Intestinal Rotation

A b n o r m a l i t i e s a n d Mi d g u t
Vo l v u l u s
Jacob C. Langer, MD

KEYWORDS
 Malrotation  Nonrotation  Heterotaxia  Intestinal obstruction  Bilious vomiting

KEY POINTS
 Rotation abnormalities represent a spectrum from non-rotation to normal rotation.
 Malrotation may result in lethal midgut volvulus. Any child with bilious vomiting must be
assumed to have midgut volvulus until proven otherwise.
 The gold standard for the diagnosis of a rotation abnormality is an upper gastrointestinal
contrast study looking for the location of the duodenojejunal junction.
 A laparoscopic approach is useful for children without midgut volvulus. Infants, and older
children with suspected midgut volvulus should undergo laparotomy.

INTRODUCTION: NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

Intestinal rotation abnormalities constitute a spectrum of conditions that occur during

the normal embryologic process of intestinal rotation. In some patients the rotation ab-
normality is asymptomatic, but others experience a variety of symptoms, including
obstruction, lymphatic and venous congestion, and misdiagnosis of appendicitis in
an abnormally positioned appendix Box 1. The most important form of obstruction
is midgut volvulus, which may be fatal. For this reason, it is important for all surgeons
to have an understanding of rotation abnormalities, and to have a high index of suspi-
cion in any patient with signs and symptoms of intestinal obstruction.

RELEVANT EMBRYOLOGY AND ANATOMY

Intestinal rotation occurs during the fourth through twelfth weeks of gestation.1 During
the fourth to fifth week postconception, the straight tube of the primitive embryonic
intestinal tract begins to elongate more rapidly than the embryo, causing it to buckle
ventrally and force the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and the ascending and transverse
colon to extend into the umbilical cord. The duodenum curves downward and to the
right of the axis of the artery, initially completing a 90 counterclockwise turn. Over the
next 3 weeks, the duodenum continues to rotate so that, by the end of 8 weeks, it has

Division of General and Thoracic Surgery, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto,
Room 1524, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G1X8, Canada
E-mail address: jacob.langer@sickkids.ca

Surg Clin N Am 97 (2017) 147–159

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2016.08.011 surgical.theclinics.com
0039-6109/17/ª 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
148 Langer

Box 1
Signs and symptoms of intestinal rotation abnormalities

Nonrotation
Asymptomatic
Associated motility disorder
Associated condition (eg, abdominal wall defect, diaphragmatic hernia, heterotaxia)
Appendicitis in abnormal location
Malrotation without volvulus
Asymptomatic
Bilious vomiting caused by Ladd bands or associated duodenal web
Associated medical condition (eg, heterotaxia syndrome)
Appendicitis in abnormal location
Malrotation with volvulus
Bilious vomiting
Abdominal pain
Hematochezia
Peritonitis
Death
Malrotation with partial or intermittent volvulus
Protein-losing enteropathy
Abdominal pain
Failure to thrive
Malnutrition
Occult gastrointestinal bleeding

undergone 180 rotation. During the tenth gestational week the intestines return to the
abdomen. The cecum is the final portion of the intestine to return and does so by
rotating superiorly and anteriorly around the superior mesenteric artery (SMA). This
sequence of return causes the duodenum and proximal jejunum to be pushed supe-
riorly and to the left posterior to the SMA so that they become fixed in a 270 rotation
from their initial position. Fixation of the intestines in this position takes place over the
fourth and fifth months of gestation.

DEFINITIONS OF INTESTINAL ROTATION ABNORMALITIES

The spectrum of intestinal rotation abnormalities arises from perturbations in the

sequence of herniation, rotation, and fixation of the midgut. If the cecocolic loop
returns to the abdomen before the return of the proximal foregut, the duodenum
and jejunum are not pushed superior-laterally and undergo only 180 of rotation. In
this scenario, the cecum does not undergo proper fixation and the colon remains
on the left side of the abdomen, whereas the midgut fills in the space on the right
and the duodenum descends directly along the course of the SMA. This condition is
termed nonrotation and, because it is associated with a wide-based mesentery,
does not put the child at risk for midgut volvulus. Classic malrotation occurs as a result
 Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 149

of failed extracelomic rotation. It is most commonly characterized by a duodenal-jeju-

nal junction (DJJ) located in the right upper quadrant and a cecum located in the mid-
dle to upper abdomen, which is fixed in place by adhesive bands to the gallbladder,
duodenum, and right-sided abdominal wall (Ladd bands). Most importantly, classic
malrotation results in a narrowed mesenteric base, which predisposes the child to
potentially fatal midgut volvulus (Fig. 1). Less commonly, the bowel makes a 90
turn clockwise, rather than counterclockwise, resulting in reverse rotation, in which
the duodenum lies anterior to the SMA and the colon lies posteriorly, producing a ret-
roarterial tunnel, which may be associated with partial mesenteric arterial, venous, and
lymphatic obstruction. If the mesoderm does not fuse to the retroperitoneum during
the fourth and fifth months of gestation, paraduodenal or paracolic hernias may form.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

The reported incidence of rotation abnormalities varies widely, depending largely on

how they are defined. Autopsy series suggest an incidence of 0.5%. A population-
based study estimated an incidence of approximately 15 per 1 million in children less
than 1 year old and 10 per 1 million in children aged 1 to 2 years,2 with a decreasing
incidence after that. Associated congenital abnormalities are found in approximately
30% to 60% of cases and may include intestinal atresia or web (the most common asso-
ciated anomaly), Meckel diverticulum, intussusception, Hirschsprung disease, mesen-
teric cyst, and anomalies of the extrahepatic biliary system. Congenital diaphragmatic
hernia and abdominal wall defects such as omphalocele and gastroschisis are typically
associated with an intestinal rotation abnormality, usually nonrotation, because the in-
testine is in an abnormal location during the time it should be undergoing rotation. Many
children with intestinal motility disorders have associated rotation abnormalities. In
addition, rotation abnormalities are commonly associated with congenital heart dis-
ease, often in the context of one of the various heterotaxia syndromes (HS).
The classic presentation of malrotation is bilious vomiting in a newborn infant, and
every child with bilious vomiting should be assumed to have malrotation until proved
otherwise. Bilious vomiting may occur for 3 reasons (which are not necessarily mutu-
ally exclusive): obstructive compression of the duodenum by Ladd bands, an associ-
ated duodenal atresia or web, or (more ominously) midgut volvulus. Midgut volvulus
occurs around the narrow-based mesenteric pedicle, causing twisting of the SMA
and superior mesenteric vein (SMV). The abdomen is not distended initially because
the obstruction is very proximal. As the intestine becomes ischemic, the patient
may develop hematochezia, irritability, pain, abdominal distension, and peritonitis. Ul-
timately, abdominal wall erythema, septic shock, and death may occur as the midgut
becomes necrotic. Many of these findings are similar to those found in neonates with
necrotizing enterocolitis; the presence of bilious vomiting or nasogastric tube aspi-
rates should suggest the possibility of midgut volvulus as part of the differential diag-
nosis. In older children, chronic, partial, or intermittent volvulus may present with
crampy abdominal pain, intermittent vomiting, diarrhea, occult gastrointestinal
bleeding, protein-losing enteropathy caused by lymphatic obstruction, failure to thrive,
or malnutrition. Distension is frequently present, although it may be intermittent.
Although volvulus associated with malrotation represents the condition’s most
acute, dramatic, and urgent presentation, duodenal obstruction may also be caused
by Ladd (or other congenital) bands, even without midgut volvulus. In neonates, these
bands can cause incomplete obstruction with feeding intolerance with or without
bilious vomiting. Older children more commonly present with intermittently colicky
abdominal pain associated with bilious emesis. An internal hernia associated with
150 Langer

Fig. 1. (A) Normal intestinal rotation, (B) malrotation without volvulus, (C) malrotation with
volvulus, (D) nonrotation.

inappropriate intestinal fixation may present in a similar fashion. Chronically symptom-

atic patients commonly present with recurrent respiratory symptoms, including
asthma and aspiration. In addition, it is important to remember that children with a
rotation abnormality may also have duodenal or jejunal atresia or web, which may
be missed if the surgeon is not specifically looking for it.
 Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 151

RADIOLOGIC DIAGNOSIS

Prenatal diagnosis of isolated rotational abnormality is very uncommon, but fetal ultra-
sonography may show the sequelae of prenatal midgut volvulus, such as bowel dila-
tation, meconium peritonitis, and/or fetal ascites.
Postnatally, most children with vomiting have plain abdominal radiography, which is
nonspecific for the diagnosis of rotation abnormalities. Proximal obstruction caused
by Ladd bands, incomplete volvulus, or associated duodenal atresia or web may pre-
sent with a double bubble and a paucity of distal air. Infants with established intestinal
ischemia may have pneumatosis intestinalis, which may lead to confusion with a diag-
nosis of necrotizing enterocolitis. Although unusual, a pattern of distal bowel obstruc-
tion consisting of multiple dilated bowel loops with air-fluid levels may be seen. Most
importantly, children with rotation abnormalities, including malrotation with volvulus,
may initially present with a normal bowel gas pattern (Fig. 2).
The current gold standard for the diagnosis of a rotation abnormality is upper
gastrointestinal contrast radiography (UGI) to evaluate the position of the DJJ, which
should be located to the left of the vertebral body at the level of the inferior margin of
the duodenal bulb on an anteroposterior projection and must travel posteriorly on the
lateral projection.3 If the DJJ does not show these radiographic characteristics, a diag-
nosis of rotation abnormality should be entertained. However, conditions such as
splenomegaly, renal or retroperitoneal tumors, gastric overdistension, liver transplant,
small bowel obstruction, and scoliosis may cause the DJJ to be medially or inferiorly
displaced. The group at the University of Arkansas attempted to define risk of malro-
tation, ischemic volvulus, and internal hernia in a group of consecutive patients under-
going operation for rotation abnormalities based on the positioning of the DJJ on initial
UGI series.4 The rotation abnormality was described as typical if the DJJ was posi-
tioned to the right of the midline or if it was absent, and atypical if the DJJ was at or
to the left of the midline and the DJJ was low-lying. At the time of operation, volvulus
had occurred in 12 of 75 typical patients versus 2 of 101 atypical patients. Internal her-
nias were also more common in typical than in atypical patients. Moreover, this group
found that 11% to 13% of atypical patients had persistent postoperative symptoms
compared with 0% of typical patients. Given the cited postoperative bowel obstruc-
tion rate following Ladd procedure (8%–12%) and the fairly high incidence of
continued symptoms, the investigators advocated careful discussion in patients
with atypical radiological findings. In this group a laparoscopic approach might be
particularly useful (discussed later).
If the UGI is confusing or equivocal, a small bowel follow-through or a contrast
enema to visualize the cecum should also be done. A short distance between the
DJJ and the cecum strongly suggests the presence of malrotation with a narrow-
based mesentery, and therefore a risk of midgut volvulus. However, there is a wide
range of variability in normal cecal positioning and fixation, especially in neonates,
and therefore a cecum located in the right lower quadrant cannot definitively rule
out malrotation, and a cecum located in the right upper quadrant or epigastrium is
not diagnostic of malrotation. Examples of contrast studies in the diagnosis of intes-
tinal rotation abnormalities are shown in Fig. 3.
More recently, identification of an abnormal orientation of the SMA and SMV on ul-
trasonography has been advocated as a noninvasive way to screen for malrotation.5 In
addition, the presence of a whirlpool sign on Doppler ultrasonography has been corre-
lated with the presence of midgut volvulus. However, the sensitivity and specificity of
ultrasonography are not sufficient for it to replace UGI for a definitive diagnosis. In chil-
dren with peritonitis who are too unstable to have UGI, in which midgut volvulus is part
152 Langer

Fig. 2. The varying appearances of malrotation on plain film. (A) Gasless abdomen with
dilated gastric bubble; (B) dilated small bowel suggestive of a distal obstruction; (C) normal
film with slightly dilated duodenum.

of the differential diagnosis, a normal SMA/SMV orientation and absence of a whirl-

pool sign may provide reassurance that the diagnosis is not midgut volvulus.
Although radiographic techniques are important diagnostic aids in the nonacute
setting, infants who present in extremis with a history of bilious emesis and findings
of peritonitis should be aggressively resuscitated, decompressed via nasogastric
 Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 153

Fig. 3. UGI series with small bowel follow-through. (A) Normal contrast study showing the
duodenal C loop crossing the midline. (B) Lateral view of malrotation, showing corkscrew
appearance of jejunum. (C) Lateral view suggestive of duodenal obstruction secondary to
Ladd bands or volvulus. (D) False-positive study; duodenal-jejunal junction is pushed right-
ward by large multicystic kidney.

tube, and taken for an emergent exploratory laparotomy even without a radiological
diagnosis.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

The operative correction of malrotation was initially described by William Ladd, and
has changed little since then. Most surgeons begin an open approach to a Ladd pro-
cedure via a transverse supraumbilical incision with the patient placed in the supine
position. In neonates a circumumbilical omega incision affords the same access to
the midgut and mesentery with a considerable cosmetic benefit.6 On entering the
abdomen, rotation and fixation of the bowel are assessed by delivering the entire
midgut into the operative field. The presence of chylous ascites may indicate chronic
lymphatic obstruction caused by partial midgut volvulus. If volvulus is encountered,
the involved loops of bowel are gently detorsed by counterclockwise rotation until
the mesentery is unfurled. At this time, the bowel is assessed for viability. Reperfusion
154 Langer

and delineating of viable from nonviable bowel may take several minutes. During this
period, the bowel should be covered with a warm, damp laparotomy pad or towel to
help prevent evaporative losses and vasoconstriction. Following this, a Ladd proced-
ure is performed. This operation consists of 4 discreet steps, the goal of which is to
place the bowel into a position of nonrotation, with the small bowel on the right side
of the abdomen and the colon on the left: (1) division of any abnormal bands (Ladd
bands) fixing the bowel to the right upper quadrant retroperitoneal or intra-
abdominal structures; (2) mobilization and rotation of the colon toward the left, taking
care not to injure the colonic mesentery in the process, so that the entire colon sits on
the left side of the abdomen; (3) mobilization and straightening of the duodenum so
that it heads inferiorly and all the small bowel sits on the right side of the abdomen;
(4) broadening of the base of the mesentery by dividing the congenital bands along
the SMA and SMV. If the child has presented with duodenal obstruction, duodenal
patency should be tested by milking gastric contents from the proximal to the distal
duodenum to rule out associated duodenal atresia or web. Most surgeons also
perform an appendectomy, either by excision or using an inversion technique (Fig. 4).
Before closing the abdomen, small bowel viability should be reassessed. Any frankly
necrotic sections should be resected. If the rest of the bowel is completely viable, a
primary anastomosis can be performed, and, if not, stomas should be created. If there
are large sections of bowel in which viability is still unclear, resection should not be
done, and a second-look laparotomy should be planned for 24 to 48 hours later.
More ethically problematic is the situation in which the entire midgut is clearly necrotic,
and resection of the bowel will result in short bowel syndrome. Options include closing
the abdomen without resection and offering palliative care, or performing a massive
resection and creating intestinal failure, with long-term need for total parenteral nutri-
tion. Although historically the prognosis for neonatal intestinal failure was dismal
because of the extremely high incidence of fatal cholestatic liver failure, improvements
in intestinal rehabilitation and small bowel transplantation have resulted in new man-
agement paradigms for children with extreme short bowel and, in selected cases,
massive intestinal resection may be a reasonable option.7
A laparoscopic approach to the Ladd procedure can also be used.8 In most cases,
laparoscopy should only be used for malrotation not associated with midgut volvulus,
because the bowel in patients with volvulus can be friable and subject to perforation.9
In addition, surgery must be done as quickly as possible in patients with volvulus to
maximize the chance of survival, and laparoscopy may waste precious time. The oper-
ation begins with the placement of an umbilical trocar and abdominal insufflation, fol-
lowed by the placement of 2 additional trocars in the right lower quadrant and left
midabdomen (depending on the size of the child). A fourth port may be placed in
the right upper quadrant to assist with retraction. Careful exploration of the abdomen
is then performed and the specific anatomy of the patient delineated. If midgut
volvulus is present, the bowel must be detorsed, which can be difficult, especially if
the bowel is distended or fragile. If this is the case, the operation should be converted
to an open approach. If there is no volvulus, the next step is determination of the length
of the small bowel mesentery; that is, the distance between the DJJ and the cecum. If
this distance is long (in our center this is defined as greater than half the diameter of the
abdomen, although this is an arbitrary threshold that so far is not evidence based), as
is seen in both near-normal rotation and in nonrotation, the patient is not considered to
be at risk for midgut volvulus, and a Ladd procedure is not considered to be neces-
sary. In this scenario, obstructing bands around the duodenum should be identified
and divided (especially if the child is having symptoms that might be caused by partial
duodenal obstruction), any internal hernias should be identified and repaired, and an
 Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 155

Fig. 4. Operative steps of Ladd procedure. (A) Bowel is assessed and, if volvulus is present,
gently detorsed in a counterclockwise direction (arrow). (B) Ladd bands attaching the colon
to the liver, gallbladder, or retroperitoneum are divided sharply or with electrocautery. (C)
Adhesions to the mesentery are divided (arrows) and the mesenteric pedicle widened, al-
lowing the colon to be placed on the left side of the patient and the small bowel with a
straightened duodenum on the right. (D) Final position of the bowel contents at the
completion of the Ladd procedure. An appendectomy has been performed to avoid future
confusion with the presentation of atypical appendicitis in the left abdomen.
156 Langer

appendectomy should be considered if the appendix is in an abnormal location. If the

base of the small bowel mesentery is short, the patient should be considered to be at
risk for midgut volvulus, and a full Ladd procedure should be done. The steps are the
same as for the open procedure, and dissection can be done using hook electrocau-
tery, sharp scissors, or scissors attached to cautery. In larger children, a sealing de-
vice may also be used. If an appendectomy is performed, it can be done
extracorporeally through the umbilical port site or intra-abdominally with an Endoloop
or stapler.
Advocates of a laparoscopic approach cite decreased postoperative pain and more
rapid return of bowel function (and thus shorter hospital stay) as well as an obvious
cosmetic advantage. Detractors suggest that intraoperative visualization of the
mesenteric pedicle is inadequate, especially in children less than 1 year of age, who
are most commonly affected by malrotation. It has also been suggested that open
correction of malrotation may be more effective in preventing recurrent volvulus by
facilitating the formation of intra-abdominal adhesions and that the laparoscopic
approach may not achieve this ancillary benefit to the same extent. Advocates of
the laparoscopic approach argue that prevention of recurrent volvulus is accom-
plished by adequate broadening of the mesenteric base rather than by adhesions,
and that adhesion formation results in a long-term risk of intestinal obstruction
requiring further surgical correction. To date there have been no large-scale studies
with enough longitudinal follow-up to demonstrate this theoretic benefit.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Asymptomatic Rotation Abnormalities
Although there is general consensus that symptomatic malrotation should be
addressed surgically, the role of prophylactic surgery in children with incidentally diag-
nosed, asymptomatic rotation abnormalities is less clear. Advocates of routine oper-
ative intervention cite reports of midgut volvulus secondary to malrotation throughout
adult life and further argue that a careful history often elicits subtle symptoms of mal-
rotation that may have been dismissed or attributed to other causes. However,
population-based evidence suggests that the incidence of midgut volvulus secondary
to malrotation decreases significantly after infancy and that many patients with rota-
tion abnormalities remain asymptomatic throughout life.
Ultimately, the most important decision in asymptomatic patients is whether there is
a risk of midgut volvulus or not; that is, what is the width of the small bowel mesentery?
Sometimes this can be well seen on contrast imaging, and a reasonable decision can
be made regarding surgical intervention. However, contrast imaging has clearly delin-
eated false-positive and false-negative rates, and laparoscopy may be a safer and
more definitive way of determining the need for a Ladd procedure. If, at the time of lap-
aroscopy, the mesenteric base is found to be wide, the operation can be concluded,
with minimal morbidity. If the mesenteric base is found to be narrow, a Ladd procedure
can be done either laparoscopically or open, at the discretion of the surgeon.

Heterotaxia Syndromes
Patients with HS (defined as any arrangement of organs along the left-right body axis
that is neither situs solitus nor situs inversus) are known to have a high rate of rotation
anomalies, which cover the spectrum from nonrotation to classic malrotation to near-
normal rotation, as well as the more uncommon rotation abnormalities such as reverse
rotation. The coexistence in many cases of congenital heart disease places these chil-
dren at an increased risk of operative intervention, which has resulted in controversy
 Intestinal Rotation Abnormalities 157

around the role of generalized screening for rotation abnormalities in patients with het-
erotaxia, and the role of intervention in asymptomatic patients with documented rota-
tion abnormalities.10 Although several centers have found that the morbidity and
mortality associated with a Ladd procedure in patients with HS is not increased
compared with a control population, others have documented a higher anesthetic
and surgical risk in children with HS who have more complex cardiac disease. In addi-
tion, the Ladd procedure is associated with at least a 10% risk of postoperative bowel
obstruction, and overall longer term childhood mortality in patients with HS is 23%,
mainly caused by cardiac disease. In our own study following 152 asymptomatic ne-
onates with HS, only 4 developed gastrointestinal symptoms over a median follow-up
of 18 months (range, 4–216 months), and only 1 of these 4 was found to have malro-
tation on UGI. Of the remaining asymptomatic patients, 43% died of cardiac disease
and none developed intestinal symptoms or complications. The authors have there-
fore adopted a more conservative approach in which asymptomatic patients with
HS are not screened for rotation abnormalities unless they develop symptoms.11
Those with documented rotation abnormalities and either mild symptoms or no symp-
toms are evaluated laparoscopically.

CLINICAL OUTCOMES

Outcomes for children with malrotation and midgut volvulus depend on the degree of
intestinal ischemia and the need for intestinal resection. If intestinal ischemia is exten-
sive and/or the child presents with overwhelming sepsis, death is the usual result. If
massive resection is done and the child survives, outcome depends on the manage-
ment of the resulting intestinal failure; however, many advances have been made in
this area, including the development of intestinal rehabilitation teams and strategies
for the prevention of sepsis, venous thrombosis, and cholestatic liver failure.
Surviving children with midgut volvulus who have an adequate length of small
bowel, and those children without midgut volvulus, have an excellent outcome after
the Ladd procedure. There is a very low rate of recurrence in those who presented
with volvulus. The reported rate of adhesive intestinal obstruction is 10% to 15%,
which may be lower if a laparoscopic approach is used. Some children who presented
with vague symptoms may remain symptomatic, and families should be warned about
that possibility before the Ladd procedure. Some persistently symptomatic children
ultimately are diagnosed with an intestinal motility disorder that may not have been
suspected before the Ladd procedure, and which may be difficult to differentiate
from an adhesive bowel obstruction.

SUMMARY

Rotation abnormalities represent a spectrum of anomalies that may be asymptomatic

or may be associated with obstruction caused by bands, midgut volvulus, or associ-
ated atresia or web. The most important goal of clinicians is to determine whether the
patient has midgut volvulus with intestinal ischemia, in which case an emergency lap-
arotomy should be done. If the patient is not acutely ill, the next goal is to determine
whether the patient has a narrow-based small bowel mesentery, which may be
causing nonischemic midgut volvulus, or may predispose to midgut volvulus in the
future. This decision based on imaging studies or laparoscopy, and should be followed
by Ladd procedure if the mesenteric base is thought to be narrow. There is still con-
troversy around the role of laparoscopy, the management of atypical and asymptom-
atic rotation abnormalities, and the management of rotation abnormalities in children
158 Langer

with HS. In general, the outcomes for children with a rotation abnormality are excel-
lent, unless there has been midgut volvulus with significant intestinal ischemia.

Pearls and pitfalls

The gold standard for the diagnosis of a rotation abnormality is an upper gastrointestinal
contrast study, specifically looking for the location of the DJJ. Ultrasonography may be useful
as a screening tool.
The 3 potential causes of duodenal obstruction in children with a rotation abnormality are
midgut volvulus, Ladd bands, and an intrinsic duodenal obstruction. Surgeons should look for
all 3 in children undergoing surgery for a rotation abnormality with duodenal obstruction.
The distance between the DJJ and the ileocecal junction represents the length of the base of
the small bowel mesentery, and can be estimated by contrast study or more accurately by
laparoscopy. If this distance is less than half the width of the abdomen, the patient may be at
risk for midgut volvulus and should have a Ladd procedure.
A laparoscopic approach is advantageous for older children without clinical or radiological
evidence of midgut volvulus. Infants and children with midgut volvulus should be approached
by laparotomy.

Controversies
Use of laparoscopy for children with a rotation abnormality
Pros
Ability to determine the length of the small bowel mesentery and potentially avoid the need
for a Ladd procedure if the mesenteric base is long enough to prevent midgut volvulus
Theoretic decrease in risk of adhesive small bowel obstruction
Less pain, faster recovery, better cosmetic result
Cons
Lack of adhesions may increase the risk of recurrent rotation abnormality (assuming that
adhesions are important in preventing recurrence, which is controversial)
Technically challenging in some cases, particularly infants and in children with midgut volvulus
Routine investigation for a rotation abnormality in children with heterotaxia
Pros
Many of these children have rotation abnormalities
Some of these may predispose to midgut volvulus
Cons
Risk of midgut volvulus is extremely low in asymptomatic children
Ladd procedure has a high risk in children with significant cardiac lesions
Long-term risk of adhesive bowel obstruction in children undergoing Ladd procedure

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