SYLLABUS

 UNIT I BUILDINGS, BUILDING MATERIALS

Buildings – Definition – Classification according to NBC-plinth area, Floor area,
carpet area, floor space index -Green building, Benefits from green building,
Green rating system; Development of Smart cities - Construction Materials -
stone, brick , cement, cement - mortar, concrete, steel - their properties and
uses.
 UNIT II BUILDINGS COMPONENTS AND FOUNDATION
Various Buildings Components and their functions. Soils and their classification -
Foundation: function and types. - Masonry - function and types - Floors:
definition and types of floors - Roofs: definition and types
 UNIT III BASIC INFRASTRUCTURE
Surveying - Classification-Chain Survey - Ranging-Compass Survey - exhibition
of different survey equipment -Roads - types: components, types and their
advantage and disadvantages –Bridges - components and types of bridges -
Sources of Water - Water Supply - Quality of Water-Wastewater Treatment – Sea
Water Intrusion – Recharge of Ground Water –Dams - site selection for dam
construction, types of dams.

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 UNIT I
 Buildings - Classification according to NBC
 plinth area, Floor area, carpet area, floor space
index
 Green building, Benefits from green building,
Green rating system
 Development of Smart cities
 Construction Materials - stone, brick , cement,
cement - mortar, concrete, steel - their properties
and uses

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 CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Civil Engineering is a professional engineering discipline

that deals with the plan, design, analysis, construction
and maintenance of infrastructural facilities such as
buildings, roads, bridges, dams, waste water treatment
and other facilities used in daily life.

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 BUILDING
 National Building Code (NBC) has defined building as
any structure constructed for any purpose and with any
materials used for human habitation.
 It includes foundation, plinth walls, floors, roofs,
chimneys, plumbing and building services, fixed
platforms, verandah, balcony etc.,
 Tents, shamianas and tarpaulin shelters are not
considered as building.

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 BUILDING CLASSIFICATION
 According to National Building Code (NBC), buildings are
classified:
 Based on occupancy
 Based on type of construction

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 BUILDING CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON OCCUPANCY
1. Residential buildings
2. Educational buildings
3. Institutional buildings
4. Assembly buildings
5. Business buildings
6. Mercantile buildings
7. Industrial buildings
8. Storage buildings
9. Hazardous buildings

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 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

 All those buildings in which sleeping accommodation

is provided for residing permanently or temporary
with or without cooking or dining or both facilities are
termed as residential building.

 Ex: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories,

private houses, Hotels, Hostels, Cottages, Hole day
camps, clubs, hotels, Inns etc

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RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

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 EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS

 All those buildings which are meant for education

from nursery to university are included in this group.

 Ex: Schools, Colleges, Universities, Training Institutes

etc.

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EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS

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 INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS
 These types of buildings consist of buildings that are
constructed by the government, semi-government
organizations or registered trusts for specific purposes
 This can be used for the purposes such as medical,
health, recovering health after illness, physical or
mental diseases, care of infants or aged persons, etc.
 These buildings normally provide sleeping
accommodation for the occupants.

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INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS

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 ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS

 This group includes any building or part or a building where

groups of people assemble or gather for amusement,

recreation, social, religious, patriotic or similar purpose

 For example theatres, cinema halls, museums, gymnasiums,

restaurants, places of worship, dance halls, club rooms,

passenger stations, public transportation services, open air

theatres, swimming pools etc.

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ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS

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 BUSINESS BUILDINGS

 This group includes any building or part or a building

which is used for purposes such as transaction of
business, keeping of accounts and records etc.

 For example: dispensaries and clinics, banks, city halls,

court halls, libraries etc.

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BUSINESS BUILDINGS

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 MERCANTILE BUILDINGS

 This group includes any building or part of a building

which is used for shops, stores, market, for safe and
display of products or waves either whole sale or retail.

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MERCANTILE BUILDINGS

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 INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

 This group includes any building or part of a building

or structure in which product of different kinds and
properties are fabricated, assembled or processed. For
example, laboratories, assembly plants, laundries, gas
plants, power plants, refineries, diaries etc.

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INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

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 STORAGE BUILDINGS

 This group includes those building structures which

are primarily used for the storage structures which are
primarily used for the storage or sheltering of goods,
waves or merchandise vehicles or animals

 For example warehouses, cold storages, freight depots,

store houses, transit sheds, truck terminals, garages
etc.
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STORAGE BUILDINGS

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 HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS
 This group includes those building structures which are used for
the storage, handling, and manufacture or processing of materials
which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and prove hazards
to health; building or building contents.

 Hazards may be due to fire; poisonous fumes or gases, explosions,

ignitions etc. from materials subjected to various operations

 Buildings used for storage of gases under high pressure or for

storage and handling of highly flammable liquids or explosives,
fireworks etc. are included in this group

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HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS

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BASED ON TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Fire resistive buildings: (Type 1A, 1B)

2. Non- combustible buildings: (Type 2A, 2B)

3. Ordinary buildings: (Type 3)

4. Heavy Timber: (Type 4)

5. Wood framed buildings: (Type 5)

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Fire resistive buildings: (Type 1A, 1B)

With this type of construction, walls, partitions, columns,

floors, and roofs are the most noncombustible when it
comes to fire-resistant ratings. These structures are
usually easy to spot based on their height. Fire-resistive
buildings are more than 75-feet tall and made of poured
concrete and protective steel. They are designed to
withstand the effects of fire for a long period of time to
prevent a fire from spreading.

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Non- combustible buildings: (Type 2A, 2B)

Non-combustible buildings are similar to the fire-resistive type where

walls, partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are noncombustible.
However, they provide less fire resistance and do not withstand the
effects or spreading of fire as well as Type I. This type gets its name
“noncombustible” not because of its resistance to fire, but because of
the fuel the building contributes. Newer school buildings are common
examples of this type of construction. These buildings typically have a
metal floor and metal roof with masonry or tilt-slab walls. They are
the least stable in terms of collapse when exposed to fire.

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Ordinary buildings: (Type 3)

These buildings are also called brick-and-joist structures. This

type of construction has brick or block walls with a wooden roof or
floor assembly which is not protected against fire. All or part of
the interior structural elements (frame, floors, ceilings, etc.) is
combustible/wood. Verticle ventilation in these types of buildings
is possible. You will see ordinary construction in both old and new
buildings.

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Heavy Timber: (Type 4)

Type IV buildings have noncombustible exterior walls and interior

elements. These buildings are made out of solid or laminated wood.
All wooden members must meet dimensional requirements. Wood
columns, beams, and girders must be at least 8 inches thick. Heavy
planks for floors and roofs must be at least 6 inches thick. If these
types of buildings catch fire, they require large volumes of water to
extinguish, but they hold up well against fire and don’t collapse easily
due to their structural mass.

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Wood framed buildings: (Type 5)

Wood-framed buildings are the most combustible out of all the types.
They are the only construction type that allow combustible exterior
walls. Type V also allows a combustible interior (structural frames,
walls, floors, and roofs) made entirely or partly out of wood. This type
is commonly found in modern homes. They often have exposed wood
so there is no fire-resistance. It ignites significantly but is reasonably
resistant to collapse unless it is a lightweight construction, in which
case it will fail within minutes.
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 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH BUILDINGS

 PLINTH AREA

Plinth area is defined as the built up covered area of a building at its

floor level of any storey

 CARPET AREA

Carpet area is the useful area or livable area. It is calculated by

measuring the total floor area after deducting verandahs, corridors, passages,

entrances, stairs, canteens, sanitary area, air conditioning rooms etc.

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 CIRCULATION AREA

Circulation area is the floor area of verandah, passages, corridors,

balconies, entrance halls, porches, staircase etc. which are used for
movement of persons using the buildings
Circulation area is divided into two parts;
 Horizontal circulation area

Horizontal circulation area of building is the area of verandahs,

passages, corridors, balconies, porches etc.
 Vertical circulation area

Vertical circulation area of a building is the area or space occupied by

staircase, lifts and the entrance hall adjacent to them which are required for
the vertical movement of the users of the buildings

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 FLOOR AREA

Floor area is the area between walls and is equal to plinth area

minus the area occupied by the walls.

 FLOOR AREA RATIO (FAR)

Floor area ratio as the total built up covered area of all floors and

the area of the plot.

F.A.R= Total Built-up area of all floors/Plot area

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GREEN BUILDINGS
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 GREEN BUILDING
 A ‘green’ building is a building which reduces negative
impacts and creates positive impacts on our climate and
natural environment.
 Green buildings preserve precious natural resources
and improve our quality of life.
 The construction and operation will promote a healthy
environment and it will not disrupt the land, water,
resources and energy in and around the building.
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There are a number of features which can make a building ‘green’.
These include:
 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources

 Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy

 Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-

use and recycling
 Good indoor environmental air quality

 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable

 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design,

construction and operation
 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment
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 BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING
 Low Maintenance and Operation Cost

 Energy Efficiency

 Enhances Indoor Environment Quality

 Water Efficiency

 Better Health

 Material Efficiency

 Better Environment

 Reduces Strain on Local Resources

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 GREEN BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS IN
INDIA
There are three primary Rating systems in India

1. GRIHA

2. IGBC

3. BEE

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 Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
Assessment (GRIHA)
 India’s own rating system jointly developed by TERI and the Ministry
of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India
 It is a green building design evaluation system where buildings are
rated in a three-tier process
 The process initiates with the online submission of documents as per
the prescribed criteria followed by on site visit and evaluation of the
building by a team of professionals and experts from GRIHA
Secretariat
 GRIHA rating system consists of 4 criteria categorized in four
different sections.

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Some of them are

 Site selection and site planning

 Conservation and efficient utilization of resources

 Building operation and maintenance and

 Innovation

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 Indian Green Building Council (IGBC)
 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) formed the Indian Green

Building Council (IGBC) in year 2001

 IGBC is the nonprofit research institution having its offices in CII-

Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre, which is itself a LEED certified

Green building

 IGBC has developed the following green building rating systems for

different types of building in line and conformity with US Green

Building Council.

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Till date, following Green Building rating systems are available

under IGBC;

 LEED India for New Construction

 LEED India for Core and Shell

 IGBC Green Homes

 IGBC Green Factory Building

 IGBC Green SEZ

 IGBC Green Townships

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 Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

 BEE developed its own rating system for the buildings based on

a 1 to 5 star scale. More stars mean more energy efficiency

 BEE has developed the Energy Performance Index (EPI)

 The unit of Kilo watt hours per square meter per year is

considered for rating the building and especially targets air

conditioned and non-air conditioned office buildings.

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 The Reserve Bank of India’s buildings in Delhi and

Bhubaneswar, the CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre

and many other buildings has received BEE 5 star ratings

 Green buildings might be costly but is good for the

environment.

 In this rapidly changing world, we should adopt the technology

that helps us to save precious natural resources

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 CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business
Centre

Reserve Bank of India building in Delhi

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SMART CITY

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 SMART CITY
 In the approach of the Smart Cities Mission, the objective is to promote cities

that

 provide core infrastructure

 decent quality of life to its citizens

 a clean and sustainable environment and application of ‘Smart’ Solutions.

 The focus is on sustainable and inclusive development and the idea is to look

at compact areas, create a replicable model which will act like a light house to

other aspiring cities.

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The core infrastructure elements in a smart city would include:
 adequate water supply
 assured electricity supply
 sanitation, including solid waste management
 efficient urban mobility and public transport
 affordable housing, especially for the poor
 strong IT connectivity and digitalization
 good governance, especially e-Governance and citizen participation
 sustainable environment
 safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the
elderly
 Health and education

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 MATERIALS USED INBUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
 Stone
 Brick
 Cement
 Cement – mortar
 Concrete
 Steel

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 ROCKS CLASSIFICATION
 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Igneous rocks
 Sedimentary rocks
 Metamorphic rocks
 PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Stratified rocks
 Unstratified rocks
 Foliated rocks
 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Siliceous rocks
 Argillaceous rocks
 Calcareous rocks
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 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

 Rocks are classified into igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks

and metamorphic rocks.
 Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten material
from beneath the earth’s surface. Eg. Granite, Basalt
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of weathering
products on existing rocks. Eg. Sand stone, Limstone
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by the change in character of the
preexisting rocks. Eg. Slate, Marble.

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 PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION

 Statrified, rocks
Statrified, rocks showing distinct layers along which
it can be easily split into this labs e.g., Slate, Sand stone and
Lime stone
 Unstratified rocks
Unstratified rocks which show no sign of
stratification and can not be easily split into thin layers e.g.,
Granite, Basalt and Trap.
 All sedimentary rocks are essentially stratified whereas
all igneous rocks are unstratified. Metamorphic rocks
may be either stratified or unstratified depending upon the
type of rock that has undergone transformation.
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STRATIFIED ROCKS

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UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS

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FOLIATED ROCKS

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 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Argillaceous
Argillaceous, where the principal constituent is
clay (alumina Al2O3) as in Slate and Laterite
 Siliceous
Siliceous, where the chief constituent is Sand
(Silica SiO2) as in Quartzite and Granite
 Calcareous
Calcareous, where the chief constituent is Lime
as in lime stone and marble stone.

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 QUARRYING & DRESSING OF STONES
 Quarrying is the process of extracting stone blocks
from existing rocks. Quarrying is done by digging,
heating and wedging for soft rocks like marble, lime
stone etc. For hard and dense rocks, blasting is done
using explosives.

 Stones obtained by quarrying will have irregular

shapes and sizes. Dressing is the process of cutting
the stones to a regular shape and size and the
required surface.
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PROPERTIES OF GOOD BUILDING STONE
 Structure
 Density
 Appearance
 Texture
 Compressive strength
 Hardness
 Percentage of wear
 Porosity & Water absorption
 Weathering
 Toughness
 Resistance to fire
 Ease in dressing
 Seasoning

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 Structure: The structure of the stone can be stratified (layered) or

unstratified. Statified stones should be simply dressed and

appropriate for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and

complicated to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

 Density: Denser stones are stronger. Therefore stones having

specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

 Appearance: A stone having uniform and attractive color is

durable, if grains are compact. Granite and Marble get good

appearance, when polished. Therefore they are used for face works in

buildings.
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 Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution
look attractive and therefore they are used for carving. Such stones
are typically strong and durable.

 Strength: Strength is an essential property to be looked into

before choosing stone as building block. Indian standard code
recommends minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
particular building block.

 Hardness: It is an essential property to be considered when stone

is used for pavement and flooring. Coefficient of hardness is to be
found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory's testing
machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17.
For building works stones having coefficient of hardness less than 14
should not be used.
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 Percentage of wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an
essential property to be considered in choosing aggregate for road
works and railway ballast. A good stone will not show wear of more
than 2%.
 Porosity and Absorption: All the stones have pores and therefore
absorb water. The reaction of water with stone causes
disintegration. Absorption test is referring as percentage of water
absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours.
For a good stone it ought to be as small as possible and in no case
more than 5%.
 Weathering: Wind and rain cause loss of good appearance of
stones. Therefore stones with good weather resistance should be
used for face works.

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 Toughness: The resistance to impact is known toughness. It is found by
impact test. Stones having toughness index more than 19 are preferred for
road works. The toughness index 13 to 19 is considered as medium tough
and stones having toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.

 Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to rate of stone masonry to a

great extent. Dressing is simple in stones having lesser strength. Therefore
an engineer should look into enough strength rather than high strength
whereas selecting stones for building works.

 Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry hold moisture in the pores.
Strength of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before by
using the stone. The procedure of removing moisture from pores is known as
seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to permit it to the action of nature
for 6 to 12 months. It is very much needed in the case of laterite stones.
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 TESTING OF STONES
1. Crushing strength test
2. Impact test
3. Abrasion test
4. Acid test
5. Fire test
6. Smith test
7. Water absorption test
8. Specific gravity test
9. Hardness test
10. Durability test

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 Crushing Strength Test
 For conducting this test, specimens of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared from parent
stone.
 Then the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days.

 The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of paris on its top and bottom
surfaces to get even surface so that load applied is distributed uniformly.
 Uniform load distribution can be obtained satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm
thick plywood instead of using plaster of Paris layer also.
 The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate of 14
N/mm2 per minute.
 The crushing load is noted.

 Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing load divided by the area over which the
load is applied.
 At least three specimens should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing
strength.
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CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

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CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

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CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

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 IMPACT TEST
 The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in impacting the testing
machine.
 It consists of a frame with guides where a metal hammer weighing 13.5 to 15 kg can
freely fall from a height of 380 mm.
 Aggregates of size 10 mm to 12.5 mm are filled in a cylinder in 3 equal layers, every
layer being tamped 25 times.
 The same is then transferred into the cup and again tamped 25 times. The hammer is
then allowed to fall freely onto the specimen 15 times.
 The specimen is then sieved through a 2.36 mm sieve.

 Then, Impact value = W2 / W1

 where,

 W2 = Weight of Fines.

 W1 = Original Weight.
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IMPACT TEST

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 HARDNESS TEST
 Together with the specified weight of the specimen, a
specified number of cast iron balls of 48 mm
diameter are placed in the cylinder.
 Then the cylinder is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm for
a specified number of times (500 to 1000). Then
the aggregate is removed along with sieved on 1.7 mm.
IS sieve. The weight of aggregate passing is found.
 Then Los Angeles value is found as = (Weight of
aggregate passing through sieve / Original weight ) x
100
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ABRASION TEST

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ABRASION TEST CAST IRON
BALLS

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 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
 Test cube specimen weighing about 50 grams is taken

 Note the weight of dry specimens as W1.

 Place the specimen in water for 24 hours.

 Take out the specimen, wipe out the surface with a piece of cloth, and

weigh the specimen. Let its weight be W2.

 Then, Percentage absorption by weight = (W2 – W1) / W1 x 100

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WATER ABSORPTION TEST

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 ACID TEST
 This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the
presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens the weather
resisting quality.
 In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is
taken and kept in a solution of one per cent hydrochloric
acid for seven days.
 The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone
maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface intact.
 If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it
indicates the presence of calcium carbonate.
 Such stones will have poor weather resistance
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 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BUILDING
STONE
 Stones should possess fine grained structure.

 The color of the stones should be uniform and pleasing and it should be
free from soft patches, flaws and cracks.
 Freshly broken surface should be bright and sharp.

 Stone should be strong, hard and durable

 Stone should be resistant to weathering

 Stone should be resistant to smoke, fire and acidic atmosphere.

 A good building stones should be durable. It should not be easily affected

by temperature, rain, sunlight, wind etc.
 A good building stones should be easily dressed i.e. easily moulded, cut
and carved
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 Fracture of a good building stone should be sharp, even and clear

 A good building stone should not be easily affected by fire

 A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure, free
from cavities, cracks etc.
 The crushing strength should be greater than 1000 kg/cm2

 Co-efficient of hardness should not be below 14

 Percentage of wear should not be less than 2 percent

 Specific gravity should not be less than 2.5

 Toughness index should not be less than 14 and should be more than 19

 It should not absorb more than 5 percent of water by weight if kept

immersed in water for 24 hours

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 USES OF STONE
 Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundation, walls,

columns and arches

 Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels, and even as

roofing material.

 Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of

buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face

works.

 Stones are used in construction of piers and abutments of bridges,

dams and retaining walls.

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 Crushed stones with gravel are used to provide base course for

roads.

 Crushed stones are used for making artificial stones and building

blocks

 Crushed stone is used as alternative substitute for artificial sand.

 Lime stones are used in the manufacture of lime, cement and other

chemical processes.

 Broken stones are used for road work and for laying railway tracks as

stone ballast.

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 COMPOSITION OF BRICK

 Silica - 50% - 60%

 Alumina - 20% - 30%
 Iron oxide - 5% - 6%
 Lime and magnesia - 1% - 3%

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 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
1. Preparation of brick earth
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning

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PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH

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Preparation of brick earth
 Loose soil which contains impurities is removed for
about 20 cm depth.
 Earth is then dug out from the ground, spread and
weathering is done for a week time.
 The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients by
tilting the clay and ingredients up and down in a kiln.
 Water is added to clay to make the whole mass of clay
homogeneous and plastic.

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MOULDING

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Hand moulding: It is done in a rectangular box with
open at top and bottom. Box is made up of wood or steel
Hand moulding further classified into,
 Table moulding
 Ground moulding

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DRYING

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Drying of bricks
 Bricks are staked in the yard with 8 to 10 bricks in a
row.
 Bricks are dried for a period of 5 to 12 days.
 Sometimes bricks are dried by hot gases from kiln.
 But artificial drying produces warps on the bricks

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BURNING

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Burning of bricks
 It imparts hardness and strength to bricks and makes
them dense and durable.
 Burning should be uniform, because unburnt bricks
remain soft and hence cannot carry loads.
 Overburnt bricks become brittle and break easily.
 Burning of bricks done in clamp or kilns.

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BURNT BRICKS

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 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICK

1. First class bricks

2. Second class bricks
3. Third class bricks
4. Fourth class bricks

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FIRST CLASS BRICKS

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SECOND CLASS BRICKS

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THIRD CLASS BRICKS

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FOURTH CLASS BRICKS

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 SPECIAL TYPE OF BRICKS
1. Perforated bricks
2. Hollow bricks
3. Paving bricks
4. Sand lime bricks
5. Pressed bricks
6. Fire or refractory bricks

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PERFORATED BRICKS

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HOLLOW BRICKS

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PAVING BRICKS

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SAND LIME BRICKS

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PRESSED BRICKS

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FIRE (OR) REFRACTORY BRICKS

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICKS

 Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.

 Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true

right angled corners.

 Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.

 Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They

should not possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime

 Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should

produce metallic sound

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 Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on
the brick.

 Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5

N/mm2 A field test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9
m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.

 Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours,

water absorption should not be more than 20 per cent by weight. For
class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.

 Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in

water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry in shade. White patches are
due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium.
They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.

116
 Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal

conductivity, so that buildings built with them are cool in summer

and warm in winter

 Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while

light weight and hollow bricks provide good sound insulation.

 Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact

bricks are used to encase steel columns to protect them from fire.

117
 TEST ON BRICKS
1. Crushing strength test
2. Water absorption test
3. Efflorescence
4. Field test
• Size
• Shape
• Colour
• Hardness test
• Soundness test

119
CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

120
 This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick.

 It is also called crushing strength of brick.

 Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to laboratory for testing

and tested one by one.

 In this test a brick specimen is put on crushing machine and

applied pressure till it breaks.

 The ultimate pressure at which brick is crushed is taken into

account.

 All five brick specimens are tested one by one and average result is
taken as brick’s compressive/crushing strength.

121
WATER ABSORPTION TEST

122
 In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them
immersed in fresh water for 24 hours

 After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out from water and wipe
out with cloth.

 Then brick is weighed in wet condition.

 The difference between weights is the water absorbed by brick.

 The percentage of water absorption is then calculated.

 The less water absorbed by brick the greater its quality.

 Good quality brick doesn’t absorb more than 20% water of its own
weight.

123
EFFLORESCENCE

124
 The presence of alkalis in bricks is harmful and they form a grey or
white layer on brick surface by absorbing moisture.
 To find out the presence of alkalis in bricks this test is performed.

 In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours and then
it’s taken out from water and allowed to dry in shade.
 If the whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs that absence of
alkalis in brick.
 If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the
presence of alkalis is in acceptable range.
 If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate.

 If the alkalies’ presence is over 50% then the brick is severely affected
by alkalies.

125
FIELD TEST

126
 Size, shape and colour test

In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along

lengthwise, width wise and height wise and then those are measured to
know the variation of sizes as per standard.

 Soundness test

In this test two bricks are held by both hands and struck with one
another. If the bricks give clear metallic ringing sound and don’t break
then those are good quality bricks.

 Hardness test

In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with a hard thing.

If that doesn’t left any impression on brick then that is good quality
brick.

127
 USES OF BRICKS
Bricks are used in the following civil works:

 As building blocks.

 For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.

 For protecting steel columns from fire.

 As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.

 For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.

 For lining sewer lines.

128
 COMPOSITION OF OPC

 Calcium oxide - 60% - 65%

 Silica - 20% - 25%
 Aluminum oxide - 4% - 8%
 Iron oxide - 2% - 4%
 Magnesium oxide - 1% - 3%

130
 MANUFACTURE OF OPC

1. Mixing of raw materials

2. Burning

3. Grinding

131
 MIXING OF RAW MATERIALS
There are two methods in the mixing of raw materials of cement
 Dry process

 Wet process

Dry process
 In this method the calcareous material such as lime stone and argillaceous
material such as clay are separately reduced in size of about 25 mm in
crushers
 After drying these materials are grinded in ball mills or tube mills.

 This powder is then stored in hoppers

 Then they are mixed in correct proportions.

 The raw material is stored in storage tank

132
Wet process

 In wet process, calcareous materials such as lime stone are crushed

and stored in silos or storage tanks.

 Argillaceous material such as clay is washed and stored in basins.

 Now crushed lime stone from silos and wet clay from basin are allowed
to fall in a channel in correct proportions

 This material is grinded in ball mill or tube mill to form slurry

 The chemical composition of this slurry is then adjusted in

correcting basin and corrected slurry is stored in storage tank.

133
 BURNING
 The burning of the dry mixture or fine slurry is carried out in a long
rotary kiln

 It is laid with a slight inclination of 1 in 20 to 1 in 30 towards the

discharging end

 The kiln is supported on rollers such that it can rotate about its
longitudinal axis at the rate of one revolution per minute.

 Refractory lining is provided on the inside surface of the rotary kiln

 From the storage tank the corrected slurry is injected at the upper end
of kiln

 The hot gases or flames are forced through the lower end in kiln.

134
 Portion of the kiln near its upper end is known as dry zone and in this
zone the water from slurry is evaporated

 As the dried slurry descends towards the burning zone, carbon

dioxide from the slurry is evaporated and it is converted into small
lumps called nodules.

 The nodules then gradually roll down and ultimately reach the
burning zone when temperature is about 1500°C to 1700°C

 In burning zone, the lime and clay in the slurry get chemically fused to
form hard balls of portland cement known as clinkers

 The size of clinkers varies from 5 mm to 10 mm

 The hot clinkers are collected in containers of suitable size

135
 GRINDING
 The grinding of the clinker is done in ball mill or tube mills

 During grinding a small quantity about 3 to 4 percent of gypsum is

added
 Gypsum controls the intial setting time of cement

 If gypsum is not added, cement would set as soon as water is added

 The finely ground cement is stored in silos

 It is then weighted and packed in bags.

 Each bag of cement contains 50 kg of cement or about 0.035 m3 of

cement
 These bags are carefully stored in dry places

136
CEMENT MANUFACTURING PLANT

137
BALL MILL

138
ROTARY KILN

139
SILOS

140
BIN

141
 TYPES OF CEMENT
1. Quick setting cement
2. Low heat cement
3. Expanding cement
4. High alumina cement
5. Rapid hardening cement
6. Acid resistant cement
7. Sulphate resisting cement
8. White cement
9. Coloured cement
10. Blast furnace cement

142
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
 Portland Pozzolona cement is produced by grinding together Portland
cement and Pozzolona.
 Portland Pozzolona cement produces less heat of hydration and
offers greater resistance to attack of aggressive water or sulphates
bearing than OPC.
 It takes a little longer to gain strength.

 Ultimate Strength of this cement is more than OPC

Uses
 This cement has properties similar to those of OPC and can therefore
be used for all general purpose
 Portland Pozzolona cement are particularly used in marine works.

143
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

 This type cement gets the strength faster than OPC.

 However its initial and final setting is same as those of OPC.

 It contains more of Tri-Calcium Silicate (C3S) and is more finely

grounded.

 It gives out more heat while setting so it is as such unsuitable for

massive concrete.

Uses

 As it sets quickly the construction may be carried out speedly

 It is used for the structures which are subjected to loads early e.g.
Roads, Bridges.

144
QUICK SETTING CEMENT

 It sets faster than the Ordinary Portland Cement.

 Its Initial Setting Time is 5 minutes and the Final Setting Time is
not more 30 minutes.

 It is required for making concrete that is required to set early as for

lying under water or in running water.

 Initial setting being very little there is always the danger of concrete
having undergone its initial setting.

Uses

 Thus this type of cement is used in more special cases like under
water.

145
LOW HEAT CEMENT
 The heat generated by cement while setting may cause the structure to
crack in case of concrete.
 This heat generation is controlled by keeping the high percentage of
Tri-Calcium Silicate (C3S) and that of Tri-Calcium Aluminate (C3A)
low.
 Its initial setting and Final setting times are nearly the same as those of
OPC.
 It is not very suitable for ordinary structures because the use of cement
will delayed time of drying.
 It will also need more curing
Uses
 Mass concreting of dams etc.

146
WHITE CEMENT
 It is the cement of pure white colour and it is free from colouring
ingredients such as iron oxide, manganese oxide or chromium oxide.
 It have same properties as those of Ordinary Portland Cement.
 Greyish colour of cement is due to iron oxide (FeO).
 White cement is manufactured from chalk and clay free from Iron
Oxide.
 Oil fuel and not the coal is used for the burning of this cement.
 It is much more costly than ordinary cement
Uses
 It is used for floor finish and plaster work
 For external rough coating of walls, pointing of brick and stone
masonry
 It is used for bridge rails, traffic kerbs and aerodrome markings.

147
 TESTING OF CEMENT
1. Field test
2. Consistency test
3. Setting time test
4. Soundness test
5. Crushing strength test

149
 FIELD TEST
Colour

 The colour of cement should be uniform.

 It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.

Physical properties

 Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.

 If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.

Presence of lumps

 Cement should be free from lumps.

Strength

 A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is
kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
150
CONSISTENCY TEST

151
 The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required
for preparing cement paste for other tests.
 Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.

 Mix water and cement thoroughly.

 Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to
4.25 minutes.
 Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached a movable rod with an
indicator attached to it.
 The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered
on the paste in the mould.
 The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to
7 mm from the bottom of mould, the water added is correct. If not
process is repeated with different percentages of water till the desired
penetration is obtained.
152
SETTING TIME TEST

153
 The test is performed to find out initial setting time and final setting time.
 Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
 Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.
 The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In
the beginning the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated
at regular intervals till the needle does not penetrate completely. (upto 5mm
from bottom)
 Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low
heat cement.
 The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
 The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat
apparatus.
 The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an
impression on test block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
 Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded in previous step, and it is =<10hours.
154
SOUNDNESS TEST

155
 The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in
the cement.
 The cement paste is prepared.
 The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
 It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at
top and the whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
 The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is
again placed in water and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point
of water is reached in about 30 minutes. The boiling of water is
continued for one hour.
 The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
 The distance between the points of indicator is again measured. The
difference between the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and
it should not exceed 10 mm.

156
CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

157
 This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of
cement.
 The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.

 Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.

 The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of
cubes and the moulds are of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the
cement required is 185gm and 235 gm respectively.
 Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the
moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
 The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are
submerged in clean water for curing.
 The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end
of 3days and 7 days. Thus compressive strength was found out.
158
 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
 The color of cement should be uniform

 Cement should be free from lumps

 Cement should be uniform when touched. Cement should be cool

when felt with hand

 If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it

should sink.

 Average compressive strength of cement mortar should not be less

than 11.5 N/mm2 at the age of 3 days and 2.5 N/mm2 at the age of 7 days

 Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than 2

N/mm2 at the age of 3 days and 2.5 N/mm2 at the age of 7 days

 Weight of magnesia in cement should not exceed 5 percent

159
 It is an excellent binding material

 It gives strength to masonry work

 It possesses a good plasticity

 If offers a good resistance to moisture

 It is easily workable

 It hardens quickly after adding of water

 Initial setting time of good cement is not less than 30 minutes and final
setting time is not to be more than 600 minutes

 Specific gravity of cement should be 3.15

160
 USES OF CEMENT
 Cement is used for constructing engineering structures where great
strength is required such as dams, bridges, storage reservoirs etc

 Cement is used for making joints for pipes, drains etc

 Cement is used for preparation of foundations, foot paths etc

 Cement is used for manufacturing of precast pipes, piles, fencing posts

etc.

 Cement concrete is used for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,
pillars, stairs, beams, water tanks, wells, septic tanks, runways etc

 Cement mortars plastering is used for protecting outer faces of structures

from weather

161
 Mortar is a paste prepared by adding required

quantity of water to a mixture of cement (or lime)

and fine aggregate (sand). The durability, quality and

strength of mortar depends on the quantity and

quality of the ingredients.

163
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MORTAR

 Bricklaying mortar

 Finishing mortar

 Fire resistant mortar

 Light weight mortar

164
Bricklaying mortar

 It is used for brickwork and walls.

 Depending upon the working conditions and the type of construction,

the binding materials for the mortar is decided.

Finishing mortar

 These mortars include common plastering work and ornamental

effects.

 Cement or lime is used as the binding material for ordinary plastering

mortar.

165
Fire resistant mortar

 It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely crushed

powder of fire bricks.

 The usual proportion is one part aluminous cement to two parts fire brick

powders.

Light weight mortar

 It is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood powder, etc.,

 Other materials could be asbestos, fibres, coir etc., this mortar is used for

sound proof and heat proof construction.

166
TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

167
 This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of
compressive strength of cement.
 The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.

 The water is added to the mortar.

 The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with

mortar and then a small heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is
beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the
surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
 They are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the
moulds.
 They are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and
average is found out.

168
 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT MORTAR
 It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the
building units such as bricks, stones etc.
 It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
 It should be cheap, durable and workable
 It should not affect the durability of materials with which it
comes into contact.
 It should set quickly so that speed in construction may be
achieved.
 The joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks and
they should be able to maintain their appearance for a sufficiently
long period.
 A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
 Well-proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
169
 USES OF CEMENT MORTAR
 To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, cement blocks.

 To plaster slab and walls make them impervious.

 To give neat finishing to walls and concrete works.

 For pointing masonry joints.

 For preparing building blocks.

 As a filler material in Ferro cement works.

 To fill joints and cracks in walls.

 As a filler material in stone masonry.

170
172
173
 MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transportation
4. Placing
5. Compaction
6. Curing

174
 BATCHING
 It is the main thing in the Concrete Manufacturing Process.

 The measurement of materials like aggregates, cement, water

necessary for preparing different grades of concrete is Batching.

 It is by two processes. One is volume and other is weight batching.

 The volume batching is by mixing materials with its volume. And weight

batching is by the self-weight ratio of materials.

 It has ratios according to standard codes. Some of the different grades

of concrete are M10, M20, M25, M30.

175
 MIXING
 Mixing is to produce uniform, high-quality concrete.

 The mixing equipment is capable of effective concrete material.

 Separate paste mix shows the mixing of cement and water into a paste

before combines with aggregates.

 This increase the compressive strength of concrete. This paste mix in

high-speed, shear-type mixer at a water-cement ratio of 0.30 to 0.45 by

mass.

 The premix paste blends with aggregates. The remaining batch water and

final mix complete in a rotating concrete mixing equipment

176
 TRANSPORTING
 Transporting concrete require great care.

 After mixing, the concrete transports to site. The mixer carries near the

construction site.

 A bucket, ropeway, belt conveyor use to transport concrete.

 Readymix conveyor trucks use mostly in the modern construction times.

 The concrete transporting by conveyor truck has time limits.

 The concrete transporting by trucks reach the construction plant early.

177
 PLACING

 It should be placed without segregation to reach maximum efficiency.

 The concrete not to pour over a height of 1.5m. As the height of

pouring concrete increases, it leads to separation of aggregates and

cement paste.

 It causes segregation of concrete and causes honeycomb

 Concrete pumps are normal pumps with joints to connect and removed

according to needs.

178
 COMPACTION
 After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of

concrete production is its compaction.

 Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or frameworks

and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel.

 Considerable quantity of air is entrapped in concrete during its production

and there is possible partial segregation also.

 Compaction of the concrete is the process to get rid of the entrapped air

and voids.

 Therefore, the density and consequently the strength and durability of

concrete largely depend upon the degree of compaction.

179
 CURING
 The concrete must cured before it is finished to make sure that it

doesn't dry too quickly.

 Concrete's strength is influenced by its moisture level during the

hardening process: as the cement solidifies, the concrete shrinks.

 If site constraints prevent the concrete from contracting, tensile

stresses will develop, weakening the concrete.

 To minimize this problem, concrete must be kept damp during the

several days it requires to set and harden.

180
 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
When concrete is its plastic state it is known as fresh concrete. Fresh
concrete can be easily moulded to a durable structural member. ‘
Following are the properties of fresh concrete.
 Workability

 Segregation

 Bleeding

 Plastic shrinkage

 Setting

 Temperature

 Water Cement Ratio

 Workability
181
 WORKABILITY
 The term workability indicates the ease or difficulty with which the

concrete is handled, transported and placed. The amount of

water present in concrete should be in the proper ratio.

 Generally, a higher water-cement ratio is required for good workability.

The concrete which is easy for handling and placing is a workable

concrete. The tests such as flow test, compacting test and slump

cone test is done to determine the workability of the concrete

mixture.

182
 SEGREGATION
 Segregation is the separation of the constituent materials of

concrete. Dropping of concrete from heights as well as discharging of

concrete from badly designed mixer shows a tendency for segregation.

 Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in which some of the

water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete.

183
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE

 After the fresh concrete has been placed in forms, concrete

undergoes a volumetric contraction while it is in a plastic state
(before the concrete set). This is known as plastic Shrinkage. It can
starts after 30 minutes of concrete pouring or during finishing.

SETTING

 When concrete changes its state from plastic to hardened state,

this process is called setting. The duration which concrete takes to
change its state is called setting time. Setting time depends on the
type of cement and it can be increase or decrease by adding
admixture in concrete.

184
TEMPERATURE

 Concrete is not recommended to be placed at a temperature above 40°C

 High temperature results in rapid hydration of cement, increased

evaporation of mixing water, greater mixing water demand, and
large volume changes resulting in cracks.

WATER CEMENT RATIO

 The ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement by weight

is termed the water-cement ratio. The strength and quality of concrete
depend on this ratio.

 The quantity of water is usually expressed in litre per bag of cement.

If water required for one bag of cement is 30 litres, the water-cement ratio
is equal to 30/50 = 0.6.

185
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
 STRENGTH is defined as the resistance of a hardened concrete to
rupture under different loadings and is accordingly designated in
different ways i.e., tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural
strength, etc. A good quality concrete in hardened state must
possess the desired crushing strength.

 DURABILITY is defined as the period of time up to which concrete

in hardened state withstands the weathering effects satisfactorily.
This property is mainly af-fected by water cement ratio. A good
quality concrete in hardened state must be durable.

186
 The IMPERMEABILITY of hardened concrete may be defined as the
property to resist- entry of water. This property is achieved by using
extra quantity of cement in concrete mix. A concrete in hardened state
must be impermeable.

 ELASTICITY: Though hardened concrete is a brittle / material, it is

desired that it should possess adequate elas-ticity.

 SHRINKAGE: A hardened concrete should experience least shrinkage.

This property is guided by water cement ratio. Shrinkage is less if the
water cement ratio is less.

 THERMAL EXPANSION: A hardened concrete should possess least

coefficient of expansion.

187
 USES OF CONCRETE
 It’s an important building product. Concrete is chosen over wood as a construction
material.
 It is a durable and cost-effective material which is a necessity for underground use.
 The strength of concrete increases over time.
 Concrete can hold up against weather condition and is easy to maintain.
 Concrete is an inert material which doesn’t burn, mildew or feed rot.
 Its superior structural integrity provides added degree of protection from the severe
weather as well as an earthquake.
 Concrete can be shaped in various forms when freshly mixed.
 It keeps home safe from insects. It doesn’t attract insect pest and rodents. That’s why
small animals cannot burrow through the concrete to make a home.
 High-performance concrete is used to build bridges.
 Concrete is able to accommodate steel reinforcements in gates, tunnel lines, electrical
controls.
188
Thank You!

189