Module in Facilitating

Learner-Centered Teaching
 This lesson is all about topics on cognition and metacognition. The lesson titles below will
give you an idea of what to expect at the end of this lesson with the ultimate purpose of developing
among students, the skill to design learning activities that will facilitate the cognition and
metacognition process in learning.

Following are the topics covered in this lesson:

• Comparison of Cognitive and Metacognitive Theories in Learning Cognitive
• Metacognitive Factors in Learning

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

➢ Design learning activities to facilitate the cognitive and metacognitive process.

Comparison of Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning

In the study of learning, one cannot do away with cognition as being associated with
intellectual capacity. Basically, it is a given, that intellectual capacity explains a big part for
learning to occur. This lesson seeks to present the different concepts related to cognition and
metacognition. It also tries to draw the line between these two concepts, and clarifies what
delineates these two from each other.

More importantly, for future teachers, this lesson presents suggestions regarding teaching
techniques that facilitate the effective use of cognitive and metacognitive skills among our
students. At the end of this chapter, you are expected to carry out the task specified below.

At the end of the lesson the students are expected to:

➢ Compare and contrast the perspectives and concepts related to cognition and
metacognition;

➢ Analyze research findings to explain cognitive and metacognitive factors in learning.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 1

CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES ABOUT COGNITION AND METACOGNITION

One of the more important goals of the teaching-learning process is to develop successful
and self-regulated learners-learners who take charge and are in control of their learning. What are
the characteristics of successful learners?

a. Can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge

with support and guidance.
b. Can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
c. Can create a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.

A look at the characteristics of successful learners imply that they possess the necessary
cognitive skills to achieve their goals. It would be good to know the ways by which such skills
could be developed among students.

Initially, we have to examine and understand the concepts related to cognition and
metacognition. Basically, both of these are thinking processes. Thinking has to do with
comprehension or understanding, memory, perceiving and such other skills. Both have also to do
with understanding, learning, or remembering. The distinction between the two concepts, lies in
how knowledge is used to further one's own learning

Cognition refers to all the mental processes and abilities in which

people use or engage on a daily basis. Examples of such mental processes
are memory learning, problem solving, and evaluation, reasoning and
decision-making. Cognition helps to generate new knowledge through
these mental processes, and also helps to use the knowledge that people
have in their daily life.

On the other hand, metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking, It allows an individual
to complete a task through planning, monitoring, evaluating, and comprehending, Cognitive

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 2

processes allow normal functioning of individuals, but metacognition takes it to a higher level,
making a person more aware of his cognitive processes. To illustrate, a person may be able to solve
a mathematical word problem using his cognitive processes. But metacognition allows him to
double check his output by monitoring and evaluating his answer. Metacognition exercises active
control over cognitive processes engaged in learning also known as self-regulation. This is why
metacognition helps successful learning.

Metacognition refers both to the knowledge people have about their own cognitive processes
and the intentional of certain cognitive processes to facilitate learning and memory (Ormrod,
2015). Other terms associated with or used interchangeably with metacognition are self-regulation
and executive control.

The knowledge people have about their own cognitive processes is

referred to as metacognitive knowledge; while the use of cognitive
process to facilitate learning and memory is referred to as
metacognitive regulation. Metacognition refers to higher-order
thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes
engaged in learning Metacognition does not stop at acquiring
knowledge, but more importantly using this knowledge to develop
higher-order and more complex thinking skills necessary for effective
learning and living.

Actually, there is a thin line between cognition and metacognition. Both of them involve
cognition and skills but conceptually distinct in one major way. According to Weinstein and
Meyer, cognitive learning strategy is a plan for orchestrating cognitive resources such as attention,
and long term memory to help teach and achieve a learning goal. There are several characteristics
of cognitive learning strategies, such as being goal directed, deliberate, but situation specific.
Metacognitive strategies appear to share most of these characteristics but they involve more
universal applications through focus upon planning for implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation.

Metacognition is the awareness of the self as the knower. It is a higher-order knowledge about
your own thinking as well as the ability to use this knowledge to manage one's cognitive processes,
such as comprehension and problem-solving (Bruning et.al, 20u; in Woolfolk, 2013).

Types of Knowledge Used in the Metacognition Process

a. Declarative Knowledge. Knowledge about the self as learner, factors that influence the
person's learning and memory and the skills, strategies, and resources needed to perform a
task. In other words, knowing what to do.
b. Procedural Knowledge. It is knowing how to use strategies in different occasions or
conditions.
c. Self-regulating Knowledge. Knowing the conditions as to when to apply the procedures and
strategies to ensure completion of the task

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 3

d. Metacognitive Knowledge. Refers to general knowledge
about how human beings learn and process information as
well as individual knowledge of one's own learning
processes. For example, a student may know that he will be
more productive if he studies in his room with piped-in
music than when he studies in the library. Knowledge of the
task includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well
as the type of processing skills required of the individual.
Hence the individual may know that he is able read a novel
faster and with understanding than he would a physics book
Knowledge about strategies include knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies
and when and where it is appropriate to use such strategies. Metacognitive strategies are
sequential processes one uses to control cognitive strategies and to ensure the cognitive goal
has been met (Livingston, 1997).

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap such that in one strategy it could be
regarded as either cognitive or metacognitive strategy depending on the purpose of using that
strategy. For example, one may use a self-questioning strategy while reading simply as a means of
obtaining knowledge (cognitive) or as a way of monitoring what was read (metacognitive).
Knowledge may be considered metacognitive as it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure
that the goal is met. (Livingston, 1997). To illustrate, a student may use knowledge in planning
how to approach a math exam. In the process, he knows he has difficulty with word problems, so
he plans to deal with computational problems first, and word problems, last. Simply possessing
knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task without
actively utilizing the information to oversee learning is not metacognitive.

Woolfolk (2013) contends that there are three essential skills in metacognition: planning,
monitoring, and evaluating. Planning involves deciding how much time to give a task, which
strategies to use, how to start, order of processes to follow, which resources to gather, what to
skim, and what to give intense attention to. Monitoring is following up one's actions, like "How
am I doing?" Evaluating, involves making judgements about the processes and outcomes of
thinking and learning as, "Do I need to change strategies”.

To summarize, metacognition is about using one's cognitive processes and skills, toward
developing more complex skills, and eventually lead one to develop self-regulation and have
control over one's learning

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 4

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT COGNITION

Metacognitive knowledge and skills improve with growth and development. As children grow
and develop, their metacognitive knowledge and skills improve in the following ways (Ormrod,
2015).

a. Children become more aware of the limitations of their

memories. As they grow older, they realize that their
memories are not perfect.
b. Children become better able to identify the things they
know and do not know. As people grow and develop,
they are able to a certain point assess themselves in
terms of what they know, and what they do not know.
c. As they grow older, children become more
knowledgeable about effective learning strategies.

The development of metacognitive skills goes with age, experience and guidance. It means
that younger children may not be as skilled thinkers as the older ones. For teachers therefore, this
has implications for starting the development of metacognitive skills early, and seeing to it that
applying the strategies for developing metacognition is sustained across subjects and grade levels.

Theorists organize the skills of metacognition into two components:

a. Knowledge of cognition with three components: Knowledge of the factors that influence
one's own performance; knowing different strategies to use for learning: and knowing what
strategy to use for a specific learning situation.
b. Regulation of cognition, involves setting goals and planning, monitoring and controlling
learning, and evaluating one's own regulation (assessing results and strategies used).

Strategies to Develop Students' Metacognitive Skills

Metacognitive strategies facilitate learning. Teachers and trainers can apply the following
suggested strategies to develop metacognitive learning skills of their students.

a. Ask questions. During formal courses, ask questions that allow learners to reflect on their
learning processes and strategies. In collaborative learning, ask them to reflect the role they
play when engaged in problem-solving as a group or team.
b. Foster self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and after
learning experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own assumptions and
how may have this influenced their learning.
c. Encourage self-questioning. Foster independent learning by learners to generate their
own questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be related
to their personal goals
d. Teach strategies directly. Teach explicitly or implicitly appropriate metacognition
strategies as part of the lesson, or as part of a training course.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 5

 e. Promote autonomous learning. When learners have some domain knowledge encourage
participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be as part of a forced to
construct their own metacognitive strategies.
f. Provide access to mentors. Students learn best by interacting with peers who are more
slightly advanced. Allow the experience where novices can observe the proficient use of a
skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies of their "mentors. This can also
be done in the classroom.
g. Solve problems with a team or group. Cooperative problem solving can enhance
metacognitive strategies by discussing possible approaches with team members and
learning from each other.
h. Think aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while performing
a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner or the teacher can then point out errors in thinking
or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness during learning.
i. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve their
comprehension of a difficult subject.
j. Provide opportunities for making errors. Providing this opportunity to learners
simulates reflections on the causes of their errors.

Strategies that Develop Self-Regulation

The important strategies regarding the development

of metacognition toward self-regulation is further
emphasized. All of these activities are cognitive in nature.

1. Teach students that the ability to learn is not a

fixed quantity. The students should be taught that
ability to learn is a trait that is developed over
time and that it is not a fixed trait.
2. Teach students how to set goals and plan to meet
them.
3. Give students the opportunity for self-monitoring
and adapting.

Paris and Winograd (1990; in Ee, 2009) claim that as students develop competencies for self-
appraisal and self-management, they become metacognitively alert. They also become more
conscious of their own thinking state, the demands of the task, and their own strategies for
influencing their learning.

According to Ee (2009) teachers can develop their students' awareness of thinking using the
following strategies:

1. Sharpening the students' alertness and observational skills.

• After a lesson, encourage learners to reflect and indicate what they have learned from the
lesson.
• During question time, encourage students to elaborate on their answers.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 6

 • Always encourage further elaboration of their answers to assess maturity of their answers.

2. Provide explicit and clear instructions and modelling

• Explain with concrete examples, illustrations or model the skills and allow for practice
or role play of the situation. Example: how to show honesty in different situations.
3. Encourage peer evaluation. During question time, encourage evaluation on the given
responses by peers.
4. Providing questions for enhancing reflection. Apply Socratic questioning. These are
questions asked of students to give the following kinds of responses: Clear, (Can you
elaborate further?); Precise (Can you give me more details?); Accurate (How can we verify
or test that?); Relevant (How does that relate to the problem?); Deep (Which factors make
this a difficult problem?); Broad (Do we need to have another point of view?); Logical
(How is it consistent with what you explained earlier?)

Use also De Bono's Thinking Hats in processing students' responses or actions on tasks
(Adapted from: debonothingkingsystem.com).

Yellow Hat: good points e.g. What are all the good points about?
Black Hat: bad points e.g. What could have gone wrong?
White Hat: information. e.g. what, when, who, why, how questions
Red Hat: feelings. What do you feel about the result of this activity?
Blue Hat: thinking about thinking. What did you learn from the story?
Green Hat: creativity. What else could have been done?

In asking the questions and processing students' responses, the teacher can use the above
classification of questions and responses.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 7

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning
FACTORS IN LEARNING RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION AND
METACOGNITION

1. Intelligence

Sternberg's "triarchic" theory of intelligence asserts that the

"metacomponents in his theory are the executive processes that control
other cognitive components as well as receive feedback from these
components. The other two components are practical and experiential
intelligence. These executive processes involve planning, evaluating
and monitoring problem-solving activities. Sternberg further asserts that
the ability to appropriately allocate cognitive resources such as deciding how and when a given
task should be accomplished is basic to intelligence.

2. Age

This is associated with stages of cognitive development. Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive
development asserts that cognitive abilities for abstract thinking are higher during the formal
operations period. In a foreign language study determining the relationship between cognitive and
metacognitive strategies, age and level of education, Khezrlou (2013) found that a moderate and
positive but significant correlation was observed between metacognitive strategies and adult
learners' scores in the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

3. Level of Education

In the study conducted by Khezrlou (2013), there were differences in types of strategies
according to level of education. The university students employed more strategies in their reading
of passages than the senior high school students.

4. Use of Cognitive Strategies for Instruction

There are specific strategies which when used will improve cognition and metacognition.
Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their cognitive endeavors.
However, individuals can learn how to better regulate their cognitive activities. Cognitive strategy
instruction is an instructional approach that emphasizes the development of thinking skills and
processes as a means to enhance learning. CSI assumes that there are identifiable cognitive
strategies previously believed to be utilized by the best and the brightest students, and which can
be taught to students. Using these strategies is associated with successful learning,

Other factors are study and practice, guidance or cognitive apprenticeship and experience.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 8

Suggested Strategies to Help Students Process Information

1. Provide organized instruction. Make structure and relations of the material evident to
learners thru concept maps or other graphic representations. This is especially important
when introducing a new topic or subject matter.
2. Use single coherent representations. Allows the learner to focus attention rather than split
attention between two stimuli, as for example the written material and the corresponding
diagram.
3. Link new material with what is already known. Use mental scaffolding techniques for
the new material.
4. Carefully analyze the attention demands of instruction. Count the number of elements
in instructional messages. Make sure the learner will not attend to too many different
elements at the same time.
5. Recognize the limits of attention. Help learners focus their attention through the
techniques such as identifying the most important points to be learned in advance of
studying new material. Also, separating the essential from the non-essentials
6. Recognize the limitations of short-term memory. Apply the concept of chunking. For
example, do not present as separate items. Make them five groups of 5.
7. Match encoding strategies with the material to the learned. Do not encourage use of
mnemonics unless it is very necessary to memorize the material.
8. Provide opportunities for both verbal and imaginal encoding.
9. Arrange a variety of practice opportunities. The goal is to help the learner generalize
the concept, principle or skill to be learned so that it could be applied outside of the original
context of which it was taught.
10. Eliminate redundancy. Redundant information between text and diagram has been shown
to decrease learning
11. Help learners become "self-regulated." Assist students in selecting and using strategies
such as summarizing and questioning

IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING

It is important for teachers to develop to the highest possible limit the cognitive and metacognitive
abilities of students. This could be best achieved by applying classroom techniques toward this
objective.

Basic Characteristics of a Classroom Instruction Based on Cognitive Theories

a. Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process (learner control).
b. Metacognitive training (self-planning, monitoring and revising techniques)
c. Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships (cognitive
task analysis procedures)
d. Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing (outlining, summaries, advanced organizers)
e. Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections
with previously learned materials.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 9

Teaching Methods Based on Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory

1. Cognitive Apprenticeship. A method of helping

students grasp concepts and procedures under the
guidance of teacher or expert. Following are the phases of
instruction.
a. Modeling. The teacher does the task or explains the
process
b. Coaching. The students do the same task and teacher
observes the students, give feedback on how to do it.
c. Articulation. Students are asked to think out loud about how they performed the task and
offers reasons for the strategies. Teachers can give feedback and determines if there are
misconception.
d. Reflection. Students retrospectively think of their performance in completing, the task.
e. Exploration. Teacher urges the students to identify the problem, formulate hypothesis and
seek needed information to solve it.

2. Reciprocal Teaching. An instructional activity in the

form of dialogue or exchange between teachers and
students about certain parts of the lesson. The purpose is
to derive meaning out of that part of the lesson to
facilitate understanding and learning, Four strategies to
the dialogue, include, summarizing, question-generating,
clarifying and predicting.

3. Anchored Instruction. Involves the use of anchors while doing instruction, like stories, cases
or situations. It is essentially problem-based.

4. Inquiry Learning. Resembles the scientific inquiry method.

Helps the students develop their higher order thinking skills by
engaging them in investigating an issue or formulating hypothesis
to find solutions to a problem.

5. Discovery Learning. An approach where students interact with

their environment, manipulate things, explore, do experiments for
them to discover principles and important relationships.

6. Problem-based Learning. A real-life problem, or an ill-structured question is presented to

the students, having many possible solutions, and they are asked to find or come up with the
most appropriate or best solution.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 10

 EXPLORE

Surf the internet and look for a research study

about cognitive and metacognitive abilities. Read
and report to class the findings of the study and
discuss.
(INSERT REPORT THROUGH PPT).

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 11

 1. Select the best practices that develop metacognition
among students.
a. Ask “why” questions always.
b. Refrain from giving feedback for wrong answers.
c. Require answers that allow students to reflect on
their answers.
d. Ask students to always elaborate on their answers.
e. In group activity, encourage members to talk to
each other.
2. Choose one or two item/s, give reason/s why do think
that practice is a good one. ( not less than 50 words)

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 12

 Answer the following questions in at least 50 words.

1. What are the assertions of Sternberg’s theory of cognitive development

regarding metacognition? Explain.

2. What is the implication of Piaget theory of intellectual development to

the development of cognitive skills of students?

3. PREPARE FOR FINAL EXAMNATION.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 13

Reference: DALISAY G. BRAWNER. 2018. FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
TEACHING. Adriana Publishing Co. INC.
Facilitating Learning- Maria Rita Lucas and Brenda B. Corpuz 2014. Lorimar Publishing
Facilitating Human Learning- Avelina M. Aquino. 2015. Rex Bookstore
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COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 14