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A review on the production of metal matrix composites through stir casting –

Furnace design, properties, challenges, and research opportunities

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.04.017

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Review

A review on the production of metal matrix composites through stir casting – T

Furnace design, properties, challenges, and research opportunities
⁎
Ramanathan Arunachalama, , Pradeep Kumar Krishnanb, Rajaraman Muralirajaa,c
a
Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
b
National University of Science and Technology, Oman
c
Vels Institute of Science, Technology & Advanced Studies (VISTAS), India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Stir casting is one of the most suitable processes for producing Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) because of its
Metal Matrix Composites simplicity, proven process, lower cost of production and mass production capability. This paper reviews all the
Production significant attributes of stir casting process such as furnace design, properties of the composites, challenges in the
Stir casting production of the composites as well as the potential research opportunities in the production of composites. We
Furnace
have also provided recommendations for the furnace design, selection of matrix and reinforcement materials as
Squeeze casting
well as process parameters and additives, which makes the review novel. In order to provide a background for
Matrix
Reinforcements any reader interested in the production processes for MMCs, we have also discussed the various approaches in
Mechanical properties the introductory section briefly. Based on the critical assessment of the literature, especially the mechanical
properties of the produced MMCs, a bottom tapping stir casting furnace, preferably with electromagnetic and
ultrasonic stirrer along with squeeze attachment is recommended for the production of MMCs.

1. Introduction Carbon Matrix composites (referred as carbon composite). Among

these, MMCs has an advantage over other composites because of their
The composite material is a mixture of two or more materials in- ability to resist high temperatures, moisture, radiation and zero out-
soluble in one another, and possess properties which are superior to any gassing at vacuum, thermal and electrical conductivities, enhanced
of the component materials. Composite materials are more robust and mechanical properties [2]. MMC is a combination of ductile metal or
lighter than other common materials, such as steel. In the automobile alloy matrix reinforced with other metal, nonmetallic or organic com-
industry, many of the components in a vehicle are being switched to the pounds [3]. It is produced by implanting the reinforcements into the
composites materials from steel to reduce the weight of the vehicle [1]. metal matrix. MMCs can be produced using a strong reinforcement
The wide range of reinforcing materials provision and the advancement material which is incorporated into a matrix material to improve its
of new processing techniques are drawing attention to composite ma- properties such as specific strength, specific stiffness, wear resistance,
terials enabling large-scale production. The composite materials are excellent corrosion resistance and high elastic modulus [4].
broadly classified into two categories concerning the matrix and re- Among the available matrix materials (Al, Mg, Cu, Fe, Ti) for MMCs,
inforcement materials used for production. According to the matrix Al and Mg are the common ones. Magnesium-based composites have
material, it is classified as Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs), Ceramic fascinated significant attention due to its attractive mechanical prop-
Matrix Composites (CMCs), Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and erties over monolithic alloy. However, some disadvantages have

Abbreviations: Al, aluminium; Al2O3, aluminum oxide; AMC, aluminium matrix composite; AMMC, aluminium metal matrix composites; ARB, accumulative roll
bonding; B4C, boron carbide; BN, boron nitride; CG, centrifugal casting; CMCs, ceramic matrix composites; CNT, carbon nanotubes; Cu, copper; EMS, electromagnetic
stir casting; Fe, iron; GNP, gold nano-particles; GPI, gas pressure infiltration; HB, Brinell Hardness; HEBMMS, high energy ball mill mixing and sintering; HRB,
Rockwell Hardness B scale; HPCI, high pressure centrifugal infiltration; Mg, magnesium; MI, melt infiltration; MMCs, metal matrix composites; MS, microwave
sintering; PI, pressure infiltration; PM, powder metallurgy; PMCs, polymer matrix composites; RVS, rapid vacuum sintering; SC, stir casting; SD, spray deposition; SE,
screw extrusion; SGC, stir gravity casting; Si, silicon; Si3N4, silicon nitride; SiC, silicon carbide; SiO2, silicon dioxide; SPS, spark plasma sintering; SSQ, stir squeeze
casting; Ti, titanium; Ti3SiC2, titanium silicon carbide; TiB2, titanium diboride; TiC, titanium carbide; TiN, titanium nitride; TiO2, titanium dioxide; VGS, vacuum/gas
sintering; VI, vapour infiltration; VH, Vickers Hardness; VPI, vacuum pressure infiltration; WS2, tungsten disulfide; Zn, zinc; ZnO, zinc oxide; Zr, zirconium; ZrB2,
zirconium diboride; ZrO2, zirconium dioxide
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arunrm@squ.edu.om (A. Ramanathan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.04.017
Received 15 September 2018; Received in revised form 17 December 2018; Accepted 18 April 2019
Available online 09 May 2019
1526-6125/ © 2019 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

restricted the progress of magnesium usage in automobiles. The pri- for the production of MMCs.
mary reason is the low ductility and low resistance to fracture. Mg is The AMMCs properties mostly rely upon the processing method, and
very reactive at elevated temperature. However, it can be controlled so the selection of production process plays an important role to comply
with surface coatings or its naturally occurring oxide [5]. During the with the industrial needs and to provide functional properties [10]. The
production of Mg-based MMCs, an inert atmosphere should be main- disadvantage of producing AMMCs, in general, is a higher cost of the
tained to avoid oxidation with the environment. A significant dis- reinforcement materials, non (or heterogenous) homogeneous re-
advantage of using iron as the matrix is its brittleness and less impact inforcement distribution in the matrix and higher investment cost in
strength compared with composites. Therefore, steel-based metal ma- some cases. The cost-effective method for manufacturing composites is
trix composites show great potential only for wear-resistant applica- essential for expanding their applications [11]. The primary fabrication
tions. It is not suitable for marine environment application [6]. Copper- methods used for bulk AMMCs are stir casting, compo casting, in-
based MMCs are mainly used for the application where the thermal and filtration, a direct melt oxidation process and powder metallurgy [12].
electrical conductivity property plays a significant role. For many ap- Based on the literature reviewed, especially review papers on
plications, pure Cu cannot be used as a matrix because of its low MMCs, it is evident that recently there has been no comprehensive
strength [7]. Among the several available matrix materials, aluminium review, especially on AMMCs produced through stir casting. Kamyar
and its alloys are widely used to produce MMCs. Some of the attractive et al. [13] reported 19 review papers have been published in the area of
properties of aluminium are less weight, economically feasible, easy to MMCs since the year 2000 and out of this 10 of them discuss the pro-
process with different techniques and possess the high strength to duction techniques. Kaczmar et al. [14] briefly discussed the production
weight ratio and excellent resistance to corrosion [2]. processes, and not all liquid state processing are reviewed. The focus of
The reinforcements could be particulates, fibre, layer or even in- Torralba et al. [15] is the production of MMCs through powder me-
terpenetrating type. According to the reinforcement used, composite tallurgy route. Mg-based MMCs is the focus of Ye and Liu [16] and only
can be classified into fibre reinforced composites, laminar composite, one subsection focusses on the production processes. Again Miracle
flake composite, filled composite and particulate reinforced composite. [17] only discusses the production processes briefly, and the focus is on
In this review, the focus is on particulate reinforced composites, since the MMCs properties that make them suitable for several applications.
they are readily available, cheaper and easier to disperse it in the matrix Similarly, Qu et al. [18] also focused on MMCs for thermal man-
and relatively uniformly distributed in the matrix. The selection of re- agement applications. Ye et al. [19] focused on MMCs production
inforcement materials is based on the objectives and applications of the through a metal injection moulding process. Bakshi et al. [20] and
composite. The reinforcement of light metals opens up the possibility of Silvestre [21] have reviewed MMCs reinforced with carbon nanotubes
application where weight reduction has priority [8]. Al reinforced with and so very specific and does not cover a broad spectrum of re-
SiC or Al2O3 or B4C is one of the most commonly used MMCs which inforcement particles as well as the production processes.
produce improved mechanical properties at relatively lower production Similarly, Casati and Vedani [22] focussed on nanoparticles re-
cost. Because of this, many engineers have been attracted to utilize inforced MMCs. Kala et al. have given mechanical and tribological
Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites (AMMC) for various applications properties of Al-based MMCs produced by stir casting attention [11].
such as brake rotor, drive shafts, pistons, cylinder liner, etc. [9]. The Therefore, it is quite evident from this review that so far none of the
interfacial bonding in the composite materials is a serious concern reviews have focused on the primary production process such as stir
during the fabrication of composite materials. If the matrix and re- casting process. There are very few review papers on MMCs that focus
inforcement materials are not appropriately tailored, then it is difficult on the stir casting process. Kumar and Menghani [23] reviewed stir
to get the expected properties from the fabricated composites. Fig. 1 casting process and its issues, however, the developments in stir casting
shows the various matrix and reinforcement materials that can be used design and recommendations are not covered. Although the processing

Fig. 1. Various matrix and reinforcement materials used for the production of MMCs.

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

issues in the production of AMMCs by stir casting is discussed by Suthar conducted on 4th April 2018. The evolution of the stir casting process is
and Patel [24], machining and applications of AMMCs are also dis- highlighted in yellow colour, and the final text box refers to the re-
cussed, and so it is entirely different from this review. Kumar et al. [25] commended stir casting furnace design discussed later in Section 6.1.
briefly reviewed the fabrication and characteristics of MMCs produced The production processes for MMCs can be classified according to
by stir casting. Shabani and Mazahery [26] introduced a new method whether they are based on primary processes such as treating the metal
called semisolid agitation process in the stir casting process, as a result, matrix in a liquid or a solid form or others (including semi-solid, in situ
improved the mechanical properties of the composites. and others) as shown in Fig. 4. The production processes have a sig-
Similarly, Mistry and Gohil [27] have reviewed the various fabri- nificant influence on the mechanical properties as well as the cost of
cation processes including stir casting for AMMCs followed by me- production. Particulate-reinforced MMC materials may be produced
chanical characterization and applications. Bhaskar et al. [28] also re- either through bulk processing or applied as coatings. This section aims
viewed the manufacturing and technological challenges in the to discuss MMCs materials produced only through bulk processing.
production of MMCs using stir casting process. However, in the latter Each of the process mentioned in the classification is discussed with the
three reviews, the focus is more on the mechanical characterization and help of a schematic. This section gives an overview of the various
lacks assessment of many stir casting furnace designs. Although chal- processes available for the production of MMCs.
lenges are mentioned, they are very brief and not consolidated. None of
them discusses the recommendations and research opportunities espe- 2.1. Solid state processing/powder metallurgy
cially in the production of AMMCs. Stir casting and infiltration pro-
cesses account for almost 67% by volume of MMCs produced [17], and Solid state fabrication of MMCs is the process of bonding matrix
so this review is the need of the hour. This review is structured as material and reinforcements due to mutual diffusion arising between
follows: them in solid states at a higher temperature and under pressure. The
following section discusses some of the conventional processes used for
• First, it describes the various production processes for MMCs by the production of MMCs.
using schematic illustrations.
• Following this, several stir casting furnace designs are discussed 2.1.1. Spark/plasma sintering
again with the help of schematic illustrations. Stir casting is eval- Razavi et al. [57] reported that sintering of Al2O3 (Matrix)–SiC
uated because of it being an established and economical process to (Reinforcement) composite was produced successfully using Spark
produce AMMCs. The recommended furnace design is also provided Plasma Sintering (SPS). The general process of SPS is shown in Fig. 5.
in the later section so that the researchers can make an informed SPS increases mould and composite powder's temperature rapidly and
decision in choosing a furnace for producing AMMCs that will ex- the pressure applied during the heating can increase the driving force of
hibit the desired properties. process and enable the sintering process. Electrical current can con-
• The next section focuses on AMMCs by discussing and comparing dense the powder in the mould by creating many sparks between par-
the properties of matrix and reinforcement materials especially ticles and creating a plasma environment. The composites obtained
Al2O3 and SiC. The process parameters that can influence these exhibited the highest hardness of 324.6 HV with 20 wt% Al2O3-SiC.
properties, as well as additives that can enhance these properties, Dash et al. [58] reported that the distribution of alumina particles in the
are also discussed. aluminium matrix is homogeneous and uniform in micro composites.
• Finally, challenges in the production of AMMCs using stir casting
and recommendations to overcome the challenges are discussed and 2.1.2. High energy ball mill mixing and sintering
concluded by highlighting some of the advanced application for Bhatt et al. used high-energy ball milling and sintering (HEBMS)
AMMCs and possible research opportunities. with the milling speed of 300 rpm to successfully produce a nanos-
tructured metal matrix composite of Al-Mg reinforced with amorphous
The discussion on recent commercial applications is also updated silica particulate. The general process of HEBMS is shown in Fig. 6.
when compared to published literature. The discussion on challenges in Maximum Hardness values observed from the nano-reinforced compo-
the production of AMMCs is also new, and the recommendation to sites is 145.2 HV which is comparatively higher than that of micro re-
overcome these challenges is a new contribution to the existing inforced composites. They observed that the distribution of reinforce-
knowledge base on AMMCs. The uniqueness of this review lies in the ment particle in the aluminium matrix is homogeneous at 20 h [59]. Li
evaluation of many stir casting furnace design and the recommended et al. produced Al2024-TiN nanocomposite using HEBMS which ex-
one for producing AMMCs for various applications. In summary, this hibited a Vickers hardness of 274HV [60]. Han et al. produced ad-
review is not only comprehensive but also structured and presented in a vanced Al-Al2O3 MMC through HEBM for selective laser melting which
way that allows for clear evaluation by the readers themselves. A fra- offered not only uniform distribution but also good flowability [61].
mework of this review is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2 using a
fishbone diagram. This cause and effect diagram is also unique since it 2.1.3. Vacuum/gas sintering
very succinctly captures the factors that influence the quality of the Vacuum and gas pressure sintering is the most commonly used
MMCs. To achieve the desirable properties, there are several challenges sintering methods because of its good controllability and large-scale
that could be overcome by using the recommendations including the features [62]. The general process of vacuum or gas sintering process is
furnace design that will enable the various applications for AMMCs. shown in Fig. 7. The process is similar to HEBMS, but the difference lies
The prominent ones for each factor like production process, stir/ in vacuum or gas sintering after compacting. Gao et al. noticed that the
squeeze parameter, matrix, and reinforcement material and the wetting when sintering temperature increases to a particular temperature the
agent is highlighted in yellow colour. Finally, the research opportu- alloys will have the minimum porosity, homogeneous microstructure
nities that could be pursued are also shown in the schematic. and best hardness [63]. Zhang et al. [64] concluded based on the ex-
perimental result that the microhardness and fracture toughness for
2. Production processes for MMCs dense samples greatly depended on porosity and grain size.

Fig. 3 shows the evolution of the production processes used by re- 2.1.4. Microwave sintering
searchers worldwide for the production of MMCs. The data is presented Microwave sintering is a process of supplying electromagnetic filed
chronologically based on a Scopus database search (Search terms: energy directly to the material. By this method express heating is
Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites; Production Method Names) achieved all over the material with a condensed thermal gradient [65].

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 2. A framework for producing better quality AMMCs by a stir casting process.

Microwave heating is a process by which the materials absorb the stir squeeze, stir vacuum and centrifugal casting.
electromagnetic energy volumetrically and transform into heat. The
heat generates within the material and dissipates to the entire volume.
In microwave sintering, however, the composite materials themselves 2.2.1. Infiltration methods
absorb microwave energy and then transform it into heat within their Infiltration is a permeation of molten metal into a preform by the
bodies as shown in Fig. 8. Microwave sintering appears to be an at- infiltration process. The infiltration can be achieved either by melt in-
tractive alternative to plasma arc sintering for large specimens [66]. filtration otherwise called as pressureless infiltration or by pressure
Reddy et al. [67] observed that the ductility of Al-SiC nanocomposites infiltration. In melt infiltration, reinforcements are first placed in the
decreases with the increasing volume fraction of SiC. Compared to the die, and the molten alloy is then penetrated on to it and permitted to
other developed nanocomposites the microwave sintered and hot ex- solidify without any external pressure. In the pressure infiltration pro-
truded nanocomposites revealed better mechanical and thermal prop- cess, external pressure is applied directly or through an inert gas, va-
erties. Through this process, the maximum compression and tensile cuum pressure, vapour, centrifugal force, and squeeze infiltration.
strength achieved were 392 MPa and 178 MPa respectively.

2.2.1.1. Melt infiltration. Zhou et al. successfully fabricated Al 6061-

2.2. Liquid state processing Ti3SiC2 composites by adopting pressureless infiltration method at low
temperature with melt-spun Al alloy ribbons [68]. The phase reaction
Liquid state processing of MMC's is eye-catching to many industries of reinforcements in the matrix material was performed at 950 °C. The
as they are relatively simple and economical. These processes include maximum hardness and compressive strength achieved were 751 HV
either the infiltration methods of molten metal into preforms or fibre and 932 MPa respectively. Fig. 9 shows a typical setup used for melt
pack or by the casting methods such as mixing of molten metal with infiltration. Gecu et al. [69] studied 304 SS chips which were added to
reinforcement particles. Infiltration methods include melt, pressure, gas the molten A356 alloy through melt infiltration method performed at
pressure, vacuum pressure, vapour, high pressure centrifugal and 730 °C. It was identified that the sufficient preheating temperature
squeeze casting. Casting methods include processes such as stir gravity, improved the tribological properties of the composite.

Fig. 3. Evolution of the production process for MMCs (Source: www.scopus.com) [24,29–56].

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 4. Classification of the various production process for MMCs.

method. The work instituted that the pressure infiltration method can
be used to produce Al/GNPs composites with excellent mechanical
properties such as an increase in yield and tensile strength without the
formation of aluminium carbide. Blucher [71] determined that the
pressure infiltration method is suitable to produce composite parts
economically. Compared to other production techniques, pressure
infiltration method offers exceptional quality since the casting does
not depend on matrix wetting the reinforcement [72]. Guo et al. [73]
revealed that the pressure infiltration method shows better thermal
conductivity due to the enhanced interface bonding between diamond/
Al-12.2Si composites. Narciso et al. [74] fabricated Al-12Si/graphite
composites and obtained good mechanical and thermal properties
which are suitable for the production of piston engines.

2.2.1.3. Gas pressure infiltration. Gas pressure infiltration is a forced

infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of MMCs, using a
pressurized gas for applying pressure on the molten metal and forging
it to penetrate a preformed dispersed phase. This process is shown in
Fig. 11. Li et al. [75] successfully prepared Al/diamond composites by
gas pressure infiltration in a nitrogen atmosphere, which resulted in
avoiding the formation of aluminium carbide and improved thermal
conductivity [76].

Fig. 5. Spark plasma sintering [Redrawn from [57]].

2.2.1.4. Vacuum pressure infiltration. Vacuum pressure infiltration
process is carried out using increased gas pressure. The reinforcing
2.2.1.2. Pressure infiltration. Pressure infiltration process is used for preform is placed in a mould consisting of a metal cylinder. A vacuum
making high reinforcement content in which molten metal or alloy is pump is connected between the mould and the metal bath. When the
solidified in a mould packed with a reinforcement material. This vacuum pump is switched on, molten metal is drawn into the preform.
process is shown in Fig. 10. Yang et al. [70] investigated graphene This process is shown in Fig. 12. Ma et al. [78] effectively fabricated 2-
nanoplates reinforced pure Al composites by the pressure infiltration D carbon fibre reinforced aluminium matrix (Cf/Al) composite by

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 6. High-energy ball milling and sintering [Redrawn from [59]].

applying vacuum pressure infiltration technique. The ultimate tensile fabricated for this purpose have the potential to become future
strength is highly dependent on the appropriate specific pressure fabrication process for the production of MMCs.
applied. The porosity level is considerably reduced in this technique.
2.2.1.7. Squeeze casting infiltration. Squeeze casting infiltration method
2.2.1.5. Vapor infiltration. Vapour infiltration is a process in which is a process of applying a ram force to the molten metal. Aluminium is
matrix material is infiltrated into fibrous preforms with the aid of in a molten state and infiltrates the preform from the top end to the
reactive gases at elevated temperature to form a reinforced composite. bottom end under the squeeze pressure. This method is similar to that of
Vapour deposition is particularly useful for porous substrates, whereby a conventional squeeze casting technique. Maj et al. [82] investigated
the solid materials such as carbon, SiC, and other porous materials are the microstructure, and mechanical properties of AlSi12/Al2O3
infiltrated by matrix material from a mixture of CH4 in an H2 carrier gas fabricated using squeeze casting infiltration method shown in Fig. 15.
at the elevated temperature illustrated in Fig. 13. Han et al. [79] They obtained better hardness compared with as-cast material.
prepared porous silicon carbide nanowire/silicon carbide (SiCnw/SiC) Alhashmy and Nganbe [83] successfully fabricated carbon fibre
composites by chemical vapour infiltration which resulted in excellent reinforced aluminium matrix composites by using squeeze casting
mechanical properties and poor microwave absorption properties. Mu infiltration technique which resulted in improving wettability and
et al. [80] fabricated SiCf/BN/SiC composites which resulted in high homogeneous distribution. Squeeze casting assisted pressurization for
flexural strength. the infiltration of reinforced particle preforms and prevented the
formation of aluminium carbide [84].
2.2.1.6. High-pressure centrifugal infiltration. High-pressure centrifugal
infiltration is a process in which a mould containing packed ceramic 2.2.2. Casting methods
preform located at the end of an elongated runner is rotated. By Casting is one of the primary and established manufacturing pro-
controlling the metal level above the preform in the runner to be higher cesses that are capable of producing complex shapes in a variety of
and constant throughout the infiltration process, significantly higher materials economically. In the casting process, molten metal is poured
pressures are obtained. To fabricate MMCs, infiltration can also be into a mould or a cavity and allowed to solidify to form a predefined
achieved by using a high-pressure centrifugal force. Wannasin and shape. Primary applications include lathe bed, the structure of the
Flemings [81] designed and constructed the high-pressure centrifugal milling machine, IC engine components, etc. The casted components
infiltration equipment for the fabrication of MMC and is shown in generally have high compressive strength. This method is considered as
Fig. 14. The primary results proved the new equipment designed and cheapest among all manufacturing processes [86].

Fig. 7. Vacuum/gas sintering [Redrawn from [62]].

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

2.2.2.1. Stir/gravity casting. Stir casting is a process of mixing dispersed

phase ceramic particles or short fibres with a molten matrix metal using
mechanical stirring. Ravikumar et al. [87] fabricated A6063/TiC
composite by using stir gravity casting method as shown in Fig. 16
and reported that the addition of reinforcement into the matrix
improved the mechanical properties such as hardness and tensile
strength. Rohatgi et al. [88] attempted to add fly ash into A356 alloy
by using melt stirring furnace and reported that the addition of fly ash
could make automobile parts lighter and cheaper.

2.2.2.2. Centrifugal casting. Centrifugal casting is a method of

producing cast material by driving the molten metal into a fast
rotating mould. Centrifugal casting is a relatively economical process
in which the metal is flung out towards the mould surface by centrifugal
force under substantial pressure. It is mainly classified into horizontal
and vertical axis centrifugal casting. Fig. 17 shows a typical horizontal
centrifugal casting machine.
Adelakin and Suárez [89] studied the effect of casting parameters on
the fabricated Al–B–Mg composites by using centrifugal casting
method. In this method, the centrifugal caster consisted of an articu-
lated free arm connecting a preheated scoop that spins around a vertical
axle driven by an electric motor. The centrifugal casting resulted in
good mould filling combined with good microstructure control and
Fig. 8. Microwave sintering [Redrawn from [66]]. brilliant mechanical properties. Wang et al. [90] studied the transfer
behaviour in the centrifugal casting of SiC/Al composites under cen-
trifugal force. Microstructure result shows most SiC particles drifted to
the peripheral region of the castings under the centrifugal action, re-
sulting in non-homogeneous particle distribution. The piston made
using centrifugal casting with optimal process parameters shows the
best wear resistance behaviour [91].

2.2.2.3. Squeeze casting. Squeeze casting is a combination of casting

and hydraulic forging as schematically shown in Fig. 18. In this process,
the liquid metal is poured into the die and immediately forged using the
hydraulic press at high pressure. The runway is connected between
bottom pouring and the mould to transfer molten metal from the
furnace to the die. Venkatesan and Anthony Xavior [93] fabricated
AA7050 aluminium alloy reinforced with graphene nanoparticles using
stir and squeeze casting techniques. 0.3% of Graphene particles with
aluminium matrix showed a uniform distribution of particles. The
maximum tensile strength of 255 MPa was obtained at 0.3 wt% of
graphene particles.

2.2.2.4. Vacuum die casting. In vacuum die casting, the die is kept at a
Fig. 9. Melt infiltration [Redrawn from [68]]. vacuum condition to remove the gases from the melt. The schematic
diagram of this process is shown in Fig. 19. The main advantages of this
method is reduced porosity in the casting by reducing gasses in the
melt. Strength and cast density are increased through this process. Yu Li
et al. [94] fabricated large-scale AA6061-31%B4C through
sophisticated stir vacuum casting route. SEM revealed B4C particles
are uniformly distributed and well dispersed within the matrix material.
Composite had a tensile strength of 340 MPa which is improved by
112.5% compared with AA1100-31%B4C.

2.3. Other processes

In addition to solid and liquid state processing routes for the pro-
duction of MMCs, there are other techniques such as semi-solid pro-
cesses that could also be used but are not that popular when compared
to the solid and liquid state processing routes. The following sections
discuss some of the prominent ones.

Fig. 10. Pressure infiltration [Redrawn from [70]]. 2.3.1. Compocasting

Compocasting is a liquid state process in which it involves the ad-
dition of preheated [95] reinforcement particles into SSM at a tem-
perature of around 690 °C [96] using strenuous agitation [97]. Fig. 20

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 11. Gas pressure infiltration [Redrawn from [77]].

clustering [99] and lead to better distribution of the reinforcement

particles [100], grain refinement of the matrix and extremely low
porosity than the stir casting process. The primary advantages of
compocasting lie in high production cycle time [101], lower processing
temperature which helps to extend die life significantly [102]. The
wettability is also improved since stirring is carried out within the
freezing temperature range of the aluminium alloy [97]. Electro-
magnetic stirring is one of the common ways to create globular struc-
ture in metals. In this method, the desired metal is stirred in the range
of semi-solid temperature by rotating Lorentz force resulting from the
magnetic field of coils, and consequently, the dendritic cast structure is
transformed into a globular structure [98]. Composite produced
through compocasting by electromagnetic stirring enhances mechanical
properties such as hardness, yield strength, UTS [103] and improved
wear properties [104] while the ductility of the aluminium matrix is
retained [105]. The application of this technique is still in its early
stage, and some brake cylinders and pistons have been manufactured by
this process [100]. Soorya Prakash Kumarasamy et al. [96] fabricated
Fig. 12. Vacuum pressure infiltration [Redrawn from [78]]. Al7075 reinforced with flyash cenosphere and Gr particles by using a
two-step compocasting method. This study is exclusively conducted
with the possibility of improving the mechanical properties for worm
shows the primary solid particles converted into the semi-solid slurry gear production in the aerospace industry. Micrograph confirmed
that is then poured into the die cavity and squeezed during the solidi- homogenous distribution of reinforcement particles. With the addition
fication. The slurry agitation can be made by mechanical vibration, of 10% fly ash cenosphere and 2%, Gr the maximum hardness attained
mechanical stirring, electromagnetic stirring (EMS) and cooling slope was 62 HRB and tensile strength up to 213 MPa.
techniques [98] to distribute the reinforcing particles. The primary
solid particles formed in the semi-solid slurry reduce agglomeration or

Fig. 13. Vapor infiltration [Redrawn from [61]].

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Fig. 14. High-pressure centrifugal infiltration [Redrawn from [81]].

material that is later heated into the semisolid range [102]. In a rheo-
casting process, a semi-solid slurry is prepared from the molten alloy by
shearing action, and the reinforcement particles are mechanically en-
trapped during the solidification process. The prepared slurries are di-
rectly transferred to a die for component shaping. Compared to thix-
ocasting, rheocasting possesses many superiorities such as energy
saving, in-house scrap recycling, and no special solid billet materials as
feed stock required. This process has therefore recently become the
preferred manufacturing process due to its cost efficiency and high
productivity for producing SSM [107]. The particle distribution of MMC
is much improved by intensive shearing, and an excellent micro-
structure refinement occurs as an effect of the pressure application
[108]. Settling of particles or agglomeration can be prevented through
this process since the reinforcing particles are added when the alloy is
in partially solid condition. In the rheocasting process, the reinforce-
ments should be stable in the given working temperature and non-re-
active too. The most commonly used reinforcements are silicon carbide
and aluminium oxide. The schematic diagram explaining this process is
Fig. 15. Squeeze casting infiltration [Redrawn from [85]]. shown in Fig. 21. High-quality cast components of metal matrix com-
posites such as complex parts, porosity-free, reduced shrinkage, ex-
cellent mechanical performance, excellent metal filling, heat treatable
and good surface finish can be produced using this method. Rheo-
squeeze cast MMC offer superior wear properties as compared to other
methods of casting [108]. Rheocast parts exhibit a significant im-
provement of tensile properties over the gravity cast parts [107]. The
main limitation of this process is that the production facilities need a
high level of technology and operators to require similar knowledge
and training. Curle and Ivanchev [109] successfully fabricated com-
posite plates using rheocast process with the combination of Al 359
reinforced with SiC. They identified that the hardness of the composite
material increases from 73 to 93 HRB with an increase in the volume
fraction of SiC particles. The wear rate of the composite material at-
tained a maximum of 192 mg min−1 when 11% of SiC is added in the
matrix.

2.3.3. In situ
In situ fabrication of MMCs is a process, in which dispersed phase is
formed in the matrix as a result of precipitation from the melt during its
cooling and solidification. Liu et al. fabricated Al (A380) alloy re-
inforced with TiB2 particles using in situ process through the chemical
reaction of K2TiF6 and KBF4 salt. The microstructural analyses revealed
that the alloying elements play a significant role in the formation and
Fig. 16. Gravity casting [Redrawn from [87]]. growth of the in situ particulate [111]. Ultimate tensile strength of
159.7 MPa was achieved with the addition of TiB2 particulates. The
2.3.2. Rheocasting yield strength is also increased by approximately 65% with the addition
The two main routes for producing semisolid aluminium parts are of in situ TiB2 particulates, reaching 66.8 MPa.
thixocasting and rheocasting. Thixocasting involves a special feed stock

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Fig. 17. Centrifugal casting [Redrawn from [92]].

2.3.4. Spray deposition

Spray deposition is a process of atomizing matrix material into a
fine diffusion of droplets through pressure controlled inert gas jets into
which heated reinforcement particles are injected as shown in Fig. 22.
Srivatsan and Lavernia [35] reviewed and discussed various synthesis
techniques for producing MMCs through particulate technology and
identified that the spray deposition like the one shown in Fig. 23 brings
excellent prospect to fabricate good quality MMCs. Mistry and Gohil
[27] presented a comprehensive review of diverse types of fabrication
processes and mechanical characterization of MMCs and its application
in different fields. They identified that Spray deposition process offers
higher production rate and lower solidification time that benefits the
MMC to achieve minimum reaction of matrix material with reinforce-
ment

2.3.5. Screw extruder

Metal injection moulding or screw extrusion shown in Fig. 24 is a
continuous solid-state processing method which can be used to fabri-
cate near net shape MMC's. In this process, fine granules of matrix
material are continuously feed through feed hopper. The motor con-
nected to feedscrew pushes the granules forward at a controlled speed Fig. 19. Vacuum die casting.
through three different zones such as throat cooling zone, a compres-
sion zone and melt pumping zone and finally extruded through a die.
This method is capable for mass production of any complex shape at a

Fig. 18. Squeeze casting.

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Fig. 20. Compocasting of MMC [Redrawn from [106]].

2.3.6. Accumulative roll bonding

Accumulative roll bonding is the process of interfacing two or more
alloy strips which are put together by rolling as shown in Fig. 25. To
form the perfect bonding between each strip, enough pressure should
be applied [113]. Reihanian et al. [114] developed an analytical model
to predict the critical strain to obtain a uniform distribution of particles.
In the model, the effect of size, volume fraction and initial thickness of
reinforcement were considered. The result predicted the composite
with well-distributed particles.

2.4. Comparison of processes used for the production of MMCs

Table 1 compares the various production processes used in the

production of MMCs with their advantages and disadvantages. The
properties and applications are more specific to the particular combi-
nation of matrix and reinforcement mentioned in the MMCs column and
so should not be considered as general. ISO designation for the matrix is
included to know the composition of the Al alloy easily.
Solid state processing such as powder metallurgy produces good
quality MMCs. Powder metallurgy route involves the homogeneous
Fig. 21. Rheocasting of MMC [Redrawn from [[110]]. distribution of reinforcement within the matrix material. SPS is capable
of achieving uniform sintering. HEBMS is necessary to assure homo-
geneous distribution of reinforcement. Rapid Vacuum Sintering can be
used for large-scale production with better mechanical properties.
Microwave sintering reduces energy consumption and improves the
physical and mechanical properties. However, Solid state processing is
limited to simple-shaped components with low content of reinforce-
ment.
The stir casting process is simplest, economical and most commer-
cially used technique in liquid state processing. There are some chal-
lenges associated with the stir casting process, primarily to maintain
wettability (intimate bonding between liquid and solid phase).
Secondarily to produce MMC with a homogeneous distribution of the
particles, less porosity, and excellent mechanical properties is also a
challenge. Unwanted chemical reactions between the matrix and re-
inforcement and poor wettability of reinforcements with the molten
matrix create a nonuniform distribution of particles. Gas entrapment
and slag in the melt leads to high porosity and micro defects. These
Fig. 22. Spray deposition [Redrawn from [35]]. challenges can be overcome using appropriate stir casting design for the
production of, especially AMMCs which is discussed thoroughly in the
reasonable production cost. Ye et al. [112] has reviewed extensively on following section. Although these furnaces could be modified to pro-
the fabrication of MMC's using metal injection moulding and revelled duce Mg or other MMCs, the focus here is on AMMCs because of its
that this process is economical for the fabrication of tiny, complex parts more extensive applications and more straightforward production
due to its shaping capabilities. process. The available number of research articles published on the
production of AMMCs from 2007-2017 was 12,375 based on Scopus
database search (Search Terms: Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites;

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materials.
3. Minimizing the percentage of porosity in the cast MMCs.
4. Avoiding chemical reactions between the reinforcement material
and matrix alloy.
5. Avoiding the reaction of the melt with the atmospheric element.

Stir casting furnace is broadly classified based on the melting

method used and is shown in Fig. 27. The following sub-sections discuss
the various stir casting furnaces briefly in each classification with the
help of a schematic diagram. The most commonly used is the one based
on electrical energy and is discussed elaborately. In the last subsection,
all the stir casting furnace discussed are assessed which could be of use
to select an appropriate furnace for a specific application.

3.1. Coal-fired stir casting

In this process, the matrix material is melted in a crucible by using a

coal-fired furnace. The blower is used to draw heat from the furnace
and distribute it throughout the crucible. The stirring is activated using
the motor on top of the stirrer. Reinforcement is added to the matrix
Fig. 23. Spray deposition [Redrawn from [27]]. after stirring the matrix material for a certain amount of time. Annigeri
Veeresh Kumar [122] reviewed different methods of producing MMC
and the most basic type being the coal-fired furnace shown in Fig. 28.
Production Method Names) conducted on 21st March 2018. The fre-
Singh et al. [123] studied the effect of different particle size of SiC and
quently used methods were identified and presented using the pie chart.
Al2O3 reinforcement as hybrid solute on wear properties of aluminium
The number of documents published under the three major topics such
matrix composite (AMC) carried out in a graphite crucible using a coal-
as casting, powder metallurgy and infiltration is shown in Fig. 26. It
fired furnace at 760 °C temperature.
depicts that in the casting process, stir and the combination of a stir
with squeeze generated around 2588 documents in a decade. The
maximum number of documents published are 620 and 951 in plasma 3.2. Electrical stir casting
sintering under powder metallurgy and pressure infiltration under in-
filtration method respectively. Based on this survey, it is concluded that Stir casting furnace using electrical energy is the most common and
the worldwide research is progressing in the field of casting especially among that electrical resistance is the most frequently used technique
in stir and stir with a squeeze for the production of MMCs. and is discussed in the following sub-sections.

3. Stir casting furnace design used for the production of AMMCs 3.2.1. Stir casting using resistance heating
Conventional resistance stir casting is the process of stirring parti-
Stir casting is a liquid state primary manufacturing process for the cles into the alloy melt. The melt is then immediately poured into the
production of MMCs. Stir casting is a process of mixing dispersed phase sand mould and allowed to solidify. Rohatgi et al. [88] successfully
ceramic particles or short fibres in a molten matrix metal using me- produced Al(A356) with 10% fly ash composite using conventional stir
chanical stirring. Its advantages lie in its simplicity, flexibility, and casting shown in Fig. 29, that yielded better tensile strength. Increase in
applicability to large quantity with low-cost production. There are some fly ash content improves hardness and wear resistance. Composite can
critical factors to be considered while choosing stir casting methods and be used for automobile products; house holds items and other products.
are listed below: As a concluding remark, they mentioned that the production of com-
posites using waste or reusable materials would benefit in pollution
1. Achieving a uniform distribution of particles in the cast MMCs. control and reduced energy consumption. Balasubramanian and Ma-
2. Achieving perfect bonding between matrix and reinforcement heswaran [124] investigated the effect of adding SiC particles on the
mechanical resistance behaviour of stir-cast AA6063/SiC 0, 5, 10, 15%

Fig. 24. Screw extruder [Redrawn from [112]].

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Fig. 25. Accumulative roll bonding [Redrawn from [115]].

composites using conventional stir casting with melt temperature more maximum load of 25 N.
than 700 °C. The composite had an increase of approximately 50% in
hardness and tensile strength when adding appropriate weight per- 3.2.5. Modified stir casting
centage of SiC particles [125]. Singh et al. [133] developed a low-cost production method for the
production of MMCs. The stir squeeze casting setup designed mainly for
3.2.2. Quick quench stir casting the production of near net shape MMC parts. This setup consists of five
A quick quenched stir casting process can also be used to produce processes in one equipment such as melting, stirring, squeezing, bottom
MMCs. The stir casting furnace was mounted on four legs and attached pouring, quenching as shown in Fig. 33. Through the simulation and
to a steel table. A screw driven actuator lift was bolted vertically un- experimentation investigation, they reported that the reinforcements
derneath the table. Through this arrangement, the crucible can be easily were uniformly distributed in the developed MMCs.
extracted from the furnace. This process is schematically shown in
Fig. 30. Naher et al. [126] developed Al–SiC composite using quick 3.2.6. Ultrasonic processing of composites
quench stir casting. An actuator connected to the rig enables the Srivastava et al. [134] fabricated Al6061 alloy with 1% nano Al2O3
stainless steel crucible to be extracted from the furnace immediately composites at different temperatures by using ultrasound solidification
after casting for quick solidification that results in uniform distribution technique (UST). The schematic of the production process is shown in
of the particles. Fig. 34. This process consists of an electric resistance furnace, ultrasonic
unit, thermocouple, and controlled argon atmosphere. An ultrasonic
3.2.3. Two-step stir casting probe vibrates with an operating frequency of 20 kHz and is inserted
Sambathkumar et al. [127] studied mechanical and corrosion be- into molten metal for approximately 3 min. The result proved excep-
haviour of Al7075 hybrid 0–15 vol% SiC and TiC using two-step stir tional distribution of reinforcement obtained in composite specimens
casting method equipped with a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) due to ultrasonic treatment. Meanwhile, due to high melt viscosity,
controller. In this process, melting was carried out in the furnace some agglomerates of particles are also observed in the composite.
equipped with a fire resistant stirring motor and speed regulator that is
used for stirring. The produced composite showed higher tensile 3.2.7. Stir casting process under a modified inert atmosphere
strength and hardness compared to base alloy. Radhika and Charan The setup shown in Fig. 35 is similar to the conventional stir casting
et al. [128] fabricated LM 25 with 10% TiC particles through a two-step with bottom pouring arrangement. However, to distribute the re-
stir casting route as shown in Fig. 31. Based on the experimental and inforcement homogenously and to avoid reaction with atmosphere, an
statistical results they concluded that the increase in load is directly inert gas flow is released to the crucible through reinforcement
proportional to the wear rate. Particles are well distributed when an chamber. The flow of reinforcement can be controlled by adjusting the
optimal 10% reinforcement is used. Pazhouhanfar and Eghbali [129] pressure of the inert gas. Amirkhanlou and Niroumand [47] produced
synthesized Al6061-3, 6, 7% TiB2 composite using stir casting furnace Al 356/5% SiC by injecting ball milled SiC particles through Argon gas
and studied its mechanical properties along with microstructural as a carrier gas into the molten alloy. This process consists of dual
characterization. Tensile test result proved there is a significant im- connection from the inert gas source. One connection controls the flow
provement in the ultimate tensile strength of the fabricated composites of reinforcement into the melt by adjusting the gas pressure, and the
(257 MPa) by adding 9 wt% TiB2 reinforcement particles which are other connection bypasses the reinforcement chamber and supplies the
29.2% higher than that of the virgin alloy. gas directly into the casting chamber. The addition of fine particles to
the melt resulted in the homogeneous distribution of particles, im-
3.2.4. Stir casting process under an inert atmosphere proved wettability, improved mechanical properties and decreased the
Gopalakrishnan and Murugan [130] produced an Al-TiC composite percentage of porosity.
by improved conventional stir casting method by attaching a controlled
bottom pouring arrangement under an inert gas atmosphere as shown 3.2.8. Bottom pouring stir casting set up with squeeze casting attachment
in Fig. 32. This arrangement helped in avoiding the reaction of molten Kannan and Ramanujam [135] produced hybrid AA 7075/4% SiC
aluminium with the open atmosphere. Josyula and Narala [131] suc- and 2–4% nano Al2O3 composite using stir-squeeze casting arrange-
cessfully fabricated Al-5%TiC composite. Throughout the process of ment. In this process, the furnace is a typical stir casting with bottom
composite production, a blanket of argon gas was released around the pouring arrangement but has a provision for applying squeeze pressure
melt to prevent oxidization reactions. It was observed that there is a on the casting during solidification which helps in reducing porosity
drastic reduction in wear rate in the developed composite at a and improving the mechanical properties. Once the furnace valve is

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 Table 1
Metal matrix composites production processes and its properties.
Process MMCs Properties Advantages Disadvantages Application References

SPS Al-Al2O3 & Al–SiC Hardness 324.6 HV Uniform sintering Only simple symmetrical shapes may be Armour, nozzle [57]
A. Ramanathan, et al.

Compaction and sintering stages are prepared

combined in one operation Expensive pulsed DC generator is required
Expensive process

HEBMS Al-Al2O3 Hardness 93.9 HV0.05 Homogeneous mixing and uniform High-quality ball mills are potentially Refractory and structural [61,116]
distribution expensive
Good flowability

RVS MgO-doped Al2O3 Good controllability Expensive process Hard metal tools, micro drills [64]
Large-scale features
Large-scale production
Minimum porosity
Homogeneous microstructure
Best hardness

MS Al 5%, Ti 0.5%, SiC Hardness 65.46 ± 0.58 Reduced energy consumption Suitable only for specific material which Bio medical applications [66]
HR15T Very rapid heating rates possesses dielectric properties and not
Tensile 183.9 MPa Decreased sintering temperature suitable for silicon nitride (Si3N4) and
Improved physical and mechanical alumina (Al2O3)
properties

MI Al/Ti3SiC Hardness 751 HV, Improved wear property Limited temperature and depth causes Space, defense, industrial [68]
Compressive strength Cost-effective blockage in infiltration
750 MPa Ultra-high-temperature capability

PI Al/GNPs Tensile 250 MPa Improved tribological property High tooling cost Piston engines [70]
Economical for large-scale production High porosity Wheels

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Not suitable for large casting Electric motor housing

GPI Aluminium alloy AlSi12/ Improved thermal conductivity Production rate lower than squeeze casting Brake callipers, hydraulic components [77]
Metallic glass Ni60Nb20Ta20 Capable for high melt temperature Cost of high pressurized inert gas
flakes Possible to produce any combination of Slower solidification process
matrix and reinforcement
For manufacturing large composite parts

VPI 2D-Cf/Al Tensile 281.2 MPa Reduced porosity Slower solidification process Electronic packaging [78]
Improved ultimate tensile strength Lack of wettability
Near net shaped composite can be obtained Crack formation

VI SiCnw/SiC Low residual stress Low production rate Heat exchangers, burner and flame tubes [79]
Complex shapes can be produced Very high porosity level
Improved mechanical properties High production and capital cost
Minimum fibrous damage

HPCI Sn-15 wt% Pb/SiC, TiC and Higher production rate, larger part size Requires ultra powerful drive system Conrod for the control surface [81]
Al2O3 compared to gas pressure Additional processing time requires
Variety of part geometry, part size
compared to squeeze casting

Squeeze casting infiltration AlSi12/Al2O3 Hardness 492 HV10 Improves wettability Limited flexibility in part geometry Engine block, brake disc, piston, fuel [82]
Homogeneity Less productivity pipe, rack housing, suspension arm,
Less shrinkage porosity High pressure and tooling cost brake calliper, pump case, flange,
Reduced casting defects connecting rod

Stir/gravity casting A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/10% fly ash Tensile 45–62 MPa Simplest process Additional heat treatment required to get Manifolds, cylinder heads, water pump [88,117]
Suitable for mass production good mechanical properties housings
Suitable for fully mechanized casting Relatively slow process

(continued on next page)

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245
 Table 1 (continued)

Process MMCs Properties Advantages Disadvantages Application References

Centrifugal casting Al–B–Mg Hardness 80 –90 Better mould filling Poor casting at inner surfaces Automotive piston [91] [89]
Dense grain structure Sewerage pipes
A. Ramanathan, et al.

Virtually free from porosity Brake rotors

Hollow interiors without cores Paper mill rolls
High mechanical strength Textile mill rolls
Wall thickness can be controlled Nozzles
High wear resistance Liners for IC engines

Squeeze casting AA7050 (AlZn6CuMgZr)/ UTS 255 MPa Uniform distribution of reinforcement Additional setup and so increases the cost of Aerospace and automotive industries as [93]
0.3% graphene particle at 0.3% graphene production well as for thermal management

Vacuum casting AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)-31% UTS 340 MPa B4C particles are uniformly distributed and Additional attachment and higher cost of Automotive, aerospace, the military and [94]
B4 C well dispersed within the matrix material vacuum pump and connections nuclear industry

Compocasting Al7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu)-fly ash Hardness 62 HRB, tensile Homogenous distribution of reinforcement Semi-solid route suffers from porosity and Worm gear production in the aerospace [96]
cenosphere, Gr strength 213 MPa particles is achieved processing difficulties due to high viscosity industry
Improved wettability between and precise control of the process parameters
reinforcement particles and matrix alloy [118]

Rheocasting Al356 (Al-Si7Mg)-SiC Hardness 73–93 HRB Complex parts, porosity-free, reduced Complex and expensive technology Wear-resistant components [109]
shrinkage, excellent mechanical
performance, heat treatable and good
surface finish

In situ A380 (Al-Si8Cu3Fe)-TiB2 UTS 159.7 MPa Good bonding between the particle and the Ductility reduces with the increase in Automobile and aerospace industries [111]
matrix, which will enhance the high- reinforcement fraction
temperature properties

Spray atomization and LM13 (Al-Si12Cu)/Zircon Hardness 80 HV Flexibility Costly capital equipment, porosity Automotive industry [119]

227
deposition processing Good interfacial bonding

Screw extruder/Metal AA6016 (AlMg1SiCu)/ Hardness 46.6 HV, Good dispersion Only small parts can be manufactured using Electronic industry, electronic [120]
injection moulding (0–20 wt%) graphite compression strength High hardness value small packaging, heat sinks, heat spreaders,
248 MPa Superior wear resistance base plates, coolers, discs and rings
Mass production of small and intricate
parts
Precise

Accumulative roll bonding AA1050/NanoTiC UTS 58 MPa High corrosion resistance Requires large load capabilities Structural, automotive applications [121]
High strength Expensive dies
Low production rate
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245
A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 26. Number of publications on aluminium metal matrix composites during 2007–2017 (Source: www.scopus.com).

Fig. 27. Stir casting process variants.

opened using automatic control, the molten mixture is conveyed to the conventional casting namely uniform distribution of the reinforcement
die through a runway preheater which maintains the temperature of the and interfacial integrity between the reinforcement and the matrix that
melt. This process is shown in Fig. 18. The maximum squeeze pressure strongly influences the mechanical properties. The DMD technique is a
of 101 MPa was applied. They reported that the end effect of using stir- modification of the spray atomization and deposition technique de-
squeeze casting process improved the hardness to 81.1%, ductility to veloped by them earlier. In this process, the composite melt prepared
31.6%, impact strength to 106.3% and the ultimate tensile strength to though mechanical stir casting is poured through a centrally drilled
92.3% than that of the base alloy. hole in the graphite crucible and the stream of the melt is disintegrated
using two linear argon gas jets at an angle normal to melt stream. The
3.2.9. Disintegrated Melt Deposition (DMD) composite melt slurry is subsequently deposited on a metallic substrate
Gupta et al. [136] investigated a novel technique termed as “Dis- located at a certain distance from the gas integration point. This process
integrated Melt Deposition (DMD)” to overcome the issues with is shown in Fig. 36. Using DMD process, Gupta et al. [136] produced

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 28. Coal-fired stir casting [Redrawn from [122]].

Fig. 30. Quick quench stir casting [Redrawn from [126]].

Fig. 29. Conventional resistance stir casting [Redrawn from [10]].

successfully an aluminium-based MMCs containing up to 14.5 wt% of

SiC particulates. They observed an increase in the UTS value and at-
tributed it to the DMD technique which enabled to achieve uniform
distribution of the SiC particles as well as superior interfacial integrity
with the Al-Cu matrix.

3.3. Electromagnetic stir casting

Prakash et al. [138] produced A356/5%SiC composite using elec-

tromagnetic stir casting as shown in Fig. 37. The SiC particles mix into
the molten metal above the liquidus temperature. An electromagnetic
Fig. 31. Two-step stir casting [Redrawn from [127]].
field produced through three-phase induction motor stirs the molten
material for a particular period at a particular stirring speed leading to
uniform distribution of particles resulting in lower casting defects and
improvement in fatigue strength. The MMC formed by this technique

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Fig. 32. Stir casting process under inert atmosphere [Redrawn from [132]].

Fig. 35. Stir casting process under modified inert atmosphere [Redrawn from
[47]].

3.4. Assessment of various stir casting furnace designs

Table 2 summarizes the various stir casting furnaces discussed in

this section that have been either developed by researchers or com-
Fig. 33. Modified stir casting setup [Redrawn from [133]]. mercially available ones used for the production of MMCs. This table
would be of immense help in understanding the furnace design ap-
have slightly better mechanical properties than those formed with the propriate for a given application or desired properties.
help of conventional stir casting process. Kumar et al. [139] produced
A359-2, 4, 6, 8% Al2O3 composite using an electromagnetic stir casting
4. Properties of AMMCs produced through various stir casting
at a melt temperature of 750 °C with a stirring speed of 300 rpm. The
processes
result proved that the addition of reinforcement in the matrix material
improved hardness and the ultimate tensile strength at 8% reinforce-
The properties of AMMCs can be tailored made to suit an applica-
ment addition to the matrix. In the mechanical stir casting process, the
tion by proper selection of matrix and reinforcement, stir casting pro-
stirrer mixes particles into the melt, but when stirring stops, the par-
cess parameters and additives to enhance the quality of the MMCs. This
ticles floats or settles depending on its density. However, in the elec-
section discusses the various matrix and reinforcement materials
tromagnetic stir casting process, the material rotates continuously by
available. Following this, the mechanical properties of AMMCs pro-
the electromagnetic field until solidification and this results in a
duced using the three prominent reinforcement materials namely
homogeneous distribution of the reinforcement particles.
Al2O3, SiC and B4C are listed and compared. The next subsection

Fig. 34. Ultrasonic processing of composites [Redrawn from [134]].

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

composition since different researchers use different grade designa-

tions.
Pure aluminium is not commercially used in any applications be-
cause of its low strength. The alloying elements such as silicon, zinc,
magnesium, copper, and manganese, etc. are added to increase the
mechanical properties using special processing techniques. Al 2024 has
copper as an alloying element resulting in poor weldability and rela-
tively low corrosion resistance. It can be used in automobile applica-
tions to reduce the weight of the vehicle. Al 6061 is the alloy of alu-
minium, silicon, and magnesium and it is the most versatile alloy in
aluminium series. However, it has medium strength when compared to
other Al alloys such as Al 2024 and Al 7075. Zinc and magnesium are
the alloying elements in Al 7075 alloy. Al 7075 alloy can be used in
many applications where high strength and corrosion resistance is re-
quired. Primarily, it can be used in coastal regions. LM25 and LM6
alloys can be recycled without any purification process and so can be
reused to prepare the MMCs. Thus depending upon the required
property in the AMMC, the matrix material can be selected using
Table 3.

4.2. Properties of various particulate reinforcement materials

The primary function of reinforcement particle is to reinforce the

matrix phase. The volume fraction of reinforcement typically is in the
range of 5–30% of the matrix material [147]. In most cases, 5–10%
would be sufficient for micron size particles and in the case of nano-
materials even less than 5% can result in significant improvement in the
mechanical properties. The reinforced MMCs can produce a range of
property enhancement over monolithic alloys. The materials used and
Fig. 36. Disintegrated melt deposition [Redrawn from [137]]. the salient properties achieved by researchers are shown in Table 4.
The organic reinforcements such as fly ash and red mud improve the
discusses the process parameters used in the stir casting process and strength of the composite reasonably, and the cost is meagre, but
concludes with additives that can be used to enhance the properties of comparatively, it has more porosity than other reinforcements. The
the produced MMCs. inorganic reinforcements such as Aluminium oxide and Silicon carbide
are extensively used to produce MMCs among the wide varieties of
reinforcements. Because the interfacial bonding between the matrix and
4.1. Properties of various matrix materials reinforcement are very high and hence produce high strength MMCs.
Boron carbide is a hard particle, and it can improve the strength of the
Aluminium (ore) is one of the most abundant metal that is available composite. It is more suitable for wear resistant automobile applica-
in the earth [141] and is also easily recyclable. There are several grades tions. Graphene and tungsten disulfide have the self-lubrication prop-
of aluminium alloys frequently used as the matrix material for the erty, and as such it is reinforced with the Al matrix for the sliding wear
production of AMMCs and the most commonly used matrix material applications especially for automobile moving parts such as a piston,
used by researchers are discussed with its properties and applications in cylinder, brakes, etc. Diamond has high thermal conductivity but is
the following Table 3. The ISO designation for the matrix material is relatively very expensive. Researchers have produced MMCs using the
included so that it is easier for the readers to relate to the material reinforcements mentioned in Table 4, and the selection of

Fig. 37. Electromagnetic stir casting [Redrawn from [140]].

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 Table 2
Various stir casting furnace design comparison including advantages and disadvantages.
S. no. Furnace design Advantages Disadvantages Remarks References

1 Coal-fired stir casting Less electricity consumption Solid waste by-product [122]
A. Ramanathan, et al.

2 Conventional stir casting Simple process Cluster formation Good mechanical properties and cost of production is competitively low [88]

3 Quick quench stir casting Homogeneous composite Low production rate Flexibility and applicability to large-scale production [126]
Simplicity
Flexibility

4 Two-step stir casting Uniform particle distribution Finer particles can be added resulting in superior mechanical properties [128,127]

5 Stir casting process under an inert Avoids the formation of undesired phases Increased porosity percentage Improved specific strength [130,131]
atmosphere Improved wear resistance

6 Modified stir casting setup Uniform distribution of particles – Nearnet-shape or net-shape of MMC parts can be produced [133]

7 Ultrasonic processing of composites Exceptional distribution of reinforcement Particle agglomeration Additional cost for ultrasonic [134]

8 Stir casting process under a modified inert Homogeneous distribution of particles and Injection of composite powder enhances the wettability and improves [47]
atmosphere improved wettability uniform distribution of particles

9 Bottom pouring stir casting set up with Significant reduction in porosity Relatively slow process and higher cost of the Improved overall mechanical properties [135]
squeeze casting attachment setup

10 Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) Superior interfacial integrity between The process is comparatively expensive and Improved overall mechanical properties [136]
matrix and reinforcement particles time-consuming

11 Electromagnetic stir casting Uniform particle distribution Moderately higher setup cost, excess EMS Produces cast MMC with smaller grain size and better particulate matrix [139]
Low porosity frequency causes large axial porosity interface bonding, improved tensile and hardness of the composite parts

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Table 3
Frequently used Al matrix materials for the production of AMMCs.
S. no. Matrix material Salient properties Applications References

1 Al Pure/AA1100 (Al99) Recyclability, ductility, workability and corrosion resistance Metal spinning, decorated foil pouches for food and drink, food packaging trays. [142]

2 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1) High strength to weight ratio, machining to a high surface finish, high fatigue Thin sheets, truck wheels, aircraft structures, screw machine products, scientific instruments, veterinary [142,143]
strength, high specific strength and orthopaedic braces, and rivets

3 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu) Excellent for heat treatment, easy to work, weld and machine the product with For all kind of structural applications especially a truck, marine frames, railroad cars, and pipelines [144]
reasonable strength

4 AA7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu) High fatigue strength, high corrosion resistance, reasonable machinability, high Rock climbing equipment, bicycle components, in line skating-frames and hang glider airframes [145]
strength-to-density ratio

5 A413/LM6 (AlMg6) Excellent fluidity property, high strength, good workability, and high resistance to Military and aerospace application due to its excellent joining characteristics [146]
corrosion

6 A356/LM25 (Al-Si7Mg) Excellent castability, machinability, wear resistance and lightweight Refractory in the thermal protection system, engine piston, moving parts in automobiles [132]
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 A. Ramanathan, et al.

Table 4
Salient properties of various particulate reinforcements used in the production of MMCs.
S. no. Reinforcement material Salient properties Applications References

1 Alumina High strength to weight ratio Brake discs, pistons, cylinder heads, connecting rods [148]
High hardness

2 SiC High hardness, stiffness, specific strength, and thermal properties. Pistons, brake rotors, callipers, liners, propeller shaft, connecting rod, brake rotors, driveshaft, engine [149,150]
Resistant to acids, alkalis and molten salts up to 800 °C cradle, brake disc on ICE bogies

3 B4 C High strength, low density, high hardness, excellent chemical stability, and Automotive applications [149]
neutron absorption capability

4 TiO2 Strong bonding, high tensile strength, hardness and impact strength Automobile applications [151]

5 SiO2 Superior mechanical and tribological properties Wear-resistant applications [152]

6 ZrO2 High hardness and wear resistance Pistons, cylinder liners, and connecting rods [153]

7 ZnO Semi-conductivity, wear resistance, vibration insulation, and microwave – [154]

absorption and antibacterial effects

8 TiN High strength and wear resistance Cutting tools, solar-control films, and other microelectronic applications. Excellent diffusion barrier against [154,155]
most of the metals

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9 BN High strength, low density, high hardness – [155]

10 Si3N4 High hardness and tensile strength Automotive parts [155]

11 TiC High wear resistance Pistons, connecting rods [150,156]

12 Fly ash Lower cost, high tensile strength, compressive strength, impact strength, and Covers, pans, shrouds, casings, pulleys, manifolds, valve covers, brake rotors, and engine blocks in [157,158]
hardness automobiles

13 CNT High strength-to-weight ratio, low density, increase in yield strength, tensile Brake shoes, cylinder liners and aircraft landing gears [153]
strength, ductility, and hardness

14 Graphite High thermal conductivity, the coefficient of thermal expansion and low density Cylinders, pistons, current collectors, base plates and coolers, heat sinks, heat spreaders, discs, and rings [150,153]

15 Red mud Low cost, tensile strength, compression strength, and hardness increased with the Aircraft industry, marine components, bicycle industry, drive shafts, electrical parts and equipment's, [159]
increase in the weight fraction brakes, fittings

16 TiB2 High strength and wear resistance High-tech structural and functional applications including aerospace, defense, automotive, and thermal [160]
management areas, as well as in sports and recreation.

17 ZrB2 High exothermic formation, thermodynamic stability, better bonding strength, Aerospace applications [155]
high hardness, and wear resistance

18 WS2 Self-lubrication, improved friction and wear properties. Moving parts of engines [155]

19 Diamond High thermal conductivity Diamond/Al spreader for GaN microwave transistors, water-cooled cold block, fins [153]
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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

of AMMCs, and so they are only discussed in this section. The high
interfacial bonding strength between the matrix and reinforcement of
Al2O3, SiC and B4C tend to increase the strength of the composite. The
total numbers of papers published in the SCOPUS database in the year
between 2008 and 2018 are shown in Fig. 38.

4.3.1. Al2O3
Among the several reinforcement particles, Al2O3 is most commonly
used next only to SiC because of its good interfacial compatibility and
non-degrading surface with liquid aluminium [161]. Table 5 sum-
marizes the mechanical properties of various AMMCs produced by re-
searchers worldwide in the last ten years using Al2O3 as reinforcement.

4.3.2. SiC
SiC is the most common reinforcement phase added to AMMCs.
Table 6 summarizes the mechanical properties of AMMCs produced
using SiC as reinforcement.

4.3.3. B4C
B4C is the also a standard material added to AMMC as reinforcement
next to SiC and Al2O3. When compared to other popular reinforce-
ments, B4C is expensive. Thus the research on B4C is not extensive.
However, it produces good bonding and excellent mechanical proper-
Fig. 38. No. of publications based on reinforcement type published in Scopus. ties. Table 7 summarizes the mechanical properties of AMMCs pro-
duced using B4C as reinforcement.
From Tables 5–7, it is observed that the particle size plays a sig-
reinforcement mainly depends on the applications of the MMCs. To
nificant role in improving the strength of the composite. In general, the
further increase the strength of the composite, reinforcement materials
hardness and strength are higher for the composite produced with nano
are mixed together and then added with a matrix to produce hybrid
particles. Also, the percentage of porosity is less for composite produced
composites. In the last decade with the advent of nano materials, most
with nano particles as reinforcement. Tables 5–7 could serve as a quick
of the reinforcements listed in Table 4 have also been used in their nm
reference in choosing an AMMC for desired mechanical properties/
size. Hybrid MMCs could also include a combination of the same re-
applications.
inforcement but both in micron and nm size or a mixture of different
reinforcement particles in micron and nm sizes. AMMCs produced using
4.4. Stir and squeeze casting process parameters influencing the mechanical
nm size reinforcement particles are also discussed in the following
properties of AMMCs
section. They have their own issues, e.g. CNT is used as reinforcement
to increase the strength of the composite, but the problem is agglom-
4.4.1. Important process parameters
eration. The CNT particles are agglomerated easily by the factors such
as melt temperature, stirring time and stirring speed and others.
• Squeeze pressure: It is the most influencing factor to improve the
quality of the MMCs. It improves the wettability and interfacial
4.3. Mechanical properties of AMMCs bonding between the matrix and reinforcement. The squeeze pres-
sure reduces the percentage of porosity by minimizing the nuclea-
Among the discussed reinforcement materials, Al2O3, SiC, and B4C tion of gas bubbles [197]. Also, it increases the cooling rate with the
are the most extensively used for improving the mechanical properties

Table 5
Properties of AMMCs produced using Al2O3 as reinforcement.
S. no. Composites Wt./vol. fraction (%) Casting method Particle size Porosity (%) Hardness Ultimate strength (MPa) References

1 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1)/Al2O3 10, 20 and 30 Stir 16, 32 and 66 (μm) 5 135 BHN 112 (T) [4]
2 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 1, 3, 5 and 7.5 Stir 20 μm 5.6 75 BHN 450 (C) [148]
3 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 1, 2, 3 and 4 Stir 50 nm 2.4 72 BHN 630 (C)
4 Al–4.5 wt% Cu/Al2O3 1.5 Stir 50 nm 2.1 92 HV 240 (C) [162]
5 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 1.5 Stir 20 nm 3.4 120 BHN 265 (T) [163]
6 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1)/Al2O3 5 Stir 50 μm 8.4 82 HV 224 (T) [164]
7 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 2.5 Stir 50 nm – 96 HR 182 (T) [165]
8 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1)/Al2O3 1 Stir 65 nm Low – 215 (T) [166]
9 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)/Al2O3 20 Stir 36 μm – 38 BHN – [167]
10 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 1 Stir + squeeze 30 – 70 HRB 220 (C) [168]
11 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/Al2O3 1.5 Stir 20 nm 2.7 – 190 (C) [169]
Yield
12 AA7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu)/Al2O3 6 Stir 20 μm – 120 HV 290 (T) [170]
13 A206 (Al-Cu5MnFe)/Al2O3 5 Stir 10 μm 8 – 220 (T) [171]
14 A206 (Al-Cu5MnFe)/Al2O3 5 Stir 100 nm 12.2 – 270 (T) [171]
15 AA7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu)/Al2O3 1.2 Stir 50 nm 4.3 160 HV 400 (T) [172]
760 (C)
16 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)/Al2O3 2 Stir + squeeze – Less 74 HB 193 (T) [173]
361 (C)

* (T) & (C) are the ultimate tensile and compressive strength values respectively.

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Table 6
Properties of composites produced using SiC as reinforcement.
S. no. Composites Weight/volume fraction (%) Casting method Particle size Porosity (%) Hardness Ultimate strength (MPa) References

1 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1)/SiC 5 Stir 18 μm 11.5 74 HV 192 (T) a

[164]
2 AA7075/SiC 20 Stir 36 μm – 50 HB – [167]
3 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)/SiC 6 Stir 20 μm – 90 HV 160 (T) [174]
4 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 10 Stir + squeeze 10 μm 4 66 HB 195 (T) [175]
5 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 10 Stir + squeeze 40 μm – 89 HB 245 (T) [9]
6 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 20 Stir + squeeze 12.6 μm – – 178 (T) [176]
7 AlSi7Mg2/SiC 15 Stir + squeeze 23 μm 10.5 98 HB 165 (T) [177]
8 Al-Si/SiC 3.5 Stir 50 nm 1.6 78 HB 280 (T) [178]
9 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 15 Stir – Low 95 HV 206 (T) [179]
10 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)/SiC 30 Stir + squeeze 16 μm Low 84 HB 200 (T) [180]
11 AA6061(AlMg1SiCu)/SiC 6 Stir 20 μm – 98 HV 270 (T) [170]
12 AA7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu)/SiC 6 Stir 150 μm Low 118 HB 269 (T) [181]
13 AlMg4.5Mn/SiC 5 Stir – Low 63.6 HB – [182]
14 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 10 Stir 7 μm – 141 HB 430 (T) [183]
33 μm 134 HB 380 (T)
15 AlMg4.5Mn/SiC 10 Stir 35 μm 2 77 HB 348 (C) [184]
16 Al/SiC 10 Stir 40 μm High 67 HB 205 (T) [185]
17 AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu)/SiC 15 Stir 35 μm – 82 HV 265 (T) [186]
18 A356 (Al-Si7Mg)/SiC 3.5 Stir 50 nm – – 280 (T) [187]
292 (C)

a
(T) & (C) are the ultimate tensile and compressive strength values respectively.

Table 7
Properties of composites produced using B4C as reinforcement.
S. no. Composites Weight/volume fraction (%) Casting method Particle size Porosity (%) Hardness Ultimate strength (MPa) References

1 Al/B4C 8 Stir 70 μm – 50 HV 140 (T) [188]

2 Al/B4C 8 Stir 80 nm – 54 HV 155 (T) [188]
3 A356(Al-Si7Mg)/B4C 10 Stir 20 μm – 74 BHN 265 (T) [189]
4 A356(Al-Si7Mg)/B4C 10 Squeeze 20 μm 2 68 BHN 270 (T) [189]
5 A356(Al-Si7Mg)/B4C 10 Stir 1 μm 1.8 77 BHN 142 (Y) [189]
6 AA6061(AlMg1SiCu)/B4C 15 Stir 60 μm – 80 VHN 260 (T) [190]
7 AA2024 (AlCu4Mg1)/B4C 30 Squeeze 33 μm 3 120 BHN 115 (T) [191]
8 AA7075 (Al-Zn6MgCu)/B4C 20 Stir 20 μm – 210 BHN 305 (T) [191]
340 (C)
9 Al/B4C 10 Squeeze 30 μm – 51 HV 132 (T) [191]
10 Al/B4C 15 Stir 1.8 77 BHN 210 (T) [192]
11 AA6061(AlMg1SiCu)/B4C 15 Stir 30 μm – 97 VHN 270 (T) [193]
12 A356(Al-Si7Mg)/B4C 15 Squeeze 10–21 μm 2.6 69 BHN 135 (Y) [194,195]
13 A356(Al-Si7Mg)/B4C 12.5 Squeeze 20 μm – 75 BHN – [196]

(Y), (T) & (C) is the yield, ultimate tensile and compressive strength values respectively

loss of heat through dies. usually and coated with zirconia to avoid the reaction between
• Reinforcement size: Particle size affects the strength of the mate- stainless steel and Al alloys at higher temperatures. The design of
rial in the stir casting process. The smaller the size, the superior are the impeller/blade is essential for creating the vortex and to achieve
the mechanical properties. the proper mixing of the melt.
• Stirring speed: The distribution of reinforcement particles in the • Die preheating temperature: This is also an influencing process
matrix is controlled by the viscosity of the aluminium melt, which parameter that can influence the property of MMCs. In the case of
plays a balancing role to ensure it is not too high to offer con- AlSi9Mg produced through the semisolid squeeze casting process,
siderable resistance for particle movement during stirring, and it the size and the shape factor of primary α-Al particles increases with
should not be too low so that it cannot suspend and hold the par- the increase in the die temperature. This resulted in an increase in
ticles. The inter-particle distance is increased by increasing the the mechanical properties, but however, above 300 °C, the shape
speed. The stirring speed depends on the profile of the stirrer blade, factor decreases suddenly resulting in lower mechanical properties
and so it is hard to specify a numerical value. [198]. Cold shut defect issues raise when the temperature of the die
• Stirring time: A homogeneous distribution of the particles is de- is too low which produce an adverse effect on the mechanical
sirable to maximize the mechanical properties. Higher stirring time properties. Excessive die temperature leads to a reduction in the life
gives uniform distribution and good space between the reinforce- of dies and affects the working conditions.
ment particles. However, the blade profile (shape) also plays a role
in deciding the stirring time and so it may not be appropriate to
specify precisely. 4.4.2. Methods for process parameters optimization

• Melt temperature: The high melt temperature may be desirable as Several optimization methods are used to optimize the process
parameters of the stir casting process. The most prominent ones are
it improves the wetting ability of the melt, but it reduces the visc-
osity of the melt. The particle agglomeration takes place when the Taguchi techniques, grey relational analysis, regression analysis, multi-
melt temperature is low. So it is required to maintain the melt at an objective Taguchi method, genetic algorithm, analysis of variance
optimum temperature. (ANOVA), fuzzy logic [199], swarm optimizer [200] and finite element

• Stirrer blade design: The stainless steel stirrer blade are used method. Vijian and Arunachalam [201] generated a mathematical
model using multi variable linear regression analysis. Based on the

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regression analysis, the objective functions are chosen for the genetic interfacial bond between the matrix and reinforcement due to the for-
algorithm using the weighted sum approach. A genetic algorithm is mation of the Ti layer around the particles occurred due to the addition
used as a tool to obtain better mechanical properties of the composites. of flux [214].
Senthil and Amirthagadeswaran [202] conducted experiments based on
the Taguchi technique for parameter optimization in the squeeze 4.6. Wetting agent
casting process. The confirmation test showed improved mechanical
properties in the produced composites. Goyal et al. [203] developed a Addition of a wetting agent is required to achieve a strong bonding
mathematical model and predicted the optimum process parameters between the matrix alloy and the reinforcement particles by decreasing
using regression analysis technique. The optimum levels of parameters the surface energy (wetting angle) between them. It enhances the
produced improved mechanical properties, which was validated using fluidity of the molten metal. Segregation of wetting agent at the in-
ANOVA. Su et al. [204] analyzed the flow behaviour of particles during terface may change the nature of chemical bond locally at the interface
mixing process in the crucible using finite element method and in- and promote wetting. A chemical reaction at the interface may result in
vestigated the parameters such as blade angle, rotating speed, the a product covering the entire surface of the dispersoids. The porosity is
diameter of the impeller, and the stirrer geometry. Also, the author reduced by adding the wetting agent into the molten metal. The addi-
suggested the parameters level to get the uniform distribution in the stir tion of less than 2 wt.% of pure magnesium into the melt improved the
casting process. quality of the MMC [164]. Pure magnesium of 1 and 1.5% was added in
earlier works by Das et al. [215] and Kongshaug et al. [165] respec-
4.5. Additives to enhance the quality of the MMCs tively and reported that the porosity was decreased. Because of low
porosity, the mechanical properties of the produced AMMCs are en-
Several additives for enhancing the quality of the MMCs are avail- hanced. Mohammadpour et al. [216] tried with a different kind of
able. Among this Foseco [205] has a range of commercial additives commercially available wetting agent such as Mg, Ca, Si, Ti, Zn, Zr
such as grain refiners, degasser, covering flux and wetting agents which added into the aluminium melt and reported that 1% Mg was more
are discussed briefly in the following sub-sections. potent among other wetting agents in ceramic metal matric composites
[212].
4.5.1. Grain refiners
NUCLEANT 70 is a sodium free grain-refining tablet suitable for the 5. Challenges in the production of AMMCs using stir casting
production of AMMCs. This refiner is a self-sinking version that requires process
no plunging. Dipotassium hexafluorotitanate is used for the production
of aluminium alloys except for eutectic and hyper-eutectic alloys. It Stir casting is quite a widely used process for MMCs, but they suffer
produces fine dispersed highly efficient nuclei in the melt. ELDUCTAL from certain disadvantages which pose as challenges in production. The
90 S is a titanium-free grain refining tablet and is particularly re- following points summarize the challenges faced during the production
commended for high-conductivity aluminium and has a deleterious of AMMCs based on the assessment of literature and experience with
effect on electrical conductivity. PHOSPHORAL L 12 is a grain-refining producing AMMCs:
tablet for eutectic and hypereutectic materials. COVERAL MTS 1582 is
a sodium free grain refining flux specially developed to be used with the 1. Uniform distribution of reinforcement particles is a significant issue
Foseco Melt Treatment Station [205,206] even with micron-sized particles that severally influences especially
the mechanical properties of the MMCs. Factors such as the viscosity
4.5.2. Degasser of the melt, stirrer speed, stir time and particle size need to be ad-
The degasser is one of the additives used in the production of justed to achieve a homogeneous distribution of the reinforcement
AMMCs to minimize the hydrogen bubbles, nitrogen, carbon di oxide, particles. The difference in density between the matrix and the re-
and gas bubbles. Degassing can be achieved in three different ways, inforcement can also lead to non-uniform distribution since the
particles may either float or settle down. In the case of nano-sized
a. Addition of chemical agent in tablet forms such as tetra- reinforcements, they are not only expensive, but agglomeration and
chloroethane, sodium hexachloroaluminate, and hexachloroethane safe handling issues to be tackled appropriately. Reinforcement
to minimize the presence of hydrogen gas in the melt and also to particle distribution is one of the primary reasons why MMCs have
prevent the melt from getting oxidized. These chemicals are useful not yet been exploited commercially to the extent it was desired by
to remove the nitrogen and carbon di oxide from the aluminium researchers.
melt. However, the amount to be added is not specified 2. Wettability between the solid reinforcement particles and the liquid
[164,207–211]. Al matrix is an important issue that influences the bonding between
b. Supplying dry nitrogen gas to the melt during the heating process to these two and thus affects the mechanical properties of the MMCs.
absorb the gas bubbles and unwanted chemicals using an external 3. Porosity is another major issue in the production of MMCs, which
setup. The porosity of the produced composite decreased sig- seriously influences the strength. There are many possible ways to
nificantly [184]. reduce the porosity in the casted product as discussed in the earlier
c. The degassing can also be achieved without adding any chemical section and recommended in the later section.
additives by dipping the ultrasonic probe into the melt and soni- 4. Erosion on the stainless steel stirrer blade occurred very often during
cating for 5 min [166]. It was reported that the addition of degasser the production of AMMCs reinforced with Al2O3 or SiC or any hard
to the aluminium melt should be avoided to prevent any unwanted micro particles. A high-temperature grease was applied manually at
chemical reactions. So, this method can be adopted [212]. 300 °C to prevent the stirrer from metal erosion as well as prevent
the molten Al from sticking to the stirrer. Replacing blades fre-
4.5.3. Covering flux quently would be a significant challenge especially for mass pro-
To remove slag and prevent the oxidation of the melt potassium duction since it will hinder the production rate as well as increases
aluminium fluoride can be used. Koli et al. [213] reported that im- the consumables cost. Moreover, the eroded stirrer blade material
purities were removed and the produced component was defective free can also become part of the MMC and can influence the properties.
by incorporating this flux. Potassium hexafluorotitanate (K2TiF6) flux 5. Reinforcement mixing rate is another challenge since most designs
added to the melt equal to the amount of reinforcement formed a re- do not allow a constant rate and this is one area that needs to be
action layer, containing TiC and TiB2 at the Al-B4C interface. The strong addressed in the future by the furnace designers.

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Fig. 39. Recommended stir casting furnace design.

6. Reinforcement may react with the matrix material and can form 6.2. Recommended matrix and reinforcement materials
undesirable phases could also be an issue.
It is entirely subjective to recommend but based on the application
of the AMMCs; it is possible to recommend in general. For high strength
6. Recommendations applications, Al 7075 (ISO designation: AlZn5.5MgCu) is the ideal one
since the UTS can range from 280 to 570 MPa based on the heat treated
The novelty of this review is in the assessment of several stir casting condition. Addition of reinforcement results in further improving the
furnace design. Based on the assessment, the best design is re- strength of the MMC. LM6 (Al-Si12Al-Si12Fe) and LM25 (Al-Si7Mg) both
commended. Based on the challenges discussed previously the fol- exhibit good fluidity thus making it easier to cast into complex shapes
lowing recommendations are made. as well as exhibits excellent corrosion resistance.
Unlike Al alloys, in the case of reinforcements, the available variety
is very high, but general recommendations could be made based on the
6.1. Furnace design for the production of MMCs by stir casting application of the MMC. Most reinforcements are inorganic ceramic
phases as discussed earlier in the Introduction section. Among these,
As discussed earlier, there are several furnace designs that could be the oxide and carbide based especially Al2O3 and SiC respectively in
used in the production of MMCs. Based on the extensive application, micron size are the most frequently used because of their higher
excellent mechanical properties, homogeneous distribution of particles hardness (wear resistance applications) as well as specific strength
and reduced porosity, a bottom pouring stir casting set up using elec- (high strength to weight ratio for applications in aerospace and auto-
tromagnetic stirring and with an option of ultrasonic stirring especially motive industries). For self-lubricating applications, graphite and WS2
for nanomaterials along with squeeze casting attachment is re- are recommended. MMC production using scrap Al as matrix and ap-
commended for the production of MMC as illustrated schematically in propriate waste by-products of industries (including agro waste) as a
Fig. 39. These recommendations are based on the discussion of results reinforcement material, is still an open-ended area in which much in-
obtained by researchers using those techniques such as ultrasonic stir- dependent research could be carried out.
ring, squeeze casting and electromagnetic stirring as discussed in Sec-
tions 3.2.6, 3.2.8 and 3.3 respectively. Based on the interaction with 6.3. Recommended stir-squeeze process parameters for the production of
commercial furnace suppliers, these features may soon be available in a AMMCs
single setup.
The recommended furnace design mainly consists of ultrasonic The recommended process parameters range for stir with squeeze
powered agitator, electromagnetic stirrer, hydraulic squeeze setup, casting is provided in Fig. 40. These recommendations are based on the
inert gas supply system and a vacuum box. This proposed system is results obtained by researchers as discussed in this section. Among all
capable of distributing the nano reinforcement particles uniformly the parameters, squeeze pressure is the most influencing parameter.
throughout the matrix material with the aid of ultrasonic agitator. The Most of the earlier researchers reported that 100 MPa squeeze pressure
ultrasonic agitator also removes the gas bubbles in the molten metal is suitable for grain refinement and fewer porosities. Beyond 100 MPa
during the production process. The electromagnetic stirrer is a good squeeze pressure, no significant effects were observed [218]. Squeeze
substitute for the mechanical stirring to avoid alloy contamination and pressure holding time was identified as a most influencing factor to
erosion of stirrer [217]. The squeeze casting attachment provides ap- improve the product properties. Therefore, it was recommended to use
propriate squeeze pressure once the molten metal fills the die cavity. the holding time between 30–45 s, after this there no influence on heat
This reduces the porosity and improves the mechanical properties. The dissipation rate [202]. For the squeeze casting process, the re-
inert gas supply system helps in feeding and mixing the reinforcement. commended melt temperature is 700 °C for aluminium alloys when the
The vacuum box helps in avoiding the gas penetration during the entire temperature of the melt was brought down from 780 to 680 °C, the
process, and so the casting defects such as porosity and blow holes are macrostructures gradually became finer, and the grains became smaller
reduced. The process parameters such as reinforcement preheater [219]. To get proper infiltration of reinforcement, the temperature of
temperature, die temperature, squeeze pressure, squeeze time, runway melt should be above 600 °C [220]. It was reported that the tensile
temperature, ultrasonic agitator, argon gas supply could be controlled strength and elongation of aluminium alloy (AlSi9Mg) produced
with the help of control panel provided with the machine. through semi-solid squeeze casting is amplified when the pre heating
temperature of the die is increased from 200 °C to 250 °C, but no

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Fig. 40. Recommended process parameters for stir-squeeze casing process [198,202,218–223].

Among the additives, grain refiners are ideal since it can significantly
increase the strength of the MMCs without much effort or energy spent.
For degassing, tablet form is the easiest way to add to the melt when
compared to other ways of degassing the melt. Flux could be added to
the melt to help in removing slag (impurities) but not necessary. Once
the molten metal melts and before adding the reinforcement, the slag
which usually floats at the top could be removed using a scoop while
Fig. 41. A typical two blade stirrer. wearing proper personal protective equipment.
To minimize the porosity BORAX in powder form can be mixed with
reinforcement in the ratio of 1:2. Tensile and yield strength of the
significant change was observed with the temperature between 250 and
aluminium composite was increased [224].
300 °C. At 350 °C, the tensile strength and elongation decreased sud-
Several ways are available for improving wetting including the
denly and also there were many rosette particles in the microstructure
addition of alloying elements, a coating of the reinforcement particles,
[198]. The stirring time duration should be greater than 5 and less than
heat treatment and ultrasonic cleaning of the particles as well as ul-
10 min to get a homogenous mixture. Above 10 min, leads to the ag-
trasonic vibration [225]. Heat treatment of the reinforcement particles
glomeration of particles, resulting in the reduction of the mechanical
and alloying is the easiest way. Magnesium is a powerful surfactant,
properties of the composites [221]. The formation of porosity, oxide
and it has been successfully applied to promote wetting [225]. 1 to 2%
skins, and gas formation was observed at higher stirring speeds
is recommended to improve the interfacial bonding between the matrix
(700 rpm), and at a lower speed the mixing of reinforcement with the
and reinforcement. More than 2% Mg leads to the formation of low
matrix was not proper, reinforcement segregated at the vortex [222].
melting constituents resulting in a reduction in the mechanical prop-
Stirring speed of 600 rpm produces a homogenous mixture and fewer
erties of the MMCs [225]. Proper precautions should be taken while
porosities in the MMCs resulting in improvement of the mechanical
adding Mg to the melt. If the stir casting furnace is equipped with an
properties of the produced composites. However, as discussed earlier
ultrasonic stirrer, then ultrasonic vibration can also be used to improve
this is subjective since the profile of the stirrer influences the vortex
wetting. Although the coating of the reinforcement particle with a
intensity. For a typical two blade stirrer profile like the one shown in
wettable metal can enhance the wetting, it increases the processing
Fig. 41, the optimum speed is 600 rpm. Ideally, electromagnetic stirring
time and cost especially if the coating process is complex and expensive.
would be good as it avoids physical contact with the melt and the as-
sociated issue of stirrer blade erosion. If the electromagnetic stirrer
cannot be installed, the stirrer blades could be subjected to hard coat-
6.5. Current applications of AMMCs
ings that could prevent erosion and frequent change of the stirrer. The
reinforcement percentage purely depend upon the desired properties of
The current applications of various AMMCs are listed in Table 8.
the AMMCs; for micron size particles of SiC and Al2O3, it is found to be
From this table, it is quite apparent that AMMCs are having commercial
10% and 5% weight percentage respectively based on the Tables 5 and
significance and so should be pursued by researchers to advance the
6 given in Section 4.3. Preheating the reinforcement before adding into
applications of AMMCs further.
the melt cleans the surface from impurities especially adsorbed gases
Hybrid AMMCs, as well as those using nano-sized reinforcements,
and improves the wetting [223]. It also eliminates moisture. Preheating
are under research and many investigations are currently being pub-
temperature of 250–300 °C is recommended for most reinforcement
lished by researcher worldwide. Hence, the next generation AMMCs
particles.
will be hybrid composites exhibiting excellent properties. Fig. 42 shows
the potential applications of AMMCs in various industries using a tree
6.4. Recommended additives and wetting agent diagram. The roots indicate the important factors that influence those
applications.
The recommendations are based on the discussion in Section 4.5.

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Table 8 techniques for reduction of porosity deserves sufficient attention.

Current applications of AMMCs. Uniform distribution of reinforcement particles is another issue that
S. no. Composite Applications Company References critically influences the mechanical properties. Similarly, the mechan-
ical properties are also strongly influenced by the bonding between the
1 Al/SiC Disc brakes for high- Temponik [226] matrix and reinforcement which in turn is influenced by the wettability
speed trains
[235]. Hardly there is any research on the wettability except by Hashim
2 Al/SiC Pistons Ztotecki [227] et al. [225] and Razzaq et al. [235]. With stronger interest in devel-
3 AA2009/SiC Fan exit guide vanes, F- DWA [228] oping environment-friendly techniques, recycling of materials is of ut-
15% 16 ventral fins and fuel most importance, and this is again not attracted attention although
access covers researchers have recommended it [27]. Using scrap/waste/spent ma-
4 6091/SiC 40% Electronic packing terials for both matrix and reinforcement in the production of MMCs is
6092/SiC 44% still an open-ended area in which much exclusive research can be car-
5 Al75/SiC 25% Heat sinks, display Ferro Tec [229] ried out. Fig. 43 depicts the grey areas and the potential research op-
Al70/SiC30 equipment, portunities in the production of MMCs and the possible outcomes.
Al60/SiC40 semiconductor
inspection parts
8. Conclusions
6 Al 30%/Al2O3 Display equipment parts
70%
This review has systematically discussed the production of AMMCs
7 Al/Nextel610/ Pushrods 3M [227] with the focus on the stir casting process for the first time. Among the
45f
various processes, stir casting is the primary, established and econom-
8 Al 60%/Al2O3 Cylinder sleeves in Ceram Tec [230] ical process for the production of MMCs. The number of research
40% engines, piston-recess
publications in the area of stir casting included in Scopus database re-
walls, brake pad backing
plates, bearings, brake iterates the importance of stir casting process. Some of the key findings
discs are listed below.
9 AA2024 Outlet guide vanes Materion [231]
(AlCu4Mg1)/ Hydraulic blocks 1. Among the production methods, stir/squeeze casting, powder me-
SiC 25% Wheels tallurgy and semi-solid are the most promising ones for the pro-
AA6061 Fixed wing structure/ duction of MMCs. In stir/squeeze casting process, the squeeze
(AlMg1SiCu)/ skins
pressure is the most influencing parameter that influences the me-
SiC 20% Helicopter components
AA6061 Pistons chanical properties.
(AlMg1SiCu)/ Piston pins 2. Al is a more popular matrix material because of its ease in handling
SiC 40% Cylinder liners during the production process. Among the reinforcement particles,
Brake callipers SiC, Al2O3, and B4C are the most commonly used because of their
Connecting rods
Push rods
ability to provide better mechanical properties such as strength and
Valve train hardness.
Chassis components 3. Mg is the most common wetting agent, and about 1–2% is re-
Optical systems commended to improve the wetting of the reinforcement particles
Sensors
with the matrix material.
Satellite structures
4. AA7075 alloy with 50 nm Al2O3 exhibited the highest value for
10 AA2024 Turbo impeller Elementum [232]
mechanical properties (Hardness – 160 HV, Ultimate Tensile
(AlCu4Mg1)/ Heat sink 3D
Al2O3 Stator vane Strength – 400 MPa and Ultimate Compressive Strength – 760 MPa).
Piston head These properties were further increased by extruding the composites
Timing wheel through a conical die.
11 Al/SiC Precision equipment M Cubed [233] 5. In the case of SiC reinforced composites, A356 matrix with 10% of
Al/B4C components, thermal Technologies 7 μm size SiC particles yielded the highest hardness of 141 HB and
Al/Al2O3 management base plates, ultimate strength of 430 MPa.
mirrors, optical
6. Similarly, in the case of B4C reinforced composites, AA7075 alloy
housings, armour, brake
rotors, connecting rods, with 20% of 20 μm B4C resulted in the highest value for mechanical
and pistons properties (Hardness – 210 BHN, Ultimate Tensile Strength –
12 Al/Al2O3 Piston Gamma alloys [234]
305 MPa and Ultimate Compressive Strength – 340 MPa).
(nano) Connecting rods 7. The significant challenges in the stir casting process are a uniform
Aerospace distribution of the reinforcement particles, wettability, porosity,
Armour erosion of the stirrer blades and reinforcement mixing rate. These
challenges in themselves are the future potential research opportu-
nities in addition to the sustainable development of MMCs using
7. Research opportunities in the production of MMCS
recycled matrix and waste reinforcement particles generated in in-
dustrial processes.
Production of MMCs as discussed earlier involves many challenges.
8. A bottom tapping stir casting furnace with preferably electro-
There are large deviations in the properties of MMCs produced using
magnetic and ultrasonic stirring combined with squeeze attachment
various casting methods. Hence, it is challenging to select an appro-
would be ideal for the production of AMMCs reinforced with any
priate method for a specific application. The process parameters and
reinforcement material.
conditions should be optimized for the production of several composi-
9. By proper selection of the production process and its parameters as
tions of MMCs. Published literature are not sufficient to finalize process
well as the matrix, reinforcement material, additives, and wetting
parameters for many of the existing and new matrix as well as re-
agent, good quality MMCs exhibiting enhanced mechanical prop-
inforcement materials especially nanomaterials introduced recently.
erties can be produced.
Some amount of porosity is unavoidable in any casting process, and so

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A. Ramanathan, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 42 (2019) 213–245

Fig. 42. Applications of AMMCs in various fields.

Fig. 43. Grey areas in the production of MMCs.

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