Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage.

10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024, Serial #39

Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management

(GJESM)

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Restructuring of Small-scale constructed wetland systems and treatability of individ-

ual household wastewater through natural process
S. Mokatip1, K. Chunkao2, W. Wararam1,*, S. Bualert1, O. Phewnil1, T. Pattamapitoon1, N. Semvimol1, P. Maskul-
rath1, P. Rollap2, S. Thaipakdee2
1
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
2
The King’s Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project, Chaipattana Foundation, Ban
Laem District, Phetchaburi Province, Thailand

ARTICLE INFO A B ST R AC T
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Domestic wastewater pollution in Thailand presents
Article History: challenges due to limited space and a high concentration of point source effluents. This
Received 25 October 2023 phenomenon often leads to domestic wastewater exceeding the capacity of local treatment
Revised 30 December 2023 systems. This study aims to expand the knowledge gained from The King’s Royally Initiated
Accepted 08 February 2024 Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project by evaluating the
treatability of municipal wastewater. It utilizes a constructed wetland system in conjunction
with a transfer and point source system. After the implementation of this primary system, the
Keywords: reduction in highly contaminated domestic wastewater could enhance the treatment loading
Constructed wetland (CW) of other secondary treatment systems or even facilitate its release into natural pathways.
METHODS: In the sampling collection process, the dynamics of the collection points were
Domestic wastewater categorized into three different zones: 1) the point sources of domestic wastewater within
Natural process a municipality, where 15 sample points were selected to represent the municipality; 2) the
Sewer system collection pond within the municipality and the transfer pipeline, comprising three collection
points of the system; 3) the constructed wetland treatment system, where five water samples
were collected in relation to the length of the existing 100-meter plot. The water samples
were collected using four 1-liter polyethylene bottles. The analysis parameters were the
biological oxygen demand, total nitrogen, nitrate, total phosphorous and phosphate, and
other parameters related to domestic wastewater treatment efficacy.
FINDINGS: This study reveals that the domestic wastewater in Phetchaburi Province initially
has a high organic content, leading to a biochemical oxygen demand: nitrogen: phosphorous
ratio of 100:2.5:0.2 favoring anaerobic degradation. This ratio shifts in the constructed wetland
system, located 18.5 kilometers away, to 100:10.5:2.3, promoting anaerobic treatment. The
system shows high efficacy, with 81.4, 50.0, and 58.3 percent removal rates for biochemical
oxygen demand, nitrogen, and phosphorus, respectively. This efficacy corresponds to a
notable reduction in average biochemical oxygen demand from 740.0 to 9.7 milligrams per
liter. Moreover, changes are observed in total nitrogen content, shifting from 20.8 to 2.8
milligrams per liter, in the system’s effluent. While lastly, the total phosphorous decreased
from 2.75 to 0.60 milligrams per liter
CONCLUSION: This treatment method can be effectively applied to small-scale constructed
wetland systems within households. The recommended hydraulic retention time is between
29 and 60 hours under anaerobic conditions and 3 days under aerobic conditions. The
changes in the composition of municipal wastewater, which is highly organic, support the use
of both degradation processes. The knowledge and application of the constructed wetland
system could be suggested for the primary treatment system of domestic wastewater within
municipalities, given that this system would provide support to the central wastewater
DOI: 10.22034/gjesm.2024.03.07 treatment system for enhanced efficacy.

This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

NUMBER OF REFERENCES NUMBER OF FIGURES NUMBER OF TABLES

61 6 5
*Corresponding Author:
Email: watcharapong.warar@ku.th
Phone: +6690 555 1979
ORCID: 0009-0000-1487-4284
Note: Discussion period for this manuscript open until October 1, 2024 on GJESM website at the “Show Article”.
 S. Mokatip et al.

INTRODUCTION such as maintenance, responsibility, lack of budget,

All water resources in the Kingdom of Thailand and not seeing the essence of treating community
have been threatened since 1950, causing not only wastewater, interrupt the processes of community
limitations in utilization but also the extinction wastewater treatment, which can be regarded as
of aquatic animals and plants. Point sources are the case in Thailand. The common method used in
presumably accused mainly on communities that Thailand is AS (Me Maw et al., 2022), and one of the
settled along riverbanks, accounting for approximately most applicable technologies to resolve this issue
75 percent (%) of the population, owing to a large group is natural technology. A typical method for treating
of people staying together. Domestic wastewater can domestic wastewater in tropical areas is using
be sourced from households, local fresh markets, and constructed wetland (CW) systems. In this method,
slaughterhouses, in which the daily anthropogenic photosynthesis drives the addition of oxygen (O) to
activities, such as washing, cleaning, cooking, the wastewater in support of the biodegradation
and humans’ consumption, are the drivers for its activity, as well as the phytoremediation of submerged
generation (Mohadesi et al., 2024). Scientifically, plants (Pattamapitoon et al., 2013; Sukchinda et al.,
wastewater contains various organic contaminants 2019). Results from CW systems set up in public parks
owing to the presence of proteins, carbohydrates, through subsurface flow CWs (SFCWs) showed 88.9%
fats oils and grease (FOG), and detergents. fecal coliform bacteria removal, 84.9% total nitrogen
Increased community wastewater is inevitably (TN) removal, 73.3% chemical oxygen demand (COD)
created and input into rivers and other natural reduction, 61.4% biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
water sources. The existence of fresh-food markets, reduction, and 14.2% total phosphorus (P) reduction
local confectionery factories, slaughterhouses, and (Vazquez et al., 2023). For carbon (C) sequestration,
tourism inside communities and densely populated such systems were a productive carbon dioxide
cities increasingly activate water pollution in rivers as (CO2) sink in consideration of the ecosystem services
the population increases. Moreover, the increasing contributing to a positive economic sense (Gallanta
residential and settlement areas near riverbanks et al., 2020), and they can enhance soil fertility, act
are directly related to the pollutants, worsening the as storm runoff buffers for agriculture, and help
condition and decreasing the efficiency of water mitigate greenhouse gas effects. They also support
usage (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). Concerns ecosystems with diverse microorganisms, birds, and
regarding the decline in the environmental quality plants (Hassan et al., 2021). In terms of ecosystem
due to wastewater pollution have led to the services, CW systems provide biomass for use in the
government’s attention to recovering the polluted food and energy industries. They treat various water
water of all rivers and water sources by setting up types, including agricultural, industrial, municipal,
a budget of approximately 2,000 million US dollars stormwater runoff, landfill leachate, and mining water.
(USD) per annum for employing high engineering A literature review identified regulating services such
techniques for community or municipal wastewater as wastewater treatment, water purification, climate
treatment, including activated sludge (AS), oxidation regulation, flood prevention, and erosion control.
pond (OP), aerated lagoon (AL), stabilization pond, Supporting services include habitat formation,
oxidation ditches, rotating biological contactor, nutrient cycling, and contributions to the hydrological
and up flow anaerobic sludge blanket. In the cycle (Agaton et al., 2023). However, the many
implementation of these technologies, however, the applications of CW systems in domestic wastewater
optimized performance of community wastewater treatment encounter a knowledge gap, which, in many
treatment techniques for different causes cannot be cases, leads to excess nitrogen (N) content, causing
achieved under the target, causing a loss of budget eutrophication phenomena within many natural
(Samimi et al., 2024). For instance, one engineering regions. In the adoption of CW systems, the uptake of
technique was chosen for treating wastewater N by plant species plays a key role in controlling excess
from a community, but it was never renovated or N (Jitthaisong et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012; Phewnil
upgraded to keep up with the increasing sewage et al., 2014; Pitaktunsakul et al., 2015; Chueawong
content in natural water sources (Chen et al., 2016), et al., 2019; Phewnil et al., 2024). Natural methods
which escalates the problems. Various problems, allow for a simple application that requires only local

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

and inexpensive materials and minimal maintenance MATERIALS AND METHODS

(Chunkao et al., 2012). A practical landscape design Study area
for urban CW was shown to achieve economic and The study search was conducted at the King’s
environmental advantages, creating sustainable Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental
landscapes and utilizing appropriate engineering Research and Development Project (LERD) site. The
landscaping principles (Li et al., 2022). The aim of geographic location of the study area in the tropical
this study is to examine the potential treatment Laem Phak Bia Sub-district, Ban Laem District,
of the Phetchaburi municipality wastewater from Phetchaburi Province (Universal Trans Mercator
individual point sources (households, local markets, 1442725 North and 617774 East), 120 kilometers
and slaughterhouses), the transfer process, and (km) of Southern Bangkok, Thailand, is shown in
the wetland treatment to improve the wastewater Fig. 1. The royal subproject named “Community
quality in Phetchaburi, Thailand. The wastewater data Wastewater Treatment” has been aimed to treat
were collected in 2021. The results of this study will community (Phetchaburi municipality) wastewater
facilitate the understanding of small-scale wetland through the natural process along with using CW and
systems for household applications. The CW system OP techniques since 1990 (Fig. 2).
acts a primary treatment for the reduction of highly
organic contaminants before releasing wastewater Wastewater collection site
into the natural rivers or into the treatment The dynamics of collection points were studied
system. The output could support other secondary during the dry season from January to April 2021.
treatment of wastewater contaminants or effluents The selected pathways were categorized into 1)
in natural surroundings. This study was carried out in point sources of domestic wastewater within the
Phetchaburi Province, Thailand in 2021. municipality, totaling 15 points with 3 replicates

Fig. 1: Geographic location of the study area in the Laem Phak Bia Subdistrict, Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province, Southern Bangkok,
Thailand

Fig. 1: Geographic location of the study area in the Laem1031

Phak Bia Subdistrict, Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi
Province, Southern Bangkok, Thailand
 Restructuring of small-scale CW systems

Fig. 2: Study plan: (a) Phetchaburi municipality (community) wastewater collection sites, (b) schematic of
Fig. 2: Study plan: (a) Phetchaburi municipality (community) wastewater collection sites,
(b) schematic of Municipality
Phetchaburi Sewer Systems
Phetchaburi Municipality from tunnel–pipeline
Sewer Systems sewer
from tunnel–pipeline systems
sewer through
systems throughKhlong Yangcollection
Khlong Yang collection pond
pond and the
and the 18.5 kmkm
18.5 high-density
high-density polyethylene pipeline
polyethylene pipeline (HDPE)
(HDPE) pipeline,
pipeline, which which
ends atends at the
the LERD siteLERD site

Table1:
Table 1: Wastewater
Wastewatercollection
collectionsites
sites

Collection site Site location Remarks

Households 6 collection sites
Fresh market 3 collection sites
Phetchaburi Municipality
Local confectionery factory 3 collection sites
Slaughterhouse 3 collection sites
Klong Yang collection pond
Transferring system 3 collection sites
HDPE Pipeline
0m
20 m
40 m
CW treatment system 5 collection sites
60 m
80 m
100 m

each, collected at the end of the pipe effluent point was sampled through grab sampling, with a
discharge points; 2) the collection pond within the volume of 3 liters (L), and the samples were kept
municipality and the transfer pipeline, consisting of refrigerated at a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius
8 points with 3 replications per point (5 points at the (°C) until analysis in the laboratory. The collection
pumping station, 2 points at the Klong Yang collection sites are listed in Table 1 and shown in Fig. 1.
pond, and 1 point at the high-density polyethylene
[HDPE] pipeline); and 3) the CW treatment system, Wastewater analysis
comprising 6 points with 3 replicates per point. The composition of wastewater from households
Samples were collected at a depth of 15 centimeter includes organic substances with C, hydrogen (H),
(cm) from the water surface at distances in the O2, N, sulfur (S), and P compounds in the form of
system of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 meters (m). Each proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and various suspended

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

Table 2: Water sample parameters

Table 2: Water sample parameters

Parameters Units Method(s) Reference method(s) Standard

APHA, (2017)
Temperature °C Thermometer -
23rd edition 2017 part 2550
Potential of hydrogen (pH) - pH meter 5.5–9.0
Milligram APHA, (2017)
Dissolved oxygen (DO) per liter Azide modification -
23rd edition 2017
Chemical oxygen demand ( /L) APHA, (2017)
mg/L Close reflux -
(COD) 23rd edition 2017 part 5220
Biochemical oxygen demand APHA, (2017)
mg/L Azide modification <20.0
(BOD) 23rd edition 2017 part 5210B
APHA, (2017)
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L Dried at 103 °C–105 °C -
23rd edition 2017 part 2540
APHA, (2017)
Fats oils and grease (FOG) mg/L Soxhlet method <5.0
23rd edition 2017 part 5520
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen in APHA, (2017)
Total nitrogen (TN) mg/L <20.0
water 23rd edition 2017 part 4500
APHA, (2017)
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) mg/L Total Kjeldahl nitrogen -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500
APHA, (2017)
Nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) mg/L Cadmium reduction -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500
APHA, (2017)
Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) mg/L Phenate method -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500-NH3 C
APHA, (2017)
Total phosphorus (TP) mg/L Ascorbic method <2.0
23rd edition 2017 part 4500-P
Vanadomolybdophosphor
APHA, (2017)
Phosphate (PO43-) mg/L ic acid colorimetric -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500-P
method
APHA, (2017)
Sulfate (SO42-) mg/L Turbidimetric method -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500
APHA, (2017)
Total sulfide (S2-) mg/L Iodometric method -
23rd edition 2017 part 4500
Colony-
forming
Heterotrophic bacteria APHA, (2017)
Total bacteria units per -
plate count 23rd edition 2017 part 9221
gram
(CFU/g)

solids. Additionally, it contains inorganic substances These plants are nurtured with irrigation water until
originating from detergents, with P in the form of they are established. Once established, community
orthophosphate. Wastewater was collected at each wastewater is continuously discharged into the
sampling point following the Standard Methods for system, maintaining a water level 30 cm above the
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, soil surface with a hydraulic retention time (HRT)
2017) to comprehensively assess water quality, of 24 hours (h). The wastewater treatment process
indicative of the characteristics of household occurs through aerobic bacteria, which decompose
wastewater and the efficacy of the studied organic substances (organic N, organic P) present in
wastewater treatment system in this research. The the wastewater (Samimi and Shahriari Moghadam,
suggested parameters are listed in Table 2. 2020). These substances are transformed into
nutrients (NO3- and PO43-) that plants absorb and
CW system utilize for growth. Tracking water quality along
The CW system has dimensions of 5x100 m, with distances in the CW system, specifically at distances
cattails planted using shoots of similar age varieties of 0 (influent), 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 m (effluent),
at a height of 30 cm and a spacing of 30x30 cm. reveals a tendency for organic and inorganic

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 S. Mokatip et al.

Fig. 3: General characteristics of the CW system on the 1:1000 slope, which is used for treating wastewater using 50.0 cm mixed soil (soil:
sand ratio is 3:1) including grown submerged aquatic plants
Fig. 3: General characteristics of the CW system on the 1:1000 slope, which is used for treating wastewater using
50.0 cm mixed soil (soil: sand ratio is 3:1) including grown submerged aquatic plants
substances (BOD, TKN, NO3-, TP, PO43-) to decrease multiple range test. Least significant differences
with distance, as depicted in Fig. 3. Cattail trees were calculated when the p-value was significant at
should be pruned when their growth rate reaches the 0.05 level (Moghadam et al., 2022).
zero or at the age of 90 days to maintain and
enhance system efficiency (Chunkao et al., 2014) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(Fig. 3). Pruning involves cutting the trees to a height Evaluation of point source system structures
of 40 cm, stimulating the growth of new shoots. In this study, in the classification of wastewater
This practice ensures the continued efficiency of point sources for municipal wastewater, the
community wastewater treatment with the CW patterns of land use were classified in accordance
system. With regard to the species of plants used, with the activities and qualities of water usage.
Typha angustifolia Linn. is a common local species The classification includes households (6 samples),
found in the local climate of Thailand and has higher fresh-food markets (3 samples), local confectionery
nutrient removal efficiency than other flowering factories (3 samples), and slaughterhouses (3
species (Phewnil et al., 2024). Typha latifolia and samples). The influent and effluent wastewater
Phragmites australis are two species with higher qualities must be sampled to assess treatable
removal efficiency than other species (Parde et al., tunnel–pipeline sewer systems. In the wastewater
2021). system, owing to the high concentration of organic
matter content, the source of this wastewater can
Statistical analyses be from anthropogenic activities. However, within
All the sampling procedures were executed with the municipality, small local markets and factories
three replications for each sample. Subsequently, are also present. The production of local foods and
the collected samples underwent analysis for desserts in these factories and markets provides
physical and chemical parameters (Table 2). In a high organic loading in the form of proteins,
the statistical analysis, the data were subjected to carbohydrates, and lipids, which contain C, H, O,
analysis of variance, Student’s t-test, and Duncan’s N, P, and S compounds (Stefanakis and Tsihrintzis,

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

2012; Pour and Makkawi, 2021). After the selection supported by many factors, such as the biological
of point sources, a range of values was found for the stage and a temperature in the range of 27.0 –33.5
BOD, which was the reflection of organic content °C. These circumstances are in favor of biochemical
within the wastewater from the selected point reaction and promotes anaerobic digestion with the
source wastewater. The average BOD concentration oxidation reduction potential (ORP) values in the
was 740 mg/L, which was supported by the high negative range (Jinjaruk et al., 2018; González et al.,
content of organic N in the form of NH3-N and TKN, 2022). Jinjaruk et al. (2018) found that the transfer
as well as P and S2-. The point source concentration time within the pumping station and municipal
found in this study was in parallel with those in sewer system was around 2–5 h on average, and this
cities within the same climate latitudes, where the range varied within different transfer locations.
BOD is in the range of 12–1,328 mg/L (Widyarani
et al., 2022). The Phetchaburi municipality covers Kong Yang collection and HDPE pipeline
an area of over 5.4 square kilometers (km2), with The retention time in the Khlong Yang collection
a population of approximately 30,000 persons; the pond sewer system, to which the wastewater
municipality was mostly dense with local markets from the Phetchaburi municipality was transferred
and cluster household settlements (Thanvisitthpon into, was calculated to be 29 h. The water quality
et al., 2020). In the wastewater transfer process, the results suggested that the water in the Klongyang
average time in the transfer process can be divided collection pond was anaerobic, as reflected by
into three parts: 1) the transfer from the point low DO levels. A reduction in BOD occurred under
source to the Klong Yang collection pond within the anaerobic conditions as C was quickly digested by
municipality, 2) the collection pond and the HDPE anaerobic bacteria (Poommai et al., 2013; González
pipeline transferring from the collection pond to et al., 2022) (Table 3). The Klong Yang collection
the CW, and 3) the CW system at the LERD site. pond was contaminated with high organic loading.
The Phetchaburi municipality wastewater sewer The ratio of BOD: COD was approximately 0.6, an
system is a closed system with high organic content, appropriate biodegradation rate. Noophan et al.
and the promotion of anaerobic digestion in the (2009) suggested the BOD: COD to be more than
transfer process allowed the ratio of BOD: N: P to 0.5. Based on this suggestion, the parameters in
be 100.0:2.8:0.3. Under the influence of anaerobic Table 3 can be calculated for the BOD:N:P ratio,
digestion, the BOD concentration decreased rapidly which was 100.0:15.4:2.7. The oxidation–reduction
from 740.0 mg/L to 82.4 mg/L, as suggested in the potential reached -259.5 millivolt (mV), which fell in
digestion of C compounds (Chen et al., 2008; Penha- the range for denitrification and sulfide formation.
Lopes et al., 2012). The decomposition process is The low DO concentration of 0.5 mg/L amplified

Table 3: Water
Table 3: Water quality
quality in
in the
the Phetchaburi
Phetchaburi wastewater
wastewatertransfer
transfersystem
system

Klong Yang collection pond CW

Parameter(s)
Input Output Input
Temperature (°C) 30.4 ± 1.47 30.0 ± 1.33 29.8 ± 1.24
pH 7.1 ± 0.41 7.1 ± 0.39 7.2 ± 0.46
DO (mg/L) 0.3 ± 0.27 0.6 ± 1.10 0.5 ± 1.09
TDS (mg/L) 440.0 ± 201.75 467.5 ± 185.03 420.4 ± 123.06
ORP (mV) -241.0 ± 125.87 -231.0 ± 135.14 -200.0 ± 146.88
BOD (mg/L) 82.4 ± 25.95 62.2 ± 24.21 43.9 ± 13.44
COD (mg/L) 159.8 ± 46.80 142.0 ± 58.34 1208. ± 48.90
PO43- (mg/L) 1.5 ± 0.98 1.7 ± 0.96 1.0 ± 0.85
TP (mg/L) 2.25 ± 1.01 2.1 ± 0.86 1.2 ± 0.86
TKN (mg/L) 11.8 ± 6.43 11.3 ± 6.42 12.3 ± 9.07
NO3- (mg/L) 0.3 ± 0.75 0.2 ± 0.52 0.2 ± 0.33
TN (mg/L) 12.23 ± 6.30 11.0 ± 6.27 10.4 ± 8.97
NH3 (mg/L) 5.9 ± 3.74 5.4 ± 3.46 4.4 ± 3.25
S2- (mg/L) 0.7 ± 1.96 0.8 ± 1.03 0.5 ± 0.77
SO42- (mg/L) 69.4 ± 64.09 63.5 ± 57.39 67.8 ± 61.79

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 Restructuring of small-scale CW systems

the process of sulfide formation. The TN found In addition, NH3 is oxidized to NO3- by nitrifying
was in the form of organic N as TKN and NH3-N at bacteria in these zones (Gonzalo et al., 2017; Zhang
6.20±1.87 and 3.02±1.52 mg/L, respectively. An et al., 2018; Seethong et al., 2023). This finding was
increase in ammonia within the system occurred in parallel with that of a study on the efficiency of a
with the increase in the ammonification process, CW system, in which the removal rates were 80%–
supported by low oxygen gas (O2) levels in the 91% for BOD, 60%–85% for COD, and 80%–95% for
wastewater. Before retaining the wastewater total suspended solids. The system also required
within the system, it was transferred through a minimal operation and maintenance (Parde et al.,
closed HDPE pipeline for 18.5 km to reach the LERD 2021). The organic N was converted into inorganic
site. Owing to the closed nature of the pipeline, N(NO3-), and the concentration ranged from 0.05
only anaerobic processes occurred during the mg/L to 0.62 mg/L, suggesting the uptake by plant
transportation process. As the wastewater travels species within the CW system (Molle et al., 2008; Cui
through the HDPE pipeline, the rate of digestion et al., 2010). The results indicated that BOD and P
decreased, particularly after covering a distance of concentrations gradually decreased with increasing
12 km. The limiting factor for anaerobic degradation distance. This decrease is a result of bacterial
during the 18.5 km HDPE wastewater transport digestion processes under aerobic conditions, with
was the low availability of C sources (Jinjaruk et al., P being oxidized into PO43- as it moves further and
2018). However, the high levels of N and P altered subsequently taken up by the wetland (Zhao et al.,
the BOD:N:P ratio to approximately 100.0:1.1:0.2, 2017). Soil aerobic bacteria are also suggested as
making it favorable for anaerobic processes (Metcalf a contributing factor because these bacteria can
and Eddy, 2004; Phiwluang and Poonprasit, 2014). supply O2 to heterotrophic microorganisms. The
As the BOD concentration decreased, the ratio population of heterotrophic bacteria increased from
changed primarily because of the increased activity 1.01 × 106 CFU/g to 1.21 × 106, 1.32 × 106, 1.77 × 106,
of anaerobic bacteria, which in turn increased the and 1.84 × 106 CFU/g at distances of 20, 40, 60, 80,
C-to-N ratio (Li et al., 2023). The BOD concentration and 100 m, respectively. As a result, the decreases
reaching LERD was found to be 43.9±13.44 mg/L in BOD, TN, and TP levels match the standards of
upon entering the CW system. This process would municipal wastewater treatment systems (Juwarkar
then need to be supported by aerobic conditions. et al., 1995) (Fig. 4 and Table 4). In the treatment
Compared with conventional aerobic technologies of S compounds, the SO42- output of the CW system
based on AS processes, the transfer system had was approximately 10.14 ± 4.84 mg/L, showing
efficacy of 27% – 39% (El-Sonbati et al., 2011). a reduction from the input of 67.8 ± 61.79 mg/L
(Table 4). This reduction in SO42- concentration was
CW system attributed to the positive oxidation and reduction
In the wetland system, the aerobic condition was potential within the CW system, which promoted
promoted for the treatment of wastewater. At this the oxidation of S2- and subsequent accumulation of
point, the wastewater quality was appropriate, with SO42- by the CW system. Chen et al. (2016) suggested
treatment through aerobic degradation with a BOD: that CW utilizes S compounds in wastewater as
N: P ratio of 100.0:10.5:2.3. This ratio supports the electron acceptors for sulfide oxidation and for
hypothesis that aerobic bacteria are responsible for assimilation by plant species and microorganisms
the degradation of organic matter and the nitrification (Fig. 4). In studies that assessed nutrient removal by
of N in root-zone treatment plants, mediated by two floating macrophytes (Lemna minor and Azolla
microorganisms. The release of O2 from the roots pinnata), the nitrite (NO2-) and NO3- levels increased,
of macrophytes creates oxidized zones around the whereas the NH3, TP, soluble reactive P, and TN
roots (Hadad et al., 2006). In these zones, most of levels decreased across all treatments during the
the organic content in the wastewater decomposes experiment. The inorganic compounds would be
into CO2 and water, with O2 as the terminal electron later absorbed by the plant species, reaching up to
acceptor. Based on the results given in Table 4, the 70%–90% P removal and 63% for BOD (Seguil et al.,
CW treatment efficacies for BOD, TN, and TP were 2021).
calculated as 81.4%, 50.0%, and 58.3%, respectively. From Fig. 4, wastewater from household sources

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

900
800
700
600
500
mg/L

400
300
200
100
0
Households Pumping Klong Yang 0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
Station
(a)
Nitrogen
25
TKN NH3 NO3
20

15
mg/L

10

0
Households Pumping Klong Yang 0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
Station
(b)
Phosphorus
4.0
TP OP
3.5

3.0

2.5
mg/L

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Households Pumping Station Klong Yang 0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m

(c)
Fig. 4: Water quality changes from the point source to the treated CW system (a) Biochemical Oxygen Demand; (b) Nitrogen; (c) Phosphorus
Fig. 4: Water quality changes from the point source to the treated CW system (a) Biochemical Oxygen Demand; (b)
Nitrogen; (c) Phosphorus

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 S. Mokatip et al.

Fig. 5: CW treatment concept

Fig. 5: CW treatment concept
Table 4: Water
Table quality
4: Water in the
quality CWCW
in the system at the
system LERD
at the sitesite
LERD

Distance in the CW system

Indicators
0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m Standard*
BOD (mg/L) 52.2 24.8 18.4 14.4 12.9 9.7 <20.0
COD (mg/L) 196.8 110.2 83.1 64.6 40.2 36.4
pH 6.8 7 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.3 5.5-9.0
DO (mg/L) 0.5 2.51 3.06 4.54 4.56 5.25 -
TKN (mg/L) 5.41 3.65 3.29 3.097 2.74 2.15 -
TN 5.54 4.12 3.63 3.69 3.4 2.77 <20.0
NH3-N (mg/L) 1.16 0.96 0.84 0.67 0.82 0.79 -
NO3-N (mg/L) 0.04 0.51 0.38 0.55 0.54 0.61 -
TP (mg/L) 1.27 0.76 0.55 0.45 0.47 0.53 <2.0
PO43- (mg/L) 1.06 0.53 0.36 0.31 0.39 0.33
*No��ca�on o� the �inistry o� Natural Resources and En�ironment Re� The standard e�uent discharge �rom a domes�c �aste�ater treatment system,
B.E. 2553

exhibits a high organic content, detected in the form this process involves aerobic decomposition. With
of BOD at 740 mg/L, TKN at 19.75 mg/L, and TP at the bacterial group around the Typha roots, organic
2.75 mg/L. Inorganic substances are also present, substances (TKN, TP) are decomposed and converted
with NH3 measured at 4.75 mg/L, NO3- at 1.0 into inorganic substances (NO3-, PO43-), serving as
mg/L, and PO43- to 1.75 mg/L. The transformations plant nutrients. The plants in the artificial wetland
occurring from households to the transfer system system absorb these nutrients for growth, thereby
(pumping station, Klong Yang collection pond, and enhancing the quality of treated wastewater.
HDPE pipeline) predominantly involve the anaerobic From the measurement of the water quality at the
digestion process (Masharqa et al., 2023; Migdal et effluent point of the artificial wetland system (100
al., 2023; Thakur et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2024). As a m), BOD was 9.7 mg/L, which is below the standard
result, BOD decreases rapidly, stabilizing at 52 mg/L threshold of 20 mg/L.
at the point where water enters the artificial wetland
system. The decomposition of organic matter Adaptability of the CW system
continues within the artificial wetland system, but The system has been constructed for over 30 years

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024
Table 5: Wastewater quality of different municipality sources
Table 5: Wastewater quality of different municipality sources
Households Fresh-food market Local confectionery factory Slaughterhouse
Indicators
Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max
BOD (mg/L) 740 50 1,830 2,410 1,770 3,600 4,260 1,140 9,900 2,300 1,590 3,360
DO (mg/L) 4 0 8 0 0 0 1 0 4 5 4 5
Temperature (°C) 28 26 30 26 24 28 30 29 32 30 30 30
TDS (mg/L) 511 214 1,032 1,823 1,770 1,880 477 288 742 381 338 439
pH 6 5 7 7 7 8 7 5 8 9 7 10
TN (mg/L) 26 6 74 81 21 175 288 56 734 164 117 207
TKN (mg/L) 26 6 74 81 21 175 285 52 731 163 117 207
NO3-N (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 4 2 2 3
NH3-N (mg/L) 0 0 1 7 1 13 2 1 3 16 14 20
TP (mg/L) 3 0 6 21 19 25 11 6 19 12 11 12
PO43- (mg/L) 3 0 5 20 17 23 11 6 19 11 11 11
FOG (mg/L) 71 4.5 165 642 428 1668 402 352 3,187 736 583 10,982

Fig. 6: Hypothetical adaptability of a small-scale CW system to individual households

and has been Fig.suggested

6: Hypothetical adaptabilityevery
for maintenance of a small-scale
5 CW system
for municipal to individual
and households
densely populated settlements,
years (Wongsrikaew et al., 2018). The inefficacy of a medium size for industrial factories, a small size
the closed system would decrease the anaerobic for municipal and low-populated settlements, and
digestion within the sewer system and reduce the a small size for household estates, hospitals, and
overall efficacy of the treatment. The adaptability shopping centers (Borkar and Mahatme, 2011;
of the system makes it available to households. In Gikas and Tsihrintzis, 2012). Compared with other
dealing with different complex issues in terms of C, CW systems globally, the combination of septic
N, and P contents, under different point sources, tanks with CWs is proved effective for single-family
diverse treatment durations are required for the wastewater treatment, with high BOD and COD
concentration differences in wastewater. The removal rates and moderate P and N removal rates.
advantage of vertical-flow CW ecosystems over This system also requires a low operation cost, as
horizontal-flow CWs is the requirement for smaller supported by the data collected from field studies
space for installation (Dissanayaka et al., 2019). and questionnaires in Songore wetland, Zimbabwe,
CW ecosystems employ certain soil texture and which showed that wetland resources contributed
thickness for filtering and absorbing contaminants about 50% to annual household income, varying
in wastewater together with the bacterial organic among villages (Mahlatini et al., 2020; García-Ávila
digestion process. The wastewater from point et al., 2023). Small-scale CW systems are expected to
sources is the key factor for specifying the area size of remove contaminants from household and housing
CW ecosystems (Konnerup et al., 2011): a large size estate wastewater, which are distributed around the

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 S. Mokatip et al.

county (Soroko et al., 2007). restructuring small-scale CW systems and their

Given the variations in water quality, the small- effectiveness in treating individual household
scale CW system, as designed for LERD, may not be wastewater through a natural process, their
suitable. The design of the CW for LERD indicated an applicability to wastewater from single households,
average daily water requirement of 75 cubic meters. combined households, villages, and communities
The initial calculations showed that the BOD loadings should be considered. This consideration includes
per square meter ranged from 20.6 kilogram per scenarios with debris and large amounts of organic
day (kg/d) to 27.8 kg/d. Thus, the minimum HRT materials. To achieve this objective, fundamental
required in LERD’s CW would be 3 days. The HRT for data on water quality and quantity must be
the CW system was designed to be 3–5 days (Fig. established, and the organization of a wastewater
6). Regarding the treatability of CW in small units flow system is essential for the implementation of
within the municipality, the BOD concentration a CW design. In this study, the experimental design
should not exceed 100 mg/L, as calculated from was divided into separated sampling and analysis
the LERD site, making the household unit adaptable sections of the point source in the municipality, the
(Fig. 6). In the case of anaerobic treatment systems, transfer system, and the CW system at LERD. From
the use of anaerobic digestion would promote the the result, the high organic concentration from the
decrease and thus change the BOD: N:P ratio to an Phetchaburi municipality was quickly degraded by
appropriate value (Merino-Solís et al., 2015), which the promotion of anaerobic digestion through a
can be calculated for anaerobic treatments lasting at closed pipeline that allowed the ratio of BOD:N:P to
least 24–60 h. The FOG tap is necessary. For different be 100.0:1.1:0.2. At 12 km, the HRT in this transfer
point sources within the Phetchaburi municipality, process was approximately 29-60 h, reducing the
the FOG concentration in households was 71.0 mg/L municipality (point source) BOD from 740.0 to 86.0
on average. However, in the design of the LERD and 52.0 in the Klong Yang collection pond and
transfer system, an underflow method was used, the anerobic digestion process. Supported by the
trapping the majority of the FOG within the Klong aerobic process, the effluent of the CW system was
Yang collection pond. Conversely, in the application reduced to 9.7 mg/L. The TN decreased from 20.8
to household usage, installation of a FOG tap is mg/L to 2.8 mg/L. The majority of N compounds
recommended, which would allow for a decrease in from the initial point source (municipality) was in
the FOG on the water surface to promote a better their organic form. During the treatment process,
treatment effect and enable the exchange of O2 in they were converted into an inorganic form, which
the air and CW soils where the FOG concentration was then absorbed by the CW system. The ratio of
within the households can be seen. In the system, BOD: N: P ratio of 100.0:10.5:2.3 suggested further
the recommended volumetric removal rate should aerobic digestion, indicating the adaptability of
be employed alongside the theoretical HRT (Sperling the CW system for wastewater treatment. With a
et al., 2023), which, in this study, is recommended to proper anaerobic management system, CW could
be between 29 and 60 h. These findings supported be adopted in household applications. This study
the preference for the site-specific approach in also examined various properties of domestic
design. Besides the support of the municipal wastewater in different regions of Thailand. It
treatment system, the successful application system emphasizes the necessity for a pretreatment
for attenuating the pollutant concentration in a process, which is recommended for individual
crude oil wastewater pit in Pakistan was presented households. This pretreatment process includes
to remove organic concentration up to 2.63 × 10 using a screening dish, sedimentation through
kg, while the C sequestration was 2.11 × 10 kg. In grit chambers, and the trapping of FOG before
economic translation, the treatment system’s initial initiating the bacterial organic digestion process
cost per treatment volume was USD 0.0184 per within the wetlands. Meanwhile, the knowledge
cubic meter (Arslan et al., 2023). on CW is proven scientifically; the system would be
implemented through an environmental education
CONCLUSION program that the local government would provide
For determining and realizing the suitability of to local communities for adoption in individual

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

households. This approach would help reduce the a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
high contamination loading in domestic wastewater License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation,
effluent, thus supporting the overall treatment distribution and reproduction in any medium or
process and addressing issues related to domestic format, as long as you give appropriate credit to
water treatment facilities. the original author(s) and the source, provide a
link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS if changes were made. The images or other third-
S. Mokatip contributed to the literature review, party material in this article are included in the
experimental design, material preparation, data article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated
collection, data analysis and interpretation, and otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material
manuscript preparation. W. Wararam helped in the is not included in the article’s Creative Commons
study conception, experimental design, material license and your intended use is not permitted by
preparation, data collection and analysis, and statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use,
manuscript preparation and editing. T. Pattamapitoon you will need to obtain permission directly from the
collected the transfer pipeline anaerobic wastewater copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit:
data and interpreted the data. N. Semvimol collected http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
the CW system wastewater data and interpreted the
data. O. Phewnil performed a chemical analysis of PUBLISHER’S NOTE
the water samples together with the overall analysis GJESM Publisher remains neutral with regard
of the system. P. Rollap performed land use and to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
land cover mapping for the municipality, and K. institutional afflictions.
Chunkao contributed to the conceptual design. S.
Bualert assisted in the experimental design, and ABBREVIATIONS
S. Thaipakdee performed imaging and mapping
% Percent
of the collection sites. P. Maskulrath participated
in the material preparation, data collection, and °C Degree Celsius
manuscript preparation and editing.
ANOVA Analysis of variance
ACKNOWLEDGMENT AS Activated sludge
The authors are thankful to the staff of The King’s
Royally Initiative Laem Phak Bia Research and AL Aerated lagoon
Development Project for their support. The authors BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
are also grateful to the Chaipattana Foundation for
funding this study. Furthermore, the authors would BOD:N:P Biochemical oxygen demand:
like to thank the Department of Environmental ratio nitrogen: phosphorus ratio
Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University C Carbon
for providing personnel and laboratories.
CFU/g Colony-forming units per gram
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
cm Centimeter
The author declares that there is no conflict
of interests regarding the publication of this C:N ratio Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
manuscript. In addition, the ethical issues, including
plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data CO2 Carbon dioxide
fabrication and/or falsification, double publication COD Chemical oxygen demand
and/or submission, and redundancy have been
completely observed by the authors. CW Constructed wetland
DMRT Duncan’s multiple range test
OPEN ACCESS
©2023 The author(s). This article is licensed under DO Dissolved oxygen

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 S. Mokatip et al.

FCB Fecal coliform bacteria S2- Sulfide

FOG Fats oils and grease SO42- Sulfate
h Hour SP Stabilization pond
H Hydrogen SFCW Subsurface flow-constrained
wetland
HDPE High-density polyethylene
STD Standards
HFCW Horizontal-flow constructed
wetlands TDS Total dissolved solids
HRT Hydraulic retention time TKN Total Kjedahl nitrogen
kg Kilogram TN Total nitrogen
km 2
Squared Kilometer TP Total phosphorus
km Kilometer TSS Total suspended solids
LERD The King’s Royally Initiated Laem USD United States dollar
Phak Bia Environmental Research
and Development Project VFCW Vertical-flow constructed wetland

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Tueros, J.; Camargo Hinostroza, S.; Canales Guerra, V., (2022). configurations. Sci. Total Environ., 639: 640-647 (8 pages).

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 Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046, Summer 2024

AUTHOR (S) BIOSKETCHES

Mokatip, S., Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
 Email: Sakonwan.mo@ku.th
 ORCID: 0009-0000-2253-3228
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: NA
 Homepage: https://www.lerd.org/
Chunkao, K., Ph.D., Professor, The King’s Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project, Chaipat-
tana Foundation, Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province, Thailand.
 Email: prof.kasemc@gmail.com
 ORCID: 0009-0002-8035-4732
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 54683551800
 Homepage: https://www.lerd.org
Wararam, W., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bang-
kok, Thailand.
 Email: watcharapong.warar@ku.th
 ORCID: 0009-0000-1487-4284
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 57096032600
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Bualert, S., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand.
 Email: surat.b@ku.th
 ORCID: 0000-0003-1385-792X
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 6504138469
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Phewnil, O., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand.
 Email: onanong.p@ku.th
 ORCID: 0000-0001-9616551X
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 56252364600
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Pattamapitoon, T., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok, Thailand.
 Email: thanit.pa@ku.th
 ORCID: 0009-00051664450X
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 55822416300
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Semvimol, N., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bang-
kok, Thailand.
 Email: noppawan.sem@ku.th
 ORCID: 0000-0002-9581-1986
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 57096067300
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Maskulrath, P., Ph.D., Lecturer, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thai-
land.
 Email: parkin.ma@ku.th
 ORCID: 0000-0002-1352-4247
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: 57202060728
 Homepage: https://envi.ku.ac.th
Rollap, P., M.Sc., Instructor, The King’s Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project, Ban Laem
District, Phetchaburi Province, Thailand.
 Email: pongisara.lerd@gmail.com
 ORCID: 0009-0002-6855-4459
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: NA
 Homepage: https://www.lerd.org/

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 S. Mokatip et al.

AUTHOR (S) BIOSKETCHES (continued)

Thaipakdee, S., M.Sc., Instructor, The King’s Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project, Ban
Laem District, Phetchaburi Province, Thailand.
 Email: thaipakdee1027@gmail.com
 ORCID: 0009-0005-1679-0152
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: NA
 Homepage: https://www.lerd.org/

HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE

Mokatip, S.; Chunkao, K.; Wararam, W.; Bualert, S.; Phewnil, O.; Pattamapitoon, T.; Semvimol, N.; Maskulrath,
P.; Rollap, P.; Thaipakdee, S., (2024). Restructuring of small-scale constructed wetland systems and treatability
of individual household wastewater through natural process. Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 10(3): 1029-1046.
DOI: 10.22034/gjesm.2024.03.07
URL: https://www.gjesm.net/article_711051.html

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