 29
30 28 27 28
24 24
25 22 21
20
14 15
15 12 12
8 9 8
10 7
6
5
English
0
Mother Tongue

Figure 5: What the teacher does through the utterances

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4.4.5.9 Category 5.9: The language that sets the syntax of the sentence

Figure 6 presents results from part B of this study. In part B data were gathered through

lesson observations focusing on the language that set the grammar of the sentence, the

syntax and the frame of the switched projections by the ESL teachers. Figure 6 gives the

results at the 12 sampled schools in the Caprivi Education Region.

Figure 6: The language that sets the grammar of the sentence structure

It was observed that while explaining concepts, teaching grammar and providing

background information, in all 36 observations, English set the grammar of the sentence.

The following occurrences were observed where the mother tongue formed the syntax of

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the sentence: once when commenting on the language, three times when giving

feedback, two times when giving instructions, four times when checking learners‟

comprehension and six times when managing and controlling learners (see Figure 6).

4.5. Summary

This chapter presented data on the perceptions and practices of the ESL teachers on the

effects of Code Switching in their English medium classrooms. The data were collected

through questionnaire and observations and presented under six themes and thirty six

categories. Chapter 5 discusses the results.

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 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.1. Introduction

The main aim of conducting this study was to find out whether the use of Code

Switching had effects on the teaching of ESL in Grade 10 English medium classrooms

in the Caprivi Education Region. The discussions in this chapter emanated from the data

obtained from the completed questionnaires and the observations of the teachers.

This chapter discusses the main findings of this study by comparing and contrasting

them with theoretical frameworks and other studies reviewed in Chapter 2. The chapter

is presented according to the following four themes outlined in Chapter 4.

(i) The medium of instruction.

(ii) Teachers‟ understanding of school related policies.

(iii) The effects of Code Switching on the English Language teaching and

learning.

(iv) The matrix-embedded model.

5. 2. The medium of instruction

The first theme which emerged from the study was on the medium of instruction used in

Namibian classrooms. It was found that the degree to which teachers used the mother

tongue in their English medium classrooms was compounded by a lack of ministerial

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guidelines on the use of mother tongue in ESL classrooms. The five categories that

were perceived to have effects on the use of mother tongue in English medium

classrooms were:

a) English as the only medium of instruction

b) English medium of instruction is a barrier to learning
c) Code Switching during ESL teaching and learning
d) Code Switching enhances academic performance
e) Learners‟ preferred language of communication

5.2.1 English as the only medium of instruction in Namibian schools

The responses in Table 9 demonstrated that nine ESL teachers did not see English as the

only medium of instruction as a barrier to effective teaching and learning of the English

Language, ten also responded that they too did not view the policy on English as the

only medium of instruction to be a barrier to teaching and learning. However, the

findings in Table 9 also revealed that the majority (eight) ESL teachers were in

agreement that English as the only medium of instruction hampered learners‟

participation in their classrooms. Based on the findings in Table 9, teachers appear to

have embraced English as the only medium of instruction in Namibian classrooms,

though it seems to restrain their learners‟ active participation. What was observed in

ESL classrooms was a low learner participation which is a common phenomenon when

the language of instruction/learning is not the learners‟ mother tongue. In addition low

learners‟ participation might have impacted negatively on the learners‟ end of year

results as is the case in Namibia (see Table 2). In view of this problem, I suggest that

167
teachers should therefore devise teaching strategies that help learners master content

while at the same time learn the English language. As architects of their classrooms,

teachers should be accorded opportunities to implement teaching strategies that

accommodate mastery of content.

Teachers are change agents in schools and classrooms; therefore, a clear mandate of

what they ought to do is important in discharging their duties. Teachers often carry out

instructions from higher authorities without questioning the appropriateness, validity and

relevance of such of instructions. Shohany (2006) notes that teachers‟ preference for the

English language has nothing to do with appropriateness and relevance of using English

as medium of instruction, but because it is stated in the language educational policy.

5.2.2 English medium of instruction as a barrier to learning

Table 10 shows that ten ESL teachers agreed that they did not see English as a medium

of instruction as a barrier to learning. In fact they advocated for Code Switching in

English medium instruction classrooms. The advocacy for Code Switching by the seven

ESL teachers seems to legitimise the fact that teachers do not feel compelled to use

English only when there is a need to code switch. However, to use the mother tongue in

English medium classrooms requires mother tongue to be academically developed and

understood by all learners. The use of the mother tongue in English medium classrooms

according to Collier (1989), requires that the mother tongue had to be developed

cognitively up to 12 years before it can be said to have been developed fully. This view

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is supported by The World Bank in collaboration with Tucker (1994) who argues that

children need at least 12 years to learn their L1; therefore, older children and adolescents

are better learners of an L2 than younger children. In this respect in the Namibian

context, the mother tongue should ideally be used as a medium of instruction for at least

the first five to seven years of education. Since formal education in Namibia starts at age

six, the mother tongue should therefore be used as a medium of instruction up to age 12

(for example, up to Grade 6 or 7 of primary school) before changing over to English as a

medium of instruction. The use of mother tongue as medium of instruction up to Grade

7 could help develop the mother tongue academically for teachers to be able to code

switch when the need arises. However, this is not the case in Namibia since the mother

tongue is used as a medium of instruction up to Grade 3 only.

5.2.3 The effects of Code Switching on ESL teaching and learning

This question sought to address the effects of Code Switching on ESL teaching and

learning. To do that, eight questions were asked. There was however, a division in

teachers‟ responses. Table 11 presents the results for the first question. Six ESL

teachers agreed that switching from EL to the mother tongue helped learners learn the

English language; nine ESL teachers also agreed that Code Switching improved

learners‟ participation in English medium classrooms; and another five agreed that

concepts in the mother tongue in an English medium classroom developed cognitive

skills in the English language. On the other hand, seven ESL teachers did not agree that

169
understanding of the mother tongue‟s grammar and sentence structure translated easily

into the learning of the English language, and six did not agree that Code Switching

provided the support needed for learners to develop proficiency in the English language.

For the last question, the majority (eight) ESL teachers agreed that Code Switching from

mother tongue to English language in an English medium classroom enhanced the

development of English if the mother tongue‟s structures are correctly taught.

The finding in this study is similar to what Travers, Elliot, and Kratochwill's (1993)

argue, namely that children with a high degree of bilingualism have a high level of

cognitive development. Furthermore, Simon (2001, p. 339) invited teachers to

reconsider the role Code Switching played in classroom interaction and to “break with

methodologically imposed language constraints in order to use Code Switching

strategically to achieve their pedagogical aims”. Code Switching as a teaching tool takes

into account a number of different aspects of the language, such as grammar, syntax;

collocation and connotation in both the mother tongue and the target language (see

Figure 6). Another finding that emerged from this study was that mother tongue use in

the classrooms was not only for classroom management, but also for language analysis,

presenting rules that governed grammar, discussing cross-cultural issues, giving

instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and checking for comprehension (see Figure

6). Nonetheless, seven Grade 10 ESL teachers were adamant that there were no

correlations between the correct teaching of the learners‟ mother tongue grammar and

sentence structures and the learning of the English language.

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5.2.4 Code Switching enhances academic performance

Table 12 presents various responses ranging from positive to negative. For example; five

ESL teachers argued that Code Switching enhanced learners‟ learning of the English

language, improved the way learners answered questions and that it enhanced teaching

and learning of the English language. However, there were views that were expressed by

teachers A2 and A11 who argued that Code Switching did not enhance academic

performance which supported Krashen (1985) who argued that English should be the

sole medium of instruction in classrooms that use English as a second language. He

argues further that the use of the first language would detract learners from learning the

target language, and that the reason why exposure was not always successful in

facilitating proficiency was because learners had access to their first language either in

class or outside. This argument is in line with the Communicative Approach which

firmly asserts the idea that monolingual teaching with authentic communication in a

second language is the best way to learn a language (Pennycook, 1994). Furthermore,

linguists, such as Wringe (1989) and Pacek (2003), insist that the target language should

be used for all purposes in the classroom and that the first language use actually

interfered with the second language learning and brought about „error transference‟. In

addition, Polio (1994) claims that using the first language in the classroom was not in

accordance with second language acquisition theories, which advocate for modified

input and negotiation in a second language as a means of learning.

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5.2.5 Learners and teachers’ preferred language of communication

With regard to the preferred language of communication, the majority (seven) of ESL

teachers said that their learners preferred English and three said they preferred the

mixture of mother tongue and English. The arguments presented by these teachers are

more normatively-based than research-based. Teachers‟ preference for English could be

attributed to the fact that teachers believed that since English is the official language and

that all examinations are written through the medium of English, therefore, it has high

status. These teachers‟ assumption supports Jeffreys, (1996); Hornby, (1977); and Roy-

Campbell (1996) who argue that the preference for English is common in societies

where one language is considered more prestigious socio-economically than the mother

tongue which is regarded as inferior. Although the majority (seven) of the teachers

strongly agreed that using one language is beneficial to their learners, they found Code

Switching to be more desirable and believed that it made the course easy to understand if

Code Switching was utilized. It is important to note here that although teachers

appreciated monolingual teaching to strengthen the learners‟ linguistic competence in

English; they perceived Code Switching as a means of strengthening their learners‟

comprehension in the English language.

5.3. Teachers’ understanding of school language related policies

The second theme addressed the teachers‟ understanding of school language related

policies because the extent to which teachers used the mother tongue in their English
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medium classrooms largely depended on their understanding of school language related

policies. Table 18 revealed that lack of understanding of school language related

policies hampered the use of the mother tongue in English medium classrooms. The

factors that were perceived to hamper understanding of school related policies and

leading to the misuse of mother tongue in English medium classrooms are discussed

under the following five categories:

(a) Teachers‟ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution

(b) Teachers‟ understanding of the Language Policy

(c) Teacher‟s understanding of Code Switching

(d) The language Policy on Code Switching

(e) The language Policy on English medium of instruction

Proper implementation of a language curriculum is dependent upon teachers‟

understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution, the Language Policy and any

other related school language policies to function within some kind of a unit that gives

coherence to the subject being taught and how it should be taught.

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5.3.1 Teachers’ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution

Table 20 presents teachers‟ understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution

since the Namibian Language Policy for schools should have been tailored on the

Constitution. From the responses in Table 20, it can be argued that teachers had a

limited understanding of Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution; and as a result some of

them opposed its provisions. It is this provision of the Language Policy that teachers

tended to use when giving their understanding of Article 3. For example, teacher A12

said that the Article states that the mother tongue could only be used up to Grade 4. A7

also echoed A12 by saying that in the lower primary schools where they had “children of

lower ages and from different backgrounds mother tongue is used”. These are

provisions of the Language Policy and not that of Article 3. It must be noted here that

there are incongruences which could only be attributed to the fact that the Language

Policy for Namibia was drafted long before the Namibian Constitution was drafted,

hence the different messages. Therefore, one can only conclude that there are

incongruences because the teachers could not draw a distinction between Language

Policy and Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution.

5.3.2 Teachers’ understanding of the Language Policy

In Table 18, the teachers‟ understanding of the Namibian Language Policy for schools

was examined. It was noted that eleven ESL teachers had read and understood the

contents of the Language Policy based on the responses that they gave (see Table 18).

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Some of the responses that they gave subscribed to Carson‟s (1990, p. 141) line of

thinking, who believes that a language policy at national level should try to:

 identify the nation‟s language needs across the range of communities and cultural

groups that it contains;

 survey and examine the resources available;

 identify the role of language in general and individual languages in particular in the

life of the nation;

 establish strategies for managing and developing language resources as it relates all

of these to the best interests of the nation through the operation of some suitable

planning agency.

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5.3.3 Teachers’ understanding of Code Switching

Table 19 revealed that nine ESL teachers had a good understanding of the term Code

Switching. This is attributed to the responses that were given by ESL teachers, for

example, teacher A1 understood Code Switching as the shifting from one language to

another, teacher A2 said “it was mixing of words”, teacher A3 said it was switching

from the language used as a medium of instruction to one which is not, and A11 said

that it was “changing from Silozi Language to English language”, that is switching from

one language to the other. Suffice it to say teachers understand what Code Switching is.

This finding in this study is similar to those by Poplack (1980); Sankoff and Poplack

(1981); Joshi (1985); Di Sciullo and Williams (1987); Belazi et al. (1994); and Halmari

(1997) who have all referred to Code Switching as the alternate use of the first language

and the target language.

5.3.4 The Language Policy on Code Switching

Only three ESL teachers in the study knew that the Language Policy made provision for

Code Switching, by pointing out that such a provision was emphasized at the lower

grades (Grade 1 – 4), where Code Switching was used for concept formation and

numeracy (see Table 21) whereas the other nine ESL teachers did not know. The result

is unacceptable because proper implementation of a school curriculum depends upon the

teachers‟ understanding of the Language Policy to function within the school

environment that gives coherence to the subject being taught and how it should be

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taught. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers interpret the National Language Policy

for schools correctly.

It must be stressed that when teachers understand what policies require of them, they

will apply those policies optimally in the classroom. Conversely, if teachers do not

understand or interpret policies correctly, ill-advised practices might find their way into

the classroom. The ESL teachers in this study were of the view that the Language

Policy directed them on how to teach in class and that the Language Policy prescribed to

them to only use English in their teaching, so as to “enable their learners to develop

functional vocabulary and proper pronunciation in English”. One of the ESL teachers

even claimed that the Language Policy said, “English should be used as the only

medium of instruction. If learners don‟t understand the explanations on an item being

presented to them, the teacher should look for other ways in English”. The language

policy does however not state what is claimed by one teacher. These examples are cited

here to illustrate how important it is for the teachers to understand and interpret the

policies they are working with and apply them correctly in their classrooms for teaching

and learning.

However, it is important to also realize that the language and Language Policy both exist

in highly complex and dynamic contexts. The modification of any one part may have

effects on other parts. Therefore, Language Policy formulation should take into account

the environment in which the policy will operate. The teachers in this study reasoned

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that the Language Policy did not allow them freedom to employ the best practices as the

environment manifested itself. Despite teachers‟ claims that the Language Policy did not

allow them to code switch, what observation showed that they code switch during

lessons. Teachers either employed an adoption fallacy, where they used English when

an official from the Ministry of Education was present and when he or she had left they

reverted to using the mother tongues and not Code Switching as claimed by Trewby

(1998) in MBESC, 1998). What seems to come out of this study is that there is a need

for the Ministry of Education to draft a policy that will guide the use of mother tongue in

English medium classrooms.

5.3.5 The effects of ESL and Code Switching on learners’ participation

This category looked at two questions that addressed the effects of ESL on the learners‟

participation and the effects of Code Switching on learners‟ participation (see Table 22).

In response to the first question, six teachers said that they did not see the effects of

English Second Language on teaching, while three said it had negative effects.

Responses to the second question showed that six ESL teachers stated that it had

positive effects on learners‟ participation; five said it didn‟t have any effect, while one

was not sure. ESL teachers see both ESL and Code Switching as having positive effects

on learners’ participation, and as a result see that Code Switching can be used in

English medium classrooms and it has no negative effects.

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5.4. The effects of Code Switching on English language teaching and learning

The third theme looked at the effects of Code Switching on both the teaching and

learning of the English Language in Grade 10 ESL classrooms. The results of this study

six categories of effects perceived by participants, namely;

(a) Code Switching aids proficiency in the English language;

(b) Correct teaching of the mother tongue (MT) aids the learning of the English

Language (EL);

(c) The effects of the use of Code Switching in English medium classrooms;

(d) The effects of lack of adequate academic terminologies in the mother tongue in

English medium classrooms;

(e) Learners‟ participation and enthusiasm during Code Switching in English medium

classrooms;

(f) Barriers to Code Switching in English medium classrooms.

These categories are addressed in the next section.

5.4.1 Code Switching aids English language proficiency

There were three questions that this category sought to answer, that is, whether Code

Switching aided learning, cognitive development and proficiency in English (see Table

23). With regard to whether Code Switching aided learning, six teachers agreed while

five disagreed. The second question that looked at whether Code Switching aided

cognitive development, and responses show that five ESL teachers said yes, while four

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said no. The last question looked at whether Code Switching aided proficiency in

English. Six ESL teachers affirmed, while five disagreed. The six ESL teachers who

agreed to the question were the majority, which indicates that teachers thought that Code

Switching should be used in English medium classrooms. One can understand the

teachers‟ stance on Code Switching because Code Switching as a teaching tool takes

into account a number of aspects, such as grammar, giving instructions and classroom

control in both the mother tongue and the target language.

The responses of the six ESL teachers in the Caprivi Education Region supports those of

Thuleen (1996), who noted that Code Switching serves the following purposes: filling a

linguistic and conceptual gap, tattle telling, translation, attracting teachers‟ attention and

expressing emotions (see Figure 6). These observations are in line with those of Gysels

(1992) and Crystal (1987) who also stated that Code Switching was used to fill linguistic

and conceptual gaps, as well as to aid multiple communication purposes and to complete

sentences when the speaker falls short of vocabulary in the second language. The

findings revealed that teachers were equally divided on the issue of whether Code

Switching aided learners‟ English language proficiency or not.

5.4.2 Correct teaching of the MT aids the learning of the EL

As seen in Table 24, more teachers were of the view that the correct teaching of the

mother tongue structures did not enhance the learning of the English language. One can

therefore conclude that the seven teachers saw language structures in isolation. The

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teachers did not see that the language structures in the learners‟ mother tongues could be

used as scaffolds for learning a second language. However, six teachers indicated that

the correct teaching of mother structures enhanced proficiency in English. I tend to

agree more with ESL teachers who responded that Code Switching aided learning,

cognitive development and proficiency than those who disagreed.

I tend to agree with the ESL teachers who stated that if mother tongue structures are

correctly taught this could influence the learning of the English Language structures. To

expand my argument, I will use the Caprivi situation, where a teacher might revert to

Silozi or another mother tongue to make learners understand the content and to explain

the rules of grammar. For example, when learners fail to draw a distinction between the

two prepositions “from” and “to” because in Silozi the preposition “kwa” is used for

both “to” and “from”, the teachers‟ understanding of the Silozi grammar could be used

to explain the distinction to the learners . Another example is the Cisubia and Cifwe

words “izona” (Cisubia) and “ezona” (Cifwe) which mean yesterday or tomorrow. The

use of learners‟ L1 would therefore alert learners to the fact that even though there is

one word for the two ideas in their mother tongue, the English equivalent “to” or “from”

cannot be used interchangeably as they each mean different things in the English

language.

Furthermore, I would argue that when learners are able to compare sentence structures in

their mother tongue to that of the English language, learners learn similarities and

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differences. Structures of Silozi sentences and Cisubia sentences are the same as in

English as they follow the pattern: Subject + Verb + Object, while Cifwe follows a

different pattern Object +Subject Verb. Knowledge of these similarities and differences

in patterns is important to learners as they could be more conscious when writing

English sentences. To further consolidate my argument I have used Poplack‟s equivalent

constraint model to illustrate the similarities and differences of English, Silozi, Cisubia

and Cifwe sentence structures (see Table 37).

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 Table 37: Poplack’s equivalent constraint model

Language Subject Verb Object

English I go home
Silozi Ni ya kwahae
Cisubia Ni ya Kumunzi
Nyanja Ni yenda Kumunzi

Bemba Na ya kumushi
Language Object Subject Verb
Cifwe Kumunzi ndi ya

Therefore, knowledge of these language patterns is very important for learners because

as they think in their mother tongue, and they must be made aware that no two languages

are the same. This could help learners to be conscious, thus eliminating mistakes in the

structure of the target language. Since the aim of the Namibian government is to

popularise English, the emphasis should be SVO pattern in schools where Code

Switching is used.

Consequently, the finding shows that if learners are able to compare two languages‟

grammars, it will help them to be conscious when they construct sentences in any of the

languages thus eliminating errors.

5.4.3 The use of Code Switching in English medium classrooms

This category addressed four questions (see Table 27). The first question asked the

ESL teachers to indicate whether Code Switching was present in their English medium

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classrooms. The majority (nine) of ESL teachers said that it was prevalent in their

classrooms. The second question looked at whether teachers Code Switched while

teaching English. Again, the majority (nine) of ESL teachers said yes. The third

question asked the teachers to indicate whether terminologies existed in the mother

tongue to facilitate Code Switching in English medium classrooms. Six teachers said no

and three said yes. The last question asked whether Code Switching improved learners‟

participation in English medium classrooms. Seven ESL teachers said yes, while four

said no. Despite six teachers having said that there were no terminologies in the mother

tongue to be used in the English medium classroom, the same nine teachers respectively

agreed that Code Switching was prevalent in their English medium classrooms and that

they too code switched. What was also observable was that the use of mother tongue in

English medium classrooms was not only used for classroom management, but for

language analysis, presenting rules that governed grammar, discussing cross-cultural

issues, giving instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and checking for

comprehension (see Figure 5).

An argument that has been frequently cited by opponents of Code Switching is that local

languages cannot be media of instruction because these languages lack sufficient

terminologies and vocabulary necessary for academic instruction. The matter was put to

the teachers who participated in this study to gauge whether there were possibilities of

an African language to be used as a medium of instruction in Namibian schools. At the

heart of this belief is the fact many African teachers subscribe to the notion that African

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languages have not developed enough terminologies to be used as media of instruction.

This is far from being true as it is a known fact that the English language, that many

African teachers have elevated to such giddy heights has extensively relied on

borrowing to supplement its language deficiency. For example, in 2010, when the

World Cup was played in South Africa, the English dictionary added the term

“Vuvuzela” to its vocabulary.

The argument that needs be advanced here is that if the English language is still

enriching itself with new vocabulary borrowed from other languages, then what stops

African languages from borrowing from other languages to enrich their terminologies?

The researcher also observed that Code Switching practices were not only inevitable but

also necessary in the Caprivi because English was being learned at the same time as it is

being used as a medium of instruction. In Table 23, ESL teachers gave both negative and

positive effects of Code Switching on learners‟ classroom participation. Among the

negative effects mentioned were poor English expression of learners, learners not

knowing how to answer in English, and learners not able to express themselves in

English. Those teachers who saw the positive effects argued that learners had a better

understanding of English grammar rules and better understanding of English vocabulary.

Two Grade 10 ESL teachers were not sure whether English as the only medium of

instruction enhanced classroom participation citing the different achievement abilities of

learners such as high, middle and low abilities and that participation was determined by

learners‟ achievement abilities. One of the respondents felt that the school location had

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an influence on learners‟ class participation. For example, learners in urban schools

learnt English at an early stage, which enhanced their participation in English only

medium classrooms compared to learners in rural schools.

The majority of the ESL teachers argued that the mother tongue aided learners to attach

meaning to the newly acquired English vocabulary. This finding supports Rolin-Ianziti

and Brownlie‟s (2002) views who maintained that the use of the mother tongue was

conducive to the correct understanding of the newly-input target language (English) for

the learners. Furthermore, Macaro (1997) indicated that most learners expected their

teachers to speak their L1 sometimes to facilitate their understanding.

It seems from this study that there is a place for Code Switching in the English medium

classroom. Code Switching in the English medium classroom serves a variety of

functions. It is used as a tool to bridge communication and conceptual gaps among

learners whose home language is not the medium of instruction. Teachers should be

made to understand that Code Switching improves learners‟ performance both in content

and language learning. Code Switching should therefore be seen as a resource which

gives learners an opportunity to understand and comprehend their lessons, thereby

subsequently improving performance in the examinations. It is also a tool to increase

learner participation in the classroom, which in turn is a necessary prerequisite for

academic achievement and cognitive development (see Table 27).

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After having looked at the arguments presented above, one can only say that Code

Switching is rooted in classrooms that use a second language as a medium of instruction,

the question therefore is what are the barriers to Code Switching in the Namibian

English medium classrooms. In the section that follows, a detailed discussion about

barriers to Code Switching is presented.

5.4.4 Barriers to Code Switching

There are many factors that prevent teachers from using Code Switching in their

classrooms and some of them are discussed below.

5.4.4.1 Educators’ attitudes

In Table 31 various responses were given by ESL teachers regarding the use of Code

Switching. Four respondents were receptive while another four were hostile towards

Code Switching. The four who were receptive towards Code Switching listed the

following as barriers to Code Switching: the language policy, schools rules, lack of

vocabulary in the mother tongue and misconception about job opportunities.

The four ESL teachers who were unwelcoming towards Code Switching appeared to be

either unreceptive to the idea, or did not tolerate the learners‟ Code Switching. The ESL

teachers were unfriendly towards a pedagogical technique that might have positive

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results on teaching and learning and greatly influenced by their attitude towards Code

Switching. Lin (1996) notes that teachers‟ unwelcoming attitude towards Code

Switching is influenced by the perception that Code Switching is viewed to be of lower

status, a strategy used by weak language performers to compensate for language

deficiencies. However, as Lin further notes, this view about Code Switching and

bilingual talk in general is more normatively-based than research-based. According to

Lin, such views convey little more than the speaker or writer‟s normative claims about

what counts as standard or legitimate language.

I therefore urge educators to examine their attitudes towards Code Switching because in

the true sense their attitudes have nothing do with pedagogy. Code Switching in the

classroom is natural especially in a bilingual situation, and that the ability for one to

move from one language to another is highly desirable among learners. Setati et al.

(2002) in a study of science classrooms in South Africa found that the use of learners‟

mother tongue was a powerful means for learners to explore their ideas. They argued

that without the use of Code Switching, some learners‟ alternate conceptions would

remain unexposed (Rollnick and Rutherford, 1996 in Setati et al. 2002).

Of particular interest in this study was the observation that teachers in the rural areas

were not willing to code switch, despite the fact that the English language proficiency of

their rural learners was poor, compared to their peers in urban schools, whose

proficiency in English was much better. Yet, it was the urban teachers who tended to

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code switch in their classrooms. The reluctance of rural teachers to code switch in the

English medium classrooms in the presence of an outsider could be attributed to

insecurity and attitude, teachers felt that they might be seen to be incompetent or that

their English proficiency was low, while the urban teachers seemed to have transcended

the issue of insecurity.

I can also argue here that Code Switching in the classroom is a “legitimate strategy”

(Cook, 2001, p.105) and no matter how it might be disruptive during a conversation to

the listener, it still provides an opportunity for language development (Skiba, 1997).

However, historically, strong stigmatic belief about Code Switching existed in many

countries, which made Ferguson (2003) to conclude that ideological and conceptual

sources of suspicion might all too often be attached to classroom Code Switching,

suggesting that deep rooted attitudes may not be easy to change. Code Switching is

more than an attitude but a strategy to solve communicative challenges.

5.4.4.2 Political leaders’ attitudes towards Code Switching

Many African leaders subscribe to the idea that African languages cannot be used as

media of instruction in schools. In the Namibian context, the politicians‟ choice of

English is deeply rooted in historical circumstances, educational choices and second

language provisions in the Namibian schools. These choices have negatively affected

the choice of a medium of instruction in an independent Namibia, where the use of the

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mother tongue in schools is treated with suspicion despite the poor examinations results

that result from the use of English as the sole medium of instruction. In his contribution

to the discussion on mother tongue, Hameso (1997, p. 2) argues that to be liberated is

when an individual can use his/her language for education and business, and that

language performs different functions including a means of communication, expression

and conceptualization. It is the latter aspect that brings the issue of language to the

centre stage, and that is partly our concern here. Once the functions and importance of

languages are recognized, the choice of languages of education is often made on

historical, political (nationalistic) and cultural grounds as much as on the basis of

pedagogical and linguistic ones.

5.4.4.3 Incompatible policies and lack of clarity in policy documents

The aim of the Namibian government at independence was to unite Namibians through

the use of English as medium of instruction in schools and curtail the relationship with

Afrikaans. It is high time that education policies are harmonised, because if not done,

educators can easily use this incompatibility to implement classroom practices that are

detrimental to learning and academic achievement.

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5.4.4.4 Inability of teachers to critically examine policies

Namibian teachers are occupied with completing the syllabus and prepare learners for

examinations. Therefore, many a times they do not have time to critically revisit

existing policies. It is high time that those who are tasked to draft education policies,

critically revisit polices to enable teachers to implement them correctly. In most cases,

teachers according to Shohamy (2006) as change agents implement these policies

without questioning their quality, appropriateness and relevance to the learners. This

notion of acceptance and implementing language policies without questioning their

effectiveness and relatedness to learners‟ preference echoes Lin‟s (1996) sentiment that

the view of the bilingual talk in general is more normatively-based than research-based.

Simon (2001, p. 339), on the other hand, invited teachers and learners to reconsider the

role that Code Switching played in the classroom interaction and to “break with the

methodologically imposed code constraints in order to use Code Switching strategically

to achieve their pedagogical aims.”

5.4.4.5 Code Switching increases learners’ participation/engagement

This question sought to find out from the teachers the extent to which their learners

participated in classroom discussions in which Code Switching was allowed. The

majority (eight) of the teachers who responded to the question mentioned that Code

Switching had positive effects on their learners‟ participation in their classrooms (see

Figure 4). Teachers viewed Code Switching as useful in the teaching and learning of

English in schools in which English is the only language of teaching and learning

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especially when learners are not yet proficient enough in the English language. In such

situations, Code Switching acts as a scaffold to support learners who are not proficient

enough in the target language. The eight teachers‟ responses seem to support Duran

(1994), who notes that Code Switching takes place when learners are not proficient in

the target language and for filling a linguistic/conceptual gap and other communicative

purposes. Alenezi (2010) adds that should teachers realize that their learners are

uncomfortable in using the second language, teachers need to code switch to build

learners‟ confidence and invite participation in the lesson.

The views of the ESL teachers in the study are also in support of the views of Ellis

(1994) who maintains that learners‟ participation in the classroom or during lessons is

one of the most vital classroom interactions. The teacher can only guide learners if

he/she knows their level of content understanding or their level of language proficiency

when they talk in class.

However, teachers felt that Code Switching demanded a new learning process, did not

instil courage, created dependency and did not allow problem solving, thus hampering

the learner-centred approach. This line of thinking resonates with that advocated by

Setati and Adler (2000), who argue that too much Code Switching might not benefit the

learners and that it is the duty of the teachers to make their learners fluent in English.

Setati and Adler add that it should be kept in mind that using English as the medium of

teaching and learning has a purpose, namely that of enhancing English proficiency of

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learners. It can also be concluded that all the six tenets mentioned above are not based

on research but are normatively-based. It is useful to note, however, that Setati and

Adler (2000) concede that despite the foregoing argument, it is the duty of teachers to

make sure that their learners understand the content and can communicate actively.

In the Caprivi context, where English is a second language the use of Code Switching is

crucial. Learners who are not proficient in English are still in the majority and by using

Code Switching in classrooms, teachers might create a better and conducive learning

environment for them. Accordingly, learners might be motivated and enabled to

understand the subject matter while learning the English language. In this study the

researcher found that the use of Code Switching in the rural areas was less compared to

urban areas, being similar to the situation found in South Africa by Setati and Adler

(2000).

5.4.4.6 Examinations

Possibly one of the greatest barriers to Code Switching in the Namibian classroom is the

fact that the Grade 10 examinations are conducted through the medium of English

(Table 12). Examining through English puts a lot of pressure on the teachers to deliver

better learner results. As such teachers are pressured to strike a balance between making

sure that learners understand the content and that they are also able to answer questions

in English in the National Examinations. At the end of the day teachers are, therefore,

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reluctant to use any other language besides English for fear that their learners might fail

the examinations. Despite the fact that Namibian Grade 10 learners are taught

exclusively through the medium of English, their Grade 10 results for years 2007 to

2010 were poor (see Table 2). It is being suggested in this study that the matrix-

embedded model might deliver better learners examination results if used in Namibian

schools by ESL teachers. Learners might be able remember some of the items the

teacher said in their mother which could help learners answer questions though their

English might not be that perfect but their answer might be accurately written.

5.5. The matrix–embedded model

The fifth theme looked at the language that sets the syntax and the grammar of the

sentence. The matrix-embedded model is a teaching strategy which refers to an

approach, method or a combination of carefully designed classroom interactions that

could be followed meticulously to teach a topic or an idea. The findings on this specific

theme indicated that even though teachers claimed that they were not aware of the

matrix-embedded model, the actual observation revealed that teachers were already

using the matrix-embedded model where English is the matrix language and the mother

tongue is the embedded language when they code switched in their classrooms.

The matrix-embedded model is discussed under the following eight categories:

(a) The matrix–embedded model for the acquisition of the EL.

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(b) Teachers‟ awareness of the matrix-embedded model.

(c) Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model.

(d) The implementation of the matrix-embedded model.

(e) Obstacles to the implementation of the matrix-embedded model.

(f) Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy.

5.5.1 The matrix–embedded model for the acquisition of the EL

Though the Language Policy is clear as to which language to be used in the classroom

the researcher wanted to find out, through classroom observations, the language that the

teacher activated in their teaching; that is the matrix language when teaching. Table 32

shows that three respondents felt that the matrix-embedded model could be an effective

way of learning and teaching a language and that the target language would be learnt

better since the mother tongue would be minimized. According to Martin et al. (2003)

the speaker‟s choice is informed by both sociolinguistic and psychological factors. In

sociolinguistic terms in the Caprivi Region, the English language should have been the

embedded language and the mother tongue the matrix language. However, due to the

Namibian Schools Language Policy, it was observed that English was the matrix

language and the mother tongue was the embedded language in the classroom. The

mother tongue being the dominant language should have donated the vocabulary and

grammatical elements to English.

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5.5.2 Teachers’ awareness of the matrix-embedded model

On the question of the teachers‟ awareness of the matrix-embedded model, the first

question sought to find out whether the teachers were aware of the matrix-embedded

model. Seven ESL teachers said that they were not aware of such a model, however,

they claimed that such a model could also result in lack of progress and limited

vocabulary in the target language; confusion of language structures; and creating a

dependency syndrome which would negatively affect learners‟ performance in

examinations (see Table 31). Three ESL teachers agreed that they were aware of such a

model and claimed that such a model could bring about effective learning through the

use of mother tongue, and that the English grammatical structures could be learnt as the

mother tongue could aid comprehension. In the second question the issue of the

successful implementation of the matrix-embedded model in Namibian schools was

asked, to which six agreed that it could be implemented successfully while three

disagreed (see Table 31).

As evidenced in Table 31, six teachers‟ responses revealed that teachers were not aware

of the matrix-embedded model, but indicated that such a model would create

grammatical mistakes transference, while three indicated that such a model could be an

effective way of learning the English Language. Through classroom observations

though, the researcher discovered that the ESL teachers were knowingly or unknowingly

using the matrix-embedded model. It was observed that the teachers used the sentence

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structures of English and embedded their learners‟ mother tongue. This type of model

was seen as an alternative teaching technique in Namibian ESL classrooms. Lastly, ESL

teachers‟ understanding of the matrix-embedded model influenced the manner in which

it was implemented in the classroom.

5.5.3 The language that sets the syntax of the sentence

Thirty-six observations were made, observing the language that set the grammar of the

sentence, the syntax and the frame of the switched projection in the ESL classroom. It

was observed that while explaining concepts, teaching grammar and providing

background information, in all 36 observations, English set the grammar of the sentence.

In one observation, the mother tongue formed the syntax of the sentence, commenting

on the language three times when giving feedback, two times when giving instructions,

four times when checking learners‟ comprehension and six times when managing and

controlling the learners.

On the question as to which language set the grammar, syntax and the frame of the

projection in the classrooms, it was observed that in the ESL classrooms where Code

Switching was used, teachers were using this type of Code Switching, where English set

the grammar, syntax and the frame of the projection. It was further observed that in

many English lessons, the teachers focused on vocabulary borrowing and grammar and

that in such lessons the language that set the syntax, language structure when teaching

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grammar, vocabulary formation or pronunciation was English. However, there was a

slight change when it came to commenting on the language learning and giving

feedback, giving general instructions in the classrooms, checking comprehension, the

management/control of learners, and giving feedback, which resulted in nine

occurrences where the mother tongue formed the matrix language.

5.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the matrix–embedded model

Though the majority (seven) of ESL teachers had indicated that they were not aware of

the matrix-embedded model (Table 32), in Table 34 ten teachers gave advantages of the

matrix-embedded model in an English medium classroom. Again, despite the ESL

teachers having claimed that they were not aware of the matrix-embedded model, nine

of them gave its disadvantages (see Table 31).

It can be argued that though teachers were not sure of the matrix-embedded model, they

had an understanding of what it might be judging from the advantages and disadvantages

that they mentioned. Some of the responses that they gave suggested that they needed to

be educated on the matrix-embedded model. The proposed matrix-embedded model

advocates for the use of the English sentence structures. Some of the disadvantages that

they gave are actually the advantages of the matrix-embedded model, especially that of

comparing grammar and sentence structures. One can therefore conclude that if teachers

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are properly informed about the matrix-embedded model, they might use the idea in their

ESL classrooms.

5.5.5 The implementation of the matrix-embedded model

Table 35 presents the ESL teachers‟ comments on the successful or failure in the

implementation of the matrix-embedded model in Grade 10 English medium classrooms.

In response to the question posed, six ESL teachers felt that for successful

implementation of the matrix-embedded model, teachers needed to be trained on how to

handle Code Switching.

5.5.6 Teachers perceived obstacles to the implementation of the matrix-embedded

model

In the previous section, the researcher discussed the successful implementation of the matrix-

embedded model in school, this section discusses obstacles to the implementation of the model

were examined as given in Table 36. Various responses were given by four ESL teachers

ranging from xenophobia, fear of losing jobs, and misinterpretation of government policies.

Some respondents argued that it would require the revision of the Language Policy and that

translation would be an obstacle. There is a myth attached to the use of mother tongue in English

medium classrooms.

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The ESL teachers‟ views are supportive of those by Snyder, Bolin, and Zimwalt (1992)

who noted that life and death of an innovation are not simply a matter of providing

appropriate support for the innovation and making mutual adjustments as it is being

installed. Rather, life and death of an innovation depended on the unique configuration

of the social, historical, political and ideological factors that make up the school and its

social, community context. Judging from the various responses given by the teachers in

this study concerted effort is needed for teachers to embrace the use of the matrix-

embedded model in Namibian schools.

A recurring phenomenon in the teachers‟ responses as far as the introduction of the

matrix-embedded model was concerned was that teachers felt threatened by the new

innovation. Teachers need to be encouraged and supported in implementing any new

innovation for the curriculum to be successful. Some of the responses given revealed

that the teachers had a misunderstanding of the matrix-embedded model and how it

worked. If teachers felt that the matrix-embedded model was superimposed on them

from above, teachers may passively resist implementing the model successfully.

Fullan (1993) places the school as the centre of innovation and change and says that if

schools are to fare well, decentralization is the way to go as it leads to active

participation, relevance, ownership, increased commitment and motivation from those

implementing the change. The results from the observations (see Tables 31 and 32)

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revealed that teachers were already using the model in their teaching, even though only

three ESL teachers were aware of the matrix-embedded model (see Figure 7).

5.5.7 Proposed recommendations to the Language Policy

Throughout the study, teachers blamed either the Language Policy or school policies for

not allowing them to be flexible in their teaching. Accordingly ESL teacher were asked

to suggest possible changes to the Language Policy. Their suggestions are given in

Table 37. According to some respondents, the Namibian Language Policy should be

changed in order to make provision for Code Switching (see Table 36). Other

respondents suggested that ground rules be given about the use of Code Switching in

their classrooms. Furthermore, of the respondents suggested that English as medium of

instruction should be instituted as from pre-primary school and that in-service training

for pre-primary teachers be instituted. Indeed, teachers are important catalysts of change

in the education system and as such need to be actively involved in any proposed change

if it is to succeed.

5.6. Summary

This chapter discussed the main findings of this study using themes and theories that

informed the study. A significant number of teachers in the study were of the option that

Code Switching should be allowed in English medium instruction classrooms; teachers

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agreed that switching from EL to the mother tongue helped learners learn the English

language; improved learners‟ participation in English medium classrooms and those

concepts in the mother tongue in an English medium classroom developed cognitive

skills in the English language; teachers also expressed different views as to whether

Code Switching enhanced academic performance. However, teachers were adamant that

there were no correlations between the correct teaching of the learners‟ mother tongue

grammar and sentence structures and the learning of the English language. The next

chapter summarizes, concludes and also provides recommendations emanating from this

study.

202
 CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. Introduction

This chapter provides a summary, conclusions and recommendations based on the

results of this study. Areas of further research are recommended as well.

6.2. Summary

This study was undertaken with the main objective of determining the perceptions of

Grade 10 ESL teachers about the effects of Code Switching in their classrooms in the

Caprivi Education Region as perceived by the Grade 10 English Second Language

teachers. The study specifically solicited information on the following six research

questions:

1. What are ESL teachers‟ perceptions of the use of Code Switching in their

classrooms?

2. Do ESL teachers perceive Code Switching as having effects on the learning of

the target language (English Second Language)?

3. To what extent do ESL teachers think Code Switching has effects on learners‟

academic performance in English Second Language classrooms?

4. How do ESL teachers perceive learners‟ level of participation in ESL classrooms

where Code Switching is allowed compared with classrooms where it is not

allowed?

203
5. What are ESL teachers‟ perceived barriers to Code Switching in the ESL

classrooms?

6. What are the implications of Code Switching in Namibian ESL classrooms?

A mixed method design was used in this study. The sample consisted of 12 Grade 10

ESL teachers at 12 schools in the Caprivi Education Region, who were purposefully

selected while the schools were selected based on their locations (for example, urban,

semi-urban and rural). Questionnaires and observation checklists were used to collect

data from the sample.

It emerged from the study that although the Grade 10 ESL teachers embraced the use of

mother tongue in the English medium classroom, they were openly afraid to say it

because there were no ministerial guidelines regarding its use. On the use of English as

the only medium of instruction in the English medium classrooms, the teachers generally

agreed that it reduced learners‟ classroom participation and that it impacted negatively

on the Grade 10 learners‟ end of year examinations. The teachers were of the view that

English medium of instruction was welcome as long as the use of the mother tongue in

such classrooms was allowed. However, the teachers did not see Code Switching as

enhancing academic performance of the learners, contrary to theories which advance

Code Switching as enhancing academic performance.

204
It also emerged that some teachers understood the school language related policies well

especially Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution. Some of the teachers in the study also

claimed that the Language Policy for schools provided for the use of Code Switching in

the English medium classrooms.

It was also revealed by the teachers that the mother tongue use in English medium

classrooms did not constrain learners‟ understanding of content when used, but rather

facilitated classroom participation.

The teachers in rural schools did not want to code switch even when the learners did not

understand what they were being taught, while urban teachers code switched in their

English medium classrooms. This finding shows teachers clinging to English even when

learners did not understand the content in the presence of a visitor.

Wolfaardt (2001) noted that rural communities preferred the mother tongue as medium

of instruction, while urban communities preferred English. This is contrary to what this

researcher saw happening in classrooms. However, this finding could only be attributed

to the belief that rural teachers become suspicious when they were visited, fearing that

their English proficiency might be questioned should they use the learners' mother

tongue to explain difficult concepts in the presence of a stranger. The study found that

urban teachers used Code Switching to explain difficult concepts and to call for order in

classrooms.

205
It was revealed in the study that Grade 10 ESL teachers were in agreement that Code

Switching accelerated learners‟ participation in English medium classrooms. The

findings are similar to those found in Tanzania by Broke-Utne (2000) on the effects of

using English and Kiswahili in an English medium classroom where Code Switching

was seen to be an effective teaching and learning technique. ESL teachers indicated that

they were not aware of the matrix-embedded model, however, when probed further it

emerged that they had an understanding of what it was.

6.3. Conclusion

A platform should be created by the National Institute for Educational Development

(NIED) where policy makers and teachers inform and educate one another on the best

teaching practices and have a shared vision about the Namibian Language Policy. The

Language Policy should be aligned with Article 3 of the Namibian Constitution by

policy makers. The Language Policy should address the issues of language of instruction

(LOI) in schools and set a framework or ground rules for the use of Code Switching in

an English medium classroom to avoid the overuse of the mother tongue. The Language

Education Policy should elevate the status of the mother tongue to equal that of English

by accommodating the use of mother tongue in classrooms for learners to freely express

their thoughts in the language they know. This might change the negative attitudes of

both teachers and learners towards mother tongue use in classrooms.

206
Code Switching should be treated by teachers and curriculum planners as an additional

resource that hastens collaboration between learners and teachers in English medium

classrooms. The use of the mother tongue in English medium instruction classrooms

should be encouraged to help learners compare their mother tongue structures to those of

the English language. Finally, the mother tongue should be taught correctly to help

learners develop cognitive skills in the English language.

6.4. Recommendations

The following recommendations are proposed based on the results of this study:

6.4.1. Recommendations for the Ministry of Education

6.4.1.1 The Ministry should draft and design guidelines on the implementation of the matrix-

embedded model in Namibian schools.

6.4.1.2 The current Namibian Language Policy should encourage teachers to use Code

Switching in English medium classrooms.

6.4.2 Recommendations for ESL teachers

6.4.2.1 Namibian ESL teachers should be exposed to eclectic approaches to teaching.

6.4.2.2 Namibian teachers should be encouraged to view Code Switching as an

alternative that supplements their teaching in English medium classrooms.

207
6.4.2.2 Namibian teachers should allow their learners to complete sentences in their

mother tongue.

6.5. Recommendations for further research

Code Switching is prevalent in some of the Namibian schools, particularly in the Caprivi

Education Region in particular. It is therefore recommended that future research should

be carried out into the implications of Code Switching in Namibian public and private

schools. The following questions offer possible focus areas to pursue:

6.5.1 To what extent is it viable to implement Code Switching in Namibian English

medium classrooms?

6.5.2 To what extent does Code Switching influence the teaching and learning of the

English language?

6.5.3 To what extent are English Second Language teachers willing to incorporate

Code Switching in their English medium classrooms?

6.5.4 The Ministry of Education should conduct a countrywide feasibility study before

the matrix-embedded model is implemented in Namibian schools.

6.5.5 The Ministry of Education should determine what the aim of Code Switching

should be in Namibian schools.

208
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 APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire for teachers

Dear Respondent

I am Liswani Simasiku, a student at the University of Namibia, carrying out a research

project on the effects of Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms of the
Caprivi Education Region. This is a requirement for the course that I am undertaking.

Thank you for your willingness to take part in this research. The aim of this research is
to investigate the effects of Code Switching in Grade 10 English medium classrooms of
the Caprivi Education Region. I wish to assure you that you will remain completely
anonymous and no record of your responses will be kept for any purpose other than this
research.

Instructions to respondents

 There is neither right nor wrong response to questions contained in this questionnaire.
Please feel free to respond to questions as candidly as possible.

 To ensure confidentiality of your responses, you are not required to write your name on this
questionnaire.

 Please answer all questions to the best of your ability, and do not discuss this questionnaire
with a colleague. Your individual responses are highly valued.

I wish to thank you in advance

229
SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Tick √ in the appropriate Box

1. What position do you hold at this school?

 Principal

 Head of Department

 Teacher

2. In which age group do you fall?

 Below 20

 21 – 30

 31 – 40

 41 – 50

 51 – 60

 60 plus

3. Your Sex

 Male

 Female

4. What is your qualification in the subject that you teach?

 Lower/Higher Primary Teaching Certificate

 Basic Education Teacher Diploma

 Higher Education Diploma

 Bachelor of Education

230
  Honours and Higher (Specify)

5. How long have you been teaching?

 Less than 2 years

 2 years

 3 – 5 years

 6 - 10 years

 11- 15 years

 15 years and more

6. Where is your school located?

 Urban

 Semi-urban

 Rural

7. What is your mother tongue/home language?

 English

 Silozi

 Cisubia

 Cifwe

 Ciyeyi

 Any other specify

231
232
SECTION B: EFFECTS OF CODE SWITCHING ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING

1. The implication of Code Switching on the English language teaching

1.1. What does the language policy for schools, with regards to the medium of instruction in
the subject that you teach mean to you?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

1.2. What do you understand under the term Code Switching?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.3. Article 3, sub section 3 of the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia states that “Any
other language besides English may be used as medium of instruction….” What is
your understanding with regards to this statement?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

1.4. What are the provisions for Code Switching in the language policy?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.5. Do you think the policy on English as the only medium of instruction at secondary
school level is a barrier to effective teaching/learning for both teachers and learners?
(Tick √ in the appropriate box)
a. Teachers Yes No
b. Learners Yes No
c. Give reasons for your answer in 1.5 (a) above
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

d. Give reasons for your answer in 1.5 (b) above

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

233
2. The extent to which Code Switching enhances learners’ academic performance in English

2.1. What do you think are the effects of Code Switching on learners’ academic
achievement in the learning of your subject?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2.2. What do you think are the effects on the academic performance of learners when they
learn English and at the same time learn the subject matter of the subject that you
teach?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2.3. What you think are the advantages of Code Switching to the teacher in teaching the
English language?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2.4. Do you think English as the only medium of instruction has an effect on learners’
participation in your classroom?
a. Yes Not sure No
b. Give reasons for you answer
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2.5. Do you think Code Switching can help improve the learners’ participation in your
classroom?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

234
235
3. Code Switching’s enhancement of the learning of the target language(English)

3.1. Do you think switching from English to mother tongue during the lesson helps learners learn
the English language?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

3.2. Do you think that the use of concepts in mother tongue in an English medium classroom
develop cognitive skills in the English language?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3.3. Do you think Code Switching provides the support needed for learners to develop proficiency in
the English language?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3.4. Do you think better understanding of the mother tongue’s grammar and sentence structure
translates easily into the learning of the English language?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3.5. Do you think Code Switching from mother tongue to English language in an English medium
classroom enhances the development of English language if the mother tongue structures are
correctly taught?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

236
4. The perceived barrier to Code Switching in English medium classrooms

4.1. What will be your reaction if a learner starts answering in English and switches to the mother
tongue to complete the answer (s)?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

4.2. Has such a scenario like the one mentioned above ever happened in your class?
a. Yes No
b. If yes, how did you handle it?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4.3. Do you also switch from English to mother tongue in your teaching?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answer
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4.4. Do you think local languages (e.g. Silozi, Cifwe, Cisubia, Ciyeyi, Citotela, Cimbalangwe,
Cimbukushu, etc.) have developed terminologies for you to code switch when explaining
difficult concepts in the English language?
a. Yes No
b. Explain your response.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4.5. What other barriers to Code Switching exist in Grade 10 English medium classrooms. Please
list and explain how they are barriers to Code Switching.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

237
5. The level of participation in classes where Code Switching is being implemented

5.1. How do your learners react when Code Switching is introduced in your classrooms?

a. Happy
Sad
Indifferent

b. Give reasons for your answer

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5.2. Do your learners actively participate when Code Switching is used in your class?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your answers
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5.3. Are your learners enthusiastic when they are allowed to code switch in your classroom?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your response
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5.4. When learners participate in your lessons:

a. In which language(s) do they prefer to speak?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Why do you think they use that respective language?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

5.5. When learners participate in your lessons,

a. In which language (s) do you prefer them to speak?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

b. What is/are the reason(s)?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

c. What effect does that have on their learning of the English language?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

238
_________________________________________________________________

239
SECTION C: PROPOSED MODEL FOR NAMIBIAN SCHOOLS
1.1. Are you aware of the matrix-embedded model? (Tick √ in the appropriate box)
Yes No

1.2. The Matrix-embedded model refers to when the English language (the matrix language) sets
the grammar of the sentence, the syntax and the frame of the switched projection while the
embedded language (the mother tongue/home language) is dormant.

a. In your view what will be the effect of model in the acquisition of the content of the
subject that you teach?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

b. What do you think are the advantages of the Matrix-embedded model in the subject
that you teach?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

c. What do you think are the disadvantages of the Matrix-embedded model in the subject
that you teach?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

1.3. In your view can the proposed model above be implemented successfully in Grade 10 English
medium classrooms?
a. Yes No
b. Give reasons for your response.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

1.4. What problem(s) or obstacles do you think can prevent the proposed model from being
implemented successfully in Grade 10 English medium classrooms?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

1.5. If you were in a position to change the language policy, what changes would you recommend
and why?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Thank you very much for your time and input; your contributions are very much
appreciated and valued.

240
 Appendix B: Observation checklist

Appendix 2: Classroom Observation Checklist

Class Observed: _______________________________________________________

Number of Students Present: _______________Date:__________________________
Observer: _____________________________________________________________

A. The use of Code Switching in English classrooms

Instructions: As you watch the lesson, listen for utterances by the teacher that are in the
students‟ first language. What is the teacher doing through the utterances? Check
function and tick (√).

_____________1. Translate (translate lesson items or instructions; translate an

utterance.

_____________2. Explain or summarize lesson items.

_____________3. Comment on L2 forms (Teach grammar, vocabulary formation, or

pronunciation explicitly.)

_____________4. Expand on content (Provide background information to make

lessons comprehensible.)

_____________5. Comment on language learning (Comment on language or

language learning in general.)

_____________6. Give feedback

_____________7. Give instructions.

241
_____________8. Check comprehension.

_____________9. Manage / control students.

B. The matrix (English)-embedded (mother tongue) model

Instructions: As you watch the lesson, listen for the language that sets the grammar of
sentence, the syntax and the frame of the switched projection. Is it in the Mother
tongue/Local Language or English? Write MOTHER TONGUE/LT or Eng.
opposite the function.

_____________1. Translate (translate lesson items or instructions; translate an

utterance.

_____________2. Explain or summarize lesson items.

_____________3. Comment on L2 forms (Teach grammar, vocabulary formation, or

pronunciation explicitly.)

_____________4. Expand on content (Provide background information to make

lessons comprehensible.)

_____________5. Comment on language learning (Comment on language or

language learning in general.)

_____________6. Give feedback

_____________7. Give instructions.

_____________8. Check comprehension.

_____________9. Manage / control students.

(Adapted from Yonesaka & Metoki, 2007, p. 143: Teacher use of students‟ first
language: Introducing the FIFU checklist.

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Appendix C: Map of Caprivi Region and the School Clusters

243
Appendix D: Sampled schools in the Caprivi Education Region

244
 Appendix E: Letter to the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education
Asking for permission to conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools

245
Appendix F: Letter of approval from the Permanent Secretary of Education to
conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools

246
247
Appendix G: Letter to the Caprivi Education Director of Education asking for
permission to conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools

248
Appendix H: Letter of approval from the Director of Education in Caprivi to
conduct research in the Caprivi Education Region Schools

249