Tanjay Legislated High School

Senior High School Department

Olis St. Barangay 4, Tanjay City, Negros Oriental

CULMINATING ACTIVITY PORTFOLIO

S.Y.; 2023-2024

Presented to the Faculty of Tanjay Legislated High School

Senior High School Department

In Partial Fulfillment for the Subject:

CULMINATING ACTIVITY

Prepared by:
VEB ARA M. VILDOSOLA
HUMSS-12
 TANJAY LEGISLATED HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
OLIS STREET, BRGY 4, TANJAY LEGISLATED
HIGH SCHOOL, NEGROS ORIENTAL

CULMINATING ACTIVITIES

S.Y.: 2023-2024

PRESENTED BY: VEN ARA M. VILDOSOLA

PRESENTED TO: MR. REY GADIANA
TABLE OF CONTENTS

 CULMINATING ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅰ

 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGION

AND BELIEF SYMTEM-------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅱ

 DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS IN

APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE-----------------------------------------------------------------Ⅲ

 DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS

IN SOCIAL SCIENCE--------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅳ

 COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT, SOLIDARITY

AND CITIZENSHIP-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅴ

 PHILIPPINE POLITICS

AND GOVERNANCE---------------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅵ

 TRENDS, NETWORK AND CRITICAL

THINKING IN THE

21st CENTURY CULTURE-------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅶ

 CREATIVE WRITING-----------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅷ

 CREATIVE NONFICTION------------------------------------------------------------------Ⅸ

Ⅰ. Name of the Subject: Culminating Activities

1.1 Subject of Description

The culminating activity is one of the specialized subjects under the academic track and the HUMSS
learning strand. Some examples of the things that you will learn from taking this subject include the
following namely, Introduction to World Religion and Belief System, Discipline and Ideas in the Applied
Social Sciences (DIASS), Creative Writing. Creative Nonfiction, Discipline and Ideas in the Social
Sciences, Philippine Politics and Governance, Megatrends and Critical Thinking in the 21 st Century
Culture and Community Engagement Solidarity and Citizenship.
INTRODUCTION TO

WORLD
RELIGIONS AND
BELIEF SYSTEMS
Ⅱ. Name of the Subject: Introduction to World Religion and Belief System

2.1 Subject of Description

Introduction to World Religion and Belief Systems help us students comprehensively learn not
only about fundamental teachings and ritualistic practices, but also the historical background,
geographical context, and cultural milieu of this profound Asian religions. In all parts of the world,
religious ideas have helped inflame animosity and discord that shape conflicts and give rise oppression
and tyranny. Conversely, religious traditions have also created a strong backbone that helped shape the
importance of peace, justice, equality, toleration, and brotherhood.

The course explores the main tenets and practices of major world religions: Judaism, Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism. It
aims to help learners understand the historical contexts of nine religions, appreciate their uniqueness and
similarities and promote mutual understanding among believers of different faiths. They are expected to
demonstrate understanding and appreciation of one’s faith and that of others.

2.2 Contents:
 Chapter 1: Understanding the Nature of Religion
 Understanding Beliefs and Worldview
 Origins of World Religion
 Chapter 2: Abrahamic Religions
-Judaism
-Christianity
-Islam
 Chapter 3: Dharmic Religions
-Hinduism
-Theravada Buddhism
-Mahayana Buddhism
 Chapter 4: Daoic Religions
-Confucianism
-Daosim
-Shintoism
 Reflection
CHAPTER 1

LESSON 1

Understanding the Nature of Religion

What does it mean to be religious and spiritual? Why is religion linked to humankind`s
quest to search for the real meaning of life and death? As we all know, when one prays, he or she
actively seeks an affinity to divine beings or supernatural entities that are beyond the purely
natural world. The picture below is the clear depiction of an act of prayer. Majority of world
religions follow a set of prayers in the form of chants, mantras, or creed. Whether you pray or
not, you may have witnessed the influential roles being played by religions all over the world.
Understanding the nature of religion enlightens learners about the common grounds that
bind believers into examining the questions of life and death and why or how persons yearn for
spiritual inspiration. Recognizing the inherent characteristics of religion provides the opportunity
to deeply grasp the many beliefs and practices that mold humankind`s spiritual needs.
Understanding Beliefs and Worldviews

Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one another. This
overall perspective is also termed worldview which is a collection of beliefs about life and the
universe being held by people. For a certain individual, social environment and upbringing are
critical in the development of a religious life. All these factors have an effect on how people
organize their belief and Ideas while eventually creating comprehensive narrative through which
they look at the world and interrelate with it. Belief in god or gods is found in almost all
religions. There is a good reason to presuppose that religion had existed during prehistoric times
and this has continued to the modern day. Human life may have produced hundreds of religions
and belief systems. There could be more unknown than known religions in the world since
recorded history covers only several thousand years of human existence.

Different Kinds of Belief Systems or Worldviews

Kinds Description

Monism There is no real distinction between God and the universe.

Polytheism The belief or worship of many gods.
Monotheism The doctrine or belief in one supreme god.
Atheism Disbelief in or denial of the existence of a personal god.
Agnosticism God cannot be known

Theism (often used as a synonym to monotheism) is defined as, “a belief in the existence of one
god viewed as the creative source of the human race and the world who transcends yet is immanent in the
world”.
Monotheistic Religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Polytheistic Religions: Ancient religions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

Definition and Nature of Religion

Religion may be defined as “an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to
worship a god or a group of gods” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014). The Latin word religio
refers to “something done with overanxious or scrupulous attention to detail” (Bowker 1997).
This term may have probably been derived from the latin verb religare which means “to tie
together, to bind fast.

Common Characteristics Among Religion

1. Belief in deity.
2. Belief in a deity’s relationship with the world.
3. Places and people believed to be holy and sacred.
4. Rules followed as a result of beliefs.
5. Ways to worship a deity.
LESSON 2

Origins of Religion

□Since the nineteenth century, people began to show great interest in explaining the origins of
religion. Numerous theories have been postulated to explain the origin of religion while looking
at primitive societies for ideas concerning the development of belief systems.

□Archaeologists believe that they have discovered elements of religious belief practiced by
homo sapiens almost 60, 000 years ago. Since early humans are weak and ignorant of the
different forces of nature, they had to invent religion to explain the seemingly unexplainable
mystery and fury of nature.

□The nineteenth century witnessed the development of the fields of the social sciences that
enabled scholars to apply a more scientific way of explaining phenomena rather than speculate
on matters concerning the origin of religion.

□Through field research, observations, and analysis of historical documents, scholars formulated
a number of theories that have endured well into the present time.

Theories on the Origin of Religion

Name of theory Proponent Explanation
Primitive people believed in
souls or anima found in
Animistic theory Edward Burnett Tylor (1832- people (seen dreams) and in
1917), all of nature. Since: spirits
English anthropologist could be helpful or harmful to
human beings, Early people
had to pray to these spirits,
offer sacrifices, and appease
or avoid them.
Human beings first developed
Robert Henry Codrington their religions from their
Nature-Worship Theory (1830-1922), Anglican priest observations of the forced, of
and anthropologist nature. Early people became
aware of the regularity of the
seasons, the tides and the
phases of the moon, and
began personalizing them by
 giving them names,
describing their activities with
tales that transformed into
mythology, Primitive people
identified the forces in nature,
personified them, created
myths, and developed
religions around them.

In Austria and Africa, basic

cultures held a common belief
in a distant high god, that
originally there had been one
great god above all others,
Theory of Original Wilhelm Schmidt (1868- and that he may have been the
Monotheism 1954), Austrian creator of the world or the
anthropologist and ethnologist father of the many lesser
deities. The high god went
away and had little contact
with the world that resulted in
majority of attention and
worship to local deities.
Primitive societies were
originally monotheistic, but
because it was difficult to
worship just one God,
religion was corrupted to
polytheism.

People had gone three phases

of development concerning
the spirit world: (1) primitive
James George Frazer (1854- magic (wherein people
Magic Theory 1941). Scottish social attempted to control nature in
anthropologist the hope that nature will
cooperate if rituals are done
properly): (2) religion
(wherein people implored
nature to cooperate since they
have realized that nature
cannot be coerced); and (3)
science (wherein a rational
understanding of nature is
 operative).
There were no gods and that
belief in gods was simply
wish fulfillment. Troubled
people who could not cope
with the difficulties in life
Ludwig Andreas von projected their wishes and
Feuerbach (1804-1872), developed gods and religions.
German philosopher and Religions were developed by
anthropologist the few as a means to control
the masses and suppress
Wish Fulfillment Theory
revolution as a result of the
continuing struggle between
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818- classes. Rulers and allied
1883), German philosopher priests wished to control all
and sociologist wealth so they had to create a
scheme of gods, heavens, and
hell. Masses were persuaded
to accept poverty and be
obedient to inherit bliss in
another life.

ORIGIN OF WORLD RELIGION

Similar to living organisms, religions are born in history and they S gradually develop
into living traditions and affect the lives of their followers. Belief systems originate in certain
localities within the context of culture and even geography. From their rudimentary forms,
religions continually evolved into complicated systems replete with rites and practices and
culture have an that made recruitment of members necessary. Quite unfortunately, other religions
also decline as in the case of Zoroastrianism that once flourished in South Asia but is now only
confined to Iran, India, and Central Asia. They may also give impetus to establish new
movements within religious groups, such as in the case of Buddhism that may be viewed as a
reaction to the overly ritualistic beliefs and the exclusivity of Hinduism. They may also
contribute to the foundation of other religions, such as those themes Christianity borrowed from
Judaism, and themes Islam borrowed from both Christianity and Judaism (Brasswell 1994). This
lesson will deal with the origin of religions along with the geographical context and cultural
milieu that have impacted the establishment of the world religions and belief systems.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Scholars hold the view that religion is universal and can be found in all known
contemporary societies (Ember & Ember 1997). Even the most fundamental of belief systems
can be seen to a greater or lesser degree in all religions (Hopfe 1983). Various theories have been
formulated to explain the origin of religion. Even prehistoric humans, such as the Neanderthals
and Cro-Magnons, have practiced a set of belief systems in one way or another, including
burying their dead, painting on the walls of caves, and carving images from stones.
The existence of humankind for so long a time has resulted in the formation of religion
and belief system. It is certain that many religions may have been unrecorded in the past. Others
may have gradually died down. This lesson will deal primarily with religions that are still active
until the present time. The succeeding table illustrates some significant dates in the history of the
establishment of several world religions.

THE PATRIARCH ABRAHAM

The prophet and patriarch Abraham played a major role in the establishment of the three
monotheistic religions: namely, Judaism, Christianity, which account for more than half of the
world's total population at presents. As such, these organized religions are collectively known as
Abrahamic religions. The Jewish people regard Abraham as the ancestor of the Israelites, through
his descendants Isaac and Jacob. The Muslims consider Abraham’s son Ishmael as the ancestor
of the Arabs. The Christians view Abraham 'father in faith' as narrated in the Bible and the
ancestor of Jesus Christ Notable religious personalities trace their origin in Abraham's sons from
different wives through their descendants. The importance of Abraham in these three religions
lies in the fact that the patriarch appears as an elemental figure for a monotheistic belief system
and a paragon extreme devotion. Derived from a common source, it is but natural that the three
monotheistic religions share some commonalities in their basic tenets.

THE INDIAN MOSAIC

• India is one of the oldest surviving civilizations, with its history dating back to at least 6500
BCE. The many conquerors that came to India were gradually absorbed into the native Indian
religions.
• The Harappan civilization, Aryan influence, local dynasties, and the Muslim conquest all had
their fair share in building the intricate Indian mosaic. As a result, variety and complexity
characterize Indian culture.
• Four great religions originated in India-Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism and a
myriad of minor cults and local sects.

The Cultural Milieu

 World religions can be regarded along the lines of their exclusivity or non-exclusivity.
Exclusive religions are oftentimes monotheistic with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as
examples. Meanwhile, non-exclusive religions are often polytheistic in nature. Examples
of non-exclusive religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and
Shintoism.
LESSON 3:
Positive and Negative Effects of Religion

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

1. Religion Promotes Social Harmony
 Help advance social harmony by assimilating and stabilizing cultures and nations
  Religion provides divine authority to ethical and moral principles which help promote
unity among people.
a. Belief in supernatural beings and the supposed divine powers.
b. Belief in religious leaders

2. Religion Provides Moral Values

 By providing moral values, one is able to distinguish right from wrong, good from evil.
 Provides a system of reward and punishment that administers and standardizes people’s
behavior in society.
3. Religion Provides Social Change
 It can be very effective in lobbying and campaigning for certain social issues using its
own moral teachings as the basis of argument.

 People Power Revolution in 1986 – Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin Satyagraha – Ghandi

 Advocates the belief that nonviolence of the mind can lead to the realization of the real
nature of an evil situation and that by refusing to cooperate with evil, truth can be
asserted.

4. Religion Reduces Fear of the Unknown

 Religion provides answers for phenomena and questions that science or reason cannot
explain.
 Belief in afterlife
Hindus
 Follow their dharma (moral and social obligations”
 Reap good karma (moral consequences of one’s act)
 Attain moksha, or the reunion of Brahman or universal soul and atman or individual soul.

5. Religion Gives Positive Goals in Life

 That each and everyone has a mission to fulfill and it is up to them to fathom what their
missions in life are.

6. Religion Gives People a Sense of Belonging

 Religion provides people with personal identity as part of a group with similar
worldviews, beliefs, values, practices, and lifestyles.
 Sense of security
Sikhism
 Seva (Sewa) from the word Karseva which means “selfless service.”
 Encouraged by their Guru (Guru Granth Saib)

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

1.Religion Affirms Social Hierarchy
  Often favoring men
 Political and social structures

Confucianism
-Emphasis on the relations between the ruler and the subject.
2. Religion Causes Discrimination
 After turning people against themselves, turn people against each other
 Religious fanaticism
Islam
-The practice of wearing the hijab (a head covering worn in public by Muslim women) is
considered by many critics as a form of suppression against Muslim women.
3. Religion Triggers Conflicts and Fights
 In Palestine, the Jews are in conflict with the Muslims; in Kashmir, it is the Muslims
against Hindus; in Sudan, it is the Muslims opposite Christians and animists;
4. Religion As An Economic Tool for Exploiting the Masses
 Karl Marx: “religion is the opium of the masses.”
The bourgeoisie keeps the proletariat in control through religion.
5. Religion Impedes the Scientific Success and Development
Ex.
- Catholic Church used to teach that the world is flat.
-The earth is the center of the solar system (Ptolemaic theory)
-Disapproval against reproductive health programs
-Religion-based mortuary practices
6. Religion Obstructs the Use of Reason
 Religion should evolve and learn to adapt to the everchanging world
Ex.: Trepanning – the ancient practice of boring holes in the human skull, a surgical procedure
performed on epileptics and the mentally ill, with the belief that through the hole the evil spirit
will leave the person.
CHAPTER 2

Abrahamic Religions
From the frontiers of West Asia developed the Abrahamic religions of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, known as the first monotheistic religions of the world. They are called
Abrahamic religions because they all trace their origins to the great patriarch Abraham and his
descendants. Followers of these religions, namely the Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe
that Abraham and his family played a significant role in the beginnings of their respective faiths.
Since these religions came from the same region, it is not surprising that they share common,
foremost of which is the belief that they share common roots to the patriarch Abraham. Aside
from this, they also share certain similarities such as belief in one God. They also believe in
heaven and hell; in prophets as instruments of God in propagating his words to the people; in
angels as messengers of God to humanity; and in judgment day, among others. Today,
Christianity is considered as the most popular religion in the world based on the number of
adherents, followed by Islam. Indeed, these Abrahamic religions have largely influenced the
world today.
LESSON 4:

Judaism
Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that traces its origin as an organized belief
system during the Bronze Age in West Asia. The religion of the Jewish people, Judaism is one of
three Abrahamic religions that also include Christianity and Islam. It is the religion professed by
the Jews known as the "people of the Book" in reference to their sacred text written covering
nearly a thousand years and formalized as a canon of teaching by the end of the first century C.E.
The picture below is the Torah which is the most important text of the Jewish people. It contains
the "Five Books of Moses" and many sacred laws. The Jews consider themselves as the people
chosen by God to serve as an exemplar of devotion and purity to humankind.

It is quite difficult to study key events in the historical foundation of Judaism without
discussing the history of the Jewish people from the time of the Hebrews' mass departure from
Egypt or the Exodus. During the 20th century, the growth in their population has remained
sluggish for quite a long time as it grew to only 25% after the catastrophic event called
Holocaust.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
It is quite difficult to separate the history of Judaism from the history of the Jews themselves
(Parrinder 1971). The ancestors of the Jews were groups of Semites called Hebrews whose origin
can be traced in the desert lands of Arabia (Brown 1975). The origin of the Jewish people and the
beginning of Judaism are recorded in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch. As
a religion and culture, Judaism has three notable founding figures or patriarchs, namely,
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These biblical patriarchs are the physical and spiritual forebears of
the Jewish people and their narratives can be found in Genesis 12-50 of their scripture.
Judaism is anchored upon God’s revelation to Abraham that He is the creator and ruler of
the universe, and that He loves His creatures and demands righteousness from them (Losch
2001). God chose Abraham and his family from all the people living on earth as recorded in
Genesis 12. After a series of tragic events involving humankind, God entered into a covenant
with Abraham promising him that he would become the father of a great nation and would
possess vast tracts of land. Abraham, in return, must remain devoted to the covenant. He would
become the embodiment of uprightness and holiness to the world.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

In Judaism, actions are more significant than beliefs. However, while Judaism has no dogma,
there is definitely a place for belief within the religion since it focuses on the worship of one god,
the practice of good deeds, and the love of learning (Brasswell 1994). For the Jews, there is one
everlasting god who created the universe in its entirety and remains the master of it (Parrinder
1971). Human beings were created by God who provided them the capacity to decide what is
right and wrong, and gave them the freedom and responsibility for their own actions (Losch
2001). Humans have the ability to restrain their evil intentions because of their propensities for
both good and evil (Parrinder 1971). For Jews, all human beings are created equal. While God
can communicate with humans through revelations, humans can also commune to him by means
of prayers and meditations.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCE

The Jewish community utilizes a lunar calendar with twelve months, each beginning at the new
moon of 29 or 30 days. Every festival and Sabbath commences and terminates at dusk (or sunset)
rather than midnight in adherence to the biblical pattern. The Jewish calendar is followed in
obser- vance of festivities, holidays, and community and family celebrations (Brass- well 1994).
Jewish holidays are special days observed to commemorate key events in Jewish history and
other events that depict the special connections with the world, such as creation, revelation, and
redemption.
LESSON 5:

Christianity
Christianity is considered the most popular religion in the world with the most number of
adherents among all religions. Starting around the 1st century C.E., it developed out of Judaism
during the reign of the Roman Empire in West Asia. It centers on the life, teachings, death, and
resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is considered the Messiah or Savior of humanity. The most
common symbol for Christianity is the cross, for Chris- tians believe that Jesus died on the cross
to save humanity from their sins and to restore people’s relationship with God the Father.
Christians also believe in the Holy Trinity, which means God has three aspects-Father, Son, and
the Holy Spirit. It is believed that God the Father sent His only Son, Jesus, to earth to redeem
humanity from their sins for them to avoid the eternal flames of hell.
Although there has been a prophesy in Judaism that God the Father will send His only Son to
redeem humanity from their sins and to restore relation- ship with God, the Jews do not accept
that Jesus was the fulfillment of that promise. Instead, the Jews are still waiting for the Messiah
to be sent by God the Father. Christians, on the other hand, have accepted that Jesus is the
fulfillment of God’s promise. Nonetheless, Christianity is considered one of the first
monotheistic religions in the world and shares many similarities with Judaism in terms of belief
in prophets, angels, judgement day, among others. Together with Judaism and Islam, Christianity
is considered one of the world religions which traces its origins to the patriarch Abraham

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Christianity developed in Palestine around 100 C.E. It was founded by Jesus, considered
to be the Son of God and Messiah or Savior. Regarded as an offshoot of Judaism, Christianity
has survived and even surpassed Judaism and other religions in terms of number of adherents.
Today Christianity is divided into three major sects-Roman Catholicism, Greek Orthodox
Church, and Protestantism. These major Christian sects are further subdivided by Christian
denominations that differ in certain beliefs and practices but are united in worshipping Jesus
Christ as the Son of God.
SACRED SCRIPTURE
The Bible is considered the sacred scripture of Christianity. It is a collection of songs,
stories, poetry, letters, history, as well as literature. It is composed of two books, the Old
Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is considered the original Hebrew Bible,
written between 1200 and 165 B.C.E. The New Testament was written by Christians around 100
C.E.

Two Books of Sacred Scriptures

 The Old Testament

The Old Testament, also called the Hebrew Bible, is composed of 39 books which are
arranged in three parts: The first five books (Genesis to Deuteronomy) are considered “The

Law” or Torah which may refer to guidance or instruction. They are called as such because
they serve as guidelines on how people should live their everyday lives, as well as other legal
necessities. Later these books were called the Pentateauch, which were attributed to Moses.
Meanwhile, the second part of the Old Testament is called “The Prophets” which is divided
into two parts, the earlier prophets

 The New Testament

The New Testament is composed of 27 books written around 50 to 100 C.E. and is
composed of two sections: The Gospels which tell the story of Jesus (Matthew, Mark, Luke,
and John); and the Letters (or Epistles), written by various Christian leaders to serve as guide
to the early Christian communities. They were written to tell the life and teachings of Jesus.
The Acts of Apostles and Luke tell how Christianity developed from a small group of Jewish
believers to becoming one of the world’s major religions. Revelation is the last book of the
New Testament, traditionally attributed to the apostle John, which is considered an epistle
and an apocalypse.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Christianity has certain beliefs and doctrines that serve as moral guidelines for its followers.
As much as possible, Christians should follow these teachings strictly if they want to redeem
God’s promise of eternal life. These teachings are essential to their belief system as Christians
and not following them would lessen their chances of being called true Christians and reduces
their chances of salvation in the afterlife.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCE

Christians have certain religious observances in which they commemorate particular events in
the history of Christianity.

 Some of the most important Christian observances are Advent and Lent
• Advent
 Advent refers to the season of waiting for the birth of the Messiah, hence its
celebration lasts for four weeks, beginning four Sundays before Christmas and ending on
Christmas eve. It is meant as an opportunity to reflect on the significance of the birth of
Jesus who was sent by God the Father to restore humanity’s relationship with God.
• Lent
. Lent refers to the season observed by Christians in preparation for Easter, T a
celebration of the resurrection of Christ. Ash Wednesday signals the start of the season of
Lent, which begins 40 days before Easter. It is a time for Christians to prepare for Easter
by following certain rituals, such as fasting, repentance, moderation, and self-discipline.
This is a time to reflect o the suffering, sacrifice, life, death, burial, and resurrection of
the Savior Jesus Christ. It is a time for prayer, penance, sacrifice, and good works as a
way of remembering the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.

LESSON 6:

Islam

Established around seventh century C.E., Islam is the youngest among the world’s major
religions. More With than 1.5 billion adherents comprising almost one-fourth of the entire world
population, Islam is the second largest group and one of the fasting that are Muslim-majority or
comprise 50% of the population. The 1.2 billion Muslims in these countries equivalent to 74% of
the entire Muslim population worldwide. More than 60% of the world’s Muslims can be found in
Asia, including Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, and Iran. Indonesia is the world’s
most populous Muslim- majority country with almost 87% of the population practicing the Islam
religion. In Africa, sizeable Muslim communities are found in Egypt and Nigeria.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Islam began with the Arabian desert people around early seventh century C.E. These
people had developed their own set of beliefs prior to the formal Establishment of Islam and had
been influenced by other religions for a long period of time, including Byzantine Christianity,
Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Q’uran

The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that literally means
“recitation” or “reading.” The Quran is the revelation from God of his speech (kalam) and is the
foundation of the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). It is the supreme authority in all matters of faith,
theology, and law (Parrinder 1971). In 610 C.E., when Muhammad received the first revelations,
he was commanded by angel Gabriel to “iqra” or “recite.” All Muslims believe that the Quran is
a copy of the eternal scripture written in heaven but made known to Muhammad chapter by
chapter (Hopfe 1983). As such, the Quran is the word of God that is binding, continuous, and
supreme. The same message became known to earlier prophets like Moses and Jesus but people
gradually altered the revelation entrusted to them by God (Bowker 1997).

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Islamic calendar is composed of 12 lunar months of between 29 and 30 days. A year
in the Islamic calendar constitutes a total of 354 days. The difference between the solar and lunar
calendar is adjusted by adding one day to the last month of the year 11 times each 30 years.
Nonetheless, 103 Islamic years are the equivalent of 100 solar years despite the periodic
modifications done on the calendar (Hopfe 1983). Table 6.1 lists some of the most important
festivals celebrated by Muslims worldwide.
CHAPTER 3

Dharmic Religions

One major commonality of dharmic religions is that they all emerged from the vast
subcontinent of India, a land of complexity and diversity in terms of people, culture, practices,
customs, and traditions. These religions include Hinduism and the two branches of Buddhism,
the Theravada and Mahayana schools of thought. Central to their fundamental teachings are the
belief in the dharma with each religion having their own special meaning for the term.
Interestingly, the word dharma has no exact and specific translation in the western languages. For
the Hindus, it could mean an individual’s appropriate behavior or duty to be fulfilled in obser-
vance of a custom or law. For the Buddhists, it could mean universal law and order, or the
Buddha’s teaching itself. The unique character of each dharmic religion fascinates a great
multitude of faithful followers all over the world. With its one billion adherents, most notably in
India, Hinduism is the third world’s largest religion. On the other hand, Buddhism has a very
strong following in Asian countries, most especially in East and Southeast Asia. This chapter will
enable you to study the origins of these great religions, their fundamental teachings, the many
challenges they confront at present, and the relevance of these religions in modern times.

LESSON 7

Hinduism

Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion with around 15% of the H entire population
practicing the Hindu faith. Hindu followers in India comprise the major bulk with almost 80% of
the country’s population adhering to the religion. Other Asian countries with considerable Hindu
faithful’s include Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million), and Indonesia (3.9 million in
Bali). There are also substantial number of Hindus in Mauritius, Guyana, Fiji, Bhutan, Trinidad
and Tobago, Suriname, and Sri Lanka. Hinduism was never a missionary religion unlike
Christianity or Islam (Brown 1975). With the changing times, however, there have been
proselytizing activities by Hindu missionaries
in some Western cities.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Hinduism is oftentimes considered as

the oldest and most complex of all world
religions. While the most active religions of the
modern times may have started around the
sixth century B.C.E. onward, elements and themes of Hindu belief may have begun around the
third millennium B.C.E. In addition, unlike other major religions, Hinduism had no one
identifiable founder (Hopfe 1983).

The term Hindu originated from the Persian word Hindu (in Sanskrit sindhu) which
means “river.” It also refers to the people of the Indus Valley- the Indians (Bowker 1997). The
name Hinduism was given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide array of belief systems
in India. Hinduism was originally known as “Arya Dharma” or the “Aryan Way.”

Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on oral texts known as Vedas. This
Vedic literature, however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans had already settled in
India and blended with the natives. Admittedly, there is much difficulty in identifying elements
in the Vedas that are genuinely Pre-Aryan or Aryan influenced.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The sacred texts of Hinduism have been principally passed down throughout generations by way
of music, recitation, dance, and drama. Sanskrit has been the language of the earliest writings
(Coogan 2005). The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into two classes, the shruti and
Vedas.

Shruti

Shruti literally means “that which is heard.” They are regarded as eternal truths that were passed
orally until the beginning of the present age wherein there came the need to write them down
(Bowker 1997). The four collections of texts of the Vedas form the shruti and are considered
primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the Hindu faith. Other writings that form part
of shruti include the Samhitas, Brahmans, Upanishads, and a few Sutras.

Vedas

The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns compiled from an earlier oral tradition,
are composed of Rig-veda, Sama-veda, Yajur-veda, and Atharva-veda. The word Veda means
“knowledge” or “sacred lore.”

Gods and Goddesses, and their Personification or Attributes

 Indra- leader of the devas or gods; the lord of heaven in Hinduism; god of rain and
thunderstorm
 Agri- god of fire; messenger of the gods
 Adityas- sun- gods
 Mitra- deity for honestly; friendship, contacts, and meetings
 Varuna- God of water; God of law of the underwater world
 Ushas- deity of dawns
  Savitr- solar deity
 Rudra- deity of wind or storm
 Pushan- solar deity; God of meeting
 Brihaspati- diety and religion
 Dyaus Pita- sky god; father god
 Prithvi- mother earth
 Surya- chief solar deity; the sun
 Vayu- lord of the winds
 Apas- water
 Parjanya- thunder and rain

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Hindu faith offers its followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation
from the cycle of life through devotion to one or more gods. Gods and goddesses can be
worshipped at their temples. In temples, devotees can pray and offer sacrifices so that they can
gain favor from deities and assist them in their struggle for salvation. Bhakti stands for the soul’s
longing for and clinging to God (Brown 1975).

The Four Principal Denominations within the Hindu Faith

Shaivism

Lord Shiva, the Compassionate One, is God for the Saivites. Followers of Shaivism value self-
discipline and philosophy. They worship in temples and practice yoga.

Shaktism

The Goddess Shakti is supreme for Shaktas. She is the divine mother and assumes many forms,
be it a gentle one or a fierce deity. Believers use chants, magic, and yoga to summon cosmic
forces.

Vaishnavism

Lord Vishnu is God for the Vaishnavites, especially in his incarnations Krishna and Rama.
Adherents have multitudes of saints, temples, and sacred texts.

Smartism
For the Smartas, devotees are left to choose their own deity in one of six manifestations, namely,
Ganesha, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Skanda. Smartas are known as liberals as they
embrace all major Hindu gods.

LESSON 8

Theravada Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the most practical among the world’s great religions because its belief
system intends to meet basic human needs and solve humankind’s spiritual problem without
depending on supernatural forces (Brown 1975). The two main divisions of the religion are
Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism. With around 360 million followers, Mahayana
Buddhism is practiced in China, Japan, and Mongolia. Meanwhile, Theravada Buddhism, with
150 million adherents, is followed in Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. Buddhism is the
religion of around 500 million people or about 7% to 8% of the world’s population. Buddhist
followers are mostly found in the Asian continent, with China having the largest population at
around 244 million or 18% of its total population. Asian countries that have the highest Buddhist
majority in terms of population include Cambodia (97%), Thailand (93%), Myanmar (80%),
Bhutan (75%), Sri Lanka (69%), and Laos (66%). Buddhism has two main divisions and many
sects.

A major branch of the religion, Theravada Buddhism (“school of elder monks” or “school of the
ancients”) or the “Southern School of Buddhism” draws on the collected teachings of the oldest
recorded texts of Buddhist texts to become its central precept, the Pali Canon. This school claims
to have preserved the original teachings of Siddhartha with pristine purity (Clasper 1992).
Theravada Buddhism has gained considerable following in the West in modern times.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Buddhism has been in existence for over 2,500 years and has never experienced any
drastic or radical schisms in its evolution (Toula-Breysse 2001). As the Disciples of Siddhartha
Gautama spread his word and preached throughout Various communities, there came a need for
them to adapt to local culture, Politics, and economic context. Emerging branches of Buddhism
had become Adjusted to the milieu of the place. They may differ on the doctrines of Buddhism
but their relationships with other subgroups are generally good (Toula-Breysse 2001). The basic
tenets of both major schools of thought originate from Siddhartha Gautama whose life has
become a constant source of inspiration to others (Brown 1975):

SACRED SCRIPTURE

The early schools of Buddhism developed their own unique body of sacred texts. Of
these, however, only the Pali Canon or the Tipitaka/Tripitaka (“three baskets”) of Theravada
Buddhism survives (Coogan 2005). Preserved in the Pali language, this standard collection of
scriptures of Theravada Buddhists is the first known, the most conservative, and the most
complete extant early canon of Buddhist writings.

The Three Basket (tipitika/tripitaka) and their contents

 Sutta Pitaka (Discourse)- Buddha’s doctrinal discourses; short poems to long prose
narratives about Siddhartha’s previous lives
 Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline)- Rules of discipline; stories that illustrate Buddhist moral
principles
 Abhidamma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine)- Systematic analysis of the categories of
Buddhist thought

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Siddhartha never intended to start a new religion especially, and so his teachings are focused
primarily on ethics and self-understanding as people work for their salvation on their own
without needing the assistance of any supreme being (Hopfe-1983). Here lies the main difference
of Buddhism with other religions it has no place for God or savior, as salvation entirely lies
within anyone’s control (Brown 1975). Siddhartha did not claim to be a savior but a guide and
teacher as he pointed the way for others to follow and gain spiritual bliss in doing so.

Another unique feature of Buddhism is the belief that soul or the Hindu atman does not exist as
people live in a state of nonsoulness or anatman/ anatta. Buddhism does not preach that humans
have an eternal and indestructible soul (Brown 1975). Nothing is permanent in this world, hence,
all things change and are impermanent. The mark of impermanence or anitya/anicca states that
all conditioned things are transitory and passing; they all have beginning and end to their
existence (Skilton 1994).
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

 (1) The First Noble Truth. This identifies the origin of the problem- the dukkha.
Suffering can be experienced throughout the different stages of a person’s life-from birth,
sickness, old age, to ultimate death. When one clings to one of the previously stated
aggregates, this leads to suffering. When one unites with the unpleasant, it causes
suffering.
 (2) The Second Noble Truth. This explains the cause of suffering or the samodaya – in
craving or desire (or tanha), in the perpetual thirst of humans to consume things,
experiences, or ideas (Parrinder 1971). People are never satisfied as they always want
more or something else, want something new, or just want to discontinue something.
 (3) The Third Noble Truth. This asserts that there is a cessation or nirodha to suffering
and bondage by eliminating craving and desire. By dropping the bonds of craving, one
gets to be released from the fundamental nature of reality.
 (4) The Fourth Noble Truth. This directs an individual to the path or magga leading to
the termination of craving and desire, and to eventual cessation of pain. Likewise, one
must avoid self-indulgence and self-torture since both are pointless. This is the path
toward moderation or the “Middle Way” aimed at ending suffering.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Attainment of salvation for any Buddhist is by way of one’s own action without the assistance of
any supreme or supernatural being. Followers are guided by the teachings of Siddhartha as lay
people offer gifts to Siddhartha and the sangha during days of worship and observance. In
Buddhism, stupas are commemorative monuments that contain sacred relics associated with
Siddhartha himself, and the venerable monks and nuns. These burial mounds predate Buddhism
as ancient Indian kings and heroes were housed in stupas.

Most Buddhists aspire to visit many holy shrines as possible during their lifetime for this is an
admirable deed. Siddhartha himself pronounced four to which every Buddhist must give high
regard. These include his birthplace, the place of his enlightenment, the place of his first sermon,
and the place of his parinirvana (Brown 1975).

LESSON 9

Mahayana Buddhism

Believing itself as the more genuine version of

Buddha's teachings, B into Mahayana Buddhism
has diverged numerous schools with each
developing its own canon and rituals since its
founding more than two thousand years ago.
Also known as the "Great Vehicle," Mahayana
Buddhism emerged out of monastic rule and doctrinal differences within the original form of
Buddhism. While the two major Buddhist schools of Mahayana and Theravada both originated in
the foundational teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, their methods and search for liberation from
the cycle of reincarnation can be very different. They may be viewed as two different
articulations of the original principles of the historical Buddha. For example, in contrast to the
Theravada school of thought, Mayahana Buddhism aims to extend religious authority to a larger
number of people.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

During the third century B.C.E., a number of subtle variations began to take place in
Buddhism at a time when the Mauryan king Ashoka was propagating Buddhist gospels through
missionary efforts (Hopfe 1983). The Mahasamghika ("of the Great Sangha"), one of the early
Buddhist schools, may have been the source for the initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism,
especially during the "Second Buddhist Council" that occurred a hundred years after Buddha's
parinirvana. Considered a historical event, a religious schism between the Mahasamghika and
Sthavira nikaya ("Sect of the Elders"), another major Buddhist school, transpired during the said
council. These new ideas eventually concretized resulting in a new form of Buddhism quite
different from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama and to those accepted by
Theravada Buddhists. In short, Mahayana Buddhism practically became a new religion.

SACRED SCRIPTURES
While the Mahayana branch accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada school, such as
the Tripitaka (Sanskrit word for “Three Baskets”) which is the collection of Buddha’s teachings,
it also has a wide array of philosophical and devotional texts, especially since Mahayana
Buddhism initially became more receptive to change and to subsequent innovations even from
indigenous culture. Mahayana Buddhism includes many sacred writings which are nearly
identical in content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect. The canon of Mahayana
Buddhism also consists of the Tripitaka, namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka
(Discipline), and Abhidharma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine)
BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Nature of the Three Bodies of Buddha

(The body, Nature or Aspect of “Buddha-Hood”, and Manifestation)

 Dharmakaya- Body of absolute truth; absolute nature of all beings

-Buddha is transcendent
 Sambhogakaya- Body that experiences bliss of enlightenment
-Buddha’s body of bliss, or enjoyment body
 Nirmanakaya- Body that manifest the world; embodiment of dharmakaya in human form
-Buddha’s early body, just like any other human’s body

WORSHIP AND DOCTRINES

Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals with the
objective of aiding worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment and in bringing blessings
to each and every one. In Buddhist temples, they pray and chant to pay their respect to the
Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and Amitabha. They also offer
vegetarian food and light incense to pay homage to these important divine beings. Mahayana
temples are sacred spaces.

CHAPTER 4

Daoic Religions

In the midst of chaotic periods in China, namely the Spring and Autumn period well as
the Warring States period, several schools of thought as were born. This is known as the hundred
schools of thought, which was characterized by the struggle to impose social order in China
through philosophical teachings of great Chinese thinkers. Four of the most influential schools of
thought which flourished in China during this period were Confu- cianism, Daoism, Mohism,
and Legalism.

These schools of thought, together with elements of Mahayana Buddhism and new
religious movements such as Cao Dai, Chen Dao, and Falun Gong, all make up the Daoic
religions. These religions are centered on the Chinese philosophy of Dao (or 'The Way") which
refers to the moral order that permeates the universe or the force behind the natural order. Dao is
immanent and it pervades the natural world, the "mother of the universe" which constantly
nurtures nature. One's goal there- fore is to live in harmony with the Dao. In this chapter we will
discuss the three major East Asian or Daoic religions-Confucianism and Daoism from China,
as well as Shintoism from Japan.

LESSON 9

Confucianism
 There has always been a debate whether Confucianism should be regarded T as a religion
or a philosophy. Those who argue that Confucianism is a philosophy assert that when Kung Fuzi
founded Confucianism, he never meant to establish a new religion; he merely wanted to interpret
and revive the ancient religion of Zhou dynasty. Since Confucianism emphasizes the ethical
dimension of the world, it gives primary attention to human relationship, thus advocating social
values and ideals which should serve as the foundation of Chinese society. Advocates of
Confucianism as a philosophy further argue that Kung Fuzi seldom touched on religious matters,
thus branding him as a humanist advancing practical and ethical wisdom.

On the other hand, Confucianism is considered a religion because its ideals were
inspirational, not in the supernatural sense but in the sense of aiming for excellence in one’s
relationships with others. For Confucius, what happens in everyday life should not be trivialized
but should be considered as the realm of moral and spiritual fulfillment. Focus on relationships
should be emphasized, for it is often taken for granted that these relationships which we
encounter everyday should be the easiest to perfect, but in reality they are the hardest to attain.

CONFUCIAN DOCTRINES/BELIEFS

Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others
what you would not have them do unto you.” Found in the Analects, this saying teaches the
ethics of mutuality and reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others equal to themselves
and in equally the same manner as they would have wanted to be treated. Some of the most
important Confucian doctrines include the idea of Tian or heaven; human nature; rectification of
names; the five constants; filial piety; and ancestor worship.

LESSON 10

Daoism

The picture below is a typical Daoist painting, which is characterized by T elements of

nature such as the bamboo. Much of Chinese art, particularly the development of landscape
painting, nature poetry, and garden culture was influenced by Daoism, a philosophy which
flourished in China during the late Bronze Age and emphasizes humanity’s relationship with
nature. In this lesson, we will know more about another Daoic religion- Daoism and understand
its historical development and its relevance to Chinese society and culture.

Daoism functioned as a philosophy of abandonment and withdrawal from the rampant

warfare and social unrest which characterized the reign of the Zhou dynasty---a period of
constant struggle for power, wealth, and prestige. It began in the state of Chu in the southern part
of the present Hunan province. In effect, it served as a protest of common people against the
rising despotism of rulers and served as a reaction to the growing firmness of the moralists, who
were followers of Confucius. Daoists struggled to fight for individual autonomy in the midst of
the struggle of rulers and moralists to bring people to conform to social patterns to achieve social
harmony. The ultimate goal of Daoists was to conform to the great pattern of nature, which is
called Dao, or “The Way.” As a philosophy, Daoism focuses on the Great mysteries of the Dao;
as a religion, its goal is to achieve long life and, Ultimately, immortality.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Laozi (Lao-tzu), meaning “Old

Master,” is believed to have authored the
Dao De Jing (Tao te ching or The Book
of the Way and its Power), dating back
to around third century B.C.E.
According to myth, Laozi was conceived
by a shooting star and was born of a
virgin mother, who kept him in her
womb for 82 years; Laozi was said to be
born with flowing hair, which signified
that he would become a wise man. He is
considered as the first important Daoist
who is believed to be a senior
contemporary of Kung Fuzi (some said
he even became Kung Fuzi’s adviser)
although there is much debate on his
date and identity: The Chinese historian
Sima Qian wrote a biography of Laozi in
the Historical Records (Shih Chi) in the
late 2nd century B.C.E. According to
Sima Qian, Laozi’s family name was Li,
his given name was Erh, and he was also known as Tan. According to his biography, he worked
as a government archivist but became frustrated with government corruption, and sensing his
unavoidable disgrace he left Chu and was detained at Han-ku Pass by a gatekeeper named Yin
His, who requested him to write a book for him before leaving. Laozi agreeably wrote two
chapters about the Dao (Way) and De (individual power), which came to be named Dao De Jing
or Laozi.

CONCEPT/BELIEFS
Daoism can be best understood by discussing its concepts and beliefs. Some of its
concepts include the Dao or the “way of nature”; the De or “virtue/ proper” adherence to Dao;
Wu Wei or “action through inaction” which gives importance to humility and noncompetition,
naturalness and naturalism, and non-aggression; yinyang or the balance of nature or universe;
and the Chi/Qi or the natural energy or life force that sustains living beings.
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES
Ritual or liturgical expressions are important to the Daoist religion. These include ritual
initiation meant for purification and renewal in the life-cycle and development of the human
person. Daoist priests are licensed to perform rituals of specific traditions. One form of ritual is
exorcism, performed in cases of sickness with the goal of gaining victory over the evil spirits.
Other rituals are performed in the form of festivals, especially New Year. In these rituals, incense
is a central aspect, together with the sacrificial offering of sacred writings such as paper charms
which contain the prayers of individuals, bearing their names and the intentions which are
burned as part of the ritual. Those who will perform such rituals are encouraged to prepare for
them by fasting and by having a spirit of forgiveness and reconciliation.

LESSON 11
Shintoism
Shintoism is considered as the very essence of Japanese devotion to unseen spiritual
beings and powers. It is very local kind of religion in that it is focused on land of Japan, hence an
“ethnic religion ” that is not interested in missionary activities so as to spread it outside of Japan.
Shintoism spouses the belief that “human beings are basically good and has no concept of
original sin”. Unlike other religions, it has no known founder nor God, and it may be practiced
with other religion such as Buddhism and Daoism.
The picture below shows the entrance to Itsukushima shrine, one of the most visited
places in Japan. Shrines are important aspect in Shintoism, considered as the main religion in
Japan which is more closely associated to the Japanese way of life and traditions. Shinto belief in
kami or spirits is reflected in the numerous shrines they have built to honor the spirits which they
believe can be found in nature, and which still guide their everyday lives by giving them good
fortune and prosperity.
SYMBOL

This Torii Gate is the most common symbol for

Shintoism. It is a sacred gateway supposed to represent a
gate upon which a cock crew on the occasion when
Amaterasu emerged from the rock cave and relighted the
world. It marks the entrance to a sacred space which is the
Shinto shrine. It represents the transition between the
world of humans and the world of the gods and goddesses.
It is believe to help prepare the visitor for their interaction
with the spirits by signifying the sacredness of the
location. It is traditionally made of wood or stone, but now
most toriis are made of concrete and steel.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The development of Shintoism in Japan has a long history. During the prehistoric period
in Japan, animism was evident in the agricultural affairs of the people. Agricultural rites were
celebrated seasonally and all communal religious activities were focused on objects or places
believed to be inhabited by kami or spirits. Later on, adherents formulated rituals and stories for
them to make sense of their universe, such as creation stories regarding Japan and its natural
elements, thereby creating their own sense of cultural and spiritual worlds. One such story is the
“Story of Creation,” which narrates that in the beginning there were two kami, Izanagi-no-
Mikoto (male) and Izanami- no-Mikoto (female). It was said that after Izanagi’s creative work on
earth, he went up to heaven while Izanami was left permanently on earth as the queen of the
lower world. According to the myth, Amaterasu-o-mi-kami, the goddess of the sun, came out of
Izanagi’s left eye while Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto came out of his right eye, and Susa-no-Wo-no-
Mikoto came from his nostril.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

Kami Worship
Shintoism is a religion which revolves around the belief in and worship of kami or spirits.
Scholars agree that the concept of kami is difficult to explain, and that even the Japanese
themselves who are Shinto believers cannot provide a definite definition of kami. According to
the Japanese scholar, Motoori Norinaga:
Reflection
Introduction to world religion and belief system taught me a lot of lesson about religion
and how it begun. Religion has become an important part of individual lives, society, nation and
even the world as a whole. It has served various purposes to humanity such as providing
meaning to one’s life and making sense of unfathomable things such as the origin and destination
of life. It has also helped societies maintain peace and order by regulating behavior and has
become the basis of people’s morality. Religions have also provided us with a sense of
destination after death, like the concept of heaven and hell in Christianity which serves us a
guide on how one should conduct his/her life on earth. Therefore, religion has provided people
with explanations on things they cannot explain, especially with regard to humanity’s origin and
ultimate destination. Religion also attempts to explain human suffering. In times of sorrow and
loss, religion often provides people with explanation on the cause or purpose for their suffering.

Religion encourages to us people to promote the welfare of others, making them selfless
by always making sure that they serve humanity in whatever way they can. Christianity
advocates the belief that what people do to others, they do to God. Islam emphasizes alms-giving
as one of its pillars, while Sikhism has a practice of feeding the poor people on a regular basis.
Helping the poor and the less fortunate has always been an important aspect of religions and this
further develops a sense of humanity among us. Probably the most important role of religion in
one’s life is that it provides an opportunity to examine the meaning and ultimate value of life.
Through a study of world religions, we have observed that every religion provides a particular
purpose of existence and this would make us reflect if how we are living our lives serves this
purpose. Religion also guides us on how to relate with ourselves, with our families, and with
society in general. By being familiar with the basic teachings of our particular religion, we will
have an idea on how to achieve our personal happiness and fulfillment. One of the reasons why
the study of world religions is important is to appreciate the uniqueness of each religion. More
importantly, we need to realize that despite the differences, there are similarities which bind
these religions together and make them co-equal with one another. Studying the commonalities
among world religions also help people develop religious tolerance and respect each other’s
religious beliefs and practices.
 The world religions all advocate the Idea that one should be good to oneself, to one’s
family, to society, and to nature. Some just put more emphasis on how one should relate to

oneself. In Christianity, for example, it is a mortal sin to take away one’s life since it is God’s gift
and we have no right to take away what God has given us. Some religions put more emphasis on
one’s relation to one’s family, such as Confucianism with its emphasis on filial piety and even
ancestor worship.

Discipline And
Ideas in Applied
Social Science
Ⅲ. Name of Subject: Discipline and Ideas in Applied Social Sciences

3.1 Subject Description

Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences (DIASS) focuses on the concrete
application to everyday life occurrences of the theories, methodologies, and principles acquired
from the social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and others. DIASS
provides opportunities to explore, apply, and experience social sciences theories and
methodologies in real-life settings through the practice of three applied social science disciplines
of communication, social work, and counseling. DIASS guides and accompanies readers as they
learn about and appreciate the applied social sciences and what practitioners in the field do.
Crafted by practicing social scientists and applied social science professionals, the book aims to
develop among the students a high level of understanding on the basic concepts of counseling,
social work, and communication work through group dynamics, case studies, exposure and
observation, and project implementation and evaluation.

This course introduces some Applied Social Sciences, namely, Counseling, Social Work,
and Communication, which draw their foundation from the theories and principles of
Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, and other Social Sciences. The course highlights the
seamless inter-connectivity of the different applied social science disciplines while focusing on
the processes and applications of these applied disciplines in critical development areas.

Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences introduces students to the disciplines
and ideas that form part of applied social sciences by drawing on the theories and principles of
psychology, Sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences. The coverage of applied social
science centers on social science, counseling, social work, and communication, which are
seamlessly threaded together. This book focuses on the processes and applications of these
applied disciplines in critical development areas. It aims to empower students in developing
competencies in interacting and relating with other individuals, groups, and communities; apply
social science principles, practices, and tools in addressing several appropriate development
areas; and sharpen their analytical skills specifics to the processes and life context where these
applied disciplines are at work
3.2 Content:
CHAPTER 1 Course Introduction (Applied Social Sciences)
1.1 Definition of social sciences
1.2 Definition of applied social sciences
CHAPTER 2 Discipline of Counseling
2.1 Counseling
2.2 Definitions
2.3 Goals
2.4 Scope
2.5 Core Values
2.6 Principles
CHAPTER 3 Discipline of Counseling
3.1 Professionals and Practitioners in Counseling
3.2 Roles, functions, and competencies of counselors
3.3 Areas of specialization where counselors work
3.4 Career opportunities of counselors
3.5 Rights, Responsibilities, Accountabilities, and Code of Ethics
CHAPTER 4 Clientele and Audiences in Counseling
4.1 Characteristics and needs of various types of clientele and audiences
4.2 Individuals
4.3 Groups and Organizations

Reflection
Chapter 1
1.1 Definition of social sciences
Social Sciences - is made of several disciplines and these include history, political science,
sociology. psychology, economics, geography, demography, anthropology and linguistics. As a
body of scientific knowledge, the social sciences provide diverse set of lens that help us
understand and explain the different facets of human society. The varieties of lens that social
sciences study refer to the different fields of the social sciences that investigate human society.
Branches of the Social Sciences
 Economics studies the allocation of scarce resources and the production and
exchange of goods and services in society.
Economics has different subfields:
 Environmental economics- studies the allocation of natural resources
 Labor economics-focuses on the study of the decision-making and behaviors of
employees and the relationships between employers and their employees.
 Business economics-examines the behavior of companies and firms by studying
the factors that result in profit maximization, price setting, production goals, and
the role of incentives.
 Monetary economics-on the other hand, studies the nation's production, inflation,
Income, Interest rates, and monetary policies.

 Anthropology is the scientific study of humans and their cultures in the past and
present time.

Anthropologist are trained in the different areas:

 Cultural anthropology studies the development of human culture based on
ethnologic, linguistic, social, and psychological data analysis. It explains how
people in other societies live and affects their environments to their respective
lives.
 Physical anthropology studies human biological nature, particularly its beginning.
evolution, and variation in prehistory.
Archeology studies human life in the past through the examination of things left behind
by the people.
 History is systematic study of human past events in order to understand the meaning,
dynamics, and relationship of the cause and effects of events in the development of
societies.

History has several subfields:

 Political history studies history of political institutions.
 Economic history studies the development of economic institutions and other
economic factors.
 Social history studies the history of ordinary lives of people like women,
children, ethnic groups, and the different sectors of society from historical point
of view.
 Environmental history looks into the history of the interaction of humans with the
environment.
 History of medicine and public health examines the history of public health and
human medicine.
 Business history studies the history of the development of businesses, companies,
and Industries.
  Biographies studies the history of great persons in history.

 Political Science primarily studies human behavior in relation to political systems,

governments, laws, and international relations.

Political has several fields of study:

 Domestic politics studies in public opinion, elections, national and local
governments.
 Comparative politics studies politics within countries and analyzes the similarities
and differences between among countries.
 International Relations focuses on the study of political relationship and
interaction between and among countries.
 Public administration studies national and local governance and bureaucracy.
 Public law examines legal systems, civil rights, and criminal justice.

 Psychology studies how the human mind works in consonance with the body to produce
thoughts that lead to individual actions.

Psychology subfields:
 Experimental psychology studies of humans and animals examines how and why
learning takes place,
 Developmental psychology studies the ways people change and behave as they
go through their life.
 Personality psychology studies human nature and differences among people.
 Environmental psychology studies the effects of surroundings on a person's
attitude and behavior.

 Sociology a systematic study of people's behavior in groups.

Sociology subfields:
 Applied sociology focus on the use and proper application of sociological
theories, methods and skills to examine data, solve problems and communicate
research to the public.
 Urban sociology studies societal life interactions in urban areas through the
application of sociological methods like statistical analysis and ethnographies
Cultural sociology analyzes the development of social institutions, norms and
practices.
 Rural sociology studies the social life of people in rural areas.
 Medical sociology examines the societal aspects of health and medicine of people.
 Sociology of education analyzes how social forces and institutions like politics,
economic systems, and culture affects school and educational systems.
 Political sociology examines how social structure affects and influences politics.

 Military sociology is a sociological study of the military organization, the

different civilian and military relationships, war experiences, and the use and
control of force.
  Geography is the study of interaction between people and their environments.
Geography subfields:

Physical geography studies the natural features of the earth, including land, water,
and atmosphere.
 Human geography studies how people create cultures in their natural
environments.
 Demography according to the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research (2016).
demography is the scientific study of human populations across time.
Major subfield:
 Population studies or social demography analyze demographic data to define,
explain, and foresee social phenomena. It also studies social-status composition
and population distribution.

1.2 Definition of applied social sciences

Defining the Applied Social Sciences- branch of study that applies the different concepts,
theoretical models, and theories of the social science disciplines to help understand society and
the different problems and issues. The applied social sciences is utilized to provide alternative
solutions to the diverse problem of the society.
Three main career tracks for applied social scientists:
 Counseling is one of the fields of applied social sciences as an application of the social
sciences, counseling provides guidance, help, and support to individuals who are
distraught by a diverse set of problems in their lives.

 Counseling can be done by the following:

Guidance counselor and life coaching are applications of the social sciences and
these professions, expert help are given to individuals who needed guidance or
advice pertaining to their business successes, general conditions and personal life
transitions, relationships and career.
Life coach analyzes the present condition of the client, discovers different
obstacles or challenges that a client faces, and provides a certain course of action
to make the client's life better.
Career counseling is needed by people who are in the process of entering the job
market, searching for possible career change, or those wanting career
advancements.
Personal growth counseling concentrates on the evaluation of different aspects of
a client's life.
 Social work practitioners help individuals, families, and groups, communities to
improve their individual and collective well-being.
 Communication Studies- Applied social science provided an adequate training for
careers in the field of journalism and mass communication because of
multidisciplinary knowledge and skills that graduates learn from social sciences.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Counseling
Counseling- For Nystul (2003) defined it as basically an art and a science wherein you endeavor
to weigh the objective and subjective facets of the counseling process.
- As an art is the subjective dimension of counseling. It upholds a flexible and creative
process whereby the counselor modifies the approach to meet the developing needs of the
clients.
- As a science, on the other hand, is the objective dimension of the counseling process.
- In practical terms, counseling happens when a person who is distressed asks for help and
permit another person to enter into a kind of connection with him/her. It is indicative with
formal of someone in search of counseling requests for time and attention from person
who will listen, who will allow him/her to speak and who will not condemn and criticize
him/her.
- Informal helping- is a kin with formal helping in some ways such as presence of good
listening skills, empathy, and caring capacity.
- Based on Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004, guidance and counseling is the
profession that implicates the application of an integrated approach to the development of
a well-functioning individual through the provision of support that aids an individual to
use his/her potential to the fullest in accord with his/her interest, needs and abilities.
(University of Queensland, 2015).
- At the American Counseling Association (ACA) Conference in Pittsburgh in March 2010,
the representatives come to an agreement on a mutual definition of counseling. They
agreed that counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals,
families and group to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals
(Kaplan, Tarvydas, and Gladding, 2014).

2.2 Goals
Goals of Counseling - the key component of individual, group, organizational and community
success
-Detailed and expansive counseling goals have been identified by Gibson and Mitchell (2003),
which are as follows:
1. Development Goals - assist in meeting or advancing the clients human growth and
development including social, personal, emotional, cognitive, and physical wellness.
2. Preventive Goals - helps the client avoid some undesired outcome.
3. Enhancement Goals - enhance special skills and abilities.
4. Remedial Goals - assisting a client to overcome and treat an undesirable development
5. Exploratory Goals - examining options, testing of skills, trying new and different activities,
etc. 6. Reinforcement Goals - helps client in recognizing, that what they are doing, thinking, and
feeling is fine
7. Cognitive Goals - involves acquiring the basic foundation of learning and cognitive skills
8. Physiological Goals - involves acquiring the basic understanding and habits for good health
9. Psychological Goals - aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning emotional
control, and developing positive self-concept
The presented list of counseling goals, some of which are enhancement of the above goals

Goal Description
Insight Understanding of the origins and development of
emotional difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to
take rational control over feelings and actions
Relating with others Becoming better able to form and maintain meaningful and
satisfying relationships with other people: for example,
within the family or workplace
Self- awareness Becoming more aware of thoughts and feelings that had
been blocked off or denied, or developing a more accurate
sense of how self is perceived by others
Self- acceptance The development of a positive attitude toward self, marked
by an ability to acknowledge areas of experience that had
been the subject of self- criticism and rejection
Self- actualization Moving in the direction of fulfilling potential or achieving
an integration of previously conflicting parts of self.
Enlightenment Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state of spiritual
awakening
Problem- Solving Finding a solution to a specific problem that the client had
not been able to resolve alone. Acquiring a general
competence in problem-solving
Psychological education Enabling the client to acquire ideas and techniques with
which to understand and control behavior
Acquisition of Social Skills Learning and mastering social and interpersonal skills such
as maintenance of eye contact, turn taking in
conversations, assertive, or anger control
Cognitive change The modification or replacement of irrational beliefs or
mal adaptive thought patterns associated with self-
destructive behavior
Behavior change The modification or replacement of maladaptive or self-
destructive patterns of behavior.
Systematic change Introducing change into the way in that social systems
operate
Empowerment Introducing change into the way in that social systems
operate
Restitution Helping the client to make amends for previous destructive
behavior
Generality Inspiring in the person a desire and capacity to care for
others and pass on knowledge and to contribute. to the
collective good through political engagement

2.3 Scope
Scope of Counseling
The wide ranges of human problems create a widened scope and field of counseling. Broadly, the
scope of counseling includes individual counseling, marital and premarital counseling, family
counseling, and community counseling. A more focused subject matter related to scope of
counseling is the 4757-15 Scope of Practice foe Licensed Professional Counselors. It contains
the rights and responsibilities of licensed counselors including the following:

Licensed Professional Counselors may for a fee, salary, or other considerations

1. Afford counseling services to individuals, groups, organizations, or the general public
compromising of: application of clinical counseling principles, methods, or procedures
to assist individuals in realizing effective personal, social, educational, or career
development and adjustment.
2. Apply clinical counseling principles, methods, and procedures", means an approach to
counseling that emphasizes the counselor's role in systematically assisting clients
through all of the following: assessing and analyzing emotional conditions, exploring
possible solutions, and developing and providing treatment plan for mental and
emotional adjustment or development. It may include counseling, appraisal, consulting,
supervision, administration, and referral.
3. Engage in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders when under
the supervision of a professional clinical counselor, psychologist, psychiatrists,
independent marriage and family therapist, or independent social worker
4. Provide training supervision for students and registered counselor trainees when.
services are within their scope of practice, which does not include supervision of the
diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders.

2.4 Core values

Core Values- is a key component of an organization. It has significant influence on other
organizational components, more specifically, to its members. It serves as standards that shape
the members behavior in their interaction with their clients and other people.
According to Mcleod (2003), the founders of humanistic psychology, including Maslows and
Rogers highlighted the importance of values.

2.5 Principles
Ethical Principles of counseling which are follows:

Ethical Principles These are the ideas that underpin both personal
and professional codes.
1. Autonomy of individuals
 Is based on the right to freedom of
action and freedom of choice in so far
as the pursuit of these freedom does not
interfere with the freedom of others;
counseling cannot happen unless the
client has made a free choice to
participate.
2. Principle of Non maleficence
 This refers to instruction to all helpers
or healers that they must above all, do
no harm;
 Beneficence refers to the order to
promote human welfare
3. Principle of Justice
 Concerned with the fair distribution of
resources and services, unless there is
some acceptable reason for treating
 them differently
 For counseling, the principle has
particular relevance to the question
access

General Moral Theories  The BACP Ethical Framework for

Good Practice, drawing on virtues
perspective also identified a set of
personal qualities that all practitioners
should possess: empathy, sincerity,
integrity, resilience, respect, humility,
competence, fairness, wisdom and
courage

CHAPTER 3
3.1 Professionals and Practitioners in Counseling
Roles and Functions of Counselors
According to Gibson and Mitchell (2003) a helping profession is composed of members who are
especially trained and licensed to perform a unique and service for fellow human beings".

Roles/Functions Description
Individual Assessment Seeks to identify the characteristics and
potential of every client promotes the client's
self-understanding and assisting counselors to
understand the client better
Individual Counseling Considers as the core activity through which
other activities become meaningful. It is a
client-centered process that demand
confidentiality. Relationship is established
between counselor and client.
Group Counseling and Guidance Groups are means of providing organized and
planned assistance to individuals for an array
of needs. Counselor provides assistance
through group counseling and group
guidance.
Career Counselors are called on to provide career
planning and adjustment assistance to clients.
Placements and Follow-Up A service of school counseling programs with
emphasis on educational placements in course
and programs.
Referral It is the practice of helping the clients find
needed expert assistance that the referring
counselor cannot provide.
Consultation It is the process of helping a client through a
third party or helping system improve its
service to its clientele.
Research It is necessary to advance the profession of
counseling; it can provide empirically based
data relevant to the ultimate goal of
 implementing effective counseling.
Evaluation and Accountability Evaluation is a means of assessing the
effectiveness of counselor's activities.
Accountability is an outgrowth of demand
that schools and other tax-supported
institutions be held accountable for their
actions.
Prevention This includes promotion of mental health
through primary prevention using a social-
psychological perspective.

3.2 Roles, functions, and competencies of counselors

Competencies of Counselors
Seven distinct competence areas of counselors. There might be other areas but we will focus on
the input of McLeod (2003).
1. Interpersonal Skills - counselors who are competent display ability to listen, communicate;
empathize; be present, aware of nonverbal communication; sensitive to voice quality, responsive
to expressions of emotion, tum taking, structure of time and use of language
2. Personal beliefs and Attitude - counselors have the capacity to accept others, belief in potential
of change, awareness of ethical and moral choices and sensitive to values held by client and self.
3. Conceptual ability - counselors have the ability to understand and assess client's problem; to
anticipate future problems; make sense of immediate process in terms of wider conceptual
scheme to remember Information about the client.
4. Personal Soundness - counselors must have no irrational beliefs that are destructive to
counseling relationships, self-confidence, capacity to tolerate strong of uncomfortable feelings in
relation to the clients, secure personal boundaries, ability to be a client; must carry no social
prejudice, ethnocentrism and authoritarianism.
5. Mastery of Techniques - counselors must have a knowledge of when and how to carry out
specific interventions, ability to assess effectiveness of the interventions, understanding the
rationale behind techniques, possession of wide repertoire of intervention.
6. Ability to understand and work within social system - this would be compromise of awareness
of family and work relationships of client the impact of agency on the clients, the capacity to use
support networks and supervision; sensitivity to client from different gender, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, or age group.
7. Openness to learning and inquiry - counselors must have the capacity to be curious about
client's backgrounds and problems; being open to new knowledge
3.3 Areas of specialization where counselors work
3.4 Career opportunities of counselors

Career Opportunities and Areas of Specialization of Counselors

1.Marriage and Family Counseling - refers to the efforts to establish an encouraging relationship
with couple or family and appreciate the complications in the family system.

2. Child and Adolescent Counseling is a developing area of expertise in counseling profession.

The counseling strategies focus on helping children and adolescents acquire coping skills
through promotion of resiliency, positive attachment relationship, emotional and intellectual
intelligence, and other qualities that promote optional development.

3. Group Counseling is the dynamic field in the counseling profession. Group counseling as a
practice can be located in most counseling programs and became the essential part of counselor's
system. Group counseling offers the following: opportunities to members to learn from
observing other group members; can functions as helpers and helps; opportunities to discover
that you and others have similar concerns; members are encouraged to offer help to others;
opportunities to enhance interpersonal skills; the therapeutic climate created similar as the
client's family origin.

4.Career Counseling -is an evolving and challenging counseling field. This type of counseling
aids individual on decisions and planning concerning their career. The counseling approach
includes integrating theory and practice. Adopted Savickas (1996) as cited Nystul (20003)
adopted the model of Wagner (1971) on structural analysis of personality to the realm of
vocational psychology. The model consist of vocational career services, occupational placement,
vocational guidance, career counseling, career education, career therapy. and position coaching.

5.School Counseling-refers to the process of reaching out students with concerns on drugs,
family and peers or gang involvement. The job requires sensitivity to individual differences and
considers diversity in enhancing educational perspective. The job requires skills on consultation,
counseling's exceptional students and with the ability to handle problems such as drug abuse,
teenage pregnancy, divorced or single parents, dropping out of school.
6.Mental Health Counseling is manifested in the challenges posed by its clientele with mental
disorders. Mental disorders include serious depression, schizophrenia, and substance abuse.
Mental health counselors have to be inventive, and creative to address these problems. The job
requires patience, humility, kindness and compassion.

3.5 Rights, Responsibilities, Accountability, and Code of Ethics

Rights and Responsibilities, and Accountability of Counselors.
Code of ethics help counselors to remind them of their rights, responsibilities and accountability
in the counseling profession. The rights, responsibilities and accountability of the counselors are
based on the counselor associations of Code of Conduct.

The code of ethics of the counselors is divided into seven sections, namely, (a)
counseling relationship, (b) confidentiality (c) professional responsibility (d) relationships with
other professionals, (e) evaluation, assessment, and interpretation, (f) teaching, training and
supervision (g) research and publication. (Gladding, 2000). We shall only present in details three
of the seven areas, namely, counseling relationships, confidentiality, and professional
responsibility. The following three tables below provide a sample code of ethics of the American
Counseling Association.
The Counseling Relationships

1.Client welfare
- Counselor's primary responsibility is to respect the dignity and promote the welfare of clients.
They are also expected to encourage client's growth. Counselors and clients are expected to work
together in crafting individual counseling plans. consistent with the client's circumstances.

2. Respecting Diversity
- Counselors do not engage in discrimination based on age, color, culture, disability, ethnic
group, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, marital status and socio-economic status.
Counselors shall respect differences and understand the diverse cultural backgrounds of their
clients.

3. Client Rights
- Counselors shall disclose the purposes, goals, techniques, procedures, limitations, potential
risks, benefits of the services to be performed and other pertinent information to the client
throughout the counseling process. Counselors offer clients the freedom to choose whether to
enter into a counseling relationship and determine which professional will provide counseling,
except when the client is unable to give consent.

4.Clients Served by others.

- In cases where the client is receiving services from another mental health professional, with
client consent, inform the professional person already involved to develop an agreement.

5.Personal Needs and values

- Maintain the clients and avoid actions that seek to meet their personal needs at the expense of
the clients. Counselors shall be aware of their values, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior and how
these apply in a diverse society and avoid imposing their values on clients.

6.Dual Relationship
- Counselors are aware of their influential position over their clients. avoid the exploiting the
trust and dependency of the clients. Counselors should not accept as superiors or subordinates’
clients.

7.Sexual Intimacies with Clients

- Influential position over their clients. avoid the exploiting the trust and dependency of the
clients. Counselors should not accept as superiors or subordinates’ clients Counselors should not
have any type of sexual intimacies with clients and do not counsel persons with whom they have
sexual relationship. Counselors should not also engage with sexual intimacies with their former
clients within a minimum of two years.
8.Multiple Clients
- In cases where counselors agree to provide counseling services to two or more persons who
have a relationship, counselors clarify at the outset which person or persons are clients and the
nature of relationship they will have with each other involved person.

9.Group Work
- Counselors screen prospective group counseling/therapy participants to determine those with
compatible needs. In group. setting, counselors take reasonable precautions to protect clients
from physical or psychological trauma.

10.Fees
- Prior to entering the counseling relationship, the counselors clearly explain the clients all
financial arrangements related to professional fees.

Confidentiality

1.Right to Privacy
 Counselors respect a client's right to privacy and avoid illegal and unwarranted
disclosures of unwarranted information.

 The right to privacy may be waived by the clients or their legally recognized
representative.

 The right to privacy may be waived by the clients or their legally recognized
representative. The general requirement that the counselors keep the information
confidential does not apply when disclosure is required to prevent clear and imminent
danger to the client or others or when legal requirements demand that confidential
information is be revealed.

 Counselors who received information confirming that a client has a disease known to be
communicable and fatal is justified in disclosing information to an identifiable third
party, who by his/her relationship with the client is at high risk of contracting the disease.

 When court orders the counselors to release confidential information without client's
permit, counselors request to the court that the disclosure should not be required due to
potential harm to client or counseling relationship.

2.Group and Families

 In group work, counselors clearly define confidentiality and parameters for the specific
group being entered, explain its importance, and discuss difficulties related to
confidentiality involved in group work.
 In family counseling, information about one family cannot be disclosed to another
member without permission.
3. Minor Incompetent client
 When counseling clients who are minors or individuals who are unable to give voluntary,
informed consent, parents or guardians may be included in the counseling process as
appropriate.

4.Records
 Counselors maintain necessary records for rendering professional services to their clients
and as required by laws, regulations, or agency or institution procedures.

 Counselors are responsible for securing safety and confidentiality of any counseling
record they create, maintain, transfer, or destroy whether the records are written, taped,
computerized, or stored in any other medium.

 Counselors recognized that counseling records are kept for the benefits of the clients
therefore provide access to record and couples of records when requested by competent
clients unless it contains information that may be misleading or detrimental to the clients.

 Counselors obtain written permission from clients to disclose or transfer records to

legitimate third parties unless exception to confidentiality exists.

CHAPTER 4
4.1 Characteristics and needs of various types of clientele and audiences
4.2 Individuals

Counseling and Its Clientele and Audience.

The clientele and audiences of the counseling profession come from different settings.
Counselors deal with a mixture of people with different concerns and issues.
- People who abuse drugs - drug abuse is not just harmful to our physical health but to our
mental health as well. It cannot be denied that the drug addiction creates more social
problems and contribute to social disintegration. Consequently, more youth victims cry
for help and seek for counselors' attention.

- People who use Tobacco - slowly our population recognizes the bad effects of tobacco to
our health. However, many people still use and continue use tobacco even if it is deadly.
Users find it difficult to stop smoking. Hence, smokers who desire to quit tobacco were
added to the list of the counselor's audiences.

- People who abuse alcohol - alcoholism is seen as a disease alcoholics find it difficult to
stop drinking on their own. This requires help from a professional as it requires
appropriate treatment. However, an equally important paradigm is to look at alcoholism
as a weakness. of self-control and self-discipline therefore, this requires intervention
other than treatment.

- Women - most men still have less participation in household responsibilities and child
care. In this case, women's advancement is constrained. What complicates this situation is
the women's perception about themselves and the society's expectations. Counselors are
responsible in helping women appreciate their own values, abilities, aptitudes, and
interests and to utilize these to develop their full potential. (Gibson and Mitchel 2003)
 - Older Adults - a transition from a busy life to retirement stage must be instituted. This is a
challenge to the counseling profession, other issues that require attention of counseling
Include loss of a partner decline of mental capacity and mobility, increased loneliness
decline in financial security etc.

- People with AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has been labeled as
the most feared disease due to its incurability. Victims of this disease are seeking help to
Improve their quality of life and to handle their emotional stress and low self-esteem.
Counseling's approach requires sensitivity and appreciation of the intricacies of the
disease. Counselors may also help in assisting and educating the victims' support system.

- Victims of Abuse - this population represents victims of domestic violence characterized

by spouse and child abuses. Spouse abuse is often associated with poverty, drug abuse
and career disappointments. The abuse has also become rampant and has caused
psychological damage to the victims. The counselors are increasingly utilized to help the
victims.

- Gay Men and Lesbian Women- they are usually the victims of harassment, violence,
discrimination, and isolation. Gays and lesbians, like other sectors of the society, suffer
from peer denial, family clash, health uncertainties and prejudgment. Counseling will
focus on self-awareness, self- acceptance and understanding.

Groups and Organizations

Counseling and Its Work settings

 Counselors in Schools - has grown rapidly. According to Gibson and Mitchell (2003),
counselors are recognized especially in the preventive interventions and developmental
stage. There are elementary school counselors, junior high school counselors, secondary
school counselors, counselors in vocational schools, counselors in higher education, and
counselors in community and junior colleges. The counseling service in the schools is
usually located under the student affairs program. It is under the supervision of the Dean
of Students Affairs.
 Counselors in the Community Setting
refers to employment in community,
agency, and other non-school professional
situations. Counselors can be found in
community and mental health agencies,
employment and rehabilitation agencies,
correctional settings, and marriage and
family practice. (Gibson and Mitchell,
2003).

 Counselors in the Private Sector - refers to counselors who decided to do full time work
as private practitioners or engage in part-time private practice while employed by
community agencies. This is feasible if the counselor’s expertise and specialization
matches or relevant to an adequate client population in the geographic area. (Gibson and
Mitchell, 2003).
Reflection

I’ve learned so much from this subject. I learned about the definition of social sciences
and applied social sciences, their relationships and differences, and how they help us in our daily
lives. I also learned what counseling is and the importance of it. This subject taught me that it’s
not just about knowing the past and the future; it is also concerned with the present and how we
deal with it. Because of this subject, I have a better comprehension of how governments,
companies, or countries make decisions that have great consequences for the people.

Social science is a discipline or branch of science that deals with human behavior in its
social and cultural aspects. Applied Social Sciences is a branch of study that applies the different
concepts, theoretical models, and theories of the social science disciplines to help understand
society and the different problems and issues. Applied science is a discipline used to apply
existing scientific knowledge based on scientific research and also to develop practical
applications of science such as technology, methodology, and inventions.

Applied social science is more about solving problems in the real world. It usually
produces practical steps and practical decisions as tools to answer the existing problem. It helps
stakeholders develop the systems to be better. Counseling is one of the fields of applied social
science that provides guidance, help, and support to individuals who have problems. In
practicum as a counselor, it needs practical steps and practical decisions where we, as the
counselor, need to be patient and a good listener for the client to trust you. In Applied Social
Science, it explores the theory, the discoveries, and the findings of experimentalists in any of the
social science fields that can be used in the real world. In conclusion, the importance of studying
applied social science is that it involves the study of the society we live in and the relationships
people have within that society. And through applied social science, we can provide alternative
solutions to the diverse problems of society.
Discipline and
Ideas in Social
Science

Ⅳ. Name of the Subject: Discipline and Ideas in Social Science

4.1 Subject Description

The course introduces students to basic concepts, subjects, and methods of inquiry in the
disciplines that comprise the social sciences. It then discusses influential thinkers and ideas in
these disciplines and relates these ideas to the Philippine setting and current global trends.

Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences discusses various concepts, theories, and
principles in the social sciences to enable students to analyze social problems and issues, propose
solutions, and identify ways to take action in service of their community and country.

Applied social science involves the practical application of theories, methods, and
research findings from the social sciences to understand and address societal problems. It
encompasses disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political
science, and geography, among others.

4.2 Content
Lesson 1: Defining Social Sciences as the study of society

Lesson 2: Introducing the disciplines within the Social Sciences

 Anthropology
 Economics
 Geography
 History
 Linguistic
 Political Science
 Psychology
 Sociology and Demography

Lesson 3: Dominant Approaches and Ideas

 Structural-Functionalism
 Marxism
 Symbolic-Interactionalism
 Psychoanalysis
 Defense Mechanism

Reflection

Lesson 1
Defining Social Sciences as the study of society

Social sciences are viewed as those that deal with "human society, societal groups,
individuals in their relationships with others or institutions of societies and material goods as
expression of human cohabitation" (Bayer, 1992). According to James High "Social Sciences as
those bodies of learning and study which recognizes the simultaneous and mutual action of
physical and no-physical stimuli which produce social relation. According to Charles Beard
"Social sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining to human affairs as
distinguished from sticks, stones, stars and physical objects". Bining & Bining defines Social
Science as "the subject that relate to the origin, organization, and development of human society,
especially to man in his association with other men." In short, it is a complex study of society
and human being and how they affect and influence each other. It can be a method to be used to
draw connection from our past, present and future. Social science can be an instrument that will
surely have an impact on our lives. Social science can be link with History, Geography,
Economics, Political Science and Sociology.

History of Social Science

The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650.
➤ The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic
knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of
interacting entities. Social science was influenced by positivism. Auguste Comte used the term
"science sociale" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, Comte also
referred to the field as social physics. The term "social science" may refer either to the specific
sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more
generally to all disciplines outside of "noble science" and arts.

Natural sciences are “disciplines that deal only

with natural events (i.e. independent and dependent
variables in nature) using scientific methods” (Ledoux,
2002 p.34) To simplify this one, it focuses on the study of
nature, plants, animals, matter, energy, rocks and minerals
and other biological and physical aspects.
 Humanities are branches of knowledge that concerns with human beings and their culture
or with analytic and critical methods of inquiry derived from an appreciation of human values
and of the unique ability of the human spirit to express itself.
It focuses more on the material accomplishment of human being language, religion, fine arts,
music, literature and history and philosophy.

Lesson 2: Introducing the disciplines within the Social Sciences

 Anthropology
Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the goal of understanding our
evolutionary origins, our distinctiveness as a species, and the great diversity in our forms
of social existence across the world and through time. The focus of Anthropology is on
understanding both our shared humanity and diversity, and engaging with diverse ways of
being in the world.

Fields of Anthropology
 Biological (or physical) anthropologists - carry out systematic studies of the non-
cultural aspects of humans and near-humans. Non-cultural refers to all of those
biological characteristics that are genetically inherited in contrast to learned. Near-
human is a category that includes monkeys, apes, and the other primates as well as our
fossil ancestors. The primary interest of most biological anthropologists today is
human evolution--they want to learn how our ancestors changed through time to become
what we are today. Biological anthropologists also are interested in understanding the
mechanisms of evolution and genetic inheritance as well as human variation and
adaptations to different environmental stresses, such as those found at high altitudes and
in environments that have temperature extremes.
 Cultural (or socio-cultural) anthropologists - are interested in learning about the
cultural aspects of human societies all over the world. They usually focus their research
on such things as the social and political organizations, marriage patterns and kinship
systems, subsistence and economic patterns, and religious beliefs of different societies.
Most cultural anthropologists’ study contemporary societies rather than ancient ones.
Through the 19th and most of the 20th centuries, the peoples who primarily interested
cultural anthropologists were those who lived in small-scale, isolated societies with
cultures that were very different from those of Europeans and European Americans.

 Linguistic anthropologists - study the human communication process. They focus their
research on understanding such phenomena as the physiology of speech, the structure and
function of languages, social and cultural influences on speech and writing, nonverbal
communication, how languages developed over time, and how they differ from each
other. This is very different from what goes on in an English or a foreign language
class. Linguists are not language teachers or professional translators.
  Archaeologists - are interested in recovering the prehistory and early history of societies
and their cultures. They systematically uncover the evidence by excavating, dating, and
analyzing the material remains left by people in the past. Archaeologists are essentially
detectives who search through many thousands of pieces of fragmentary pots and
other artifacts as well as environmental data in order to reconstruct ancient life ways. In
a sense, this makes archaeology the cultural anthropology of the past. Archaeology is
also related to biological anthropology in its use of the same methods in excavating and
analyzing human skeletal remains found in archaeological sites.

 Economics
Economics is concerned with the creation, consumption, and transfer of wealth. The
study of economics encompasses the major areas of microeconomics, which explores
how people and firms produce and consume goods and services, and macroeconomics,
which explores mass economic progress and inter-country trade. Economic methods may
be used to study all kinds of issues, from land and other natural resource use, to how
much people should work, to how to develop human capital through education.
Economics can provide insights in areas as diverse as how workers should be rewarded,
how government should conduct fiscal and monetary policy, and how health care markets

work.

Fields of economics
 Microeconomics - studies how individual consumers and firms make decisions to
allocate resources. Whether a single person, a household, or a business, economists may
analyze how these entities respond to changes in price and why they demand what they
do at particular price levels. Microeconomics analyzes how and why goods are valued
differently, how individuals make financial decisions, and how they trade, coordinate, and
cooperate. Within the dynamics of supply and demand, the costs of producing goods and
services, and how labor is divided and allocated, microeconomics studies how businesses
are organized and how individuals approach uncertainty and risk in their decision-
making.

 Macroeconomics - is the branch of economics that studies the behavior and performance
of an economy as a whole. Its primary focus is recurrent economic cycles and broad
economic growth and development. It focuses on foreign trade, government fiscal and
 monetary policy, unemployment rates, the level of inflation, interest rates, the growth of
total production output, and business cycles that result in expansions, booms, recessions,
and depressions. Using aggregate indicators, economists use macroeconomic models to
help formulate economic policies and strategies.

 Geography
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their
environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and
the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with
the natural environment, and the way that locations and places can have an impact on
people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and
how they develop and change over time.

Fields of Geography
 Physical Geography − This branch of geography refers to the study of the natural
processes that shape the earth's surface. It includes climate, weather, landforms, water
bodies, and ecosystems.

 Human Geography − This branch of geography refers to the study of the ways in which
humans interact with the environment and describes their relationships. It includes
patterns of population growth, migration, urbanization, their economic activities, and the
distribution of resources.
 Integrated geography - is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of
interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the
traditional aspects of the physical and the human geography, as well as the ways that human
societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge
between the human and the physical geography, as a result of the increasing specialization of
the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has changed as
a result of globalization and technological change, a new approach was needed to
understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in the
environmental geography include emergency management, environmental
management, sustainability, and political ecology.

 Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies the world's regions. A region
itself is defined as a part of the Earth's surface with one or many similar characteristics
that make it unique from other areas.
  History
History is the study of life in society in the past, in alites aspect, in relation to present
developments and future hopes. It is the story of man in time, an inquiry into the past
based on evidence. Indeed, evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning.
It is an Inquiry into what happened in the past, when it happened, and how it happened. It
is an inquiry into the inevitable changes in human affairs in the past and the ways these
changes affect, influence or determine the patterns of life in the society.

Fields of History
 Cultural history - studies the different components of culture and how the identity of a
specific culture was formed. Art, music, clothing, language, literature, sport, and other
forms of entertainment are meaningful. Cultural history is related to many fields; for
example, intellectual history (studying beliefs and ideas), anthropology (studying human
societies and cultures), and social history (studying the way society operates).

 Social history - looks at how society operates and is regarded as a field of history from
the "bottom up". It studies the practices of ordinary people, social structures, and
interactions between the different groups in society and connects them to key events from
the past. Initially, it focused on minority populations, women, and people from lower-
class backgrounds; however, as time went by, it also included the middle and upper
classes. Social history links to economic history, sociology, and ethnology.

 Intellectual history - deals with the fundamental ideas and ideologies which is related to
the progress of the human mind, the gradual development and improvement of reason,
the successive advances of science; the variations of learning and ignorance which are the
light and darkness of thinking being, the total destructions and resuscitation of arts and
the revolution of the intellectual world.

 Linguistic
 Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and its focus is the systematic investigation
of the properties of particular languages as well as the characteristics of language in
general. It encompasses not only the study of sound, grammar and meaning, but also the
history of language families, how languages are acquired by children and adults, and how
language use is processed in the mind and how it is connected to race and gender. With
close connections to the humanities, social sciences and the natural sciences, linguistics
complements a diverse range of other disciplines such as anthropology, philosophy,
psychology, sociology, biology, computer science, health sciences, education and
literature.

Fields of Linguistic
 Historical linguistics - is the scientific study of how languages change over time, which
seeks to understand the relationships among languages and to reconstruct earlier stages of
languages.

 Developmental linguistics - is the study of the development of linguistic ability in an

individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. It involves research into
the different stages in language acquisition, language retention, and language loss in both
first and second languages, in addition to the area of bilingualism.

 Neurolinguistics - is a field of study that merges neuroscience and linguistics and seeks
to understand how the brain functions regarding language. Studies in this field have
clarified how people communicate, process information, learn a language, and switch
between more than one language.

 Political Science
Political science is the study of governments, public policies and political processes,
systems, and political behavior. Political science subfields include political theory,
political philosophy, political ideology, political economy, policy studies and analysis,
comparative politics, international relations, and a host of related fields.
Fields of Political Science
 Comparative Politics - Students evaluate the development and effectiveness of different
political systems and consider how these systems can provide for citizens and support
values like order and freedom. This subfield specifically looks at how systems diverge
and align to discover general laws and theories.

 Political Philosophy - Some political scientists study the tradition of political

philosophies from Plato to the present. This subfield tries to answer questions and
develop theories about such abstract issues as ethics, authority, the nature of liberty and
freedom, the meaning of civil rights and civil liberties, and how governments should
function.

 Public law - is a branch of law that deals with the relationship between individuals and
the state, and the functioning and organization of government. It includes laws that
govern the exercise of public power, the conduct of government officials, and the
distribution of powers between different branches of government.

 Psychology
Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. It encompasses the biological influences,
social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.
Gaining a richer and deeper understanding of psychology can help people achieve
insights into their own actions as well as a better understanding of other people.

Fields of Psychology

 Biological psychology, the study of the physiological bases of behavior.

Biological psychology is concerned primarily with the relationship between
psychological processes and the underlying physiological events—or, in other words, the
mind-body phenomenon. Its focus is the function of the brain and the rest of the nervous
system in activities (e.g., thinking, learning, feeling, sensing, and perceiving) recognized
as characteristic of humans and other animals. Biological psychology has continually
been involved in studying the physical basis for the reception of internal and external
stimuli by the nervous system, particularly the visual and auditory systems.

 Behavioral psychology, also called behaviorism, is the study of human behavior. Its
study and applications have shaped how our school system works, how parents teach
their children, and how companies develop and market their products.
  Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to studying how people
think. The cognitive perspective in psychology focuses on how the interactions of
thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving abilities affect how and why you think
the way you do. Cognitive psychology attempts to measure different types of intelligence,
determine how you organize your thoughts, and compare different components of
cognition.

 Social psychology is the study of your mind and behavior with other people. Social
psychology looks at your personality, interpersonal relationships, and group behavior.

 Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from
social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse
subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and
consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures.

Fields of Sociology

 Human Ecology is the study of the interactions between human and non-human nature in
different cultures. Human Ecology combines the ideas and methods from several
disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, biology, economic history and archeology.

 Penology is the branch of criminology that studies the theory and practice of punishment
and rehabilitation of offenders. It is a multidisciplinary field that draws
from sociology, psychology, law, and philosophy to understand how to control, prevent,
and respond to crime in society. Penologists are professionals who work in prisons, jails,
and other correctional institutions to ensure that offenders are punished in a manner that
is consistent with the law and ethical principles.

 sociology of work is a sociological analysis of work properties, processes, and

outcomes. It analyzes the social settings, conditions, and dimensions of work, including
 the relations between workers and other agents within the work process and between
work and non-work spheres of society, including leisure, family, and social life.

 Demography
Demography is the statistical study of human populations. Demography examines the
size, structure, and movements of populations over space and time. It uses methods from
history, economics, anthropology, sociology, and other fields. Demography is useful for
governments and private businesses as a means of analyzing and predicting social,
cultural, and economic trends related to population.

Fields of demography
 Historical demography is a social science history, where the use of analytical concepts
and measures is explicitly made. As such historical demography came into existence
when an innovative method was applied to Christian church registers of marriage,
baptism, and burial in the 1950s. Since then, it has provided social scientists with
significant findings and offered historians fresh insights and perspectives.

 Social demography a field of study concerned with the analysis of how social and
cultural factors are related to population characteristics. Its major focus is the impact of
social and cultural factors on demographic features of society, such as patterns of
marriage and childbearing, the age-structure of the population, life-expectancy, and so
forth.

Lesson 3

The macro level of the major social science theories in sociological analysis includes the
Structural-functionalism and Marxism. These two approaches concerned with the broad aspects
of society such as institutions and large social groups that influence the social world. It looks at
the big picture of society and suggests how social problems are affected at the institutional level.
On the other hand, the Symbolic Interactionism is a micro level of sociological analysis
concerned with the social psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups.

Sociology offers three major Social Science theories namely, Structural functionalism,
Marxism, and Symbolic Interactionism. Each perspective offers a variety of explanations about
the social world and human behavior.
STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM

The structural functionalism depends to a great extent on the works of Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Talcott Parsons (1902- 1979), and Robert Merton
(1910-2003). Structural functionalism sees society as an arrangement of interconnected parts that
are incongruity to keep up a condition of parity and social equilibrium. Functionalists use the
terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social elements on society. Elements
of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt
social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and dysfunctional.

For example, crime is dysfunctional because it is associated with physical violence, loss
of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also
functional for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and
increased social cohesion. Robert Merton (1968) has identified two types of functions: (1)
Manifest function; and (2) Latent function. The manifest functions are consequences that are
intended and commonly recognized. An example of manifest function in education is to transmit
knowledge and skills to the youth in society. While, latent functions are consequences that are
unintended and often hidden. An example of latent function in education is the socialization with
peers and adults and conformity to the norms.

MARXISM

The starting point of the conflict perspective can be rooted with the great works of Karl
Marx (1818-1883). He proposed that all social orders experience phases of financial turn of
events. As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial concern over meeting survival needs is
replaced by concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization
prompts the improvement of two classes of individuals: (1) the bourgeoisie or proprietors of the
methods for creation and (2) the proletariat or laborers who triumph for compensation. The
division of society into two expansive classes of individuals the "haves" and the "havenots" is
valuable to the proprietors of the methods for creation. The laborers, who may gain just means
compensation, are denied access to the numerous assets accessible to the rich proprietors. As
indicated by Marx, the bourgeoisie utilize their capacity to control the establishments of society
for their potential benefit. For instance, Marx recommended that religion fills in as a "sedative of
the majority" in that it calms the pain and enduring related with the average workers way of life
and spotlights the laborers' consideration on other worldliness, God, and existence in the wake of
death instead of on such common worries as day-to-day environments. Basically, religion
redirects the laborers with the goal that they focus on being compensated in paradise for carrying
on with an ethical life instead of on scrutinizing their misuse.

The conflict perspective sees society as made out of various gatherings and enthusiasm
seeking force and assets. The conflict perspective clarifies different parts of our social world by
seeing which gatherings have force and advantage from a specific social game plan. Max Weber
(1864-1920) added that there were also inequalities of social structure and political power that
caused struggle. He noted that various groups were treated differently based on race, educational,
and gender. Relative to this is the normative feminist view society as a male centric culture-a
various levelled arrangement of association constrained by men. In spite of the fact that there are
numerous assortments of women's activist hypothesis, most would hold that feminism "demands
that existing economic, political, and social structures be changed".

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

This is the view of social behavior that emphasizes linguistic or gestural communication
and its subjective understanding, especially the role of language in the formation of the child as a
social being. It is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to
people's particular utilization of dialect to make images and for deduction and correspondence
with other. normal implications.

Symbolic interaction theory focuses on the interpretation (social meaning) that is given
to behavior, and on the way such interpretation helps to construct the social world, the identities
of people, and, ultimately how they behave. All interaction theories are concerned with the way
in which meaning is constructed. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic
interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory. This perspective relies on the
symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in the process of social interaction.

Symbol refers to meanings. For symbolic interactions, things objects, ideas, beliefs,
people, values, states of being) do not simply exist: they exist in the meanings they have. On the
other hand, meanings are established in communication; hence the importance of interaction. Our
word exists in the meanings it has for us, and our meanings come from our interactions. People,
like meanings, exist in a social context.

Symbolic Interactionism

 Analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects,
events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that
people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true.
 Looks at individual and group meaning- making, focusing on human action instead of
large-scale social structures.
 Its main postulate is based that the human beings have the capacity of thought, which is
molded by the social interaction, which is learned of the meanings and symbols that
allow us to act and interpret, modifying or altering the meanings based on the
interpretation of the situation, to interact with itself and through their actions and
interactions to join between the groups and society.
Psychoanalysis

A school of thought developed by Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis refers to a theory of

the mind and its direct connection to personality and behavior. The basic premise of
Psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an unconscious state. There are thoughts, memories,
emotions and feelings that are hidden from a person's conscious mind, which without him/her
knowing, affects the way he or she thinks, feels and acts. There are also drives and desires in a
person's unconscious mind that influence his or her view of the world and how he or she decides
to go about his or her daily life.
Psychoanalytic Practice is the method by which the troubling unconscious material, such
as memories and desires, is brought to the level of the conscious mind so that the individual
could better understand himself or herself better.
Specifically, Freud developed a personality theory called Psychosexual Development of
Personality, which posits that at different stages of growth, the individual derives pleasure from
the different parts of the body- thus the term Psychosexual, relating to pleasure and the human
body. The central idea in this theory is how the mind relates to the body and the pleasure derived
from the activities of the body. An important term in this personality theory is called libido,
which is defined as the natural mental energy that operates the mechanisms of the mind.

What are the Three Levels of Awareness?

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)- was an Austrian neurologist and is known as the Father of
Psychoanalysis. Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their
unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining "insight". The aim of Psychoanalysis therapy
is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious. To bring
what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness.

Psychoanalysis

 Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and
memories in order to lead the client to catharsis, or healing (McLeod, 2014).

 A theory of the mind and its direct connection to a personality or behavior. The basic
premise of psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an unconscious state.

 A system of psychological theory and therapy investigating the interaction of conscious

and unconscious elements in the mind.

 A method for treating depression and anxiety disorders or mental illness and also a theory
which explains human behavior.
Freud believed that the most unconscious desire originates from childhood experiences that
people have long forgotten or repressed. Our childhood has a great influence on our adult lives,
shaping our personality.
 Freud developed a personality theory, called psychosexual development of personality, which
posits that at different stages of growth; the individual derives pleasure from different parts of the
body- thus the term psychosexual, relating to pleasure and the human body. An important term in
personality theory is called libido, which is defined as the natural mental energy that operates the
mechanism of the mind.
Stages of Psychosexual Development of Personality
1. Oral Stage
- Manifest from birth to approximately 18 months
- The child is totally dependent on others to provide for his/her needs
- Pleasure is derived from the use of the mouth in activities such as sucking, chewing,
and biting.
- Personality developed in this stage is dependence.
2. Anal Stage
- This begins at 18 months and lasts until 3 years when the child is being toilet trained.
- the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling feces)
- The personality developed in this stage is independence, self-control, orderliness and
sense of accomplishment.
3. Phallic Stage
- 3-6 years of age
- During this stage the child develops attraction to their parents of the opposite sex and
sees jealous and rivalrous relationship with his or her parents of the same sex.
- This is what Freud termed as Oedipus Complex for boy and the Electra Complex for
girls.
- Parents seen as threats
- Wide range of psychological disorders through failure to resolve this conflict,
(unreasonable anxiety, phobias, & depression)
- Ego developed more, superego starts to develop lately
- the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation);
4. Latent Stage
- 6-12 years of age
- Personality traits developed in this stage are associated with social skills and social
interactions.
- Pleasure is gained through same sex /peer friendship
5. Genital Stage
- 12 years of age onward or from puberty to adulthood.
- Seeks marriage partner, preparation for adult life.
- The personality developed in this stage is sexual maturity.

Key Concepts in Psychoanalysis

According to Freud the id, ego, and superego all operate across three levels of awareness
in the human mind. They are the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious.
Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind. The tip is
the conscious level, the part below the sea line is the preconscious and the major portion beneath
the sea is the unconscious.
  Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live; the level of the
mind is the accessible information, memories and thoughts that the individual has. The
conscious consists of what someone is aware of at any particular point in time. It includes
what you are thinking about right now, whether it is in the front of you mind or the back.
If you are aware of it then it is in the conscious mind.

 Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything we

can recall or retrieve from our memory; the level where accessible and retrievable
information are situated. The preconscious contains information that is just below the
surface of awareness.

 Unconscious: contains thoughts, emotions, feelings, memories and desire that are
inaccessible. It resides in the deepest level of our minds that influence our behavior. Even
though we are not aware of their existence, they exert great influence on our behavior.

PSYCHODYNAMICS OF A PERSON'S PERSONALITY

Freud used the Id, Ego, and Superego to try to explain how the mind functions and how a
personality is shaped
1. The ID
- Occupies the unconscious level
- The primitive and instinctive component of personality.
- It is the immature component of personality; it only seeks pleasure and demands
gratification.
- When the Id has a desire for something, that desire needs to be satisfied at once. It does
not take reality into account as it only demands what it wants without reason or logic.
- Operates on the "Pleasure Principle" and strives for all urges to be met immediately
- Id is the selfish side and is the one whom solely cares about themselves and no one else
- Lustful, impulsive, fun and ignores consequences
2. The EGO
- Resides in the conscious and preconscious level of the mind.
- The ego is the moderator between the id and the superego
- Operates on the "Reality Principle" tries to satisfy id but in accordance with the real
world. It considers social realities, norms, etiquette, rules, and customs when it makes a
decision on how to behave.
- Considered as the center of logic and reasoning.
- The decision maker, it makes the decisions that dictate behavior
- Conscious part of the mind (Rational Self). Decides what action to take for positive
means and what to do base on what is believed to be the right thing to do. Aware of
reality.
3. The SUPEREGO
- Resides in all three levels of the mind.
- The superego is the portion of the mind in which morality and higher principles reside,
encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod, 2013).
- It is our morals, ethics and social aspect of personality. It is considered as a person's
conscience.
- It guides us on what is right and wrong.
- Responsible for society's rules of behavior (moral standards). Feels guilty if rules are
disobeyed
- Base on the morality principle, must follow moral standards and rules and breaking
them causes guilt
Defense Mechanisms
Freud believed that these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each
part has a different primary goal. When the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her
ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual.

Defense Mechanism
- Refers to processes of self-deception, that protects people from anxious thoughts or
feelings.
- Are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for
the conscious mind to cope with.
- Operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or
make good things feel better for the individual.
- A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety.

We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise
because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding.
Major defense mechanisms include:
1. Denial - is often used to describe situations in which people seem unable to face reality or
admit an obvious truth. (He's in denial).
- The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from aware causing the
individual to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening
- Is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently
occurring.
- Refusing to organize or acknowledge real facts or experiences that would lead to anxiety.
2. Displacement- redirecting an emotional reaction from the rightful recipient to another person
altogether.
- Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are
less threatening.
- Displaced aggression- is a common example of defense mechanism.
- Example: a manager screams at his/her employee, the employee doesn't scream back- but
the employee may yell at her partner later at night. (e.g., releasing frustration directed
toward your boss on your spouse instead)
3. Repression - acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these memories
don't just disappear: they continue to influence our behavior.
- The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one's consciousness
4. Sublimation - Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism involves satisfying an impulse
by acting on a substitute but in a socially acceptable way. It allows us to act on unacceptable
impulses by converting these behaviors into more acceptable forms.
Example: a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting
frustration or channeling energy into work or a constructive hobby.
Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function
normally in socially acceptable ways.
5. Projection - is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or
feelings and ascribing them to other people. Attributing one's unacceptable feelings or desires to
someone else.
Example: if you have a strong dislike for someone, you might instead believe that he or she does
not like you.
6. Regression - As a defense mechanism, the individual moves backward in development in
order to cope with stress (e.g., an overwhelmed adult acting like a child)

Reflection

I have learned a lot about discipline and ideas in the social sciences, whereas it discusses
the branches and their sub-fields. In social science, it is more about the discovery of facts about
humans and other social animals. I have learned that social science studies the historical,
cultural, sociological, psychological, and political forces that shape the actions of individuals and
their impact on society. The different disciplines that we have discussed under social sciences all
help in providing a better understanding and appreciation of the complex issues that face society.
These disciplines are anthropology, the study of ancient societies and their cultural traditions.
Demography is the study of the human population. Economics is the study of the efficient
allocation of scarce resources in order to satisfy unlimited human needs and wants. Geography is
the study of the interaction between the natural environment and the people living in it.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language history, the study of the recorded past. Political
science is the study of power, politics, and government. Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes. Sociology is the scientific study of society as a whole. We also
discussed the different approaches to social science, which provides an introduction to the
dominant approaches and ideas in the social sciences. It identifies the key ideas and assumptions,
as well as the key theoretical and methodological issues associated with each approach. These
approaches are Rational Choice Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, Structural-Functionalism,
Institutionalism, Human Environment System Approach, Psychoanalysis, Hermeneutic-
Penomenology, Marxism, and Feminist Theory.

In conclusion, the main reason why it is important to study the social sciences is because the
knowledge of the social sciences can help us improve our societies. By studying social science,
we are becoming better informed about how societies should be put together. Studying social
sciences can provide us with so many important answers and observations that may help improve
our understanding of our lives and, thus, our interactions with each other.
Community
Engagement,
Solidarity and
Citizenship
Ⅴ. Name of Subject: Community Engagement, Solidarity and Citizenship

5.1 Description

This course focuses on the application of ideas and methods from the social sciences to
understand, investigate, and examine the challenges of contemporary community life. It focuses
on community-action initiatives such as community engagement, solidarity, and citizenship as
guided by the core values of human rights, social justice, empowerment and advocacy, gender
equality, and participatory development. It aims at enhancing students' sense of shared identity
and willingness to contribute to the pursuit of the common good of the community. It enables
students to integrate applied social sciences into community-action initiatives.

Also, this subject focuses on using social science ideas and methods to better understand,
explore, and critique contemporary community concerns. It focuses on community action
initiatives such as community engagement, solidarity, and citizenship as guided by the core
values of human rights, social justice, empowerment and advocacy, gender equality, and
participatory development. It aims at enhancing the student's sense of shared identity and
willingness to contribute to the pursuit of the common good of the community. It enables
students to integrate applied social sciences into community-action initiatives. It is important to
study community engagement, solidarity, and citizenship because it is all about putting
communities at the heart of their own local services. Involving communities in the design and
delivery of services can help to achieve a number of objectives, including: building community
and social capacity, helping the community to share knowledge, skills and ideas.

5.2 Content

Lesson 1 Concepts and Perspectives of Community

Lesson 2 Community Engagement

Lesson 3 Core values and principles of Community Engagement

Lesson 4 Methodologies and Approaches of Community Actions and Involvements Across

Disciplines

Reflection

Lesson 1
DEFINING COMMUNITY
 A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,
religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given
geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space through
communication platforms. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also
define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions
such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large.
Community dynamics is a natural phenomenon because community changes and
develops. The people living in a community stimulate growth, improvement, or modification
within a system or process. A community that is dynamic shows progress and growth. But we
must take note that communities have problems and the people within the community are
affected. It is through voluntary acts and community participation that people can help each
other.

COMMUNITY IN DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE

SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE

Political Science Conceptualized the ideal (political) community Polis (city-state) -
composed of various classes, each performing roles and functions in pursuit of communal goals
(Plato) Aristotle emphasized the role of political institutions in maintaining and sustaining order
within a community

INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Social Institutions arise from voluntary shared agreements among individuals that
generally also shape their behaviors as collective; perform functions of community Institutions -
established rules that ensure the regular and predictable behavior.

CIVIL SOCIETY PERSPECTIVE

Think about the country that you live in what does it take to make that country operate
smoothly? The government takes care of law and order and businesses offer goods and services
in exchange for money, which both help to keep a society moving. But what about other groups,
like churches or the PTA, how do they contribute to your society? These other groups actually
play a very big part in how your country operates, and they fall into a category known as civil
society.
A civil society is comprised of groups or organizations working in the interest of the
citizens but operating outside of the governmental and for-profit sectors. Organizations and
institutions that make up civil society include labor unions, non-profit organizations, churches,
and other service agencies that provide an important service to society but generally ask for very
little in return.

ORGANIC SOCIETY PERSPECTIVE (SOCIAL GRASSROOTS)

It refers to local or grassroots groups within a particular locale that are driven and
organized because of community issues and concerns They are referred to us GRASSROOTS
because of their local and capacity-building characteristics and generally conceptualized as the
formation of neighborhood organizations, rural or urban, convened to pursue local development
goals or address particular issues such as crime prevention, environmental protection or waste
management.

COMMUNITY DYNAMICS and PROCESSES

The dominant analytical approaches in studying community dynamics and processes
focus on community power relations, leadership, and social change.
There are two kinds of Power Structure: Formal power is given to someone related to the
job and position held in the organization. Depending on the position, authority varies and
decision-making power can be more or less. In other hand, informal power is something a person
earned himself.
In examining power relations within a community, it is necessary to investigate the
critical actors, stakeholders, and the resources they control. These actors can broadly be
distinguished as:
Legal-Authoritative decision-makers are individuals or bodies whose authority is based
on formal rules and institutions.
Influencers on the other hand, are individuals or groups who do not have direct authority,
but capable of shaping decisions that affect the community. Thus, influencers and propose,
pressure and affect decisions made by legal- authoritative decision makers.

TYPOLOGIES OF COMMUNITY
Urban community is something which an individual thought as, an area with high density
of population, an area with the availability of basic requirements, an area of good resources, the
area has lots of opportunity of employment and such an area which can be considered as life-
giving for luxurious desires of human.
A rural area is an open swath of land that has few homes or other buildings, and not very
many people. A rural areas population density is very low. Many people live in a city, or urban
area. Their homes and businesses are located very close to one another.
Suburban areas are lower density areas that separate residential and commercial areas
from one another. They are either part of a city or urban area, or exist as a separate residential
community within commuting distance of a city. As cars became the dominant way for people to
get to work, suburbs grew.
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
It is the process of working collaboratively with and through groups of people affiliated
by geographic proximity, special interest, or similar situations to address issues affecting the
well-being of those people It is a powerful vehicle for bringing about environmental and
behavioral changes that will improve the health of the community and its members It often
involves partnerships and coalitions that help mobilize resources and influence systems, change
relationships among partners, and serve as catalysts for changing policies, programs, and
practices (CDC, 1997).
Community engagement' is therefore a strategic process with the specific purpose of
working with identified groups of people, whether they are connected by geographic location,
special interest, or affiliation to identify and address issues affecting their well- being.
The linking of the term 'community' to 'engagement' serves to broaden the scope, shifting
the focus from the individual to the collective, with the associated implications for inclusiveness
to ensure consideration is made of the diversity that exists within any community.
 In practice, community engagement is a blend of science and art. The science comes from
sociology, public policy, political science, cultural anthropology, organizational development,
psychology, social- psychology and other disciplines. It also comes from organizing concepts
drawn from the literature on community participation, community development, constituency
building, and community psychology. The art comes from the understanding, skill, and
sensitivity used to apply and adapt the science in ways that fit the community and the purposes
of specific engagement efforts. The results of these efforts may be defined differently and can
encompass a broad range of structures (e.g., coalitions, partnerships, collaborations), but they all
fall under the general rubric of community engagement and are treated similarly in this in our
discussions (Adapted from ATSDR,2011).
Core component of community engagement
SOLIDARITY IS DEFYING BOUNDARIES
These boundaries that get in the way can be race, nation, gender, wealth, indeed anything
upon which a segregation can be created. These walls create several effects. First, that people on
one side cannot experience the privileges that are largely arbitrarily awarded to people on the
other side. Second, that those on the latter side cannot appreciate life on the first side, and
therefore feel they are justified in their current position. Third, it creates resentment, often both
ways.

SOLIDARITY IS FROM COMMUNICATION TO ACTION

Solidarity can flow from communication, but it requires action to become a real and
present force. Sometimes that action needs to be confrontational, to improve the lot of one group
relative to another, and sometimes it needs to be conciliatory, taking down the walls and bringing
people together as equals. I can't claim to be an expert in deciding which is which. What I do
know is that without Solidarity, without considering the needs of the other, without looking at
what I have and realizing there are few valid reasons that I should have so much when others
have so little, is a necessary step towards creating a more civilized world. The endless pursuit of
profit at the expense of others, or the maintenance of these divides simply prevents us from
relating to each other properly as humans. As such, they prevent us from experiencing life in all
its fullness.
Solidarity
Any time you express support of a group or the people in it, you're showing solidarity
with them. The word is used most often to describe a sense of unity with a political group, a
group of striking workers, or people who have been deprived of their rights in some way.
Citizenship
It is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law of a sovereign state as a
member of or belonging to the state.... Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it
recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are not afforded to non- citizens.

COMMUNITY ACTION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community engagement is expressed through community action. Community action is
about putting communities at the heart of their own local services. Involving communities in the
design and delivery of services can help to achieve a number of objectives, including:
Maintaining and creating wealth for example helping people into - employment or developing
community enterprises.
COMMUNITY ACTION IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES PERSPECTIVE
Every social science discipline emphasizes a particular view toward an action.
Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors through time in terms of physical
characteristics, environmental and social relations, and culture. On the other hand, sociology is
the study of human society at a given period in time. Anthropology covers all characteristics of
humanity, including physiology and evolutionary origins while sociology focuses on social
relationships. While, Political science, occasionally called politology, is a social science which
deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts,
associated constitutions and political behavior.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community development is a process where people come together to take action on
what's important to them. At its heart, community development is rooted in the belief that all
people should have access to health, wellbeing, wealth, justice and opportunity.
Some of the characteristics of the community development process are as follows:
community member involvement in problem-solving and decision- making; a learning process
that is geared towards a change in behavior and requires learning by doing; participants who
increase their competence and capacity to manage their own affairs; and a grass-roots approach
to social action (Draper, 1971). The success of the community development process can be
judged in terms of the community-s capacity building, group development and empowerment,
and the achievement of social, economic, cultural and environmental targets and objects (Lovett,
1997).

Plan Using Participatory Approaches

The Community Action Plan is one of the participatory tools used to build the capacity
of community members in taking action in accordance with the problems, needs, and potentials
of the community (see also problem analysis and decision making). Using participatory
approaches in impact evaluation means involving stakeholders, particularly the participants in a
program or those affected by a given policy in specific aspects of an evaluation process.

What is Participatory Planning?

I. Rationale and Definition: Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm
that emphasizes involving the entire community in the strategic and management
processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes, urban or
rural. It is often considered as part of community development. Participatory
 planning aims to harmonize views among all of its participants as well as prevent
conflict between opposing parties. In addition, marginalized groups have an
opportunity to participate in the planning process.

Ⅱ. The Need for Participatory Action Planning

1. Public distrust of planning based on past practices Participatory planning is
needed when there is public distrust of previous planning practice and/or where
new development may lead to significant conflicts. Therefore, public relations
consultants have been hired to 'do public outreach, run community meetings,
provide public notices and informational items to get the public involved'. This
sounds less ambitious than many examples encountered in our research, but the
point remains that there is a perceived need to make a step-change from past
practices.

2. Governments' desire to improve the co-ordination. Planning needs to change

from a narrow, self-enclosed system of regulation to become a means of
delivering development that achieves broader objectives, social justice and other
sustainable development action initiatives.

3. Respect to Grassroots Community Planning practice needs to engage with the

reality of diversity in today's society. This means being aware of different cultures
and ensuring that issues of diversity are addressed throughout the planning
process. Traditional public participation has often failed to do this. Participatory
planning is built around diversity, conflicting interests and the need to listen to the
voices of marginalized groups. A recognition amongst governments and non-
governmental organizations that sustainable development requires consensus
building and engagement with citizens.

WHAT ARE THE LEVELS OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING?

There are a number of ways to be considered in participatory planning. As demonstrated
in the discussion regarding its advantages and disadvantages, this kind of process always
presents, even at best, a trade-off between efficiency and inclusiveness. Time pressure, the needs
of the community, the skills and experience of those participating, and the nature of the
intervention, among other factors, all help to dictate the actual shape of the planning process.
So, what are the possibilities? Just how participative do you want to be? David Wilcox, in
his excellent "Guide to Effective Participation," sets out the following as a model of the different
possible levels of participation:

1. Information - The least you can do is tell people what is planned.

2. Consultation - You offer a number of options and listen to the feedback you get.
3. Deciding together You encourage others to provide some additional ideas and options, and join
in deciding the best way forward.
4. Acting together - Not only do different interests decide together what is best, but they form a
partnership to carry it out.
5. Supporting independent community initiatives - You help others do what they want perhaps
within a framework of grants, advice and support provided by the resource holder. Each of these
levels may be appropriate in different circumstances, or with different groups, although only at
"deciding together" and above do they really begin to be fully participatory in the sense that the
term is used in this section.

What is the history of Participatory Approach?

Participatory approaches are a product of long-lasting interaction between researchers,
development workers, government agents and local populations. The history of participatory
methods in development co-operation began in the late 1970s with the introduction of a new
research approach called "Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)", which immediately became popular
with decision-makers in development agencies. Building on close collaboration with local
populations RRAs were designed to collect first-hand data from the local people about their
perceptions of their local environments and living conditions in rural areas. RRAs were usually
conducted as 1- 3 days workshops with villagers in the field and facilitated by small teams of
RRA specialists or researchers. RRA methods were specifically adapted to respond to local
conditions. Thus, communication processes with illiterate persons not used to communication in
abstract terms were carefully considered. Visualization using locally comprehensible symbols,
and tools like mapping, diagramming and ranking were introduced. A limitation of RRA,
however, was that it was extractive; the role of the local people was limited to providing
information, while the power of decision-making about the use of this information remained in
the hands of others.
These core principles of good governance are to facilitate public participation in the
decision-making process. Public participation increases the likelihood that actions taken or
services provided by public agencies more adequately reflect the needs of people and that the
benefits of development are more equitably shared. Equitable sharing of resources and benefits is
also an issue of sustainable development. As such, public participation has been recognized as
one of the core principles of sustainable development. Here, participation means contributing to
development, benefiting from development and taking part in decision-making about
development, which could be realized through activities facilitated by authorities as well as
activities initiated or generated by the people themselves. Many people also believe that further
to merely contributing to the planning process, people can prepare their own plans in most cases
with some qualified help. The planner can limit his or her role to that of a facilitator of the
planning process and provider of technical inputs. Participatory approaches may be practiced at
all levels of planning. However, the extent or nature of participation by various actors
(beneficiaries/citizens, public officials elected by the people, professionals and civil servants, and
other stakeholders) may vary. It may be recalled here that the involvement of citizens in
governance of society is the subject of history itself and is very important to any democratic
society. However, the term participation is open to varied interpretations and the level or
intensity of involvement by various groups of actors may greatly vary. The simplest terms, a
participatory approach is everyone who has a stake in the intervention of a voice, either in person
or by representation. he use of that term implies not just that you'll ask for someone's opinion
before you do what you were going to do anyway, but rather that each participant becomes an
important contributor to the planning process. A true participatory approach is one in which
everyone's perspective is considered. That does not mean that people cannot challenge others'
assumptions, or argue about what the best strategy might be. It does mean, however, that
everyone's thoughts are respected, and it is not necessarily assumed that the professionals or the
well-educated automatically know what is best Everyone actually gets to participate in the
planning process, and has some role in decision-making.
Steps of Participatory Approach
1. Form a planning team
2. Identify possible issues and list all broad groups of stakeholders
3. Carry out participants' analysis
 4. Determine the purpose and level of public participation
5. Identify constraints and special circumstances
6. Select a method (or a combination of methods) of participation
7. Decide

Participatory approaches are not about a 'single' method but about a way of undertaking
impact evaluation that is meaningful to different stakeholders and specifically to program
participants. Many opportunities exist to use participatory approaches in impact evaluation, so it
is important to systematically think through who is best involved in which aspect of the
evaluation, and to be clear about the purpose of more or different forms of participation.
Participatory approaches can be used in any impact evaluation design, and with both quantitative
and qualitative data collection and analysis method.

Reflection

Community engagement, Solidarity and citizenship is a unique subject. I have learned a

lot in this subject even if this subject, at first glance, seems self- explanatory. In this subject I
have learned the rights of a person and their freedom, specifically human rights. We may live in a
free country but we still need laws to keep peace and maintain order. As a student, I learned
aspects surrounding a community; community participation, community development,
participatory development, and many more. As a student, this was the highlight of the subject for
me as we are already people who will go out to the real world to do jobs.

Another lesson that I learned was how to develop a plan for a community. Planning for
the materials, the course of action, the timeline of the plane and the needed manpower are very
important for a strong solution to a problem, in this way, the willing volunteer's participation, and
cooperation would be wasted as having no plan would just make them stand there doing nothing.
This lesson would be a lesson I would bring to my next journey as this would make my life more
organized.
 Lastly, in this subject, I learned that having cooperation from all of the members in a
community makes a successful one. Because what makes the community the strongest is the
members of the community itself, so it depends on the people whether they would do the right
thing or not. The biggest lesson this subject taught me was to be disciplined at all times. Because
before expecting any big changes, the changes you would need to do is to yourself.
Philippine Politics
and Governance
Ⅵ. Name of Subject: Philippine Politics and Governance

6.1 Subject Description

This course introduces the students to the basic concepts and vital elements of politics
and governance from a historical-institutional perspective. In particular, it attempts to explain
how the important features of our country’s political structures/institutions, processes, and
relationships developed across time. In the process, the course helps the learners gain a better
appreciation of their rights and responsibilities as individuals and as members of the larger
sociopolitical community to strengthen their civic competence.

Content

Lesson 1 The concepts of politics and governance

Lesson 2 Political Ideologies

Lesson 3 Power

Lesson 4 State, Nation, and Globalization

Lesson 5 Historical Background of Philippine Democratic Politics

Lesson 7 The Legislative

Reflection
Lesson 1

Defining Politics
Here are some of the definitions of politics offered by subject matter experts:
- in broadest sense, it is the activity through
which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live.
(Heywood, 2007)

- activity or process by which groups reach and enforce binding decisions. (Hague &
Harrop, 2013)

- activity by which different interests within a given unit of rule are conciliated by giving
them a share in power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and the survival of
the whole community. (Crick, 2005).

- set of activities that organizes individuals, systematically resolves disputes, and

maintains order in society through creation and enforcement of rules and government
policy. (Barrington et al. 2010).

- activity through which human beings attempt to improve their lives and create the Good
Society. (Aristotle in Heywood, 2007).

Studying Politics - The Different Views About Politics (Heywood, 2007)

A. Politics as the art of government

Politics is viewed as an art or practical application of knowledge for the achievement of a
particular objective. This is considered the classical definition of politics: the art of government
or the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collective or
group decisions.

Here are the additional features of this view about politics:

 This view was developed in Ancient Greece. Remember, the word politics is derived
from the ancient Greek word polis, which literally means city-state.

 Politics can be understood to refer to the affairs or concerns of the polis or its modern
meaning what concerns the state.

 If you are studying politics, you are studying the government. Two aspects are under this
setting: Government personnel or the people in government and government machinery
or the different government departments, offices, or agencies.

 Politics happens in cabinet rooms, legislative chambers, government departments.

 To study politics is to study the exercise of authority defined as legitimate power.

Legitimate means it is acceptable for the people.
  Politics is engaged in by a limited and specific group of people, notably politicians, civil
servants and lobbyists.

B. Politics as public affairs

This second view considers politics as what happens in the public sphere of life. It is
important that you remember the distinction between 'the political' and 'the nonpolitical'. It
coincides with the division between what is public and what is private. If it happens in the public
sphere, it is political.
To clarify, the distinction between the public and the private conforms with the division
between the state and civil society. The institutions of the state (the offices of government, the
courts, the police, the army, and so forth) can be regarded as 'public' because they are responsible
for the collective organization of community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public's
expense or out of taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of institutions such as private
businesses, trade unions, clubs, community groups and so on that are 'private' in the sense that
they are set up and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their own interests, rather than those
of the larger society.

C. Politics as compromise and consensus

The third view about politics refers to the way
in which decisions are made. Politics is seen as
a particular means of resolving conflict: that is,
by compromise, conciliation and negotiation,
rather than through force and naked power. The
description of a solution to a problem as a
'political' solution implies peaceful debate and
arbitration, as opposed to what is often called a
'military' solution. It is based on the belief that
society is characterized by consensus rather than by irreconcilable conflict. In other words, the
disagreements that exist can be resolved without resort to intimidation and violence. This view of
politics has a positive character. People should be encouraged to respect politics as an activity,
and should be prepared to engage in the political life of their own community.

D. Politics as power
The fourth view sees politics to be present in all social activities. Politics takes place at every
level of social interaction; it can be found within families and amongst small groups of friends
just as much as amongst nations and on the global stage. The presence of power makes a
particular social behavior or activity distinctively political. Politics under this view is in essence
power or the ability to achieve a desired outcome, through whatever means. Politics is seen as a
struggle over limited resources, and power can be seen as the means through which this struggle
is conducted. In politics, power is usually thought of as a relationship: that is, as the ability to
influence the behavior of others in a manner not of their choosing. It is referred to in terms of
having 'power over' people.

The Government and its Purposes

Government is the term generally used to describe the formal institutions through which a group
of people is ruled or governed. The term extends to include the persons and organizations that
make, enforce, and apply political decisions for a society. (Mendoza n.d.)
Government is created for the benefit of the people governed. It performs services or functions
that are beyond the capabilities of any individual or enterprise. The important purposes of
government are: (1) the maintenance of peace and order; (2) the protection of persons and
property; (3) the administration of justice; (4) the promotion of education; (5) the preservation of
the state from external danger and; (5) the advancement of the physical, economic and social and
cultural well-being of the people. (Leon 1991).

Governance
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political
leaders for the well-being of their country's citizens or inhabitants.
It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society exercise power, and create
public policies which directly affect the members of society. Governance is broader than
government in that other sectors are included in it. The government (also called the public sector)
is always the main actor in governance but it is not the only actor. Governance is based on the
realization that the government alone cannot do everything for the people. The main role of the
government is to provide an enabling environment for the other actors of governance to
participate and respond to the mandate of the common good. All actors other than the
government are called the "civil society." The civil society includes non-governmental
organizations, and other community-based and sectoral organizations, such as association of
farmers, charitable institutions, cooperatives, religious communities, political parties, and
research institutes. These organizations are private in nature but have public functions or
objectives.

Indicators of Good Governance

Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory;
(2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6) Equitable and
Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8) Accountability.

1. Participatory
Good governance essentially requires participation of different sectors of the society.
Participation means active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-
making process. It requires an enabling environment. Governance should no longer be
government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation.
2. Rule of Law
Good governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the
people and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law and the government acts within
the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. Rule of law also requires that laws
are responsive to the needs of the society.

3. Effectiveness and Efficiency

Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors could deliver and meet the
necessities of the society in a way that available resources are utilized well. Public service
delivery, especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately serve the needs of the
citizens. Doing so requires simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs.
4. Transparency
Transparency means that people are open to information regarding decision-making process and
the implementation of decisions. Information on matters of public concern is made available to
the citizens or those who will be directly affected.

5. Responsiveness
Responsiveness means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a timely and
appropriate manner. The interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and
appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of
governance.

6. Equity and Inclusiveness

Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the members of the society, especially the most vulnerable
ones must be taken into consideration. Everyone has a stake in the society and no one should feel
alienated from it. Those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance
demands that the actors must give preferential attention to the conditions of the poor.

7. Consensus Oriented
Governance is consensus oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the
different viewpoints. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably
conflict will arise from competing interests of the actors. Governance is based on the partnership
of the actors of the society in providing public services.

8. Accountability
Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one's action. It is based on the principle
that every person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect
public interest. The actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences
of decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves.

Lesson 2
Meaning of Ideology
Ideology according to Heywood (2007) refers to a system of beliefs about how society should
function, behave, and operate. He further explains that from a social-scientific viewpoint, an
ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized political
action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power
relationships.

Functions of Political Ideology

Political ideologies are very important in a society. Heywood (2007) also described the
following functions of political ideology:
 1) It offers an account of the existing order by examining what works and what does not
work, as well as other various issues and problems that the state and the broader society
are confronted with.
(2) It provides a model of a desired social order, a vision of the Good Society.
(3) It outlines how political change or the desired social order can be achieved.

Major Political Ideologies

Liberalism
Liberalism pertains to set of political beliefs emphasizing individual rights and liberties.
Its key ideas are the following:
Key Ideas of Liberalism
1.Individualism: It is the core principle of liberal ideology. Individualism is further explained
as:
 belief in the supreme importance of the human

 human beings are seen with equal moral worth; they possess separate and unique
identities

 the liberal goal is to construct a society within which individuals can flourish and develop

2. Freedom: Individual freedom or liberty is the core value of liberalism. Under freedom are the
following features:
 desire to ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or chooses

 advocate 'freedom under the law', as they recognize that one person's liberty may be a
threat to the liberty of others
3. Reason: Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be uncovered
through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry. Furthermore, the key idea of
reason favors the following:
 faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments;

 individuals as the best judges of their own interests;

 belief in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve their differences through
debate and argument, rather than bloodshed and war.

4. Equality: This refers to the belief that individuals

are born equal', at least in terms of moral worth. Liberalism has
strong commitment to equal rights namely:
 Legal equality ('equality before the law');

 Political equality ('one person, one vote; one vote, one

value').
5. Toleration: It means willingness to allow others to think, speak and act in ways which they
disapprove. This promotes debate and intellectual progress.
6. Consent: It will advocate that authority and social relationships should always be based on
consent or willing agreement. Under this idea, the government must therefore be based on the
'consent of the governed'. Authority is always grounded in legitimacy.

Conservatism
Conservatism refers to set of political beliefs based on preservation of customs and
traditions that define the character of a society. Here are the key ideas of conservatism:

Key Ideas of Conservatism

1.Tradition: It is the central theme of conservative thought or 'the desire to conserve'. It
respects established customs and institutions that have endured through time. Tradition
reflects the accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have been
'tested by time', and it should be preserved for the benefit of the living and for generations
yet to come.
2. Pragmatism: It is the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstances
and practical goals, that is, by 'what works'.

3. Human imperfection: In this view, human beings are limited, dependent, and
security-seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested. Human beings
are needing to live in stable and orderly communities. The maintenance of order requires
a strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties.

4. Authority: Conservatives hold that, to some degree, authority is always exercised

'from above', providing leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the
knowledge, experience or education to act wisely in their own interests. Authority and
leadership are seen as resulting from experience and training.

5. Property: Conservatives see property ownership as being vital because it gives people
and a measure of independence from government, and it encourages them to respect the
law and the property of others.

Socialism
Socialism is defined as set of political beliefs emphasizing community and social equality
that adheres to the following ideas:
Key Ideas of Socialism
1.Community: The core of socialism is the
vision of human beings as social creatures linked
by the existence of a common humanity. It
highlights the importance of community, and the
degree to which individual identity is fashioned
2. Fraternity: It is sharing a common humanity.
Humans are bound together by a sense of
 comradeship or fraternity (literally meaning 'brotherhood', but broadened in this context
to embrace all humans). Socialism prefers cooperation over competition and favors
collectivism over individualism. Cooperation enables people to harness their
energies/strengthens the bonds of community. collective

3. Social equality is the central value of socialism:

It emphasizes equality of outcome as opposed to
equality of opportunity. The measure of social
equality is looked upon as guarantee of social
stability and cohesion.

4. Need is of primary importance in Socialism: It is the belief that material benefits

should be distributed on the basis of need, rather than simply on the basis of merit or
work: 'From each according to his ability, to each according to his need'. The satisfaction
of basic needs (hunger, thirst, shelter, health, personal security and so on) is a prerequisite
for a worthwhile human existence and participation in social life.
5. Social class: Socialism has traditionally been associated with the interests of an
oppressed and exploited working class regarded the working class as an agent of social
change. The socialist goal is the eradication of economic and social inequalities, or their
substantial reduction.
6. Common ownership: The socialist case for common ownership is that it is a means of
harnessing material resources to the common good, with private property being seen to
promote selfishness, acquisitiveness and social division.

Different Ideologies and their Perspectives on the State

Socialism, Liberalism and Conservatism are political ideologies that have different perspective
or view on the state.
Socialism
 Considers the state as embodiment of the common good and approves government
intervention in implementing laws concerning the welfare of the citizens.
 Cooperation is more important than competition
Liberalism
 Views the state as a tool or instrument of social order
 Recognizes the state in providing equal opportunities to all citizens.
Conservatism
 Links the state with the need to provide authority and discipline in order to protect
society from chaos and social disorder

Lesson 3

Defining Power
Power in its broadest sense, as stated by Heywood
(2007) is the ability to achieve a desired outcome and is sometimes seen as the 'power to' do
something. He further explained that in the context of politics and governance, power is usually
thought of as a relationship: the ability to influence the behavior of others or having 'power over
people and the ability to punish or reward.

Dimensions or Faces of Power

According to Heywood (2007), the following are the various ways how power is
exercised by members of society. These are called dimensions or faces of power: Power as
Decision-Making, Power as Agenda Setting and Power as Thought Control.

Power as Decision-Making
This face of power consists of conscious actions that in some way influence the content
of decisions. Identifying who has power is done by analyzing decisions in the light of the known
preferences of the actors involved. The implication of this view of power is that the most
powerful actors in society are those whose opinion are considered and upheld in the decision
making. The powerful are able to get what they want and make others behave the way they
wanted them to. According to Boulding (1989) as cited by Heywood (2007), decisions can be
influenced in a variety of ways distinguished between the use of force or intimidation (the stick),
productive exchanges involving mutual gain (the deal), and the creation of obligations, loyalty
and commitment (the kiss).
Power as Agenda Setting
The second face of power as further discussed by Heywood (2007) is the ability to
prevent decisions being made: that is, in effect, 'non-decision-making'. This according to him
involves the ability to set or control the political agenda, thereby preventing issues or proposals
from being aired in the first place.

Power as Thought Control

The third face of power, still according to Heywood (2007) is the ability to influence
another by shaping what he or she thinks, wants, or needs. This is power expressed as ideological
indoctrination or psychological control.

Types of Power

According to French and Raven (1959) as cited by Yukl (1989), there are different types
of power, namely: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power and referent
power. Read the power taxonomy below in order for you to understand more about the types of
power.

Power Taxonomy
Type of Power Description
 Reward power the target person complies in order to obtain
rewards he or she believes are controlled by the
agent.
Coercive power the target person complies in order to avoid
punishments he or she believes are controlled by the
agent.
Legitimate power the target person complies because he or she
believes the agent has the right to make the request
and the target person has the obligation to comply.
Expert power the target person complies because he or she
believes that the agent has special knowledge about
the best way to do something.
Referent power the target person complies because he or she
admires or identifies with the agent and wants to
gain the agent's approval.

Consequences of Power
There are three consequences of power
according to Yukl (1989): compliance, commitment
and resistance. He further stressed that employing
certain types of power in particular ways may result
into these consequences. Study his explanations
below:
Compliance means readiness or act of agreeing to
do something.

The two types of power most likely to cause compliance are legitimate or position power
and reward power.
 Compliance with the order may occur if it is perceived to be within the leader's scope of
authority.
 Compliance is most likely to happen if the reward is something valued by the target
person.

Commitment is an even more desirable outcome because of the trust and emotional pledge that it
causes. It is perceived as loyalty or a sense of dedication or devotion. Commitment is most likely
to be the consequence when the powers used are referent and expert.
 The common way to exercise referent power is merely to ask someone with whom one
has a friendship to do something.
 Expert power may result to commitment if the leader presents logical arguments and
supporting evidence for a particular proposal, order or policy.
 It will depend on the leader's credibility and persuasive communication skills in addition
to technical knowledge and logical or analytical ability.
 Commitment is a very unlikely consequence if coercive power is employed.
Resistance means to refuse or to oppose. It is the most likely outcome when coercive power is
used in a hostile or manipulative way. (Yukl 1989)

Lesson 4
State, Government and Nation
The State
The state is a political community that has sovereign jurisdiction over a clearly defined
territory, and exercises authority through several institutions, including the government.
Heywood (2013) offers five features of a state:
1. It is sovereign.
2. Its institutions are public.
3. It is an exercise of legitimation.
4. It is an instrument of domination.
5. It is a territorial association.
The state has four elements, namely: sovereignty, government, territory, and people.
Sovereignty refers to both jurisdiction (the ability of a state to exercise its authority over its
territory and people) and independence (the freedom from external control).
The Government is the machinery of the state through which the people's will is
formulated and carried out. The territory includes all the land, sea, and airspace the state
exercises jurisdiction on. Finally, the people or population is the organization of human beings
living together as a community.

Differences between State and Government

Government is often used with the state as synonym. But both are two different entities.
1. State consists of population, territory, government and sovereignty. In short,
government is part of the state.
2. State possesses original powers. Powers of the government are derived
from the state.
3. State is permanent and continues forever. Government is temporary, it may come and
go.
4. State is abstract and invisible. Government is concrete and is visible.

3 Branches of the Government

1. Executive has the power to enforce or implement the law.
2. Legislative has the power to make, amend, revise or change the law.
3. Judiciary has the power to interpret or apply the laws.

Differences between Nation and State

How about a nation? How different is it from a state and from a government? If a state is
a political community bound by political obligations, a nation is a group of people bound
together by commonalities in language, history, traditions, and religion. In this case, a nation is
not just cultural, but could be political as well- especially when the people share a common civic
consciousness. Although not necessary, a nation can also be seen as psychological when people
share loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism (Heywood 2013).
Thus, the concept of nation-states was born. It refers to a political unit with a defined
territory, government and constituents that more or less share the same culture and identity. In a
nation-state, the political organization and the government are supported by a cultural base of
imagined unity and identity.

Globalization and the Nation-States

The integration of the state and the nation which forms nation-state is widely recognized
today. As an entity, its strength relies on the fusion of both the cultural and political aspects
present in a state and in a nation, allowing for cultural cohesion and at the same time political
unity. However, nation-states have been met with challenges, including, but not limited to, the
growth of ethnic politics and globalization. How has globalization influenced the nation-state?
Globalization is considered to be the most important threat to the nation- states today. But
what is this phenomenon? What impact does it have to people and nation-states? Heywood
(2013) defined globalization as the process through which societies have become so intertwined
or interconnected that events and decisions in one part of the world have significant effects on
the lives of people in the other part of the world.
Pre-Spanish Government
As stated by Buenaflor (2016), the Philippines was occupied by people from nearby
islands and form themselves into barangay. He mentions that the barangay was the local
government unit headed by a Rajah or Datu. Maginoos who act as the Council of Elders assisted
the Datu in implementing rules pass judgment and penalties to maintain peace and order.

The Spanish Government until the Japanese Military Administration

The Spanish Government
According to Agoncillo (2012), Spain established a centralized colonial government in
the Philippines that was composed of a national government and the local governments that
administered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. He further mentions that the governor
general, as the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines exercised
certain legislative powers: he issued proclamations to facilitate the implementation of laws.
On the setting of local government, Agoncillo (2012) states that the Spaniards created
local government units to facilitate the country's administration. The two types of local
government units were the alcadia and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor,
governed the provinces that had been fully controlled by the Spaniards. According to Garcia
(2015), the corregimiento, headed by the corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet
entirely under Spanish control). The alcalde mayores represented the Spanish king and the
governor general in their respective provinces. Each province was divided into several towns or
pueblos headed by Gobernadorcillos, whose main concerns were efficient governance and tax
collection.

The Katipunan Government

Agoncillo (2012) narrates that the
Katipunan was a secret society that led the revolution on August 26, 1896. It was organized by
Andres Bonifacio with a structure that has a central government vested in a Supreme Council.
Referring to the other aspects of Katipunan structure, Garcia (2015) mentions that in each
province there was Provincial Council; in each town a Popular Council; and the Judicial Power
was exercised by a Judicial Council. The Katipunan was replaced by another government whose
officials headed by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President were elected in Tejeros Convention on
March 22, 1897. (Agoncillo 2012)

Biak-na-Bato Republic
On November 1, 1897, a republic was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo in Biak-na-
Bato (now San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan) through the Biak-na-Bato Constitution. (Garcia
2015)
Biak-na-Bato Republic declared that the aim of the revolution was the "separation of the
Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent state". The Biak-
na-Bato Republic lasted up to December 15, 1897 with conclusion of the "Pact of Biak-na-Bato"-
a peace agreement between the Spanish Government and the revolutionary forces. (Agoncillo
2012)

Emilio Aguinaldo's Dictatorial Government

The "Pact of Biak-na-Bato" failed and Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and
resumed the fighting against the Spaniards. With military victories under his leadership,
according to Agoncillo (2012), Aguinaldo decided that it was time to establish a Filipino
Dictatorial government. He formed the Government on May 24, 1898. The most important
achievements of Dictatorial Government were the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence
in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganizations of local governments. (Agoncillo
2012)
First Philippine Republic
A Congress was convened in January 1899 in Barasoain Church and through the Malolos
Constitution, inaugurated the First Philippine Republic- the first Asian democracy to be
established during the Philippine Revolution that ended the more than 300 years of Spanish
colonial rule in the Islands. (Agoncillo 2012)
The American Colonial Period
Three kinds of government were created during the American Occupational Period: (1)
military government; (2) civil government; and (3) commonwealth government. (Buenaflor
2016). Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016) further explains the following:

 American Military Government

According to Buenaflor (2016), the
American military rule in the Philippines
began on April 4, 1898. Garcia (2015)
explains that under this setting, the President
of the United States had the power to
establish a military government in the
Philippines, as Commander-in-Chief of all
Armed
Forces of the United States. His
authority was delegated to the military governor who exercised all powers of the government as
long as the war lasted (Garcia 2015). First was Wesley Merritt, the second was General Elwell
Otis and the third and last was Major General Arthur MacArthur (Buenaflor 2016).

 Civil Government
 Pursuant to the so-called Spooner Amendment (on the Army appropriation act passed in the
US Congress on March 3, 1901) which ended the military regime in the Philippines, the Civil
Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901 (Garcia 2015). The position of the Civil
Governor was created on October 29, 1901 and exercised Legislative powers. He remained as
President of Philippine Commission, the sole law-making body of the government from 1901 to
1907(Agoncillo 2012).
From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the Legislative
branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house. After the passage of the
Spooner Law in 1916, these two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature. The Philippines
was represented in the United States by two Resident Commissioners who were elected the
Philippine Legislature (Garcia 2015).
 The Commonwealth Government
The next chapter on the political development of the country was the establishment of the
Commonwealth government of the Philippines. Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor
(2016) explains that in pursuant to an act of United States Congress on March 24, 1934,
commonly known was the Tydings Mc Duffie Law, the law provided for a transition period of
ten years during which the Philippine Commonwealth would operate and at the expiration of the
said period on July 4, 1946, the independence of the Philippines would be proclaimed and
established
The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935,
following the first national election held on September 12, 1935 under the 1935 Constitution.
Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, won as President and Vice President respectively.
(Agoncillo 2012).

The Japanese Military Administration

It was established in Manila on January 3,
1942, one day after its occupation by the Japanese forces. Under a proclamation issued by the
Japanese High Command, the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines was declared
terminated. (Buenaflor 2016)
According to Buenaflor (2016), civil government known as the Philippine Executive
Commission composed of Filipinos was organized by the Japanese with Jorge B. Vargas as
chairman of the said commission. The Commission exercised both the executive and legislative
powers. Buenaflor 2016) clarifies that the laws enacted were, however, subject to the approval of
the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Forces. The Judiciary continued in the same form as it
was under the Commonwealth although it functioned without the independence which it had
traditionally enjoyed (Buenaflor 2016). In this government, Jose P. Laurel became the President
of the second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943 (Agoncillo 2012).

Lesson 5

The Philippine Government

The government of a country exercises three major functions: making of rules,
implementation of rules and adjudication or interpretation of rules in settling disagreements.
According to Garcia (2015), in the Philippine context, the national government consists of three
co-equal, interdependent and coordinated branches namely: The Executive for rule
implementation; The Legislative for rule-making and; The Judiciary for rule-adjudication or
interpretation.
As of July 15, 2020, the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government
mentioned the following essential features of the different branches of the Philippine
Government.
 The primary role of the Executive
branch is to execute or implement laws. It is
headed by the President who is elected by
direct popular vote. The Constitution grants
the President authority to appoint his Cabinet.
These departments form a large portion of the
country's bureaucracy.

The Legislative branch is authorized to

make laws, alter, and repeal them through the
power vested in the Philippine Congress. This
institution is divided into the Senate and the
House of Representatives.

The Judicial branch holds the power to

settle controversies involving rights that are
legally demandable and enforceable. It is made
up of a Supreme Court and lower courts.

The Chief Executive of Government: The President

The official title of the president is the

"President of the Philippines" with honorific "Your
Excellency," or "His/Her Excellency." Garcia
(2015)
Official residence and office of the President of
the Philippines is at the Malacañang Palace located
in the country's capital - Manila City.
Lesson 6

Essential Features of the Legislative Branch of Philippine Government

As of July 15, 2020, the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government
mentioned the following essential features of the Legislative Branch or Philippine Congress as
indicated in Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:
- Legislative power shall be vested in Philippine Congress.

- It is a bicameral legislature consisting of two chambers or houses-the Upper House

known as the Senate and the Lower House which is also called the House of
Representatives.

- By a vote of two-thirds of both Houses in joint session assembled, voting separately,

Philippine Congress shall have the sole power to declare the existence of a state of war.

- The Senate shall elect its President and the House of Representatives its Speaker, by a
majority vote of all its respective Members.

- The Senate and the House of Representatives shall each have an Electoral Tribunal which
shall be the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns, and qualifications of
their respective Members.

- The Senate or the House of Representatives or any of its respective committees may
conduct inquiries in aid of legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of
procedure.

- Philippine Congress confirms or rejects Presidential appointments.

Composition of the Philippine Senate

As of July 15, 2020, according to the webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine
Government, the following pertain to the composition of the Philippine Senate as indicated in
Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:
- Lawmakers in the Senate are called
Senators.

- The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four (24) Senators who shall be elected at large
or nationwide through popular election by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may
be provided by law.

- Through synchronized elections, 12 senators are elected every three (3) years.

Terms of Office of Philippine Senators

- The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall commence, unless
otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following their
election.
- No Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms.
- The regular election of the Senators shall be held on the second Monday of May.
 - In case of vacancy in the Senate, a special election may be called to fill such vacancy in
the manner prescribed by law, but the Senator thus elected shall serve only for the
unexpired term.
Composition of the House of Representatives
- As of July 15, 2020, according to the
webpage of The Official Gazette of the
Philippine Government, the following
pertain to the composition of the House of
Representatives as indicated in Article VI
of the 1987 Philippine Constitution:

- Lawmakers composing the House of

Representatives are called Representatives
or Congressmen/Congress- women.

- The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred and fifty
members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be elected from legislative districts
apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance
with the number of their respective inhabitants. The party-list representatives shall
constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives including those under
the party list.

Lesson 7

Essential Features of the Judicial Branch of Philippine Government

As indicated in Article VIII of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as of July 15, 2020 at the
webpage of The Official Gazette of the Philippine Government, judicial power shall be vested in
one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by law. As defined in the
same article, judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual controversies
involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not
there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part
of any branch or instrumentality of the Government. The role of judiciary is important because
this branch interprets the meaning of laws, applies laws to individual cases, and decides if laws
violate the Constitution.
According to the Judiciary Organization Act of 1980, the Philippine judicial system is
composed of lower courts and the highest court.

I. Lower Courts
Municipal Trial Courts and Municipal Circuit Trial Court
Every municipality in the Philippines has a municipal trial court. It is called municipal
court if it covers only one municipality; it is called municipal circuit court if it covers two or
more municipalities.

Metropolitan Trial Courts and Municipal Trial Courts in Cities

Municipal trial courts inside the Metropolitan Area are called Metropolitan trial courts.
Municipal trial courts in cities outside Metropolitan Manila are called Municipal trial courts in
cities.

Regional Trial Courts (RTC)

 Regional Trial Courts are called second level courts and are divided into thirteen (13)
judicial regions (further subdivided into several branches). RTCs are called. appellate courts
because these courts hear appeals and review the decisions of lower courts.
Shari'a Courts
Shari'a Courts settle legal conflicts between Muslim Filipinos in the sphere of customary
and personal laws.
Court of Appeals
Court of Appeals has jurisdiction over appeals from the decision of the Regional Trial Courts.
Sandiganbayan
This is a special court that has exclusive jurisdiction on committed violations of anti-graft
and corruption laws by public officials and employees in relation to their position and office.

II. Highest Court

SUPREME COURT
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Philippines. It is the final court that decides
in any and all judicial issues. It can review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm, final judgments
and orders of the lower court. The most common reason by which a case reaches. the Supreme
Court is through an appeal from a decision rendered by a lower court. Appealed cases generally
originate from cases tried in the trial courts. The Supreme Court does not entertain cases
originally filed before it that should have been filed first with the trial courts.
Functions of the Supreme Court
There are two categories in the functions of the Supreme Court: administrative and judicial.
Administrative Functions
- Supervision and control over the judicial branch of the government and its employees.
- Declare rules for the admission into the practice of law, for legal assistance to the
underprivileged, and the procedural rules to be observed in all courts throughout the
country.

Judicial Functions
- Settlement of actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable.
- Judicial Review or the power of the Supreme Court to inquire into the constitutionality of
the acts of both the executive and legislative branches of government.
Composition of Supreme Court
As indicated in Article VIII of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Supreme Court is
composed of one (1) Chief Justice and fourteen (14) Associate Justices. The Philippine President
appoints members of the judiciary from a list submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council which is
under the supervision of the Supreme Court.
Reflection

I’ve learned a lot from this subject. I learned about the concept, relationship, and
importance of politics, governance, and government. This subject taught me that politics is very
important because it determines what governance means. Far beyond the role of government at
any level, politics determines how we manage our own world and the world around us.

I also learned that strong governance guarantees that society's political, social, and
economic priorities are founded on wide consensus and that the poorest and most vulnerable
people's opinions are heard in decisions about development funding distribution. The goal of this
subject is to inform the students of the essential things about politics and governance, empower
them by providing knowledge and skills, and make them responsible citizens in their practice of
their rights and application of what they have learned in the subject. The Philippines is a
democratic and republican state. Sovereignty resides with the people, and all government
authority emanates from them.
Trends, Network and
Critical Thinking in 21 st

Century
Ⅶ. Name of Subject: Trend, Network and Critical Thinking in 21st Century

7.1 Description

The course provides opportunities for students to discover patterns and extract meanings
from emerging trends. It aids in developing their critical and creative thinking skills-- essential
tools for decision making and understanding “ethics of care”. Global trends in the 21st century is
examined and are either accepted or rejected on a sound set of criteria. Students will be asked to
create and analyze scenarios that will challenge them to (1) formulate their stances on issues or
concerns; (2) propose interventions and; (3) formulate alternative futures. The students will
realize the interconnections between their neural connections and social realities.

7.2 Content

Lesson 1 Definition of trend

Lesson 2 Understanding Local Networks

Lesson 3 Global Network

Lesson 4 Planetary Networks: Climate Change

Lesson 5 Democratic Intervention

Reflection

Lesson 1
Definition of trend

Trend is a continuous development towards something new or different. It

simply reflects on what seems to be going around at any given time. Sanders,
Soper and Rotwell (2009) define trend as a "recurrent phenomenon that takes
place over time and gives rise to speculation on the future." It can be in any area
and doesn't only reflect fashion, pop culture and entertainment, but to all
dimensions. It could be socio-cultural, economic and/or political dimensions.
Moreover, it is a change evidenced by a rise or fall of variables when measured
between at least two points over time (Gordon, 2008). Thus, a trend is a sequential
pattern of change in recorded data.
In 1985, American Heritage Dictionary defines trend as a direction of
movement, as "the trend of a line," or the movement in a specified direction, as in
"the prevailing wind trends east-northeast." Hence, a trend is the general direction
or tendency in which is going to move, develop or change.
The way of doing new things of an individual, group or societal approach then followed
by many people is called as trend. It has ability to influence or even direct people to adapt,
accept and follow what is new. Also, trends tend to shift peoples' needs and wants as it distracts
the present trends then proposed new ones in the form of innovations (to be discussed in the
proceeding part).
Megatrends and the microtrends are the two types of trends. Megatrends are those larger
patterns of broad trends that reshape and transform our lives while microtrends is the advocate
localization as opposed to globalization It recognizes that people and communities have never
been more refined and more conversant about the choices they make in their everyday lives.
Trends gain power over time as they are not just merely part of a moment, they are tools,
connectors and will become more valuable as other people commit to engaging (Seth Godin).
They solve problems. They represent new ways of life. Some trends are fun, some fabulous,
some appalling, but however long they last, you can be sure there will always be a new trend
coming along to replace the old.
Trend is considered as a collage of present circumstances that extend current patterns
into the future (Cornish, 2004 and Canton, 2006). However, an examination of these phenomena
and speculation on the likely impact they will have in the future is called trend analysis. In
addition, the practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the
information is also known as trend analysis.
Sanders, Soper, and Rotwell (2002) stated that "an examination of trends phenomena and
speculation on its likely impact in the future is called as trends analysis." Moreover, trends
analysis grants "future vision." It allows populations to be proactive in response to future events.
Furthermore, trends analysis is the widespread practice of collecting information and attempting
to spot a pattern in the information. It will be used in predicting future events or estimating
uncertain events in the past, and distracting present events just to promote new ones.
The process of identifying of trends is called trend spotting. Rehn and Lindkvist (2013)
define trend spotting as attempting to see the future in the present situation. On the other hand,
the people who notice and report on new fashions, activities that people are starting to do is
called as trend spotter. Conversely, an act that assumes the future that will be a logical
extension of the past is defined as act of projecting trends. Thus, projecting trends will be
based from the past, present and what will be in the future regardless of defined and undefined
factors that contribute from its changes or development.
Lesson 2
Strategic Analysis and Intuitive Thinking
Every day we make choices in our lives. Sometimes our decisions are based on impulses
that we need to face along with the unfavorable consequences of our actions. We cannot afford to
commit the same mistakes at all times. This is why there are institutions that create strategic
analysis at least intuitive thinking, if the latter makes sense.
According to Urgel, E. (2017), Strategic analysis is the process of examining the
organization's surroundings and resources to better formulate a strategy to meet the desired
objectives and improved the organization's performance. It is the understanding of an
organization's external and internal environments. It also deals with the creation and better
utilization of resources in the pursuit of their objectives and priorities. Such understanding is
drawn from the facts data, and instructions at hand.
Strategic analysis, for example, can be done by an organization to analyze its losing
performance. It is based on data and information about the internal profile of its employees and
their capabilities and work attitudes. It can be done by the organization to investigate the external
profile of its surrounding, opportunities, and possible rivals. Moreover, intuitive thinking is
sensing or knowing without using rational processes such as reading facts and instructions.
According to the dictionary, intuition is something that is known or understood without proof or
evidence. In short, intuitive is making choices and decisions according to one's hunch and gut
feeling without knowing the reason why.
Good intuition results from long years of knowledge and experience which enable you to
comprehend how people think, act, and react, perceive and interpret, and interact with one
another.
A critical mind or analytical mind usually exercises strategic thinking. Samantha
Howland (2015) identified six elements of strategic thinking designed to encourage strategic
leadership among today's executives. It is drawn from a study of more than 20,000 executives in
more than 175 countries. The six key elements are abilities to anticipate, challenge, decide,
interpret, learn, and align.

1. The ability to anticipate enables the executives to not only focus on the current
situation but also to look at the future. They should monitor the environment to foresee
significant changes in the industry to prepare them for possible threats as well as
opportunities. For instance, an executive who keeps abreast with trends and engages in
trendspotting is more likely to be open to product changes or to beef up the company's
product strength in anticipation of trend. An example is when a garment executive spots a
consumer preference for plaid print, he or she gradually reduces the production of
apparels with floral design and shifts to plaid print.
2. The ability to challenge involves raising questions instead of merely accepting
information as it comes. The purpose of raising questions is to trace the root causes of
problems, to challenge existing beliefs, and to find out biases and possible manipulation
of the situation. Probing and investigation may also be employed.
3. The ability to interpret is shown by testing a variety of hypotheses as well as
comparing and contrasting certain data prior to making decisions on particular issues. The
executive avoids jumping into conclusions without sound basis.
4. The ability to decide enables to executive to make a stand with courage and conviction
despite incomplete information at hand. The executive combines speed and quality in
doing this for them to avoid indecision or "analysis paralysis which prevent a leader from
acting fast, thereby missing chances of opportunities.
5. The ability to align enables the executive to have different divergent viewpoints,
opinions, and agenda to attain common goals and to pursue mutual interests. Open
 communication and dialogue will help address the problem of misalignment and build
trust leading to consensus and agreements.
6. The ability to learn is demonstrated by an executive who accepts feedback,
constructive criticism, and even failure which are altogether viewed as source of critical
and valuable insights. He or she shows willingness to immediately return to the right
course when going off tract. Failures are considered lessons for success.

Strategic analysis is useful not only to an organization but also to an individual such as
student like you. Your current situation in striving to finish senior high school can be assessed by
the following: (a) knowing your strengths such as your competencies and values, weaknesses
such as negative attitude and needs to be filled, (b) threats such as events and situations that
prevent you from focusing on your studies, and other factors that can help you improve your
skills.
The honing and nurturing of a critical mind or strategic thinking must start at an early
age. Students like you should be provided with opportunities to develop this ability for self-
improvement. It can also guide you in giving service to others (for example as an officer in the
student council). In such case, the students develop strategic thinking which is reflected in his or
her abilities to anticipate, decide, challenge, learn, align, and interpret.
Intuitive thinking involves a more spontaneous, instinctive, and unplanned process of
solving a problem. Evaluation of the situation and the perceived alternative course of action are
quick and board. Actions and decisions spring from hunches and gut feeling based on
unpremeditated ideas or experiences rather from facts and hard data. This type of thinking tends
to be imaginative and more applicable in situations where facts are insufficient and previous
related decisions are not readily available.
Intuitive thinkers do certain things which other do not. Carolyn Gregorie (2014), senior
writer of The Huffington Post provided the Ten Things Highly Intuitive People Do Differently.
The following activities are as follows:
1. Listening to an inner voice. They pay attention to intuition and allow it to guide them.
2. Taking time to be alone and to reflect. Spending time in solitude is their way of
engaging in deeper thoughts and creative thinking. It is also called "mindfulness" which
means looking into one's current experience without making judgement.
3. Listening to their bodies. They tune in to their bodies for gut feeling and physical
sensation or emotion associated with intuition.
4. Observing everything. They take note of the occurrence of odd things and keep an eye
on the frequency of coincidences, unexpected connections, and instantaneous decisions or
actions done.
5. Paying attention to their dreams. It refers to the way of getting in touch with their
"unconscious thinking process" and of capturing information on how to live their lives.
6. Connecting deeply with others and staying in a positive mood. They can read a
person's mind through his or her words, feelings, and actions. Avoiding negative
emotions helps boost their intuitive judgement.
Analytical thinking applied in strategic analysis is brain-centered and focused. It deals
with one thing and is concerned with time. It is linear and inclined toward the abstract. It
efficiently works in a condition with sufficient time, relative stability, and established criteria for
analysis such as rules. It comes in handy when an explanation is needed. The process can be
taught and learned in the classroom.
 Intuitive thinking, on the other hand, possesses characteristics which mostly run in
contrast to analytical thinking. It is heart-centered, unfocused, and is not time- bound. It views
many things simultaneously, is nonlinear, and is inclined toward the concrete and the real. It
efficiently works in dynamic conditions, under time pressure, and is instantaneous. It works well
when the observer has gained experience in a particular situation and he is ready to act on
hunches and feeling, especially when an explanation is not needed.

Strategic Thinking
According to Urgel, E (2017), Strategic analysis and planning have five essential
components. These components are the following:
1.Committed people. The initial step in strategic planning is getting the right people at the
right time. They are essential in effectively carrying out a strategy. These people
comprise the management staff, officers, and stakeholders. They are also called engagers.
2. Long-term strategic objectives. The objectives are poised to enhance the organizations
performance. There is need to identify the beneficiaries in the operation who will receive
the benefit from the gains brought by improved efficiency in the operations and delivery
of services of the organization. The people involved in setting the objectives are referred
to as aimers.
3. Strategic alternatives. The planning team should be able derive options from
brainstorming and SWOT Analysis. These alternatives may be of higher quality than the
current strategy or may enable the organization to respond with the ease, speed, and
effectiveness when changes occur in the environment.
4. Evaluation and choice of strategies. The process of formulating a strategy which
involves evaluating and picking out which strategies could facilitate the attainment of
long-term improvements. It should include all those revealed by Strength, Weakness,
Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis of the organization. From the evaluation of
alternative strategies, options which are superior to the current approach may be found,
and change for organization's improvement can be undertaken. Those who participate in
searching for and selecting strategic alternatives are called option generators.
5. Monitoring of strategy implementation. There should be a plan for formal and regular
reporting and other measures of plan implementation. These will enable the organization
to know whether or not the plan is carried out properly and the objectives are met. The
monitoring system should provide ample room for correction when improper
implementation of the strategies is observed and when objectives are not being met.
Strategizes are those who implement and monitor strategy.
Intuitive Thinking
The components of intuitive thinking differ from those of strategic analysis and planning.
According to Amy Baylor (1997), there are three components of intuition and intuitive thinking:
immediacy, sensing relationship, and reason.
1. Immediacy. This refers to the timing in intuitive thinking. The time involved in intuitive
thinking is quick where decisions, actions, and solutions come up fast without planning or
deliberation. Baylor quotes George Mandler (1995), named it as "mind popping" when thoughts,
ideas, and solutions come to mind non-deliberately.
2. Sensing Relationship. This refers to the establishment or formulation of connections among
ideas. This is basic in intuition. The establishment of connection is necessary is associated with a
person's knowledge, and
3. Reason. It deals with intuition which involves certain type of reasoning
 Discovery of Non-Intuitive Things
There are three ways of discovering non-intuitive things. The following are as follows:
1. Gaining more experience.
Experience is a great teacher. More experiences you have the easier it is for you to see the
similarities between new ideas and previous learning.
Experience teaches you to identify if various kind of projects, objectives or problems are
straight forward or not. It also teaches you which one employs non- intuitive (or counter
intuitive) issues to address. In other words, experience hones your intuition. It can make non-
intuitive thinking become intuitive thinking.
2. Experimentation.
Experimentation can help you uncover inconsistencies. Tinkering is a great way to
discover something that isn't consistent with what you thought.
3. Learn by reading, studying & teaching and learning process with your mentors.
The more you build your foundation, the more you learn about the nuances, differences
and subtleties of a wide array of mysteries. Then, intuitive thinking and non-intuitive thinking
become easier in the real-life context.

Identifying Parts of a Whole

Trends as they grow and evolve tend to influence or give birth to other trends and become
interconnected and interrelated. It was mentioned in the previous modules that trends are formed
from the combination of things. Thus, a trend has constituent parts of portions that are
interrelated. Their influence, as well as how the people adopt them, makes the trend viable,
especially the megatrends and gigatrends.
Visual culture is another example that we experience today. It was developed from
various trends- digital camera, smartphone, internet, Wi-Fi technology, social media, mobile
apps, computer, fashion, art, photography, to name a few. Internet memes, infographics, and
sharable videos seemed to be a microtrend only, but they eventually became a mainstay in
disseminating information. Even large news organizations and government websites use them.
This visual culture trend which can be considered a megatrend, has evolved further with the
advent of the internet. The smartphone and Wi-Fi access greatly helped the new form of visual
culture which is subscribed to by many social media users, if not all.
Remember that microtrends can become macrotrends if they affect more lives and
societies. Then, macrotrends can become a megatrend if it can affect a much larger group for a
longer period like a decade. Megatrends can become gigatrends if they have everlasting effects
and influences.

Identifying Emerging Patterns

By simply looking at the previous diagram, you will somehow have an idea on
identifying emerging patterns of a trend. Urgel (2017) defined pattern as a design, shape, form
or configuration that emerges from repetitious appearance of lines, curves, and behavior.
According to him, in the study of trends, repetitive behavior that gives rise to an emerging
pattern is the main interest.
In order to follow and observe if a pattern emerges out of various events and phenomena,
one should have the tools necessary to detect it. According to Rehn and Lindkvist (2013), the
tools that a trend spotter should find handy to use are categorized into four activities which are as
follows:
1.Documentation means being able to record your observations which you consider related to
any trend. The primary tools for documentation, however simple, are notebook and pen. Some
opt to use note-taking features or apps on a smartphone or tablet. The camera has also become
necessary in providing visuals. Others bring a voice recorder which is best for saving audio.
Whatever tool one uses, the important thing in documentation is the ability to physically keep
information and data wherever and whenever you may be.
 Notebook and pen are basic in documentation.
2. Archive or Memory is used to easily retrieve any documentation you have kept. Notes can be
scanned or converted to a portable document format (PDF) while digital pictures can be easily
saved. Physical archiving can, of course, still be used. There are various digital archiving
systems that are available, too. Tagging and cross- indexing are helpful in labeling files.
3. Analysis is the stage where examination and combination happen. Looking for patterns on
prospective trends can be achieved through these methods: brainstorming, grouping, and crafting
combinations. In brainstorming, you decide which from your data is important and which can be
discarded. Here, you can confirm emerging patterns like events becoming more frequent and
things following a cycle. In grouping, you create headings where observations and data can fall
under several categories. In crafting combinations, you begin to link one thing to another and
think what could happen if these are taken step further, more like imagining or generating new
ideas. The above diagram presenting the evolutionary aspect of a trend is an example for this
analysis.
4. Presentation is representing your findings for easy understanding as a way of analysis. You
can represent your findings through, among others, a mood board and a storyboard. A mood
board is a collage of images, text, and object samples. This is used to capture your intuition and
stimulate creative discussions about trends. A storyboard presents a narrative of possible
scenarios. It functions to connect trends to a timeline and to different contexts, something that
can enable you and others to see interesting new things. A slideshow is also another option.
Sometimes, new trends are labeled with new names or terms in the hope of popularizing a
phenomenon. Again, the sample diagram presented above is an example of this consisting of the
linkages of the influences of the root trend to the development of new trends within the link plus
the explanatory analysis.
APPLYING STRATEGIC ANALYSIS
Strategic analysis refers to the process of researching an organization and it's working
environment to formulate a strategy. There are many other definitions of strategic analysis with a
different perspective. But they all involve a lot of common factors.

1.

Identifying and evaluating data relevant to the company's strategy

2. Defining the internal and external environments to be analyzed

3. Using several analytic methods such as Porter's five forces analysis, SWOT
analysis, and value chain analysis
Types of Strategic Analysis
Internal strategic analysis: As the name suggests, through this analysis organizations look
inwards or within the organization and identify the positive and negative points and establish the
set of resources that can be used to improve the company's image within the market. Internal
analysis starts from evaluating the performance of the organization. This includes evaluating the
potential of an organization and its capacity to grow.

The analysis of the strengths of the company should be oriented to the market, focusing on the
client. The strengths only make sense when they help the company to fulfill client's needs. When
doing an internal strategic analysis, one should also know the weaknesses and limitations that a
company faces existentially or in the future.

SWOT analysis is one of the most reputed techniques for internal strategic analysis.
There is no better way to benefit from a strategically performed analysis than to use it to detect
the strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats that your project may suffer.

External strategic analysis: Once the organization has successfully completed its internal
analysis, the organization needs to know about external factors that can be a hindrance in their
growth. To do so, they need to know how the market functions and how consumers react or
behave to certain products or services. Measuring customer satisfaction is a common external
analysis method. PESTLE analysis is one of the most widely used external analysis techniques.
The process one is most likely to adopt when using a PEST technique is relatively a simple one
PEST Analysis (political, economic, social and technological) is a management method whereby
an organization can assess major external factors that influence its operation in order to become
more competitive in the market. As described by the acronym, those four areas are central to this
model. Also, PEST analysis is a strategic business tool used by organizations to discover,
evaluate, organize, and track macro-economic factors which can impact on their business now
and in the future. The framework examines opportunities and threats due to Political, Economic,
Social and Technological forces.

Political - Political or politically motivated factors that could impact the organization.
Examples include:
Government policy, political stability or instability, bureaucracy, corruption, competition
regulation, foreign trade policy, tax policy, trade restrictions,
labor/environmental/copyright/consumer protection laws, funding grants & initiatives, etc.
Questions to ask:
 What government policies or political groups could be beneficial or detrimental to our
success?
 Is the political environment stable or likely to change?

Economic
Overall economic forces that could impact on your success.
Examples include:
Economic trends, growth rates, industry growth, seasonal factors, international exchange rates,
international trade, labor costs, consumer disposable income, unemployment rates, taxation,
inflation, interest rates, availability of credit, monetary policies, raw material costs, etc.
Questions to ask:
 What economic factors will affect us moving forward?
 How does the performance of the economy affect us at the moment?
 How are our pricing, revenues, and costs impacted by each economic factor?

Social
Social attitudes, behaviors, and trends that impact on your organization and target market.
Examples include:
Attitudes and shared beliefs about a range of factors including money, customer service, imports,
religion, cultural taboos, health, work, leisure, the environment; population growth and
demographics, size/structure, lifestyle trends, etc. immigration/emigration, family
Questions to ask
 How do our customer's beliefs and values influence their buying habits?
 How do cultural trends and human behavior play a role in our business?

Technological
Technology that can affect the way you make, distribute, and market your products and services.
Examples include:
Technology and communications infrastructure, legislation around technology, consumer access
to technology, competitor technology and development, emerging technologies, automation,
research and innovation, intellectual property regulation, technology incentives, etc.
Questions to ask:
 What technological advancements and innovations are available or on the horizon?
 How will this technology impact on our operations?

Why do a PEST analysis?

 Helps to evaluate how your strategy fits into the broader environment and

 encourages strategic thinking Provides an overview of all the crucial external influences
on the organization

 Supports more decisive and knowledgeable decision making

 Assists planning, marketing, organizational change initiatives, business and product

development, project management, and research papers
Who should use a PEST analysis?
A PEST analysis is useful for any organization that needs to gauge current and future markets.
The significance of each area in PEST Analysis will vary for different industry sectors. For
example, there is likely to be a different emphasis on the technology element for IT organizations
compared with those involved in health, tourism, mining, defense, and banking.
To conclude this lesson, SWOT analysis and PEST analysis are important most especially in
dealing with strategic thinking in order to solve existing problems. These two inform about both
internal and external factors that affect a firm's success and/or failure. These tools help firms
assess the report and take counter measures for improvement and analyzing threats. Also,
identify potential threats to the organization and help to reduce the impact. Encourage employees
to adopt a strategic thinking mindset. Create methods to find and exploit new opportunities.
Evaluate the impact of various decisions before implementations.

Lesson 3

GLOBALIZATION
The speedup of movements and exchanges of citizenry, goods, and services, capital,
technologies or cultural practices, everywhere in the world. One of the effects of globalization is
that it promotes and increases interactions between different regions and populations around the
globe. It aims to standardized income distribution through its economic integration schemes. It
shows that globalization have advantages and drawbacks.

Examples of Globalization
Globalization includes a much wider field than just flowing of goods, services or capital. Often
referred to as the globalization concept map, some examples of globalization are:
a. Economic globalization is the development of trade systems within
transnational actors such as corporations or NGOs;
b. financial globalization can be linked with the rise of a global financial system with
international financial exchanges and monetary exchanges.
c. Cultural globalization refers to the interpenetration of cultures which, as a
consequence, means nations adopt principles, beliefs, and costumes of other nations,
losing their unique culture to a unique, and globalized supra-culture.
d. Political globalization is the development and growing influence of international
organizations such WHO which means governmental action takes place at an
international level.
 e. Sociological globalization is information moves almost in real-time, together with the
interconnection and interdependence of events and their consequences.
f. Technological globalization is the phenomenon by which millions of people are
interconnected thanks to the power of the digital world via platforms such as Facebook,
Instagram, Skype or YouTube.
g. Geographic globalization is the new organization and hierarchy of different regions
of the world that is constantly changing.
h. Ecological globalization is an account for the idea of considering planet Earth as a
single global entity a common good all societies should protect since the weather affects
everyone and we are all protected by the same atmosphere.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
The effects were widely seen in every economy because of the borderless concept of
globalization such as:
1. We are enjoying imported products and the best services from foreign companies. And
those products are extremely helpful for every task we used to do.
2. Knowledge became easily shared by the brightest minds through the internet.
3. Technologies become an aid in communication, transportation, education, and finance.
This means that economic globalization contributes a lot to everyday life of an individual
or group of people. In spite of its good effects, globalization has also bad effects that hinder
equality among people. The consequences of globalization in economic are also visible,
especially in the gap between poor and rich and it is an advantage to those developed countries
that manipulated regulation in global trade.
GLOBAL NETWORKS
Globalization made people for liberal, open, dynamic, innovative and mature with the
exchange of ideas and practices between people of the world. Global networks include the
following:
•Development of the WWW through the internet.
•Networks of individuals, communities and organizations that operates
globally.
•Use of cyberspace and other technological innovation that gave rise to global village.

Factors gave rise to Globalization

a. Advancement in education
b. Advancement in Science and Technology
c. Social and Political Liberation

Collaboration and Cooperation

An illustration below shows the difference of collaboration and cooperation.
Cooperation is a two people carrying their own "similar" baskets to a common
destination for mutually beneficial individual gain, increasing impact, volume and leverage.
Meanwhile, Collaboration is a two people carrying their two baskets (or maybe even more and
often very different) by sharing the load between them, to a shared destination for the mutual
benefit of the individuals, collective and entity. For a more in depth and pragmatic treatment of
the two concepts, including when each is best suited for use, keep reading.

 more or less active assistance or willingness to assist;

 collective exertion of force, power, or influence; agency. Requires Co-alliance;

 an act or instance of working or acting together for a common purpose or benefit; joint
operation or action;

 the combination of persons partaking in activities for purposes of a particular process,

course or procedure of productive or industrial activity shared for their joint or mutual
benefit.

Collaboration
 to work, usually willingly, with an enemy.

 to work with another or others on a joint project, as in Coalition.

 structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and

communication

 to working with others to do a task, and to achieve shared purpose. It is a recursive

process where two or more people or organizations work together to realize shared goals,
(this is more than the intersection of common goals seen in co-operation.

LABOR AND MIGRATION

Labor is the quantity of physical, mental, and social effort castoff to create goods and
services in an economy. It provides the expertise, manpower, and service needed to
generate raw resources into finished stuffs and services.
Labor is measured through the means of labor force or labor pool. To be considered part
of the labor force, one must be legible, willing to work, and are on the right age to do so
because there are some who are not ready to work however, turn themselves in working
just to provide for their families.

Types of Labor
1. The Unskilled- This job does not require intensive training because it is more on skills or
manual labors such as farm workers, it can also be service work, such as janitorial or others.
2. The Skilled- This kind of labor requires some educational degree or training. An example is
manufacturing jobs.
3. Part-time Labor- It is categorized by the nature of the relationship with the employer. This
means they are managed or supervised by a boss. They also receive a set weekly or bi-weekly
wage or depending on the number of hours of service and it equivalent amount.
4. Contract Labor -It is when a contract stipulates the work to be done. It's up to the worker to
define and identify on how his/her works gets done. The amount paid is either contract or a set
fee for the work. Benefits are not included.
5. Slave Labor- It is an illegal employment. It happens when the worker is forced to work
without consent or against their will.
6. Professional Labor- These are referred to individuals with highest level of knowledge-based
education and managerial skills. These people have usually invested the most of their careers and
make the highest wage earners.

Migration
Ever since, people have been on the move in search of jobs or economic opportunities, to
join family, or to study. Some people have to move to run away conflict, harassment,
terrorism, or human rights violations. Still others have to move in response to the
opposing effects of climate change, natural disasters, or other environmental factors such
job related and social status. Migration as it stands has been one of the causes of the said
mean.

Types of Migration
1. Permanent Migration- It refers when someone moves from one place to another and has no
intention to return to their original place.
2. Temporary Migration- It is limited by time. This happens because of work related or this
could be for seasonal employment.
3. Forced Migration- It involves the migrant having no choice but to move. Some of the
examples are refugees migrating due to conflicts or disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
floods, typhoons or wars.

CHALLENGES FACED BY MIGRANT WORKERS

Migrant workers come to the different parts of the world in search of jobs, usually in
farming or domestic work. They face challenges that are not present for native workers. Many of
them do not have the required paperwork to stay in the country legally, so they face the constant
threat of deportation.
1. Coercion
Undocumented migrant workers may not be willing to report a workplace injury because
they are afraid of being reported to immigration authorities or losing their jobs and not being able
to find another employer willing to take them on.
2. Lack of Benefits
 Because they are often paid in cash off the books, migrant workers are not eligible for
company benefits such as pensions and insurance plans. They also miss out on unemployment,
disability and Social Security benefits from the government. Breaks, overtime, sick pay and
minimum wage laws may not be followed because there is no recourse for the worker.
3. Dangerous Conditions
Workers may be housed in unsanitary conditions, which are especially dangerous for
children. If the company provides food for its employees, it is often low quality and not very
nutritious. Migrant workers are also subject to harsh conditions on the job, such as working in
extreme weather for long hours with no breaks.

4. Cultural Differences
Cultural differences present problems for migrant workers even when they are away from
the job site. Local residents may discriminate or resent migrant workers for taking the available
jobs in the area. Migrant workers are often isolated from their neighbors because they do not
speak the language and shop mostly at ethnic stores. The language barrier can also make it
difficult to understand legal documents such as leases and tax forms.
5. Educational Issues
Children of migrant workers often miss school and fall behind their peers because they
have to work along with the rest of the family. Child labor laws are typically not enforced among
the migrant population, so there is no protection for the children. Even when the child does not
perform any actual work, he may spend the day at the job site with his parents because there is
no available daycare. Families tend to move according to the seasons, which makes it even more
difficult for the children to keep up in school.

Lesson 4

The concept of planetary network emphasizes that everything on earth is interconnected.

Whatever happens to one element on earth has effect to the other components.
Planetary networks refer to the interconnections and interrelations among the various
elements in the natural environment enveloping and affecting Earth as well as beyond Earth's
surface. It includes the rain, the wind, the sun's rays, gasses and other climate-related elements.
Global warming is a phenomenon which refers to the rising of global average
temperature on Earth's surface due to the thinning of the ozone layer in Earth's atmosphere.
Ozone stays high up in the atmosphere where it is formed, and its huge quantity is enough to
form shield for earth against the sun's ultraviolet rays. Ultraviolet rays can cause cornea damage
and skin cancer; stunt the growth and food manufacturing process of green plants and destroy the
floating microorganisms at the base of the ocean food chain. Global warming causes changes in
the climate patterns and weather cycles of the Earth.
Climate change refers to the major changes in the climate that last for long periods of
time. Climate refers to the prevailing set of atmospheric conditions such as temperature and
humidity of a place within a span of time. Weather is the atmospheric condition involving hot or
cold, rainy or dry, cloudy or clear sky and stormy or calm in a short period of time (Arzadon et.al
2015).

The Effects of Consumption and Production Patterns on Climate Change

Production refers to how people generate and manufacture the products they need to
use, sell, or consume. Almost everything comes from natural resources which are depleted every
time they are used.
If production pattern is characterized by heavy dependence on coal, the problem of
climate change will be more aggravated. China, for instance, has large coal mines and relief on
them for its energy requirements. This makes China one of the most polluted countries on Earth.
Dependence on petroleum in the manufacture and production of goods makes U.S. produced 23
percent of global carbon emission, while it makes eastern European countries, including Russia,
produce 14 percent of carbon emission (Harper 2001).
These only show that the more progressive the country is, the more they contribute to the
depletion of the ozone layer and the worsening of global warming and climate change.

Consumption refers to the use of economic or consumer goods and resources.

Consumption patterns can be categorized as individual, family, company and government
consumption. It is the main reason why we need to use our resources. Ecosystem has the ability
to regenerate, sustain and adjust what is lost, but with the excessive use of land resources,
ecosystem will be destroyed.
In economics, the more consumption, the more demand, the more demand the more
production, the more production the more extraction to natural resources, the more extraction the
faster for the resources to destroy. The resources in our environment are limited but the need for
production and consumption is unlimited.
Some initiatives by the government that helps protect the environment are the following:
1.The Kyoto protocol, which was enforced in 2005, specifies targets and timeframes for
reduction of Greenhouse gasses emission of the industrialized countries. For example,
United States produces 23 percent of the global carbon emission, from 2000 to 2012 its
target reduction is seven percent.
2. The emission certificates guarantee a product's resource efficiency which can help in
increasing sales, decreasing costs and boosting brand loyalty. The certificate enables the
manufacturer to gain international recognition for the products.
3. Carbon offsetting is the reduction of carbon footprint by using other options such as
wind or solar energy.
Simple things you can do to help fight climate change:
1. Save energy
Saving energy not only saves you money but helps you cut carbon emissions too. For
example, refrain from using your cellphone while charging.
2. Improve your diet
When buying fruits and vegetables, try to buy organic. Organic foods are healthier
because they contain fewer harmful substances, but growing them also protects the environment
and the climate.
3.Saving water at home
Clean water that is pumped to most homes has been treated which uses lots of energy.
4. Recycling
It can really help stop climate change because re-using materials usually uses less energy.
5. Compost food scraps
If leftovers, peels, cores and cuttings were composted, they would reduce emissions and
help protect healthy soil.
6.Plant trees
help suck carbon out of the air and stabilize the climate.
7. Avoid plastic wherever you can
Almost every plastic is produced from fossil fuels and in every single phase of its life
cycle, plastic emits greenhouse gases.
8. Get on your bike
Bicycle is still the number one form of sustainable transportation.
9. Be informed and support
Support organizations that hold companies to account for the environmental practices.
9. Sharing is caring!
If we own less and use more things collectively, we need to produce fewer things and that
saves on resources. Sharing cars, exchanging clothes, lending and borrowing tools are multiple
different possibilities for collective consumption.

Lesson 5

What is Democracy?
Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under free electoral system or a state of
society characterized by formal equality of rights and privileges. It originates from the Greek
word demos, which means "people", and kratos, which means 'strength or power."
What is Democratic Practice?
Democratic Practice is a set of principles and practices that guide how people interact
and work together every day to improve their community and to create a more just society.

What are some democratic practices?

A. Suffrage or the right to vote. It gives the people the opportunity to exercise
sovereignty by choosing the candidates who will govern and serve them. Eligible voters have the
right to elect the government of his/her country by secret vote. It is only fair that they have a
direct hand in choosing the officials.
B. Public assembly and consultation. "The Public Assembly Act of 1985," makes sure
that the people's exercise their right to a peaceful assembly. Citizens have a set of rights and
responsibilities, including the right to participate in decisions that affect public welfare. This act
stipulates that rallies, demonstrations, marches, public meetings, processions, or parades
(collectively referred to as public assembly) can be held in public places to express opinion, to
protest against, or to air grievances on certain issues.
C. Majority rule and minority rights. It is the making of binding decisions by a vote of
more than one-half of all persons who participate in an election. Thomas Jefferson, third
President of the United States, expressed the concept of democracy in 1801 in his first Inaugural
Address. He said
All...will bear in mind this sacred principle. That though the will of the majority is in all
cases to prevail, that will to be rightful must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal
rights, which equal law must protect and to violate would be oppression.

D. Conduct of plebiscite to amend a constitutional provision. The Constitution

embodies the fundamental laws of the land from which all other laws should be in accord with.
The change in a provision of the constitution, such as increasing the number of years of term of
office of the president, cannot be carried without the approval of the people or general
constituencies in a process called plebiscite. A plebiscite is an electoral process for approving or
rejecting a change or amendment in the Constitution. It is in the process of direct vote-say yes or
no; accept or reject.

Democratic participation is the involvement or engagement with something which is

freely done, without coercion, and without threat or fear.

Importance of Participation in Democracy

1. Democracy provides equality and admission to opportunities for all its citizen in the
government;
2. checks and balances the government to prevent possible abuse of political power from
the officials;
3. allows citizens to influence and suggest policies and laws through plebiscite in
selecting delegates or representatives.
4. allows the popular majority to oust a representative or a politician who hold too much
power and abuses it;
5. promotes freedom where citizen enjoy human rights, allows people to engage the
business and innovations;
6. becomes competent, firm, and stable when the state is ruled with leaders who have
dedication and transparency;
7. provides political education to the people telling them of the state affairs; and
8. upholds change since the citizens have the opportunity to participate in the
involvement in the government.

Representative and Participatory Democracies

Democracy has several forms. Two of the most popular types are
representative democracy and participatory democracy.
Representative Democracy
In the modern period where large populations usually form societies, Representative
Democracy (also called indirect democracy) is observed to be more popularly exercised. It is a
political system where the qualified citizens exercise their political power through
representatives. The sovereign power remains on the citizens but its exercise is delegated to the
representatives they elect. By extension, the citizens, through their votes, allow these
representatives to make choices and decisions on their behalf.

Participatory Democracy
Quite similar to representative democracy is participatory democracy which also
encourages a more active and wider involvement of citizens. While representative democracy
motivates individual citizens to contribute to policy making, participatory democracy offers more
opportunities for members of the population to contribute to decision-making through popular
assemblies. It has variants. In a direct democracy, all eligible citizens and qualified voters
directly or personally involve themselves in making political decisions. In the Philippines, one
popular demonstration of participatory democracy was the EDSA People Power of 1986.
Through the people's direct involvement in a series of protests, the dictatorial rule of President
Ferdinand Marcos was toppled down.
Reflection

The subject of trends, networks, and critical thinking has helped me a lot in terms of
learning new things regarding how people around us work and join certain trends and
bandwagons. Through the lessons and certain additional lectures, I learned that people can get
tired of certain things and that there are some that may still stay. Trends for example was
something I’ve known ever since but I understood it more through this subject, it was said to be
somewhat long-term and a huge number of personalities follow it and join its “band-wagon.”
Many people can create trends and be trendsetters, you’ll just have to hunt for certain things that
believe that could be something big in the near future. However, if it didn’t work out, or if it did,
but for a short amount of time only, it may only be called a fad; it is something temporary, and
not that large of a number of people may notice and join its popularity. TNCT may be a new
subject and be part of the curriculum, but it still gave certain new knowledge in order to
understand how people interact with things and how they move around in society.

On the other hand, the topic of critical thinking has been something that has affected me a
lot since I tend to be someone who looks at and perceives something without looking into it
more. I understand things from my own opinions and sometimes disregard further insights
regarding specific details, and with the discussion of critical thinking, it somehow aided me
more. I tend to question more things and give my opinions and thoughts about various agendas
with different lenses. I became more literate in terms of technology and gained different
information over the internet. Old habits may die hard, but they can easily be improved by
earning proper knowledge and having further discussions. With its step-by-step strategies and
types of analysis, approaching problems, things that needed to be answered in the best way
possible, and giving out recommendations and unbiased, truthful opinions are now easier to do.

Additionally, global networks, or globalization, proved that economies may work

together in order to achieve a certain goal. Businesses and politics are under this topic, for they
actively join specific organizations, countries, nations, and people. It is interesting how there is a
difference between cooperation and collaboration; it proves that influencers have powers over
others, and some may also work together in transactions and organizations. Internet connectivity
is also an integral part of networking since it connects you with people all around the world, and
with this, it plays a big part in reaching people all around the world.

Overall, looking back on what I’ve learned with the subject of trends, networks, and
critical thinking I can definitely say that the subject will help me analyze and approach certain
situations and problems that may occur in the future. We should often not look at and approach
something without pondering well and simply giving opinions, which doesn’t help at all. We
should look at the different lenses and claim them with proper investigations.
CREATIVE
WRITING
Ⅷ. Name of the Subject: Creative Writing

8.1 Subject Description

The course aims to develop practical and creative skills in reading and writing;
introduce students to the fundamental techniques of writing fiction, poetry, and drama; and
discuss the use of such techniques by well-known authors in a variety of genres. Each class will
be devoted to the examination of techniques and to the workshop of students’ drafts toward the
enrichment of their manuscripts. Students learn how to combine inspiration and revision, and to
develop a sense of form.

8.2 Content

Lesson 1 Creative Writing

Lesson 2 Poetry
Lesson 3 Fiction
Lesson 4 Drama

Reflection
Lesson 1

Using Imagery, Diction, Figures of Speech, and Specific Experiences

Literature is a subject that features life. Most of the people, love to read, watch, or
listen to the other people's stories but not all were able to write them. In the essays and articles,
you write before, they talked about your life or other people's lives. Have you tried also writing
poems, songs, and short stories?
In reading a literary piece such as poems, essays, short stories and the like, it is
important to note that writers employ literary devices. A literary device is a linguistic technique
that produces a special effect when reading a literary piece. This device can help readers in
appreciating, interpreting, and analyzing a work of art. Writers can also employ these techniques
to make their work achieve the aesthetic appeal so that readers can enjoy the beauty of words. In
this subject, you will learn how to write creatively employing different literary techniques,
elements, and devices in writing. Are you ready to learn them and unleash your writing prowess?
Using Imagery, Diction, Figures of Speech, and Specific Experiences

Literary Devices

1. Imagery
It is a concrete representation of an idea to convey the message by using language
that can evoke the five senses. There are five types of imagery: olfactory imagery (sense of
smell), tactile imagery (sense of touch), visual imagery (sense of sight), auditory imagery (sense
of hearing), and gustatory imagery (sense of taste). For example, "stars that shine and twinkle on
the milky way" can let us think about the sense of sight thru the word’s stars, shine, and twinkle.

2. Figures of Speech
Aside from imagery, another literary device that can be used in literary piece is the
figures of speech. It is also known as figurative language because it creates figures or pictures in
the mind of the readers. It means something different from what is usual. In the poem, "I
wandered lonely as a cloud" is an example of simile since it uses the word "as" in comparing the
writer to a cloud. Aside from simile, there are plenteous kinds of figures of speech such as
metaphor, personification, synecdoche, oxymoron, litotes, irony, hyperbole, alliteration,
assonance, onomatopoeia and a lot more. Below are the descriptions of some figures of speech
and the sample sentences.

Figures of Speech Descriptions Sample Sentences

Hyperbole Ideas are expressed I almost turned crazy of

 exaggerated manner. thinking about you.

Onomatopoeia It is using words that imitate I miss the splashing of the

the natural sounds of things waters during summer time.
or animals.

Personification It is giving human qualities to The sea is so angry over the

inanimate objects. streak of garbage at the bay.

Oxymoron It is a phrase where two The loud silence of the streets

opposite ideas are joined can be here during the
together. lockdown.

3. Diction
Another device that can be used in reading a fiction is the diction. Diction means
the selection of words in a literary work to convey action, reveal character, imply attitudes,
identify themes, and suggest values. It can be formal, informal, colloquial, or slang.

Type of Diction Description

Formal It makes use of third person pronouns such us he, she, it,
they, and them. Contracting words are not allowed in this
style of writing.

Informal The informal diction uses the first-person pronouns such as

I, we, and us. It also allows the use of contractions like it's,
you're, they're, etc.
Colloquial It is the use of familiar and casual words in conversation in
a relaxed from of language.
Slang It is classified as very informal form of language. Slang
words have another meaning which are used by a certain
group.

4. Specific Experiences
Finally, another technique in appreciating the literary work is to identify the specific
experience of the writer and how the readers relate this experience to their own lives. Through
this specific experience, the writer and reader interaction become alive and they get connected to
each other.

Lesson 2

Elements and Structure of Poetry

Poetry has remained a vital part of
art and culture. Like other forms of
literature, poetry is made to express thoughts and emotions in a creative and imaginative way. It
conveys thoughts and feelings, describes a scene or tells a story in a concentrated, lyrical
arrangement of words. In this module, we will explore on the elements of poetry based on the
following partitions: structure, sound and meaning. This particular lesson will highlight the
poetry according to structure namely stanza and form.
STRUCTURE OF POETRY
One significant way to analyze poems is by looking into the stanza structure and the form
of the poem. Generally speaking, structure refers to the overall organization of lines and/or the
conventional patterns of sound. However, various modern poems may not have particular
structure.

A. Stanza. Stanzas refer to series of lines grouped together and separated by a space from other
stanzas. They correspond to a paragraph in an essay. Identifying the stanza is done by counting
the number of lines. The following are some of the terms used to refer to the number of stanzas:
monostich (1 line), couplet (2 lines), tercet (3 lines), quatrain (4 lines), cinquain (5 lines),
sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain), septet (7 lines), octave (8 lines).
For example, the excerpt:
"I do not like green eggs and ham. I do not like them Sam I am."
It consists of two lines. Hence, the stanza is called couplet.

B. Form. In many cases, a poem may not have specific lines or stanza, and metrical pattern,
however, it can still be labelled according to its form or style. Here, we will discuss the three
most common types of poetry according to form: lyric, descriptive and narrative. We will also
include other popular types of poetry.

1. Lyric Poetry. It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses
strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems. Below are
some types of lyric poetry.
a. Ode. An ode is a lyric poem that praises an individual, an idea or an event. The
length is usually moderate, the subject is serious, the style is elevated and the
stanza pattern is elaborate. In Ancient Greece, odes were originally accompanied
by music. In fact, the word "ode" comes from the Greek word aeidein, which
means to sing or to dance.
Example: Excerpt from Walt Whitman's "O Captain, My Captain,"
(written following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln O
Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up-for you
the flag is flung-for you the bugle trills; For your bouquets and
ribbon'd wreaths for you the shores a-crowding; For you they call,
the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; Here captain! dear
father! This arm beneath your head; It is some dream that on the
deck, you’ve fallen cold and dead.

c. Sonnet. It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is usually
written in iambic pentameter. The three basic kinds of sonnets are:
 Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The
Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines). It
 tends to divide the thought into two parts (argument and conclusion). The
rhyming pattern is ABBA, ABBA, CDECDE, or some accepted sestet such as
CDCCDC, CDDCDE or CDCDCD.

2. Narrative Poetry. It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story
i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement.
The most common types of narrative poetry are ballad and epic.
a. Ballad. It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is
usually organized into quatrains or cinquains, it has a simple rhythm structure, and
tells the tales of ordinary people.
Example: Excerpt from "Annabel Lee" by Edgar Allan Poe
It was many and many a year ago,
In a kingdom by the sea,
That a maiden there lived whom you may know
By the name of Annabel Lee;
And this maiden she lived with no other thought
Than to love and be loved by me.

b. Epic. It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary
or historical hero.
Examples of epic include Iliad by Homer, Beowulf, The Divine Comedy by Dante
Alighieri, Metamorphoses by Ovid and many more.

3. Descriptive Poetry. It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It
uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric
poetry, which is more personal and introspective.
Example: Excerpt from William Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud"
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd.

OTHER FORMS OF POETRY

1. Haiku. It has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and usually 5,7,5
syllables, respectively. It is usually considered a lyric poem.
Example: "The Old Pond" by Matsuo Bashō
An old silent pond
A frog jumps into the pond-
Splash! Silence again.
 2. Limerick. It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five lines
(a cinquain), in an AABBA rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic (weak, weak,
strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2 feet in lines 3 & 4. It is usually a narrative
poem based upon a short and often ribald anecdote.

Example: A poem by Dixon Lanier Merritt

A wonderful bird is the pelican,
His bill can hold more than his beli-can.
He can take in his beak
Food enough for a week
But I'm damned if I see how the heli-can.

3. Acrostic poems, also known as name poems, spell out names or words with the first letter in
each line. While the author is doing this, they're describing someone or something they deem
important.
Here is an example to illustrate the poetic form.
"Alexis
by Nicholas Gordon focuses on an intriguing woman he may or may not know:
Alexis seems quite shy and somewhat frail,
Leaning, like a tree averse to light,
Evasively away from her delight.
X-rays, though, reveal a sylvan sprite,
Intense as a bright bird behind her veil,
Singing to the moon throughout the night.
Lesson 3

Fiction
A fiction is defined as "a series of imagined facts which illustrates truths about human
life." It is a story written about imaginary characters and events and not based on real people and
facts.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION:

CHARACTERS
A character is a person, animal, or imaginary creature 2 Kinds of Characters:
Protagonist: main character or hero
Antagonist: another character which causes conflict for the protagonist. The antagonist
can be a character, society or object.

Characterization
 A description of individuals in a story
5 ways to develop a Character:
1. Physical Description of Character
2. Character's Speech Thought, and Actions
3. The Speech Thoughts, and Actions of Other Characters
4. Eye-Awakening Situation

SETTING
 Where and When a story takes place
 Is the time and location that a story takes place
1. Place What is the geographical location/ Mountains, forest, desert?
2. Time what is the historical period, time of day, or year?
3. Weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc.?
4. Social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story
contain local color (writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms,
customs, etc. of a particular place)?
5. Mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created in the story? Sad happy Scary.

POINT OF VIEW
  The angle or perspective from which the story is told (Who tells the story)
 The point of view is divided into two main types:
- First person point of view
- Third person point of view

PLOT
Plot is the author's arrangement of events in the story. It has a beginning, middle and end.
- Exposition
- Raising Action
- Climax
- Falling Action
- Resolution

Plot - Exposition
- The beginning part of a story that:
 Sets the tone
 Establishes the setting
 Introduces the characters
 Gives the reader important background information

Plot - Rising Action

- Series of actions which lead the story to the climax

Plot - Climax
 "Turning point" of the story"
- The climax is the point of maximum interest. It usually occurs toward the end of the
story, after the reader has understood the conflict and become emotionally involved with
the characters. At the climax, the outcome of the plot becomes clear.

Plot - Falling Action

 Occurs after the climax
 Conflicts are beginning to be resolved-loose ends are tied up

Plot Resolution/ Denouement

 Part of the story where the problem or conflict is solved
 Occurs after the climax and falling action "the end"

CONFLICT
 Struggle between a character and an opposing force
2 Kinds of Conflict:
Internal Conflict
External Conflict
External Conflict
 Struggle between a character and an opposing outside force such as society, nature or
another character

Man vs. Man

Man vs. Nature
Man vs. Society
Man vs. Animal
Man vs. Machine

Internal Conflict
 Struggle within a character's mind
 Usually occurs when a character has to make a decision or to deal with feelings
 Man vs. Self

THEME
 The underlying message in a story that deals with life or human nature
 When determining theme, think about:
 The title
 The way a character changes and what they learn
 Bio ideas such as courage and freedom

Literary Technique and Devices of Fiction

A literary device is any specific aspect of literature, or a particular work, which we can
recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze. Both literary elements and literary techniques can
rightly be called literary devices.
Literary techniques are specific, deliberate constructions of language which an author
uses to convey meaning. As author's use of a literary technique usually occurs with a single word
or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary
elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text.

The Most Common Literary Devices Are:

Alliteration
Is when a multiple words in a row, or close to one another, begin with the same
consonant.
Example:
 Bad babies bother my brother
Assonance
Repetition of vowel sounds to set the mood or add to the meaning of the word.
Example:
"From the molten-golden notes"
Hyperbole
Is an expression which exaggerates an action so much that it cannot possibly be true. It is
often used to evoke strong feelings.
Example:
"I have been waiting here forever!"

Imagery/Sensory Language
Is the usage of words to create a mental image in a person, by appealing to one of our
senses. Imagery can be auditory or visual.
Example:
Phrases like 'clanging bells' or 'sweet smelling roses' immediately evoke images
of the objects along with the associated sense once we read about them.

Irony
Is a contextual device that causes us to have expectations that are different from the
actual outcome. There are different types of irony; situational, wherein something other than
what we thought would happen happens; dramatic irony, where a character does not know
certain information which the audience already knows. There is also verbal irony, in which a
character says something but means something else.
Example:
If your doctor is smoking while talking to you about cancer, it would be ironic.

Onomatopoeia
Is a technique of using words that are pronounced and sound just like what they
represent.
Example:
Words such as buzz or hiss when pronounced sound like the very sound
they represent.

Oxymoron
Is a term made of two words that are opposites of each other and therefore imply each
other's opposite.
Example:
'Cruel love' or 'terrible beauty', are oxymoronic terms.

Personification
 Is a technique used to give living, human characteristics to non-living objects.
Example:
'Chatter of the brook' implies that a brook can perform a living action such as
chattering while it cannot, but conveys the sound.

Metaphor
Is also a comparison device, but without words such as like or as.
Example:
'She is a real Pitbull'
Simile
Is also a comparison device, using words such as like or as.
Example:
'Her voice was like s fork against a plate'

Rhetorical questions
Are questions which are asked but seem to require no answer. They are simply language
tools to convey an idea, but not actual questions which require an answer.
Example:
'If practice makes perfect, and no one's perfect, then why practice? This is a
rhetorical question that is asked simply for its effect. The speaker would not be
looking for an answer.
Repetition
Is when an author repeats a word or line multiple times to reinforce its importance to the
audience.
Example:
I do not like green eggs and ham is repeated in Dr. Suess' famous book to let the
reader know the man is stubborn and set in his ways. It also reinforces the central
message when the repetition is broken, I do so like green eggs and ham. Thank
you, thank you, Sam-I-Am'. Central message, you should always try something
before you say you dislike it.
Rhyme
Is when words end in a similar sound.
Example:
Mouse and house
Lesson 4

Drama has become one of the effective ways of portraying life's ups and downs or the
realities of life. Most of us, Filipinos, have witnessed dramas which made us smile, laugh, angry,
and even cry. A drama, or a play, is a piece of writing that is presented almost exclusively
through dialogue (Jose & Larioque, 2017). Like a short story or novel, it has a setting, characters,
plot, and even symbolism. However, unlike short story or novel, the play is meant to be
performed in front of the audience, not read.

One-Act Plays are short plays, but with complete stories. They are similar to a short
story in its limitations, and there is a complete drama within one act. It is brief and one situation
is presented for a single purpose and effect. There are only few characters who are quickly
introduced and limitedly developed. They are plays that take place only in one place and
generally take only less than an hour to present.

Techniques in Writing Scenes for One-Act Play

A good one-act play focuses only on one main action or problem. As a writer, you have to avoid
complicated layers of plot as they may take longer time in presenting on stage. The following are
some considerations and innovative techniques that you may put in mind in writing a script with
scenes for one-act play.
1. Be clear with your theme.
This is one of the main considerations that you may have in planning for scenes in a play.
You may ask yourself some questions like: What will my play be all about? Is it about
friendship? About love? About struggles, or success in life? You have to have a clear picture
about the theme because the other elements like plot, characters, and settings will point to or
support the theme.
2. Develop the plot simply.
In a one-act play, identify only one significant event. You may develop the action first,
then compose the dialogue before deciding on other elements. Keep the plot simple for a one-act
play, and it should move consistently throughout the play.
3. Develop the characters.
You may have a character sketch first before you bring them to life. You have to limit the
characters that you have to develop. The hero or the protagonist's characters need to be focused
one or to be more developed, while the antagonist needs to be developed to show conflict which
is one of the central elements in a play. Thus, you have to allow your characters to face a
problem.

Reflection

I learned a lot about creative writing. It was such an adventure that could be thanks to
expressing any ideas, and it's plenty of struggle. Through this subject, I noticed that creating a
poem has unique characteristics, and it's not necessary that the last words in each line rhyme with
one another. I also found out that if you can't understand the discussion, the poem that I made or
the story was visiting will be difficult to compose, especially when it comes in impromptu. This
subject teaches me a way to express ourselves through writing, and I think creative writing is
anything that helps you set your thoughts and expression on paper.

In this subject, we will learn new words, which helps us to create our vocabulary and also
develop our emotional skills and the way to manage our situation or emotion. Creative writing
improves our logical skills and develops our creative thoughts because sometimes we are
imagining something, and since of our activities, we've got to get more done, especially if we
understand and value creative writing because it'll help how well we make poems and short
stories. In this subject, we can improve our self-expression, which is leading us to be stronger for
communication, and we learned a way to create courses subconsciously, which is effective
communication, and we learned how creative writing defined writing fiction. In creative writing,
we can also know its purpose and why we study it.

I also intended that, as if we were documenting what happened in our lives, here we are
going to also know what the genre has achieved in our stories or in what we've read. This subject
gives me the possibilities to enhance my creativity, and I thought it focused only on writing or
reading, but this subject is bigger than I assumed it's. It also guides me to different literary
devices and important details that help me form better literacy. In creative writing, our subject, I
learned plenty, not just a way to write stories and poems. Thanks to this, you may have ideas on
the way to start a story. It is also needed to search out my writing strengths, accept my
weaknesses, and find out how to handle critiques of my work.
 CREATIVE NON-
FICTION
Ⅸ. Name of the Subject: Creative Non-Fiction

9.1 Subject Description

Focusing on formal elements and writing techniques, including autobiography and

blogging, among others, the subject introduces the students to the reading and writing of Creative
Nonfiction as a literary form. The subject develops in student’s skills in reading, and thinking
critically and creatively, that will help them to be imaginative readers and writers.

9.2 Content

Lesson 1 Introduction to Literacy Genres

Lesson 2 Principles, Elements, Techniques, and Devices of Creative Nonfiction

Lesson 3 Forms and Types of Creative Non fiction

Lesson 4 Reading and Writing Creative Nonfiction

Reflection
Lesson 1

The word "creative" refers to the use of literary craft, the techniques fiction writers,
playwrights, and poets employ to present nonfiction factually accurate prose about real people
and events in a compelling, vivid, dramatic manner.
Creative nonfiction (also known as literary nonfiction or narrative nonfiction) is a
genre of writing that uses literary styles and techniques to create factually accurate narratives. It
contrasts with other nonfiction, such as academic or technical writing or journalism, which is
also rooted in accurate fact but is not written to entertain based on prose style.
Basically, the Creative Nonfiction is a "hybrid" of Technical / Academic Writing and
Creative Writing as shown in Figure 1 on the next page. The table will give you the idea that to
write a great creative nonfiction, a writer must use a fact- based story and tell it in an imaginative
way not as easy task as it sounds because nonfiction writers must be dedicated to preserving the
truth of their stories the who, what, why, where, when, and how. The creativity enters using
perspective, which, like a camera lens, allows the writer to focus the reader's attention and
engage his or her imagination.

Conventions of Technical/Academic Writing, Creative Writing, and Creative Nonfiction

Creative nonfiction therefore is an art of bringing all the strategies of storytelling to the
narration of factual events. There are different forms and types of Creative Nonfiction.
Below are some of the forms and types of Creative Nonfiction and their examples for
your better understanding of this genre.

1. Autobiography - a written account of the life of a person written by him/herself.

Example: The Diary of a Young Girl (The Diary of Anne Frank) a book of writings from the
Dutch language diary kept by Anne Frank while she was hiding for two years with her family
during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands. It was published in 1947, in more than 60
languages.
Famous Creative Lines and Quotes from "The Diary of a Young Girl"
a. "In the Long run, the sharpest weapon of all is a kind and gentle spirit."
b. "In spite of everything, I still believe that people are really good at heart."
c. "I think a lot, but I don't say much"
2. Biography - a detailed description or account of a person's life written or as told by someone
else.
Example: Lines from the Biography of "Steve Jobs" by Walter Isaacson
I remember sitting in his backyard in his garden, one day, and he started talking about
God. He (Jobs) said, "Sometimes I believe in God, sometimes I don't. I think it's 50/50 maybe.
But ever since I've had cancer, I've been thinking about it more, and I find myself believing a bit
more, maybe it's because I want to believe in an afterlife, that when you die, it doesn't just all
disappear. The wisdom you've accumulated, somehow it lives on."
3. Literary Journalism/Reportage - a kind of literary journalism that reports on an
event, history or an actual case based on direct observation, investigation or thorough
research and documentation.
Example: "Letting Go: What should medicine do when it can't save your life?" Atul
Gawande, The New Yorker
Gawande looks head-on at the moral and physical struggles of end-of-life care. It's a
matter that's personal for him: he is a Boston surgeon who is perfectly typical in his difficulties
talking about death with terminally ill patients. How does a physician balance the effort to
prolong life with the fact that most of us would prefer a death that is peaceful and non-
medicalized? Gawande brings scrutiny and intelligence to a story that moves through the
experience of several different kinds of patients, from a young woman who learns she has cancer
when she is 39 weeks pregnant to a 72-year-old woman with multiple health problems who relies
on an oxygen tank.

5. Personal Narrative-a narrative essay about a true story of something that happened to
someone, usually told to illustrate an insight; is based on autobiographical events.
Example: Lines taken from "My Mother" by Lori Ann Proust
I could find endless words in the thesaurus to describe my mother, but the one word that
stands out above the rest is "incredible."
6. Travelogue - a story of the experiences encountered by someone while touring a place for the
pleasure of travel.
Example: Lines from "Walking from Seattle to Chicago" by Anonymous
The greenery in Washington state at this time is sometimes hard to describe in its
heavenly sight.
Based from the above examples, you would know that Creative Nonfiction requires the
skill of the storyteller and the research ability of the reporter. It doesn't just report facts; it
delivers facts in ways that move people toward a deeper understanding of the topic.
Therefore, Creative non-fiction writers must see beyond facts "to discover their
underlying meaning"; they must "dramatize that meaning in an interesting, evocative, and
informative way."

Elements of Fiction
How does one say that a particular work is fiction? Generally, fiction work is not real
hence writers can utilize both the imagination and complex figurative language to appeal to the
readers. Fiction is also characterized by structured language, adherence to proper grammatical
pattern, and correct mechanics. A work of fiction may combine fantastical and imaginary ideas
from everyday life. Written imaginatively, it comprises some important elements like plot,
setting, character, conflict, and point of view to lead the readers to its theme.
 Because literature is basically an art and not a science, it is not always a good idea to
specifically approach fiction while looking for these elements. Rather, it is better to read a fiction
work and examine it closely then decide for yourself what element(s) was/were highlighted and
how important and significant it is to what the writer is trying to convey.
For beginning fiction writers, on the other hand, it is important to know what makes
fiction. A chef trying to cook a particular gourmet dish should know the ingredients and how
each will affect the flavor of the food being prepared. This is similar to writing. With this
understanding in mind, let us find out the ingredients when cooking up fiction.
A. Character
Characters are beings who live in the story. They can be actual people from this planet to
aliens from somewhere in the outer space. At other times, they can be animals, and even
inanimate objects; they can even be supernatural presences or make-believe creatures like
goblins, fairies, dragons, or elves.
Characters are important in fiction because they are the ones with whom the readers
empathize. Readers also look for characters to root for or against, to fall in love with, to care or
to hate, and even dream to meet.
Readers come to know and understand the characters actions, motivations, feelings and
emotions through what they say, what they think, how they act, and even through what other
characters say about them. A writer should therefore take this in consideration when creating the
characters to life.
Characters can be flat or round. A flat character is not sufficiently developed, described
very little, and plays very minor role in the narrative. Sometimes they are simply stock characters
or those known simply as the "wicked stepmom." or the "loyal servant."
A round character, on the other hand, has a leading role in the narrative. In contrast with
a flat character, a round character is complex, multi-dimensional, and well-developed that they
seem "to come to life." These characters may undergo change through the circumstances where
they are placed, hence making them lifelike.
Characters can also be static or dynamic (also called developing). A static character
remains the same throughout the narrative while a dynamic one undergoes change. The change
can be brought by factors and elements experienced by the character and may impact on his or
her attitudes, beliefs, or actions.

B. Setting Simply put, setting answers the question "where" and "when" about the narrative.
Answers to these questions give rise to the two types of setting: the physical and chronological
setting.
Physical setting refers to where the story takes place. It can be very general like in a
farm, a school, or a laboratory; or it can be specific, like "in the Metropolitan Naga Cathedral,"
or "at McDonald's Diversion Road branch."
The chronological setting can also be general or specific, as during the "Christmas
season," or "during the early morning of December 16 in 2019." Sometimes, the setting is
immaterial to the story, as when the writer wants to be universal and not limited by time and
space. Aside from the chronological and physical setting, it also includes the following:
a) the immediate surroundings of the characters such as props in a scene: trees,
furniture, food, inside of a house or car, etc.,
b) the weather such as cloudy, sunny, windy, snow, or rain, etc., and
c) the geographical location including the city, state, country, and possibly even
the universe, if the writer is writing science fiction.
C. Plot
Plot is the order of events in the story. Writers usually follow a particular plot structure,
called "Freytag's Pyramid," although this is not always the case, as some may opt to start from
the middle part or ending part and go backwards to where the events began.
Freytag's Pyramid is named after the German playwright of the 1800s, Gustav Freytag,
and has the five-part plot structure which includes the exposition, rising action, climax, falling
action, and denouement, also known as resolution.
Freytag's Pyramid
a) Exposition introduces the characters, time, and the problem. This occurs at the start of
the story up to the point where an inciting incident happens for the main character to
handle or solve. The exposition creates the beginning of the story.
b) Rising action includes the happenings that the main character encounters. As each
event develops, more complications arise, making the problem more complex for the
character.
c) Climax refers to the turning point in the story. This is usually a single event with the
greatest intensity and uncertainty. Here the main character contends with the problem
hence creating the peak of interest for the readers.
d) Falling action are the events that unfold after the climax. The resulting events after the
climax create an emotional response from the reader.
e) Denouement or resolution provides closure and ties up loose ends in the story.

D. Conflict
Conflict is the struggle between opposing forces or entities. The main character
encounters a conflict which may be an adversary or any other force to contend with.
Generally, there are two types of conflict: external and internal. External conflict could be
man against nature (a mother and her child evacuating at the height of typhoon Yolanda), or man
against man (a student being harassed by a bully classmate). Internal conflict could be man
against society or culture, or man against himself or herself.
Readers might find external conflict more exciting than internal conflict, but it is
worthwhile to think that in real life, people experience more of the latter than of the former.

E. Point of view
Who is telling the story? How is the story told? Point of view answers these questions.

There are three different types of point of view which writers use in telling fiction.
a) First person point of view means that the story is told from the viewpoint of one of the
characters who may be the protagonist or main character in the narrative. Here, first person
personal pronouns are used like I, me, my, we, and our. By using this point of view, readers may
feel an affinity and empathy for the narrator as the narration can include the narrator's motives,
thoughts and feelings. On the other hand, this view may be limited as it cannot say for certain
other characters' thoughts, feelings, and motives.
b) The second person point of view which is seldom used, speaks to the reader as if the reader
is the protagonist. At other times, the narrator may use apostrophe, a figurative language where
the speaker talks to an absent or unidentified person. The second person pronouns are used here
like you and your.
c) The third person point of view is classified into third person limited and third person
omniscient. In both types of view, the narrator is not a character nor in the story. In third person
limited, the narrator is limited only to one of the character's thoughts. In third person
omniscient, the narrator is "all-knowing" and "all-seeing" and knows various characters'
thoughts. This view uses third person pronouns like he, she, it, and they.

F. Theme
Theme is the underlying truth conveyed by the author through the story. Themes are
usually universal which means that they are understood by readers across cultures, eras, or
nationalities. Some common themes include coming of age, circle of life, prejudice, greed, good
vs. evil, and beating the odds. Theme is different from the moral or lesson of a narrative.

Elements of Poetry Rhyme

This is the easiest feature to identify in a poem. If the last word in the first line of poetry
rhymes with the last word in the second line, or the third, you can easily identify a pattern.
Rhyme does not depend upon spelling; it is a matter of sound, or pronunciation.
Rhyme Scheme
When you can identify a repeating pattern of similar-sounding words at the ends of the
lines, then you have a rhyme scheme. Simply assign a letter of the alphabet (starting with A, of
course) to each word at the end of a line of poetry; rhyming words are given the same letter.
Sometimes a pair of words nearly rhymes; you assign the same letter to each of these words also.
Rhythm
Rhythm (or meter) is a slightly more difficult aspect of poetry for some students. There is
a natural rise and fall in our language: we stress certain syllables and words more than others in
order to emphasize meaning. In poetry, these patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables or
words form a rhythm or meter.
Reflection

In this subject, I learned many things such as literature's, works and lessons. In the first
place I learned about the elements of fiction, and on how they are being used in a piece. Second,
the importance and use of our different sensory images such as taste, smell, touch, sight and hear.
Third, I studied about the analyzation of a factual and non-factual elements, it includes the
characters, point of view, settings and the atmosphere that used in a text to make it exceptional.
Fourth, on how to a symbol represent a person, place or things. In the other side irony given a
deep meaning for a word or situation. Fifth, I was able to study about scene and dialogue, their
major role in a piece dialogue that are fascinating and being expressed by the scenes which the
characters will portray it. Sixth learned ways and tips in analyzing and writing a critique. And
lastly this subject called creative non-fiction gave me a chance to study and practice how to write
in creative way.

As a student, I discovered that creative nonfiction writing has a fascinating, story-centric

format that prioritizes narrative over a listing of facts. This makes creative nonfiction markedly
different from other kinds of books related to the nonfiction genre, like academic textbooks and
also the genre of nonfiction writing that comes with different creative writing techniques and
literary styles to convey truthful, non-fictional narratives. In contrast to more standard nonfiction
subgenres, creative nonfiction writing focuses on story and tone.