ETHICS: Theories and Practices

Introduction to Ethics
Ethics, derived from the Greek word ethos (meaning character), is a branch of
philosophy concerned with questions of morality and the principles that govern right
and wrong conduct. Ethics serves as a foundation for evaluating human behavior,
decisions, and actions in various aspects of life, including personal, professional,
and societal interactions.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy focused on morality and principles of right and

wrong. It explores values, virtues, and rules that guide human behavior. The main
branches of ethics include:

Meta-Ethics: Analyzes the nature of morality.

Meta-ethics explores foundational questions about morality's nature, origin, and
meaning. Here are some examples of meta-ethical inquiries:
1. Moral Relativism vs. Moral Absolutism
o Relativism: "Is morality subjective and dependent on cultural or
personal perspectives?"
o Absolutism: "Are there universal moral truths that apply to all people at
all times?"
2. Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism
o Cognitivism: "Are moral statements like 'Stealing is wrong' capable of
being true or false?"
o Non-Cognitivism: "Do moral statements simply express emotions or
commands without truth-value?"
3. The Source of Moral Values
o "Are moral values grounded in human reason, divine command, or
social agreements?"
4. Moral Naturalism vs. Moral Non-Naturalism
o Naturalism: "Can moral truths be derived from observable facts about
the world?"
o Non-Naturalism: "Are moral truths independent of the natural world,
existing as abstract entities?"
5. Free Will and Moral Responsibility
o "Do humans need free will to be morally responsible for their actions?"

6. The Meaning of Ethical Terms

o "What do we mean by words like 'good,' 'right,' or 'just'?"

o Example: Analyzing whether 'good' describes a property or merely

reflects personal preference.
Meta-ethics does not prescribe how to act but seeks to clarify the essence
and understanding of moral concepts and debates.
Normative Ethics: Develops moral standards, such as duty-based
(deontology), consequence-based (utilitarianism), and character-based (virtue
ethics) approaches.
Normative ethics focuses on developing principles or rules to guide moral behavior.
1. Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)
 Key Idea: Actions are morally right or wrong based on adherence to rules or
duties.
 Example:
o Telling the truth, even if it causes discomfort, because honesty is a
moral duty.
o Following laws against stealing, regardless of personal gain or
circumstances.
2. Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
 Key Idea: Actions are judged by their consequences, aiming to maximize
happiness or well-being.
 Example:
o Donating to charity because it benefits the greatest number of people.

o Sacrificing personal convenience to reduce environmental harm, such

as carpooling to reduce emissions.
3. Virtue Ethics (Character-Based Ethics)
 Key Idea: Morality depends on cultivating virtuous character traits and habits.
 Example:
o Acting with courage by standing up for someone being bullied.

o Showing compassion by helping a neighbor in need without expecting

anything in return.
4. Social Contract Theory
 Key Idea: Morality arises from agreements among individuals to create a
cooperative society.
 Example:
o Obeying traffic rules because it ensures safety and order for everyone.

5. Ethics of Care
 Key Idea: Emphasizes relationships and the moral significance of caring for
others.
 Example:
o Taking care of an elderly parent out of love and duty, even at personal
inconvenience.
6. Divine Command Theory
 Key Idea: Morality is based on obeying the will or commands of a deity.
 Example:
o Avoiding theft because it is prohibited in religious texts.
Each of these approaches provides frameworks for determining how to act in
various situations and resolving moral dilemmas.

Applied Ethics: Applies ethical principles to real-world issues.

Applied ethics involves using ethical principles to address specific, real-world issues
and dilemmas.
1. Medical Ethics
 Example: Debating the morality of euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide,
balancing patient autonomy with the principle of "do no harm."
 Example: Allocating scarce medical resources, such as deciding who should
receive an organ transplant.
2. Business Ethics
 Example: Determining whether a company should prioritize environmental
sustainability over maximizing profits.
 Example: Addressing workplace discrimination or implementing fair labor
practices.
3. Environmental Ethics
 Example: Debating the moral obligation of nations to reduce carbon
emissions to combat climate change.
 Example: Considering whether animal species should have rights and
protections against habitat destruction.
4. Legal Ethics
 Example: Lawyers navigating conflicts between client confidentiality and the
public's right to know.
 Example: Ensuring fairness and impartiality in judicial decision-making.
5. Technology and AI Ethics
 Example: Evaluating the ethical implications of facial recognition technology
and privacy invasion.
 Example: Deciding whether artificial intelligence should make life-or-death
decisions in autonomous vehicles.
6. Media Ethics
 Example: Balancing freedom of speech with the responsibility to avoid
spreading misinformation.
 Example: Determining when it is ethical to report sensitive news about
individuals.
7. Global Ethics
 Example: Addressing ethical concerns in international aid, such as respecting
cultural differences while providing help.
 Example: Debating the moral responsibility of developed countries to assist
developing nations in crises.
Applied ethics tackles practical moral questions, offering frameworks for resolving
contemporary ethical challenges.
Descriptive Ethics: Studies actual moral beliefs and behaviors.
Descriptive ethics focuses on studying and describing how people actually behave
and what moral beliefs they hold, rather than prescribing what they should do. Here
are some examples:
1. Cultural Beliefs and Practices
 Studying the differences in attitudes toward marriage across cultures, such as
arranged marriages versus love marriages.
 Analyzing how different societies view the acceptability of eating meat or
practicing vegetarianism.
2. Moral Behavior in Groups
 Examining why certain groups justify stealing as acceptable in situations of
extreme poverty.
 Investigating how peer pressure influences individuals to engage in unethical
behaviors, like cheating on exams.
3. Religion and Morality
 Exploring how various religions influence moral decisions, such as views on
abortion or divorce.
 Studying how moral behavior changes in predominantly religious versus
secular communities.
4. Corporate and Workplace Ethics
 Observing how employees handle ethical dilemmas, such as whistleblowing
on corrupt practices.
 Analyzing variations in workplace honesty across industries or cultures.
5. Public Attitudes Toward Controversial Issues
 Surveying public opinions on topics like euthanasia, same-sex marriage, or
climate change policies.
 Studying shifts in societal attitudes toward previously taboo subjects, like
interracial marriage or mental health discussions.
6. Moral Decision-Making in Crisis
 Investigating how individuals behave in emergencies, such as whether people
prioritize self-preservation or helping others.
 Observing how soldiers reconcile moral beliefs with actions during wartime.
Descriptive ethics provides valuable insights into human behavior, helping to
understand why people act the way they do and how moral norms evolve across
cultures and time.

Why Ethics Matter?

Ethics is essential for personal growth, social harmony, professional accountability,
and addressing global challenges. It helps individuals make principled decisions and
contribute to a fair and just society.
Is-Ought Gap
The is-ought gap is a philosophical concept introduced by Scottish philosopher
David Hume in his book A Treatise of Human Nature (1739). It describes a
fundamental problem in moral philosophy: the difficulty of deriving prescriptive,
normative statements (what ought to be) from descriptive statements (what is).
 Definitions:
1. Is means fact
2. Ought means judgement
Example
1. Descriptive statement (is): "Lying causes harm to others."
2. Prescriptive statement (ought): "Therefore, one ought not to lie."
The missing piece in this argument is a normative bridge, such as: "Causing harm to
others is morally wrong." Without this additional premise, the conclusion does not
logically follow from the descriptive statement alone.

Moral Standards
Moral standards are principles or rules of conduct that guide behavior in terms of
what is considered right or wrong, just or unjust, good or bad. These standards are
typically grounded in ethical theories, societal values, or personal beliefs and are
often associated with the well-being of others, fairness, and justice.
Characteristics of Moral Standards
1. Universal Applicability:
o Moral standards often apply to all individuals regardless of context or
culture.
o Example: "Stealing is wrong" is widely considered a moral rule.

2. Concern with Well-being:

o They address issues related to harm, fairness, justice, and the overall
welfare of individuals or society.
o Example: "One should help those in need if possible."

3. Impartiality:
o They emphasize treating others equally, without favoritism or bias.

o Example: "Discrimination based on race or gender is wrong."

4. Override Other Standards:

o Moral standards typically take precedence over other norms, like legal
or social rules, when they conflict.
o Example: Civil disobedience against unjust laws is morally justified in
some views.
5. Emotional Weight:
o Violations of moral standards often provoke strong emotional reactions
like guilt, anger, or outrage.
 o Example: Cheating in a relationship may lead to feelings of betrayal
and remorse.
6. Rational Justification:
o They require reasoning and justification rather than arbitrary
imposition.
o Example: "Killing is wrong because it violates the value of human life."

Examples of Moral Standards

1. "Do not harm others."
2. "Be honest and truthful."
3. "Keep your promises."
4. "Respect others' rights and freedoms."
5. "Treat others with fairness and equality."
6. "Help those in need when you can."

Non-Moral Standards
Non-moral standards are rules, principles, or criteria that govern behavior or
judgments in contexts that do not involve questions of right and wrong in a moral
sense. These standards guide actions in specific areas of life without necessarily
invoking ethical or moral considerations.
Examples of Non-Moral Standards
1. Aesthetic Standards:
o Criteria for judging beauty, art, and taste.

o Example: "A good painting should demonstrate mastery of color and

composition."
2. Etiquette Standards:
o Guidelines for proper behavior in social contexts.

o Example: "One should say 'please' and 'thank you' in polite

conversation."
3. Professional Standards:
o Rules and expectations within a particular profession or trade.

o Example: "Doctors should maintain patient confidentiality."

4. Legal Standards:
o Laws and regulations set by governments or institutions.

o Example: "Drivers must stop at red traffic lights."

5. Prudential Standards:
o Guidelines for making decisions that promote self-interest or practical
benefit.
o Example: "You should save money for retirement."

6. Cultural Norms:
 o Customs and traditions that dictate acceptable behavior in a
community.
o Example: "In Japan, it is customary to bow as a greeting."

7. Technical or Functional Standards:

o Benchmarks for performance or quality in a technical or operational
sense.
o Example: "A smartphone battery should last at least 8 hours on a full
charge."
Distinction Between Moral and Non-Moral Standards
 Moral standards involve concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and
harm, often applying universally and linked to ethical principles.
 Non-moral standards are context-specific and do not necessarily carry
universal or ethical significance.