PRIMARY SIX ENGLISH GRAMMAR NOTES

TERM ONE
PARTS OF SPEECH
Part of speech refers to the function a word performs/serves in sentence.
e.g Mukiibi and I arrived at home late
noun conj pron verb prepos adv/noun adverb

There are eight parts of speech:

a)Nouns; eg boy, food, trousers, shorts, Kasibante, Noah, Kabojja, team, …
b)Pronouns; eg He, it, she, I, him, they, himself. …
c)Verbs; eg read, sit, eat, smile,..
d)Adverbs; eg quickly, late, fast,…
e)Adjectives; eg slow, quick, smart, big,...
f) Conjunctions; eg but, and, because,..
g)Prepositions; eg to, at, for, under,…
h)Interjections; eg wow!, oh!, alas!, bravo!, gracious!, hello!, wonderful!, oh dear!,…

VERB (TENSES)
A verb is a word that tells us something about a person or thing. Or
A verb is a word that shows an action.
Uses of verbs
A verb tells us what a person does.
A verb tells us what is done.
A verb tells us what a person or thing is.
Types of verbs
-Main verbs (transitive / intransitive / regular / irregular)
-Auxiliary verbs.
Transitive verbs
The are verbs that take direct objects.
e.g. Go and buy (two books).
Intransitive verbs
They are verbs that do not pass over from the doer / subject to the object / receiver. i.e. They do not
require direct objects to make the sentence meaningful. E.g. He is crying.
NB.In some sentences like “The man killed himself” where the subject and the object both refer to
the same person, the verb is said to be used reflexively

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NB. Some intransitive verbs may become transitive by having prepositions added to them.e.g. laugh
at (derided)him, / wish for(desire)nothing more.
Regular verbs
 The regular verbs are the verbs which end with – d, -ed or ied in past simple and past participle
(perfect).
E.g -d; capture capturing captured captured
flow flowing flowed flowed
arrange arranging arranged arranged
encourage encouraging encouraged encouraged
damage damaging damaged damaged
age ageing aged aged
singe singeing singed singed

-ed: address addressing addressed addressed

saw sawing sawed sawed
Pray praying prayed prayed
Stay staying stayed stayed

-ied marry marrying married married

carry carrying carried carried
dry drying dried dried
fry frying fried fried
cry crying cried cried
dirty dirtying dirtied dirtied
spy spying spied spied
 Some verbs that end in cvc order/infinitive form double the last consonant and add – d, ed or ied

 compel -rob
 drip -skid
 drop -skip
 expel -skim
 drop -slap
 occur -stir
 knit -stop
 pin -travel
 plan -prefer

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 submit -admit
 permit -transmit
 omit -commit
 beg -wag
except: offer =offered =offered

Irregular verbs
 The irregular verbs are verbs on which letters –ed, -d and ied are not added – in past tense.
e.g Words which change completely or have other words in their past simple and participle (perf ect)
form.
-be– am / is/ are - was / were -been
wear - wearing - wore -worn
-bear - bearing -bore -born
-tear – tearing -tore -torn
-beat – beating -beat -beaten
-bend – bending -bent -bent
-bit – biting -bit -bitten
-bleed – bleeding -bled -bled
-bend –bending -bent -bent
seeking -sought -sought sought
-shoot –shooting -shot -shot
-shear – shearing -sheared/shore -shore/sheared.

 -Some irregular verbs drop one vowel (letter) and take t in the past simple and participle / perfect
form e.g kneel – kneeling – knelt/kneeled – knelt/kneeled
feel feeling felt felt
sweep sweeping swept swept
keep keeping kept kept
sleep sleeping slept slept
creep creeping crept crept
weep weeping wept wept

pay paying paid paid

say saying said said
lay(eggs) laying laid laid

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-Some irregular verbs add/ take “t” in the past simple and past participle / perfect form.
e.g burn burning burnt burnt
deal dealing dealt dealt
dream dreaming dreamt,-ed dreamt,-ed
learn learning learnt-ed learnt,-ed
leap leaping leapt,-ed leapt,-ed
mean meaning meant meant
spoil spoiling spoilt spoilt
spill spilling spilt/spilled spilt/spilled

Some irregular verbs do not change at all (their spelling in infinitive, past simple and past participle)
is the same.
beat cut
 bet read
 cast broadcast
 burst set
 cost shed
 forecast shut
 hit split
 hurt spread
 let thrust
 put upset
 slit
 Some irregular verbs with “I” lose it to get “a” past simple and “u” past participle.
e.g
- shrink - swim -spin
- drink - sink - stink
- ring - spring -sing
except: run –running-ran-run.
 Some irregular verbs that have “I” drop it and take “u” both in past simple and past participle or
perfect forms.
eg
-cling -dig -sling -stick -wring

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 -strike -wring -sting -fling
~ Some irregular verbs take a both in past simple and past participle :
eg
-spit =spitting =spat =spat
 Some irregular verbs which end in „ind‟ take „ound‟ in both past simple and in past participle
forms. e.g.
bind, wind, grind, rewind, find…

Verbs that end in “ie” in the infinitive, take “y” in the progressive form and regain “ie” in the past
simple & past participle or perfect form.
eg
-tie -die -lie(deceive) -lie(sleep) -vie
NB: lie(to sleep)= lying =lay =lain.
vie(to compete eagerly in order to get/ win something)= vying = vied
: dye(to colour)= dyeing = dyed = dyed.
NB :hang(suicide)= hanging = hanged = hanged.
hang(put up) = hanging = hung = hung.
NB: blow = blowing = blew = blown
grow = growing = grew = grown
throw = throwing = threw = thrown
Know = knowing = knew = known
Except draw = drawing = drew = drawn

FORMATION OF VERBS
Verbs are formed from other parts of speech; i.e. nouns.e.g.
Noun Verb Noun Verb
Absorption absorb Simplicity simplify
Acceptance accept Glory glorify
Action act Pure purify
Addition add Joy enjoy
Admiration admire Liberation liberate
Adoption adopt Pleasure please
Advertisement advertise Appearance appear
Agreement agree Applause applaud
Allowance allow Application apply

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Admission admit Death die
Permission permit Development develop
Omission omit Disturbance disturb
Commission commit Discovery discover
Submission submit Deed do
Transmission transmit Encouragement encourage
Appointment appoint Entry enter
Approval approve Excess exceed
Arrival arrive Exhaustion exhaust
Ascent ascend Expectation expect
Assistance assist Explanation explain
Attraction attract Explosion explode
Beginning begin Failure fail
Behaviour behave Fixture fix
Belief believe Food feed
Breath breathe Flight fly
Cloth clothe Gift give
Burial bury Grief grieve
Choice choose Hatred hate
Collection collect Health / healing heal
Comparison compare Imagination imagine
Competition compete Imitation imitate
Conclusion conclude Inclusion include
Confusion confuse Information inform
Conquest conquer Injury injure
Consideration consider Invasion invade
Construction construct Invention invent
Continuation / continuity continue Interference interfere
Creation create Invitation invite
Deceit / deception deceive Judgement judge
Decision decide Knowledge know
Defence defend Laughter laugh
Departure depart Liking like
Description describe Life live
Destruction destroy Loss lose

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Marriage marry
Mixture mix
Obedience obey
Occupation occupy
Offence offend
Opposition oppose
Persuasion persuade
Pursuit pursue
Proof prove
Rebellion rebel
Receipt / reception receive
Resignation resign
Relief relieve
Remembrance remember
Renewal renew
Repetition repeat
Repentance repent
Resentment resent
Revelation reveal
Revival revive
Satisfaction satisfy
Sight see
Sale sell
Service serve
Seat sit
Speech speak
Success succeed
Tale tell
Thought think
Understanding understand
Unity unite
Variety vary
Wedding wed
Weight weigh

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 Tenses
Present Continuous/Progressive Tense
His tense talks about actions that in progress, that it has begun but not ended. This tense
often goes with words like: now, at this/the moment, today, this week..
The pattern should be; a) Singular subject + is + verb +ing …………………
b) Plural subject + are + verb + ing ……………..
c) I + am verb + ing …………
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I am(I‟m) working I am not working Am I working?
You are working You are not working Are you working?
He/she is working He/she is not working Is he/she working?
We are working We are not working Are we working?
They are working They are not working Are they working?
It is(it‟s) working It is not working Is it working ?

Interrogatives/questions in present continuous tense

a) affirmative interrogatives:
We are eating food now.
=Are we eating food now?
I am singing for the guest.
=Am I singing for the guest?
b) negative interrogatives:
I am not mourning.
= Aren‟t I(for anm I not) mourning?
NB. There is no form amn‟t.

Special spelling tips of the present participle

a) When a verb ends in a single e, this e is dropped before adding ing:
e.g. argue, hate, write, love,
except: age = ageing, singe = singeing and verbs ending in ee:
e.g. agree = agreeing, see = seeing,..

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b) When a verb of one syllable has one vowel, and ends in a single consonant, this
consonant is doubled before adding ing:
e.g. hit, run, stop,…. Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains only
one vowel and ends in a single consonant double this consonant if the stress falls on the
last syllable:
e.g. ad‟mit = ad‟mitting, pre‟fer = pre‟ferring
but: „offer = offering, „budget = budgeting, enter = entering (stress not on the last
syllable)
~ A final l after a single vowel is, however, always doubled:
e.g. signal , refuel, travel, … except in American English.

c) ing can be added to a verb ending in y without affecting the spelling of the verb:
e.g. marry = marrying, carry = carrying, hurry = hurrying, annoy = annoying,
tidy = tidying, bury = burying,…

Uses of present continuous tense

a) For an action happening now:
I‟m not wearing a coat now as it isn‟t cold.
Why are you sitting at my desk/

b) For an action happening about this time but not necessarily at the moment of
speaking:
He is teaching French and learning Greek.(He may not be doing either at the moment of
speaking)
NB: When two continuous tenses having the same subject are joined by and, the auxiliary
may be dropped before the second verb as in the above example. This implies to all pairs
of compound tenses:
e.g. She was knitting and listening to the radio.

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c) For a definite arrangement in the near future. (the most usual way of expressing one‟s
immediate plans):
I am waiting for Peter tonight. He‟s taking me to the theatre.
Note that the time of the action must be mentioned, as otherwise there might be confusion
between the present and the future meaning.

Verbs not used in continuous tenses

a) verbs of sense: feel, hear, see and smell; also notice and observe.
b) Verbs expressing feelings and emotions: admire(=respect), adore, appreciate(=value),
care for(=like), desire, detest, dislike, hate, fear, like, loathe, love, mind(=care),
respect, value, wishing, want.
c) Verbs of mental activity: agree, appreciate(=understand), assume, suppose, think,
(have an opinion), trust, understand.
d) Verbs of possession: belong, owe, own, possess
e) The auxiliaries, except be and have in certain uses.
f) Appear(=seem), concern, consists, contain, hold(=contain), keep(continue), seem,
matter, signify, sound(seem, appear):
-It concerns all of us. -This box contains explosives.(pp 156-157 PEG)

Simple Present Tense

This tense tells us that the action is a habit, going on always, or every day, or once a
week, or often or only sometimes. Adverbs of time used with this tense include: every
day, daily, every ….And adverbs of frequency used with this tense include: always,
frequently, occasionally, often, once, twice, thrice, periodically, sometimes, usually,
never, hardly, rarely, scarcely ever, seldom.

In affirmative, the simple present has the same as the infinitive, but adds an s for the
third person singular:

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Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative interrog.
I work I don‟t work Do I work? Don‟t I work?
or I do not wok or Do not I work?
We work We don‟t work Do we work? Don‟t we work?
or We do not work or Do not we work?
They work They don‟t work Do they work? Don‟t they work?
or They do not work or Do not they work?
You work You don‟t work Do you work? Don‟t you work?
or You do not work or Do not you work?
It works/cries It doesn‟t cry Does it cry? Doesn‟t it cry?
or It does not cry or Does it not cry?
He boxes/passes He doesn‟t pass Does he pass? Doesn‟t he pass?
or He does not pass or Does he not pass?
She marries/tries She doesn‟t try Does she try? Doesn‟t she try?
or She does not try or Does she not try?

Spelling tips
a) Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, and o add es, instead of s alone, to form the third
person singular:
- I miss, he misses -You slash, she slashes
-They touch, it touches - We go, Ronald goes

When „y‟ follows a consonant , we change the „y‟ into „i‟ and add es:
-I carry, he carries - You copy, she copies
-We try, it tries - They deny, Diana denies

But verbs ending in „y‟ following a vowel, obey the usual rule:
-I obey, he obeys - You say, she says
- They pay, Tom pays - We pray, it prays

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 Uses of simple present tense
a) The main use of simple present tense is to express habitual actions:
-He smokes - Dogs bark
- Cats drinks milk - A cat mews
This tense does not tell us whether or not the action of the verb is being performed at the
moment of speaking, and if we want to make this clear we must add a verb in the present
continuous tense:
- My dog barks a lot, but it isn‟t barking at the moment.

b)Simple present is often used with adverbs and adverb phrases or with clauses
expressing routine or habitual actions. Whenever and when(=whenever) are particularly
useful:
- Whenever it rains, the roof leaks.
- When you open the door, the light goes off.
c)Simple present is also used when writing titles and newspaper headlines:
- MASS MURDERER ESCAPES
- PEACE TALKS FAIL
- Tom Learns a Lesson

d) Simple present is used instead of present continuous with verbs that/ cannot be used
in the continuous form: love, see, believe, hate..
- I love you, but not I am loving you.
- He hates us, but not he is hating us.
- We believe in Christ, but not we are believing in Christ.

e) It is used in conditional sentences, type 1:

- If I see Agnes, I‟ll ask her.
- Unless you take the brake off, the car won‟t move.

f) It is used in time clauses:

i) when there‟s an idea of routine:

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- As soon as he earns any money, he spends it.
- She takes the boy to school before she goes to work.
ii) When the main verb is in future form:
- It will stop raining soon. Then we‟ll go out.
= When it stops raining, we‟ll go out.

The Present perfect tense

- The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of have / has + the [past
participle: I have eaten food.
- The past participle in regular verbs has the same form as the past simple, i.e. loved,
jumped,…
- In irregular verbs, the past participles vary, i.e. ate = eaten, beat = beaten…
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I have sung I have not sung Have(n‟t) I sung?
You have spat You have not spat Have(n‟t) you spat?
They have beaten They have not beaten Have(n‟t) they beaten?
We have sweated We have not sweated Have(n‟t) we sweated?
He/she/it has hurried He/she/it has not hurried Has(n‟t) he/she/it hurried?

NB:
a) Negative interrogative can be: Has he not stolen? or Hasn‟t he stolen?
b) Contractions can also be used: ‟ve, haven‟t, hasn‟t, e.g.
-What‟s he done? = What has he done?
-Where‟ve you been? = Where have you been?
c) Present perfect is used with just for a recently completed action:
-He has just gone out. = He went out a few minutes ago.
Just used in this tense must be placed between the auxiliary and the maim verbs.
However, just can also be used in past simple tense as :
-I saw him just now.
Note the position of just in present perfect tense and in past simple tense.

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 d)Present perfect tense may be used with already in affirmative and with yet in both
negative and interrogative forms:
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
You have already slapped.. You have not slapped __ yet Have you slapped __ yet?
She has already drunk… She has not drunk __ yet Has she drunk __ yet?

d) Present perfect can be used with ever, never always, occasionally, often, sometimes,
since + a point of time, since + a clause, for + a point of time,…
- Have you ever fallen off a horse?
- We had a party last year. We haven‟t had any since.
- They have always answered my letters.
- I‟ve never been late for work.
- Since my accident, I have written with my left hand.
- I‟ve worn glasses since my childhood.
- I‟ve used my left hand for a month now.
- I‟ve worn glasses for ten years.

Note also sentences of this type:

- This is the best wine I have ever drunk.
- This is the worst book I have ever read.
- This is the easiest job I have ever had.

Present perfect with since and for

1) For is used with a period of time: for six days, for a long time.
For used with simple past tense denotes a terminated period of time.
- We lived there for ten years.( but we don‟t live there now)
For used with present perfect tense denotes a period of time extending into the present
:
- We have been here for an hour/two days.
For (of time) is not used before expressions beginning with all:
- They„ve worked all night.

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2) Since is used with a point of time and means from that point to the time of speaking.
It is always used with present perfect tense, except when used with a clause:
- She has been here since six o‟clock. (and is still here)
- We‟ve been friends since our schooldays.
Note that there is a difference between last and the last:
- I have been here since last week(month, year)
- I have been here for the last week.

Since + a clause:
- I have worked here since I left school.
- Since I left school, I have been working here.

And ever since (adverb)

- He had a bad fall last year and (he) has been off work ever since.

It is + period + since +past or perfect tense:

- It three years since I (last) saw Ronald. or
- It is three years since I have seen Ronald.
= I last saw Ronald three years ago.
= I have not seen Ronald for three years.
- It is two months since Tom (last) smoked a cigarette. or
- It is two months since Tom has smoked a cigarette.
= Tom last smoked a cigarette two months ago.
= Tom has not smoked a cigarette for two months.

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 Present perfect continuous tense
This form is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be + the present participle:
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Nega - interrogative
I‟ve been trying I‟ve not been trying Have I been trying? Haven‟t I been trying?
or Have I not been trying?
She has been crying She hasn‟t been crying Has been crying? Hasn‟t she been crying?
or Has she not been crying?
This tense is used for actions which began in the past and are still continuing:
- I‟ve been waiting for an hour and he still hasn‟t turned up.
This tense is also used for actions which began in the past but have just finished
- I‟m sorry I‟m late. Have you been waiting?
NB: The present perfect continuous tense does not exist in passive. The nearest passive
equivalent of this tense is present perfect, which is not exactly the same thing:
- They have been repairing the road. = The road has been repaired.
NB: A repeated action in simple present perfect can sometimes be expressed as a
continuous action by the present perfect continuous:
- I‟ve written six letters since breakfast. ( The action stopped)
- I‟ve been writing letters since breakfast. (The action is still continuing)

The simple past

A) The simple past tense in regulars is formed by adding ed to the infinitive:
- infinitive – to work - simple past – worked
Verbs ending in e add only d
- infinitive – to love - simple past – loved
- Our teacher decided to go abroad because Uganda is not peaceful.
The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did not (didn‟t) and the
infinitive:
- I did not or didn‟t work.
The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with Did + +subject +
infinitive:
- Did I work?

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- Didn‟t steal he money?

Use of simple past tense

1. It is used for actions completed in the past at a definite time. It is therefore used :
a) for a past action when the time is given
- I met him yesterday.
- Pasteur died in 1895.
b) when the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not
mentioned:
- The train was ten minutes late.
- How did you get your present job?
- I bought this car in Britain.

2. The simple present is used for actions whose time is not given, but which occupied a
period of now terminated:
- He worked in that bank for four years.(but he does not work there now)
- She lived in Rome for a long time.(but she‟s not living there now)

3. Simple past is also used for a past habit:

- He always carried an umbrella.
- They never drank wine.
- We rarely/hardly/barely visited our granny.
Used to can be used in this case:
- My teacher of English used to give us sweets.

4. The simple past is used in conditional sentences, type 2:

- If we were teachers, we would punish indisciplined / undisciplined children.
- We would punish undisciplined / indisciplined children if we were teachers.
- Unless we were teachers, we would not punish undisciplined / indisciplined children.

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 Affirmative Negative Interrogative Nega - inter
Abel stole Abel did not steal Did Abel steal? Didn‟t Abel steal?
or Did Abel not steal?
David married David did not marry Did David marry? Didn‟t David marry?
or Did David not marry?

Simple past used with just:

He saw her just now.

Present perfect continuous tense

This form is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be + the present participle:
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Nega - interrogative
I‟ve been trying I‟ve not been trying Have I been trying? Haven‟t I been trying?
or Have I not been trying?
She has been crying She hasn‟t been crying Has been crying? Hasn‟t she been crying?
or Has she not been crying?

This tense is used for actions which began in the past and are still continuing:
- I‟ve been waiting for an hour and he still hasn‟t turned up.
This tense is also used for actions which began in the past but have just finished
- I‟m sorry I‟m late. Have you been waiting?
NB: The present perfect continuous tense does not exist in passive. The nearest passive
equivalent of this tense is present perfect, which is not exactly the same thing:
- They have been repairing the road. = The road has been repaired.
NB: A repeated action in simple present perfect can sometimes be expressed as a
continuous action by the present perfect continuous:
- I‟ve written six letters since breakfast. ( The action stopped)
- I‟ve been writing letters since breakfast. (The action is still continuing)

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 Past continuous tense
This past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the verb to be + the present
participle:
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Nega - inter
I was dancing I was not dancing Was I dancing? Wasn‟t I dancing?
or Was I not dancing?
You were eating You were not eating Were you eating? Weren‟t we eating?
or Were we not eating?

Main uses of past continuous tense

1) The past continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued for some but
whose exact limits are not known and are not important.
2) Used without a time expression, it indicates gradual development
- It was getting darker. – The wind was rising.
3) Used with a point in time, it expresses an action began before that time and probably
continued after it:
- At eight he was having breakfast. = He was in the middle of breakfast at eight and
that he had started before eight.
- He had breakfast at eight. = He started having breakfast at eight.
4) If we replace the time expression with a verb in the simple past tense we use past
continuous:
- When I arrived, Tom was talking on phone. or
- Tom was talking on phone when I arrived.
5) Used to report direct speech sentences in present continuous:
- He said, “I am living in London.”
= He said that he was living in London.

6) An activity was going on when another one took place

~ He was reading a news paper when I entered the room.

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7) We wish to emphasize that an activity was continuing over a certain period with an
expression like all day all the morning.
~ I was working hard all last week.
~ The gardener was cutting the grass all yesterday afternoon.

8) We wish to emphasize that two activities were taking place at the same time.
~ I was reading while my sister was writing.

NB: A common and serious mistake is to use the past continuous for repeated or
habitual activities in the past .
~ We must use the past simple.
~ Last year went to the cinema every Sunday.
~ She often took part in the dramatic production When she was at school.
~ He frequently borrowed books from the school library.
*Repeated actions/habitual activities in the past can also be expressed by used to +
infinitive.
~ We used to write a composition every week.
~ He used to play football when he was a school.
(There is no present form of used to).
EX. Pg 13 Forest.

NB: When the time of a past action is defined in relation to another action, the one that
is a kind of background to the other is put into the past continuous. We use to show
interest in the action itself as it is actually taking place, we are not interested in its
completion.
~ I met him when was crossing the street ( = the time of “meeting” is defined as “in the
middle of the act of crossing”)
=……………………….was crossing…………….
= ………………………..was (still) crossing………………………..
*The weak pronunciation of was and were must be insisted on when using the full
form of past continuous,

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~ We were resting all the afternoon
EX. P 104 Living Eng structure.

Past continuous without the connectives

“Participle” for “when phrase”
When the cows were crossing the road, the car knocked them down.
~ Crossing the road, the car knocked the cows down.
When Tom was walking to school, he knocked his toe against a stone.
~ Walking to school, Tom knocked his toe against a stone.

The simple past

A) The simple past tense in regulars is formed by adding ed to the infinitive:
- infinitive – to work - simple past – worked
Verbs ending in e add only d
- infinitive – to love - simple past – loved
- Our teacher decided to go abroad because Uganda is not peaceful.
The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did not (didn‟t) and the
infinitive:
- I did not or didn‟t work.
The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with Did + +subject +
infinitive:
- Did I work?
- Didn‟t steal he money?

Use of simple past tense

5. It is used for actions completed in the past at a definite time. It is therefore used :
c) for a past action when the time is given
- I met him yesterday.
- Pasteur died in 1895.
d) when the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not
mentioned:

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- The train was ten minutes late.
- How did you get your present job?
- I bought this car in Britain.

6. The simple present is used for actions whose time is not given, but which occupied a
period of now terminated:
- He worked in that bank for four years.(but he does not work there now)
- She lived in Rome for a long time.(but she‟s not living there now)

7. Simple past is also used for a past habit:

- He always carried an umbrella.
- They never drank wine.
- We rarely/hardly/barely visited our granny.
Used to can be used in this case:
- My teacher of English used to give us sweets.

8. The simple past is used in conditional sentences, type 2:

- If we were teachers, we would punish indisciplined / undisciplined children.
- We would punish undisciplined / indisciplined children if we were teachers.
- Unless we were teachers, we would not punish undisciplined / indisciplined children.
Affirmative Negative Interrogative Nega - inter
Abel stole Abel did not steal Did Abel steal? Didn‟t Abel steal?
or Did Abel not steal?
David married David did not marry Did David marry? Didn‟t David marry?
or Did David not marry?

Simple past used with just:

He saw her just now.

22
-An activity was going on when another one took place
~ He was reading a news paper when I entered the room.

-We wish to emphasize that an activity was continuing over a certain period with an
expression like all day all the morning.
~ I was working hard all last week.
~ The gardener was cutting the grass all yesterday afternoon.

-We wish to emphasize that two activities were taking place at the same time.
~ I was reading while my sister was writing.

NB: A common and serious mistake is to use the past continuous for repeated or
habitual activities in the past .
~ We must use the past simple.
~ Last year went to the cinema every Sunday.
~ She often took part in the dramatic production When she was at school.
~ He frequently borrowed books from the school library.
*Repeated actions/habitual activities in the past can also be expressed by used to +
infinitive.
~ We used to write a composition every week.
~ He used to play football when he was a school.
(There is no present form of used to).
EX. Pg 13 Forest.

NB: When the time of a past action is defined in relation to another action, the one that
is a kind of background to the other is put into the past continuous. We use to show
interest in the action itself as it is actually taking place, we are not interested in its
completion.
~ I met him when was crossing the street ( = the time of “meeting” is defined as “in the
middle of the act of crossing”)

23
 =……………………….was crossing…………….
= ………………………..was (still) crossing………………………..
*The weak pronunciation of was and were must be insisted on when using the full
form of past continuous,

~ We were resting all the afternoon

EX. P 104 Living Eng structure.
The negative form of past progressive tense.
( was not / were not verb + ing)
~ I was not working hard all last week.
~ They were not crying when I entered.
~ I was not reading by the time he entered the room.
Interrogative forms of past progressive tense.
Affirmative to interrogative
( was …………..verb + ing………….?)
(Were……verb + ing……?)

Negative interrogative
(Wasn‟t……….verb +ing…..?)
(Weren‟t………..verb + ing……?)
~ Wasn‟t Amos taking tea when you went to his room?
~ Weren‟t they dancing when you called them?
~ Wasn‟t he sleeping soundly?

“Participle” for “when phrase”

When the cows were crossing the road, the car knocked them down.
~ Crossing the road, the car knocked the cows down.
When Tom was walking to school, he knocked his toe against a stone.
~ Walking to school, Tom knocked his toe against a stone.

24
Passive form of the progressive tense.
(Was + being + verbs in perfect/participle form)
(were + being + verb in perfect/participle form)
Mary was kneeling dough last night.
~ The dough was being kneeled last night. (by Mary).
The worker complaining about the poorly prepared food.
~ The poorly prepared food was being complained about.(by the workers)
Revision on past perfect tense
Structure: (affirmative form)
~……..had + past participle verb…….
e.g By the time I called him (at 8.00 am), he had (already) left for the meeting (at
7.45 am).
Or :When I called him (at 8.00 am), he had (already) left for the meeting(at 7.45am).
(Negative form)
~ ……hadn‟t + participle verb…….
Eg By the time I called him, he hadn‟t (yet) left for the meeting.
Or When I called him, he hadn‟t yet) left for the meetng
(Interrogative form from affirmative and negative sentences)
~ Affirmative= Had ……..+ past participle verb………?
Eg Had they eaten anything when / by the time you called them?
~ Negative= Hadn‟t……..+ past participle verb……..?
eg Hadn‟t they eaten anything when / by the time called them?
Passive form of past perfect tense
Structure(affirmative)
~ Object + had been + past participle + subject(doer) +adverb of time.
Eg Robert had eaten all the mangoes when / by the time I arrived.
= All the mangoes had been eaten by Robert when / by the time I arrived.
(Negative)
eg Robert had not eaten all the mangoes when / by the time I arrived.
=All the mangoes hadn‟t been eaten by Robert when / by the time I arrived.

25
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (1F1, 1F2 and 1F3)
Conditional sentences are sentences that express conditions. Sometimes conditional
sentences are called „IF sentences”. A conditional sentence has two main parts, Viz; the if
part a.k.a the if clause and the main part a.k.a the main clause.
The if clause expresses the condition while the main clause expresses the result.
When “if” clause comes first, it is followed by a comma. If it (if clause) comes last,
no comma is required.

IF (1) a.k.a the open if.

IF (1) is used when want to say that something is going to /will /shall happen if a
condition is fulfilled.
e.g
I shall go if have time.
They shall pass the exams if they work hard.
If I get a bicycle, I will ride to the village.
Activity: Underline and name the condition and the result in the example above.
NB. We normally use a future tense in the main clause and a present tense (simple) in
the “IF” clause .We do not use a future tense after IF. Activity complete the following
sentences sensibly in if (1)

1. We shall be very grateful_____________

2. I shall go tomorrow if _______________
3. John will see him if _________________
4. Joan will not see him________________
5. They will come to see us if ________________
6. They will all be late unless they_____________
7. If my father comes tomorrow,_______________
8. If she him today, she______________________
9. If Ronald comes tomorrow, he______________
10. If we get there on time, we_________________

26
Activity B
Re write the following pairs as IF (1) sentences
Result Condition to be fulfilled
My going to London tomorrow My father giving me enough money
Robert‟s going back to school on Monday His feeling better
Our stopping smoking Cigarette becoming dearer
Ivan‟s passing the exams His hard work
My seeing the doctor My going to the hospital in time

Unless with IF(1)

Unless = if not [ if + do+ not….]
Tips on using unless
Condition Result Answer
Positive Positive Unless + not………
Positive Negative Unless +(not),+ not……..
Negative Negative Unless, + not………

Examples

1. If Brian pays attention in class, he will pass the exams.

Unless Brian pays attention in class, he will not pass the exams.

2. If I see him today, I will not come to your place.

Unless I don‟t see him today, I will not come to your place.

3. If you don‟t pay me, I will not give the book.

Unless you pay me, I will not give you the book.

27
Activity:C
Re write the following sentences beginning unless…..
1. If it rains, I will plant my seeds.
2. If it doesn‟t rain, I will not plant my seeds.
3. If she doesn‟t complain, I will go on.
4. If he arrives tomorrow ,he will see the doctor.
5. If you come late, you will not attend my lesson.

N.B The future forms of must, can, may,need not are not generally found in if
sentences. We usually say e.g.
a. You can go tomorrow if you got the invitaion.
b. You must pay him if you get money.
c. You may go tomorrow if you get money.
d. You need not go tomorrow if you don‟t want to.

Re write the following sentences using…unless…

6. If Mugarama dances in class, I will not teach.
7. We shall eat early if mummy comes back in time.
8. If you sing well, I will give you a present.
9. If you have time, you can go with him.
10. We must not pay the money if he comes.

IF (2) IMAGINATIVE / UNLIKELY IF

We say that sentences like” I shall go if I have time” mean that something will happen if
a certain condition is fulfilled.

It is, of course, quite possible to think of a condition that cannot be fulfilled and then
imagine what might happen if the impossible come true.
e.g. if I were a river, I would be too lazy to reach the sea.

28
To show that the condition is impossible and we are only imagining the result and not
expecting it to come true, we use the past simple tense in the IF clause and a “would”
tense in the main clause.

e.g. If I was a fish, I wouldn‟t get caught. This means I am not a fish. The condition is
impossible. But, if it were true. The consequence may follow. In such sentences, we say
and use were instead of was which seems to emphasize the impossibility.

N.B some people use “should” with “I” and “we” and would with the two other persons
( You, he, she, they, it ), but most people prefer using “would” for all persons.

4. Complete the following sentences correctly in IF 2

1. If I were a camel,________________
2. if he were my father,_______________
3. if the sea dried tomorrow,____________
4. if the horses had eight legs,________________
5. if you had two heads,____________________
6. Unless you told me the truth,_______________
7. if I found a snake under my bed,__________________
8. we should be very surprised if ________________________
9. Ronald would celebrate if____________________________
10. I would/should not pass my exams unless I __________________

Because we use the past simple/ “would” tenses to show that condition is impossible,
we can also use it to show that it is so unlikely that we do not expect it to happen. e.g.
if I had the chance, I would/should go round the world.(But I don‟t expect I ever
shall)

N.B There is a very useful polite way of making a request in writing letters. NB. In
this case there is would in the would clause.eg.
-I should be grateful if you send me a copy of “The River Between.”

29
-I should be very grateful if my application is considered

The inversion of IF 2
-If I had time, I would do the work.
-Had I time, I would do the work.
1. If he were a lion, he would kill all the animals.
-Were he a lion, he would kill all the animals.

2. If she hears the snake hissing, she will run away.( change the sentence to IF2)
-If she heard the snake hissing, she would run away
-She would run away if she heard the snake hissing

Unless in F2
As used in IF 1 e.g. (summary)
Condition Result
1 Positive Positive
Unless Not
If I found him home I would pay him
Unless I found him home Would not(wouldn‟t) pay him
2 Positive Negative
Unless opposite adjective Positive
If I saw him today I would not come to your place
Unless I saw/ did see him today I would come to your place
3 Negative Negative
Unless Not
If I failed (did not pass) my exams I would not go to the next class.
Unless I passed my exams I would not go to the next class.

30
 IF (3)- REJECTED IF

If 3(rejected) is used when one wants to show or express what was supposed did not
happen (condition) and the result came true.
eg I did not see him. I did not tell him.
If I had not see him, I did not tell him.
Or
Had I seen him, I would have told him.
In this type of conditional sentences, the if clause is put in past perfect tense and the main
clause in “would have/should have/might have/could have “tense.

The position of “NOT” when the main clause is negative. It (not) comes after the first
verb;
- should not have abused……….
- would not have abused………..
- might not have abused………..
- could not have abused………..

If clause Main clause

If I/you had I /you would (not) have
woven/spoken/ridden/knelt/written/paid/driven cried/failed/missed/been
/dived/sought/eaten/sput/cast/telecast/broadcast punished/died/collapsed/run/come/done/sent
/made/set/answered/bitten/beaten/elected/practiced /borrowed/lent/called/wasted/pleaded/requested
/revised/cleansed/repented…

Sentence construction
1. I did not weave the basket. I was not paid. (Join begin if …..)
If I had woven the basket, I would have been paid.
2. Sharon did not revise her notes. Sharon failed her exams.(Joins using…….IF…..)
Sharon wouldn‟t have failed her exams if she had revised her notes.

31
 Or
Sharon would have passed if she had revised her notes.

Complete the following sensibly

1. He would have told me if __________________________
2. If there had been more money,______________________
3. If I had know in time,_____________________________
4. We should have helped him if ______________________

Inversion of IF 3

1. Had I woven the basket, I would have been paid.

2. Had Sharon revised her notes, she wouldn‟t have failed her exams.
Or
Had Sharon revised her notes, she would have passed her exams.

Complete the following sensibly

1. Had she painted her work well,______________
2. Had I been around,________________________
3. Had Agnes had enough money,_______________
N.B don‟t confuse the inversion of IF 2 and IF 3

Nouns: Naming words / Names of things.

Kinds of Nouns.
a)Common nouns: dog, man, teacher, table, girl, boy, etc…..
b)Proper nouns: France, Kasibante, Elgon, Kabojja, Kamwokya, etc….
c)Abstract nouns: Beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy, love, hatred etc…..
d)Collective nouns: Crowd, flock, group, swarm, tea, bundle…

32
 Functions of nouns:
i)They work /serve as a subject of a verb – Tom arrived
ii)Complement of the verbs be, become, seem. Tom is an actor
iii)Object of a verb: I saw Tom
iv)Object of a preposition: I spoke to Tom
v)A noun can also be a possessive case. Tom‟s books.
> Common nouns: They are names (shared by all) of people, place or things of the
kind. e.g man, rive, town, school, girl, boy, teacher, president, etc………
> Proper nouns: They are nouns / (names) used to name particular persons, places and
physical features . Proper nouns are easier to identify than common nouns.
e.g. Common Proper
Teacher Ronald
City Kampala
Country Uganda
River Blue Nile
Lake Victoria
School Kabojja
Hospital Mulago /Lubaga/Namirembe Hospital
Village Kamwokya/Nateete/Bugoloobi/Kawempe…
Region East Africa/Central Africa/Buganda/Northern…
NB: Wherever proper nouns are written, they must be begun with capita letters.
 Abstract nouns. They are nouns used to show qualities of persons, places or
things, they cannot be touched.

 Formation of abstract nouns

Abstract Vs concrete(doer)
Verb doer abstract
Apply applicant application
Organise organiser organisation
Baptise baptist baptism

33
Call caller a call
Sell seller sale
Visit visitor visitation
Rob robber robbery
Steal thief theft
Drink drinker drink
Educate educator education
Achieve achiever achievement
Receive receiver receipt/reception
Judge Judge judgement
Advise advisor advice
Examine examiner examination
Dramatise dramatist drama
Liberate liberator liberator
Favour favourite favouritism
Child childhood
Sculptor sculpture
Artist art
King kingship
A coward cowardice
A patient patience
A refugee refuge
Detain detainer/detainee detention
Pay payer/payee payment
Return returner return
Train trainer training
athlete athletics
employee employment
Architect architecture
Interview interviewer interview
Act actor/actress action

34
 Perform performer performance
Type typist typing
Serve servant service
Preach preacher preaching
Slave slavery
Poet/poetess poem
Man manhood
Cashier cash
Critic criticism
Enemy enmity

Collective nouns: They are nouns used to name groups of persons/ things or animals

Examples
1. a crowd of people.
2. a mob of disorderly people.
3. a gang of thieves, labourers, robbers
4. a choir of singers
5. a pack of asses, wolves, cards
6. a litter of puppies,kitten,cubs
7. a constellation of stars
8. a team of oxen,horses,players
9. a troop of dancers
10. a troop of soilders,lions,monkeys
11. a sheaf of corns
12. a set of tools
13. a staff of servants
14. a library of books
15. a class of learners/pupils/students
16. a school of whales

35
17. a flight of birds
18. a flock of birds
19. an army of soldiers
20. a forest of trees
21. a pride of lions
22. a congregation of worshippers
23. a convoy of cars, owed by the same person/merchant ships protected by warships.
24. a galaxy(system) of stars
25. a fleet of ships
26. a bouquet of flowers
27. a suite of furniture
28. a brood of chickens
29. a crew of sailors manning a ship
30. a swarm of bees
31. a host of angels

Gender
Masculine and feminine gender of people
Masculine Feminine
waiter waitress
actor actress
boy girl
king queen
prince princess
poet poetess
widower widow
hunter huntress
duke duchess
monk nun
emperor empress

36
lad lass
author authoress
nephew niece
gentleman lady
lord lady
hero heroine
mayor mayoress
wizard witch
god goddess
bachelor spinster
sir madam
bridegroom bride
host hostess
master mistress
sultan sultana
prophet prophetess
conductor conductress
tutor governess
steward stewardess
instructor instructress
heir heiress
shepherd shepherdess
murderer murderess
uncle aunt
tailor seamstress
jew jewess
patron patroness
priest priestess
peer peeress
governor matron

37
beau belle
earl countess
sorcerer sorceress
fiancé fiancée

Masculine and feminine gender of animals

Masculine Feminine
Cock Hen
Peacock Peahen
Cockerel Pullet
Bull Cow
Bullock Heifer
Stag (deer) Doe(deer) / hind
Fox Vixen
Lion Lioness
Gander Goose
Stallion (horse) Mare (horse)
Drone (bee) Queen(bee)
Boar(pig) Sow(pig)
Ram(sheep) Ewe (sheep)
Tiger Tigress
Billy (goat) Nanny(goat)
Buck(rabbit) Doe(rabbit)
Dog Bitch
Tom-cat Tabby-cat
Drake Duck
Colt(young male horse) Filly (young female horse)
Leopard Leopardess
Cock sparrow Hen sparrow
Cob(swan) Pen

38
 Sire Dam
Steer Heifer
Mallard Wild duck

N.B The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form.
E.g.
Masculine Feminine
Lawyer Lawyer
Doctor Doctor
Architect Architect
Sculptor Sculptor
Artist Artist
Cook Cook
Pilot Pilot
Teacher Teacher
Potter Potter
Nurse Nurse
Dentist Dentist
Surgeon Surgeon
Reverend Reverend

Except
1. mayor - mayoress
2. tailor - seamstress
3. priest - priestess

N.B common gender have no masculine and feminine e.g. baby, infant, parent, cousin,
relative, spouse…

39
 Number
Number refers to either singular or plural forms.

Plural forms of countable nouns

Adding –s
1. The plural forms of some nouns are usually made/got by adding –s to the singular
nouns.
i. Nouns ending in „y‟ preceded by a vowel letter;
Singular Plural
Tray Trays
Boy Boys
Tray Toys
Chimney Chimneys
Day Days
Donkey Donkeys
Key Keys
Monkey Monkey
Alloy Alloys
Ray Rays
Way Ways
Spray Sprays
Guy Guys
Storey Storeys
Journey Journey
Kidney Kidneys
Bay Bays
Play Plays
Trolley Trolleys
Pulleys Pulleys

40
Joey Joeys (young kangaroos)

Nouns end in double vowels

Degree Degrees
Tree Trees
Video Videos
Radio Radios
Igloo Igloos
Trio Trios
Employee Employees
Absentee Absentees
Stereo Stereos
Studio Studios
Filio Filios
Curio Curious
Loss Loos
Bamboo Bamboos
Zoo Zoos

Clue Clues

Committee Committee

ii. Noun of foreign origin ending in a single vowel

Piano Pianos
Kilo Kilos
Soprano Sopranos

41
 Photo Photos
Kimono Kimonos
Dynamo Dynamos

Others include
a. Eskimo Eskimos
b. Hippo hippos
c. Rhino rhinos

Nouns ending in a consonant take –s

a. cloth cloths (fabric/material)
b. criminal criminals
c. cell cells
d. ball balls

N.B –s is pronounced as /s/ after p,k.. Otherwise it is to be pronounced as /z/.

Adding –es

Some nouns ending in „o‟

tomato tomatoes
potato

mango mangoes
mosquito mosquitoes
hero heroes
echo echoes
volcano volcanoes
cargo cargoes

42
Negro Negroes
lasso lassoes

Some nouns ending in x

box boxes
fox foxes
tax taxes
fax faxes
prefix prefixes
suffix suffixes
sex sexes
climax climaxes
vex vexes
apex apexes
appendix Appendixes (part of one‟s body)
index indexes

Except:
Apex apices
appendix Appendices (a section of a book)
vertex vertices
hellix hellices
index indices

43
Some nouns ending in „ch‟ and „sh‟ Process
Church Mattress
Branch Mess
Watch Boss
Beach grass
Cockroach Success
Bench princess
Match pass
Tooth –brush ass
match lass
bunch carcass
coach cross
Bush
Brush
Rush
Dish Nouns ending in letter –y – preceded by
Wish a consonant letter
Dash Add –ies
Flush
family
cry
army
Some nouns ending in s or ss baby
miss berry
glass belly
dress
class surgery
kiss industry
Compass company
loss lullaby

44
Factory
city Change of vowels
lady goose
granny foot
community tooth
laboratory louse
buddy mouse
fly man
fallacy woman
granary
Nouns that end in eau may take x or
add „ves‟ s in plural form.
Some nouns ending in „f‟ or „fe‟ plateau
knife bureau
leaf gateau.
thief
wolf The plural forms of some words like
self ox
shelf child
loaf
life
sheaf
calf Some nouns ending in „f‟ or „fe‟ take
half either „s‟ or „ves‟ in plural forms

wife hoof or

elf scarf or
wharf or

45
Other nouns that end in „f‟ or „fe‟ take safe
only –s proof
chief gulf
reef
roof
cliff
belief
Nouns that end in „us‟ lose them to take 5. crisis
„i‟ instead 6. parenthesis
radius 7. axis
abacus 8. emphasis
villous 9. Metamorphosis
terminate 10. Nemesis
fungus 11. antithesis
focus 12. synthesis

syllabus Some nouns that end in „um‟ take „a‟

alumus instead

locus 1. bacterium

Hippopotamus 2. acquarium

esophagus 3. stadium
4. scrotum
stimulus
5. plasmodium
genus
6. refrendum
cactus
7. plasmodium
tasus
8. trapezium
alveolus
9. memorandum
nouns that end in „is‟ take „es‟
10. ovum
1. basis
11. millennium
2. testis
12. datum
3. oasis
13. rectum
4. analysis
14. ileum

46
 Exceptions
1. album - albums
2. scrum - scrums
3. drum - drums
4. bums - bums

Some nouns that end in „a‟ take/add letter „e‟ to form plurals
1. larva
2. alumna
3. pupa
4. antenna
5. lacuna
6. persona
7. vertebra
8. formula
9. corona

Nouns with zero plural

Some types of fish
1. carp
2. cod
3. markerel
4. pike
5. salmon
6. trout
7. turbot
8. squid
9. place

b. some animals
1. sheep
2. deer

d. Diseases like
1.swine
2.AIDS

47
 3. measles
4. rickets
5. Tuberculosis
6. Syphilis
7. Trypanasomiasis
8. Coccidiosis
9. Rabies
10. Scabies
11. Mengitis
12. Pertusis
13. Bronchitis
14. Mumps

Other nouns with Zero plurals

1. luggage
2. baggage
3. bread
4. furniture
5. advice
6. information
7. rubbish
8. garbage
9. news
10. word

Names of instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair.

1. Scissors
2. Pliers
3. Tongs
4. Compasses
5. Dividers
6. Shears
7. Binoculars
8. Spectacles
9. secateur
10. Bellows

48
Names of certain clothes
1. Pants
2. Knickers
3. Shorts
4. Trousers
5. Jeans
6. Suspenders
7. Breeches
Some nouns originally are singular and not generally used in plural
1. riches(wealth)
2. alms(assistance)

Other nouns treated as singular end in‟ics‟

1. Physics
2. Politics
3. Civics
4. Statistics
5. Electronics
6. Graphics
7. Olympics
8. Mathematics

Names of games are also treated as singular nouns

1. Darts
2. Tennis
3. Dominos
4. Billiards
5. Athletics
Certain collective nouns, though in singular form, are always used as plural
1. These poultry are mine
2. Whose are those cattle.
3. There are four gentry in this room
4. vermin destroy our property and cause diseases
Plurals of letters and figures –(„s)

9‟s , 1‟s , 0‟s , A‟s , C‟s, I‟s, T‟s , 1960‟s, MP‟s

49
Plurals of compound nouns

Nouns that end in full „ful‟ + s

1. cupful
2. pocketful
3. mouthful
4. handful
5. spoonful
6. plateful
Nouns where plurals formed by adding –s to the principle nouns ( the last one)
1. Toothbrush
2. Shoe brush
3. Mousetrap
4. Ashtray
5. Nail cutter
6. Class teacher
7. Cupboard
8. Roadblock
9. Babysitter
10. Blackboard
11. Male student
12. Female student
13. Step daughter
14. Education officer

In the following, the first noun is the principle noun

1. man of war
2. head of state
3. prisoner of war
4. head of department
5. minister of state
6. court martial
7. master of ceremonies
8. master on duty
9. brother in law

50
 10. chief of staff
11. commander in chief
12. daughter in law
13. editor in chief
14. coat of mail
15. coat of arms
16. Passer by

In the following where the „man or woman‟ is suffixed, both nouns are made plurals.
1. woman pilot
2. man driver
3. woman driver
4. Manservant
5. woman doctor
6. Gentle man farmer
7. woman teacher
8. man teacher

Possessive forms of nouns (genitive)

An apostrophe is used with (s) to show ownership. This connect with living things and a few
inanimate
1. The girl‟s dress
2. The boy‟s toy
3. Musa‟s residence
4. The man‟s complaint
5. The cow‟s tail
6. The lady‟s dress
7. The child‟s toy
8. The butcher‟s shop
9. Milliner‟s shop
10. The baker‟s shop
11. The grocer‟s shop
12. Florist‟s shop
13. The baby‟s shop
14. The baby‟s head

51
 15. The man‟s watch
16. The plane‟s wing
17. The ship‟s bell
18. The yatch‟s mat
19. The train‟s heating system

Nouns that end in (s) may have two accepted forms of plurals in possessive case.

1. Moses‟s / Moses‟ stick

2. Jesus‟s / Jesus‟ disciples
3. Amos‟s / Amos‟s toy
4. James‟s / James‟ notes
5. Lazarus‟s / Lazarus‟ debt
6. Judas‟s / Judas‟s pride

Possessive compound nouns

Nouns consisting of several words take the possessive after the last word.
1. Brian the navigator‟s son
2. The prince of wales‟ helicopter
3. Ronald the king‟s son

In the following, the last word takes the apostrophe and letter(s)
1. brother-in-law‟s guitar
2. the army commander‟s daughter.
3. your step daughter‟s book
4. the MP‟s brief case
5. The VIP‟s escort

When the possessive is used, the article before the person or thing possessed disappears
1. The daughter of the politician
The politician‟s daughter\
2. The intervention of America
America‟s intervention
3. The plays of shakespear
Shake spear‟s play

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Plurals of simple and compound possessive nouns
a) plurals of simple possessive nouns
-First make the given noun plural, then add an apostrophe after or before(s)
1. the girl‟s dress ___________________
2. a lady‟s dress ___________________
3. a woman‟s scarf ____________________
4. a child‟s toy _____________________
5. the teacher‟s shop _____________________
6. the milliner‟s shop ______________________
7. the butcher‟s shop ________________________
8. the grocer‟s shop _________________________
9. the baker‟s _________________________
10. the lady‟s bag _________________________

Plurals of possessive nouns

1. Brother-in-law‟s wife ________________________

2. The army commander‟s daughter _________________________
3. Your step daughter‟s doll _________________________
4. The commander in chief‟s gun __________________________

Possessive of time

1. Last week‟s concert

2. Today‟s Tv programme
3. Today‟s paper
4. Two hour‟s delay
5. A moment of silence
6. Yesterday‟s silence
7. One month‟s work
8. A week‟s wage

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In some expressions (idioms)
1. A stone‟s throw = a short distance
2. A journey‟s end = death
3. The water‟s edge

Sometimes nouns can be used in possessive case without the second case

1. The butcher‟s =_____________________

2. The milliner‟s =_____________________
3. The baker‟s =_____________________
4. The grocer‟s =______________________
5. The florist‟s =_______________________
6. The chemist‟s =_______________________
7. The dentist =_______________________

Nouns of people can sometimes be used similarly to mean ……‟s house

1. At Andrew‟s = at Andrew‟s house

2. At Anne‟s = at Anne‟s house

Formation of nouns

Nouns can be formed from other nouns, adjectives and verbs by adding suffixes –ness, -sion, -tion,
al, -ity, -ment, ance, -ence, -th, ism, -om, -ry, -er, -etc…to the root word.

e.g. Ending -ness

lazy laziness tidy __________
neat neatness busy ____________
sad ________ ready __________
sick _________ empty __________
ill __________ ugly ___________
mad __________ godly godliness
calm ___________ lame ________
kind ___________ lovely _________
happy ___________ clean _________

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one _________ hot __________
lonely loneliness loud ___________
serious _________ low ___________
tender __________ same ___________
soft __________

Ending -ty
Similar similarity Loyal loyalty
Curious curiosity Generous generosity
Real ______ Able _______
Cruel cruelty Flexible ________
Royal royalty Anxious anxiety
Brutal brutality possible _________
Timid ______ familiar _________
Pure _______ responsible _________
Accountable _______ reliable _________
Hostile _______ human __________
Impartial __________ Humid ____________
Mental __________ Hospitable ____________
Mobile mobility Dense ____________
Poor ________ Charitable ____________
Sane _________ Unite ____________
Suitable __________ Diversify ___________
Grave gravity Simple ___________
Available _________ Enemy enmity
Durable _________

Ending -ance / ence

Attend attendance resist resistance
Accept acceptance obedient ___________
Allow _________ govern governance
Maintain maintenance reluctant __________
Repent repentance adolescent __________
Sustain sustenance innocent _________ __
Abstain abstinence fragrant fragrance
Tolerate tolerance enter entrance

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Assure _______ hinder hindrance
Arrogant ________ remember remembrance
Abundant ________ resemble resemblance
Assist ________ exist ___________
Perform ________ excellent ____________
Depend ________ significant ____________
Absent _________ resident ___________
Present _________ convenient _____________
Different __________ lenient _________
Defend _________ revere ________
Prefer preference refer _________

Ending –ment
Develop _____________ Require _______________
Achieve ____________ Arrange _______________
Entertain ____________ Announce ________________
Retire ____________ Argue argument
Encourage ____________ Punish ________________
Manage _____________ Imprison ________________
Amuse _____________ Fulfil fulfilment
Judge _____________ Involve _____________
Move ____________ Settle ______________
Enjoy _____________ Increase increment
Advertise ______________ Refresh __________
Measure _____________ Improve __________
Employ _____________ Embezzle __________
Treat ______________ procure _______
Disappoint ______________ amaze ________
Enhance _____________ adjourn __________
Resent _____________ reinstate _________
Impede impediment attach ______
Merry ____________

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Ending -ry
Brave bravery
Ending -tion
Absorb absorption educate _________
Admire _________ solve ______
Adopt _________ produce ______
Adapt _________ equate _______
Broad breadth Warm _______
Long ________ Faithful faith / faithfulness
Wide _________ Deep _____________
True ___________

Forming the nouns from the following mixed words:

Accurate accuracy Just justice
Angry anger Kind _______
Bitter bitterness Lazy _________
Bright ________ Like likeness
Clean cleanliness Mad _________
Dark _________ Proud pride
Decent decency Safe safety
Famous fame Scarce scarcity
Fat _____ Scientific _______
Fertile _______ Sharp _______
Fierce fierceness Short ________
Fiery fire Sick _________
Foolish foolishness / fool Simple simplicity
Free freedom Slow _______
Gay gaiety Courageous _______
Gentle ________ Strong _______
Glad _________ Terrible terror
Woollen / woolen __________ Angelic _______
Grand grandeur British ________
Great _______ Cautious caution
High height True _______
Holy ______ Choral choir
Honest ________ Comfortable _________
Humble humility Wise wisdom
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Young youth Punctuate __________
Punctual __________
Crafty _______
Disastrous disaster
Dutiful duty
Energetic __________
Faulty _________
Fortunate fortune
Furious fury
Gigantic giant
Hot heat
Heroic _______
Honourable __________
Horrible horror
Shady _______
Mysterious mystery
Luxurious ________
Loving _________
Silven / silvery _________
Skilful ___________
Strenuous stain
Succeed / successful ________
Dirty dirt
Sympathetic sympathy
Watery ________
Wintry _________
Wooden _________
secure _________

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persuade persuasion pursue pursuit

Gerunds
>Reading is his favourite pastime(fun/entertainment).
The word reading is formed from the verb read, by adding –ing. We also see that it (
reading) is here used as the subject of the verb (read), and hence does the work of a noun. It
is therefore, a verb – noun, and is called a Gerund.
More examples:
>He likes reading poetry.
>Hunting tigers is my favourite sport
>He‟s fond of hoarding money.
NB: hoarding = storing money/hiding money/accumulating/saving money.
NB: (1)-In sentence I, the Gerund, like a noun, is the object of the verb but, like a verb it
also take the object, thus clearly showing that it has the force of a verb.
NB(2)-In sentence 2, the Gerund, like a noun is the subject of the verb, but like a verb, it
also takes an object, thus clearly showing that it has also the force of a verb.
NB(3)-In sentence 3, the Gerund like a noun, is governed by a preposition, but, like a verb,
it also takes a object.
Definition: A Gerund is that form of the verb which ends in –ing, and has the force of a
noun and a verb.
NB:(4) As both the Gerund and the infinitive have the force of a noun and a verb, they have
the same uses. Thus in many sentences either of them may be used without any special
difference in meaning as;
>Teach me to swim.
>Teach me swimming.
>To give is better than to receive.
>Giving is better than receiving.
>To see is to believe
>Seeing is believing.
NB: Avoid confusing the Gerund with the Participle
>Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.

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NB: The word hearing qualifies the noun (boy) as an adjective . It is formed from the verb
hear, and governs an object.
-The word hearing, therefore partakes of the nature of both a verb and an Adj., and is called
the participle.
>It can be called a verbial Adjective.
Definition: A participle is that form of the verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb
and of an Adjective. Or
> A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an Adjective.
NB: The phrase – Hearing the noise, which is introduced by a participle, is called a
participle phrase. According to its use here, it is an Adj. Phrase.
> A Phrase is part of a sentence (literally) that gives no complete meaning. ie it lack all the
qualities of a good sentence.
>The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.
>We met a girl carrying a basket of flowers
>Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission.
 Besides the present participle, as used in the above sentences, we can form past
participle also.
>Blinding by the dust storm, they fell into disorder
>Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope
>Drive by hunger, he stole a piece of read.
>We saw a few trees laden with fruits.
NB: Past participles usually end in –ed, -d,-t,-e,or-r

In the following examples the participles are used as simple qualifying adjectives in front of
a noun, thus used as participle adjectives:
-A rolling stone gathers no moss.
-His coat needs mending
-The creaking door awakened the dog.
-A lying witness ought to be punished
-He wears a worried look.
-A burnt child dreads fire………
NB: Participles admit of degrees of comparison.

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e.g He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time.

Used adjectively, the past participle is passive in meaning while the present participle is
Active.
-a spent swimmer - a swimmer who is tired out.
-a burnt child - a child who is burnt.
-a painted doll - a doll which is painted.
-a rolling stone - a stone which rolls.
A participle is absolutely used with a noun or pronoun going before it,
-The weather being fine, I went out.
-Mary having arrived, we were free from anxiety.
-Weather permitting, there will be a garden party at Gov‟t House – tomorrow.
-God willing, we shall have another good monsoon.
-His master being absent, the business was neglected.

Errors in the use of Participles.

>Since the participle is a verb – adjective it must be attached to some noun or pronoun, in
other words, it must always have a proper subject of reference, as in the above examples, -
weather permitting.
>The following sentences are incorrect because in each case the participle is left without
proper agreement.
-Being a very hot day, I remained in my tent
-Sitting on the gate, a scorpion sting him.
[ it implies that the scorpion was sitting on the gate]
-Entering the room, the light was quite dazzling.
We should, therefore, recast these sentences as;
It being a very hot day……………………………….
-Sitting on the gate, he was stung by a scorpion
[ while he was sitting on the gate, a scorpion stung him]
-Entering the room, I found the light dazzling
[When I entered the room, the light was quite dazzling.

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>>Usage, however, permits in certain cases such constructions as the following where the
participle is left without a proper „subject of reference. “The participle in such cases is
called an impersonal Absolute.
-Taking everything into consideration, the Magistrate was perfectly justified in issuing those
orders.
-Considering abilities, he should have done better.
-Roughly speaking, the distance from here to the nearest railway station is two miles.
NB: The subject (unexpressed) in the examples above is indefinite.
-Roughly speaking = If one speaks roughly.

The Infinitive.
-They always find fault with me
-They always try to find fault with me.
>>In sentence I, the verb find has they for its subject, hence the verb find is limited by
person and number. We all it (find) a finite verb.
>>In sentence 2, to find merely names the action denoted by the verb find, and is used
without mentioning any subject. It is therefore, not limited by person or number as a verb
that has a subject, and it‟s called the verb infinitive or simply the Infinitive.
-To err is human
-Birds to sing
-To respect our parents and trs is our duty
-May men desire to make money quickly
-He refused to obey the orders.

>>In sentence I, the Infinitive, like a noun, is the subject of the verb (is).
>>In sentences 2, the Infinitive, like a noun is the object of the verb love.
>>In sentence 3, the Infinitive, like a noun, is the subject of the verb refused, but, like a
verb, it takes an object.
>>In sentence 5, the Infinitive, like a noun is the object of the verb desire, but, like a verb, it
also takes an object and its modified by an Adverb.

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Definition: An Infinitive is a Kind of noun with certain features of the verb, especially that
of taking an object (when the verb is Transitive) and adverbial qualifiers. In short, the
Infinitive is a verb – Noun.

The word to is frequently used with the Infinitive, but is not an essential part or sign of it.
Thus, after certain verbs ( bid. Let, make, need, see, dare, hear), we use the Infinitive
without to,
-Bid him go there.
-I bade him go
-Let him sit there
-I will not let you go
--Make him stand
-I made him run
-We need not go to –day
-You need not do it.
-You dare not do it.

NB: Except when they are conjugated with do.

-I saw him do it
-I heard the baby cry.
>>The Infinitive without to is also used after the verbs – shall, will, do, did, should, would,
may might, and the verbs must and can, could.
-You shall do it - You will be compelled to do it .
-I will play = I am determined to play.
-He is at liberty to go
-I may go - He is permitted to go.
-You must go – You are commanded to go.
-I can swim - I am able to swim.

>>The Infinitive without to is also used after had better, had rather, would rather, sooner
than, rather than, as,
-You had better ask permission.
-I had rather play than work.
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-I would rather die than suffer.

Use of the Infinitive

(1)Used a noun in a sentence
is the subject of a verb
-To find fault is easy.
-To err is human.
-To reign is worth ambition.

(2)As the object of a transitive verb.

-I do not mean to read
-I like to play cards.

(3)As the complement of the verb

-Her greatest pleasure is to sing.
-His custom is to ride daily

(4)As the object of the preposition

-He had no choice but ( = except) to obey
-The speaker is about to begin.

(5)As an objective complement

-I saw him go.
-They heard him cry.

The Infinitive is also used.

(i)To qualify a verb, usually to express purpose.
-He called to see my brother. (For the purpose of seeing my brother)
-We eat to live. (purpose)
-I came to bury Ceasar. (Purpose)
-He went to see the desolation caused by the flood. (cause).

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Adjectives
-They are words that/which describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing.
OR. They are words which describe people and things.
OR. They describe nouns or pronouns.

Examples of adjectives
-A tall, handsome man.
Fair, glossy, wavy hair.
Comfortable arm – chair
Yellow dress, narrow, wide, intelligent, pretty, dangerous, sunny, stormy, cloudy etc…..

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Position and use of an adjective:
Study the following sentences.
1.The lazy boy was punished.
2.The boy is lazy.
>>In sentence 1, the adjective lazy is used along with the noun boy as an epithet or
attribute. It is, therefore, used attributively.

In sentence 2, the adjective lazy is used along with the verb is, and forms part of the
predication. It is, therefore, said to be used predicatively.

Kinds or types of adjectives.

1.Adjectives of quality (or descriptive adjectives).
These show the kind /sort/quality of a person or thing.
Examples.
-Large, honest, kind, beautiful, handsome, tall, foolish, old educated, rich, poor, etc…….

2.Adjectives of quantity. They show how much of a thing is meant. They answer a question.
How much.
Examples some, any, much, many, a lot, a great deal, plenty, little, enough, all, no, half,
sufficient, whole, …….
As in,
-I ate some food.
-He showed much patience.
-He has little intelligence.
-Very few people were found dead.
-We had enough exercise
-He has lost all his wealth.
-You have no sense.
-He did not eat any food.
-Take great care of your health.
-There has no been enough/sufficient rain this year.
-The whole sum was expended.
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67
3.Adjectives of number (Numerical adjectives)
They show how many persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or a thing
stands.
Examples.
-The hand has five fingers.
-Few cats like cold water.
-There are no pictures in the book
-I have taught you many things.
-All men must die.
-He are some ripe mangoes.
-Most boys like crickets.
-There are several mistakes in your exercise.
-Sunday is the first day of the week.
NB: They answer q question - how many?

(i) Definite Numerical Adjectives. They denote/point out the exact number – as,
-one, two, three ………… These are called Cardinals.
-First, second, third …….. These are called Ordinals.
NB: Cardinals denote/point out how many, and ordinals the order of things or persons in a
series. Ordinals really do the work of demonstrative adjectives. Some, certain, few, Sunday,
several, many

(ii)Indefinite = Do not denote an exact number e.g – all, any, no,

(iii)Distributive adjectives. They refer to each one of a number as,
-Each boy must take his turn.
-England expects every man to do his duty.
-Every word of it is false.
-Either pen will do.
-On either side is a narrow lane.
-Neither accusation is true.

NB: The same adjective may be classed as of quantity number according to its use.
Quantity Number
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-I ate some food. -Some boys are clever.
-All men must die
-You have no sense -There are no pictures in this book
-He did not eat any food -Are there any mango – trees in your
garden?
4.Demonstrative adjectives. They point out which person or thing is meant, as,
-This boy -Those rascals
-That boy -Such a hurry
-These Mangoes -Such things

5.Interrogative adjectives. They are used with nouns to ask questions.

 What manner of man is he?
 Which way shall we take /go?
 Whose book is this?

6.Possessive adjectives. They show ownership:

-my pen -our school -her doll -your bus
-their babies -his car -Its egg(not it‟s as this means a contraction for “it is”)

7.Emphasizng adjectives “very and own” as in,

 I saw it with my own eyes
 Mind your own business.
 That is the very thing we want.

Forming adjectives
a)-suffix - ous

 -fame -outrage mischief

 -danger -courage ridicule
 -Luxury -envy monotony
 -victory -anxiety popular
 -Glory -religion fury

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 -Vigour -poison

b)-suffix - some
 hand -trouble
 quarrel -venture
 tire -whole
 cumber

c)Suffix - en d)Suffix - able

 flax govern -move
 wood -like -understand
 wool -penetrate -remark
 ash -pardon -suit
 gold -laugh -excite
 silk -memory -favour.

e)Suffix - al f) Suffix -ive

 tragic -nation -attract
 music -parent -act
 instrument -origin -talk
 accident -economic -decide
 Substance -practice -progress
 bible -experiment
 education -numerical/number
 crime -continent.

g) Suffix – ar h)Suffix -ry

 circle -deliver
 rectangle -fire – fiery
 molecule -discipline
 sun- solar
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 moon- lunar
 Triangle

i) Suffix -y j) Suffix - ic
 fun -fuss - iron
 ease -stone -angle
 noise -rust -metal
 fuzz -anger -hero
 taste -hunger -science
 friend -cloud -magnet
 sun -dirt -toxin
 Guilt -Wealth
 Man -coward
 health -tide
 juice -dust
 king -girl
 silk

L) Suffix - less/ -ful and their phrase equivalence.

 helpful/less -dutiful
 hopeful/less
 use ful/less
 joyful
 speechless

Equivalence - without use - useless, with hope - hopeful.

M) Suffix - ant n) Suffix - sh

 redundancy - tolerantly
 reluctance -child or childlike
 constantly -boy
 repent -girl
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 -fool
-grey
Opposite adjectives – with prefix
Dis / il/ ir/un
i) dis –agreeable ii) il - legitimate
-approving -legible
-encouraging -literate
-like
iii) ir - Regular iv) un - realistic
-relevant -avoidable
-reparable -accustomed
-reversible
Forming adjectives - with - prefix.
a)self - confident b) post - secondary
-conscious - natal
-assertive

c)Mul – nutritional d) Pre - primary

e) anti - colonial
People staged protests against the government.
 People staged anti government protests.

Participles used as adjectives.( Present and Past)

- ing ed
 tiring job - workers were tired
 horrifying -horrified spectators
 amusing -amused team
 infuriating woman
 boring story
Using adjective “used to +gerund clause” to construct sentences
e.g Tom is not used to sleeping late.

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 I am used to eating hot food.
Use participles in progressive tense as adjectiives
e.g. We have a swimming lesson every day.
The children were told to take their copying books.
Use verbs in the perfect tense as adjectives
e.g. The president has gone to Mulago Hospital to visit the wounded soldiers..
The written message about the disaster arrived this morning.

Adjective Phrases.
(1) The children were playing with a table. It was eaten by moths. ( End ……table).
 The children were playing with a moth eaten table.
(2) The president went with a delegation to China.
It was of ten men (End …… delegation)
 The president went to China with a ten- man delegation.

Comparison of Adjectives
1. Most adjectives of one syllable, and some of more than one, form the comparative by
adding - er and the superlative by adding est to the positive.

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Examples.
Sweet, fast, rough, tall, cold, great, dear, bold, small, deep, smooth, weak, mild, young,
short.

2. When the positive ends in „e‟ only „r‟ and „st‟ are added to form comparative and
superlative adjectives.
Examples simple, fine, humble, feeble, white, large, pure, able, stranger, hobble, wise, rare.

3. When the positive ends in „y‟ preceded by a consonant the „y‟ is changed into „i‟ before
adding „er‟ and „st‟.
Examples. Rusty, stony, stormy, rainy, juicy, dusty, dirty, easy, friendly, noisy, heavy,
mercy, wealthy, tidy, dirty, pretty, tiny, early, funny, healthy.

4. When the positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by
a short vowel, is consonant is doubled before adding –„er‟ and „est‟
Examples. Red, big, fat, thin, hot, sad, wet, mad.

5. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and many of those with two, form comparative
using the adverb more with the positive and the superlative by using the adverb most with
the positive adjectives.
Examples.
Stubborn, splendid, beautiful, difficult, industrious, courageous, learned, proper,
troublesome, quarrelsome, cautious, cumbersome, careful, merciful, merciless, ignorant,
wonderful, active, redundant, gracious. Comfortable, capable.

NB: The comparative in „er‟ is not used when we compare two qualities in the same person
or thing

If we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than the courage of Balu, we say,
Rama is braver than Balu.
>>But if we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than his prudence, we say,
Rama is more courageous than prudent.

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75
Irregular Adjectives
The comparative and superlative not formed from the positive adjectives directly.
Examples.
Positive Comparative Superlative.
 Good/well better best
 Bad/evil/ill worse worst
 Little less / lesser least
 Much More most (quantity)
 Many More Most (number)
 Late Latter / later latest, last
 Old older/elder oldest, eldest
 Far/fur(distance) farther/further farthest/furthest
 Fore former foremost, first
 (In) inner inmost, innermost
 (up) Upper Upmost, uppermost
 (Out) outer/utter utmost, uttermost.

a)Refer to time:
 He is later than I expected
 I‟ve not heard the latest news.

b) Latter and last

Refer to position: The latter chapters are lacking in interest
 The last chapter is carelessly written.
 Ours is the last house in the street.

NB: (2) Elder, older, eldest, oldest.

a) Elder and eldest - used only of persons, not of animals or things; and are now
confined to members of the same family. Elder is not used with than following.
b) Older and oldest are used of both persons and animals, including things.
Examples
 John is my elder brother.

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 Tom is my eldest son
 He is older than his sister.
 This is the oldest temple in Britain.

NB(3) Farther and Further,

 Father means more distant and advanced.
 Further means additional
Example –
 Columbia is farther from the equator than Africa.
 After this he made no further remarks.
 I must have a reply without further delay.

NB: The forms farther and further are not differentiated by writers.

NB: (4) Nearest and Next

 Nearest denotes distance.
 Next denotes position

Examples
 Bombay is the seaport nearest to Europe.
 Kasibante‟s house is next to Bamwe super market.

Comparative Patterns and their equivalents

a) Using …….. as………as ( affirmatively).

Mary is 4 metres tall. Joyce is 4 metres tall.
 Mary is as tall as Joyce.
NB: Avoid repeating 4 metres in the answer sentence.

b)Using ……. Not as……….as……. (negatively)

Ivan weighs 40kg. Ronald weighs 75kg.
 Ivan is not as heavy as Ronald.

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c) …….no………..than………
No woman is fatter than Mrs. Mukiibi.
Mrs. Mukiibi is the fattest woman.

d)Using ……. so……..as……

Robert‟s leg is 120cm long. Koreta‟s leg is 80cm long.
 Koreta‟s leg is not so long as Roberts‟.
Mummy‟s stomach is big. Daddy‟s stomach is big.
 Mummy‟s stomach is so big as daddy‟s.

f)Parallel increase is expressed by - the + Comparative….. (to show that one thing
depends on the other)
He spent a lot of money. He became very poor.
 The more money he spent, the poorer he became.

Others
 The sooner we leave, the sooner we will arrive.
 The more expensive the hotel, the better the services.
 The more I thought about the plan, the less I liked it.

g)Gradual Increase or decrease is expressed by two comparatives joined by “and”.

Examples.
 The weather is getting colder and colder
 Your English is improving. It‟s getting better and better.
 He became less and less interested in the play.
 It‟s becoming harder and harder to find a job.
Superlatives: Comparison of three or more persons/ things is expressed by the superlative
with „the‟…..in/of
 …….. the oldest theatre in London.
 The youngest of the family was the most successful.
NB: A relative clause is useful with a perfect tense.

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Examples.
 It/this is the best beer (that) I have ever drunk.
 It/this was the worst film (that) he had ever seen.
 He is the kindest man (that) I have ever met.
 It was the most worrying day (that) I had ever spent.
NB: Never cannot be used here. However, we can express the same idea with never and a
comparative.
Examples.
 I have never drunk better beer.
 I have never met a kinder man.
 He had never spent a more worrying day.

NB: Most + adjective, without „the‟ = very.

Example:
The book you lent me was most interesting.
 The book you lent me was very interesting.
-Most, meaning very is used with adjectives of (mainly) two or more syllables.
Examples – Encouraging, exciting, helpful, important, misleading, apologetic, disobedient,
annoying, etc…..

More about comparisons.

h)Use ……..so that……..

The hotel was large. It accommodated all the people.
 The hotel was so large that it accommodated all the people.

i)Use…………. Enough …..to …..

 The hotel was large enough to accommodate all the people.

J)Use ……….too……..to………. (Passive meaning)

 You are too young to understand .

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 Means you are so young that you ca not understand.
 The plate was too hot to touch. ( to hot to be touched)

NB: It, the object of touch in the first sentence, disappears in the second infinitive
construction, because the infinitive, though active in form, is passive meaning.

k)Use….too……….for…….to……(active meaning).
 The case was too heavy for the child to carry.

NB: The infinitive can refer similarly to the object of a preposition:

The glass was so wet that we couldn‟t sit on it.
 The glass was too wet for us to sit on.
The light is so weak that we can‟t read by it.
 The light is too weak for us to read by.

l)Use ……. too + adjective + a noun + infinitive.

Examples.
 Mr. Kasibante is too free a teacher to care about what you say.
 As a teacher, Mr. Kasibante is too free to care about what you say.
 I am too smart a doctor to cause more diseases.

M)Use…..such…….that………
Moreen is very smart. She can win the contest
 Moreen is such a smart lady/girl/woman that she can win the contest.

Kamoga is very tall. He is known by all villagers.

 Kamoga is such tall a man/boy/gentleman that he is known by all villagers.

n)Use……….not enough to……………

The building was very small. We could not fit in it.
 The building was not large/big enough for us to fit in it.

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Order of adjectives ( DOPSHACOM)
Determiners, Opinion, Size, Shape, Age, Colour, Origin, Material.
1) Determiner. This is a word that comes before a noun and limits its meaning.
Examples. A, an, the, some, any, much, several, few, little, each, every, all, both, either,
neither, half, my, our, your, his, her, its, their, this, that, these, those, two, second, etc……
Determiners include:
 Articles e.g. a, an and the
 Adjectives of quantity e.g some, any, much, many, all, etc……
 Adjectives of number e.g one, two, second, etc……
 Adjectives of possession e.g his, her, their, etc….
 Demonstrative adjectives e.g this, that, those, these etc…..

2.Opinion adjectives: Emotional adjectives about one‟s

Feelings e.g handsome, beautiful, clever, nice, bad, good, important, poor, rich, expensive,
cheap, dirty, clean, good – looking, brave, coward, educated, learned, knowledgeable,
ignorant, etc……. new……
3.Size: (height/length/width/weight/ )
4.Shape :pointed, blunt, circular, triangular, rectangular, spherical, oval,
square, cornice, flat, cylindrical, cubical, round, etc……
5.Age: Young, old, new, sometimes numerical age…….
6.Colour : Blue, red, brown, grey, orange, etc…..
7.Origin:: British, Turkish, Spanish, Italian, Chinese, Dutch, Ugandan etc…….
8.Material :woollen, wooden, cotton, metallic, plastic, paper, etc……
9.Gerund:: Interesting, writing, boring, playing etc………
10.Noun adjectives: History, English, French, Science, eyed, armed,
legged, etc………
11.Noun: book, man, woman, coat, skirt, etc…. described.

Examples:
I saw a man. He had one eye.
 I saw a one eyed man.
We have a president. He has a kind heart

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 We have a kind hearted president.
My mother has a heart. It is like a stone.
(end…….woman)
_____________________________________________________________.
4) Karimajong sit on stools. The stools have four legs. (use ……legged)
_____________________________________________________________.
5.)You have combed you hair in a style. It is out of date (End……styles).
_____________________________________________________________.

6.We are going to have a holiday. It‟ll be three weeks long.

(End………holiday)
_____________________________________________________________.
7)They wear a uniform. It is pink. It is smart. It is made of cotton.
_____________________________________________________________.
8)Kawooya bought a car. The car is made in Italy.
____________________________________________________________.
9.I bought a car. The car is new. The car is brown. The car is comfortable. The car has three
wheels.
___________________________________________________________.
10.The teacher carried all the bags. The bags were made in Uganda. The
bags were made of wool. The bags were pink. The teacher carried them himself
___________________________________________________________.

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 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES
Nouns Adjectives of Nationality Nouns Other adjectives
Uganda Ugandan ability Able
Spain Spanish / Spaniard gold Golden
Egypt Egyptian silver Silvery / silven
Britain British / Briton metal Metallic
American American paper Paper
Congo Congolese cotton Cotton
Iraq Iraqi silk Silky
Iran Iranian copper Copper
Russia Russian absence Absent
Asia Asian abundance Abundant
Denmark Danish / Dane accuracy Accurate
Japan Japanese guilt Guilty
Poland Pole / Polish innocence Innocent
Holland(Netherlands) Dutch anger Angry
China Chinese anxiety Anxious
Finland Fins beauty Beautiful
Morocco Moroccan bravery Brave
Canada Canadian breadth Broad
Sudan Sudanese width Wide
Turkey Turkish length Long
Mexico Mexican cleanliness Clean
Portugal Portuguese cruelty Cruel
Ireland Irish curiosity Curious
Sweden Swedish / Swede decency Decent
France French depth Deep
Germany German fire Fiery
Italy Italian equality Equal
Nigeria Nigerian plenty Plentiful
Greenland Eskimos faith Faithful
Rwanda Rwandan fame Famous
Switzerland Swiss fierceness Fierce
Greek Greece freedom Free
Lebanon Lebanese height High 83
Lesotho Lesothan / Masotho (pl)= merriment Merry
Togo Togolese Glory Glorious
Senegal Senegaese Danger Dangerous
Algeria Algerian Dirt Dirty
Afghanistan Afghan Life Lively
Angola Angolan Love Loving
Argentina Argentinian Accident Accidental
Australia Austrelian Honour Honourable
Benin Beninese Girl Girlish
Brazil Brazilian Caution Cautious
Burundi Burundian Circle Circular
Cameroon Cameroonian Business Busy
Chad Chadian Care Careful
Colombia Colombian Iron Ironic
Chile Chilean Bible Biblical
Cuba Cuban Yellow Yellowish
Cyprus Cypriot Red Reddish
Djibouti Djiboutian Blue Bluish
Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinean Grey Greyish
Ethiopia Ethiopian Angle Angelic
Gabon Gabonese Arrogance Arrogant
Ghana Ghanaian Poison Poisonous
India Indian Interest Interesting
Israel Israelites / Israelis Boredom Bored / boring
Ivory Coast Ivorian Value Valuable
Tanzania Tanzanian Law Lawful
Somalia Somalian Joy Joyous
Singapore Singaporean Division Divisible
Syria Syrian Expense Expensive
Tunisia Tunisian Book Bookish
Zimbabwe Zimbabwean Politics Political
Quarrel Quarrelsome
Cumber Cumbersome
Drama Dramatic
Elaboration Elaborate 84
Harm Harmful
Music Musical
Ease Easy
Fault Faulty
Instrument Instrumental
Decision Decisive
Poverty Poor
Storm Stormy
Articulation Articulate
Mind Mindful
Woman Womanly
Trouble Troublesome
Attention attentive

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86
 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
ASPECTS AND THEIR SUGGESTED OBJECTIVES
1.VOCABULARY
a) Read and pronounce the new words correctly.
b) Spell the words correctly.
c)Construct correct sentences using the new words learnt.(oral and written)

2.STRUCTURES
a) Practise the structures given correctly.
b) Construct sentences using the structures learnt.
c) Join / answer questions using the structures learnt.

3.COMPREHENSION
a) Read the item i.e passage, story, notice, poster, advertisement, etc… well.
b) Interpret the information shown.
c) Answer oral and written comprehension questions about the item correctly.
d) Draw pictures /diagrams to illustrate the message in the item.

4.DIALOGUE / CONVERSATION
a) Recite / practice / act the dialogue / conversation.
b) Answer oral and written questions about the dialogue.
c) Supply correct responses for completing given dialogues.

5.COMPOSITION
a) Identify the main aspects of a type of composition.
b) Answer oral and written questions about the composition, letter, etc…
c) Compose / write letters, posters, poems, adverts, etc…

METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Dramatisation
Role play
Simulation (creating a situation )
Demonstration
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Discussion
Imitation
Rote (poem, rhyme, tongue twisters )
Recitation
Songs
Spelling game
Look and say
Phonic (sound )
Syllabic
Debate
Story telling
Observation
Brainstorming
Enquiry / survey
Report / research

Explanation
Chalk and talk
Project
Symposium

ACTIVITIES
Pronouncing and spelling words correctly.
Constructing correct sentences orally and in written
Identifying e.g. adjectives in a sentence.
Drawing and naming……..
Reciting poems, dialogue etc… correctly
Studying and interpreting e.g. a picture, table, graph…
Constructing sentences using the learnt structures.
Obeying the given commands appropriately and follow them.
Reading the information and answering comprehension questions.
Writing / composing simple letters, poems, etc…
Practising / acting the dialogue.
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Answering oral / written questions.
Modelling / colouring.
Telling own stories.

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 TERM II ENGLISH GRAMMAR
NOTES FOR PRIMARY SIX.
The future simple tense
Use of shall and will – with first person ( I or We )
A. Formally will was kept for intention:
- I will wait for you = I intend to wait for you and shall was used when there was
no intention, i.e for actions where the subject‟s wishes were not involved:
- I shall be 25 next week.
- We shall know the results next week.
- I‟m sure, I shan‟t lose my way.

NB- Sometimes, however, will might change the meaning of the sentence. If in –I
shall see Tom tomorrow we replace shall by will we have – I will see Tom
tomorrow, which could be an expression of intention.
B. Shall for determination. Determination is normally expressed by will, but sometimes
public speakers feel ( like) that to express determination they need a „heavier‟ word a
word not normally used much, and so they say „ shall‟.
- We shall fight and we shall win.
- We will fight and we shall win would equally be possible.
Shall used in this way sometimes carries the meaning / idea of promise which we
get in second person shall;(you).
You shall have a sweet = I promise you a sweet.

Use of the future simple

A. To express the speaker‟s opinions, assumptions, speculations about
the future. These may be introduced by such as
- Assume, be afraid, be / feel sure , believe, daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know,
suppose , think, wonder or accompanied by adverbs such as perhaps, possibly,
probably, surely, but can be used without them.
- ( I‟m sure) he will come back.
- ( I suppose ) they‟ll sell the house.
- ( Perhaps ) we‟ll find him at the hotel.

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- They‟ll ( Probably) wait for us.

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B. The future simple is used similarly for future habitual actions which
we assume will take place:
- Spring will come again.
- People will make plans.

C. The future is used in sentence continuing clauses of condition, time

and sometimes purpose:
- If I drop this glass, it will break.
- When it gets warmer the snow will start to melt.
- I‟m putting this letter on top the pile so that he‟ll read it first.
Negative form of the future simple tense.

Pattern / Structures used.

a) -I will/ shall not……
- I won‟t / shan‟t…..
- We will/ shall not….
- We won‟t / shan‟t
b) You / she/ it/ he/ They/ Many will not ….( won‟t).

Interrogative form of the future simple tense.

Pattern/ Structures used;
a) Will / shall I / we ……?
Won‟t /shan‟t I /we…..?
b) Will you /she/it/he/they/Mary…..?
- Won‟t you /she/it/he/they/Mary…..?

Passive voice of future simple tense.

Pattern/ Structure used.
a) Object + will /shall +be +past participle verb (by doer) +time
Example. 1 – Will take him home tomorrow (active)
- I will take him home tomorrow.
2.- the teacher will cane me today.
- The teacher shall cane me today.
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93
Future Continuous Tense.
This tense is made up of the future simple of to be + the present participle. In the
first person, will is move usual than shall, except in the interrogative.

Use of the Future Continuous Tense.

- It can be used as an ordinary continuous tense.
- It can express a future without intention.

Examples of sentences in future continuous tense.

- This time tomorrow, they will be sitting in the cinema.
- They will be watching a film.
- On Saturday they will be sitting in the classroom.
- I‟ll be seeing Tom tomorrow.
- I won‟t be coming to the party.
NB. The present continuous can only be used with a definite time and for the near
future, while the future continuous can be used with or without a definite time and for
the near or distant future. We say:
- Iam meeting him tomorrow ( Present continuous) But we say
- I‟ll be meeting him tomorrow/ next year/sometime.(or without a time expression at all).
`Negative form of future continuous tense.
Pattern / Structure/
Examples;
a) They will not (won‟t) be sitting in the cinema.
b) I shall not (shan‟t) be cooking tomorrow.
c) I won‟t be coming to the party.
Interrogative form of future continuous tense.
Pattern/ Structure used.
a) Will / shall I / we be leaving tomorrow?
- Won‟t / shan‟t / we be doing exams next week?
b) Will you/ she/he/they/John/ it be having lunch tomorrow?
- Won‟t you/she/he/they/Ronald/it be eating at this time tomorrow?
Future Perfect Tense.
Pattern/ Structure used.
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 - Will /shall + perfect infinitive for first person,
- Will + perfect infinitive for other persons.

Use:
 Normally used with a time expression beginning with:
By then, by that time, by the 24th:
By the end of next month he will have been here for ten years.
 It is used with actions/ an action which at a given future time will be in the past, or
will just have finished. Imagine that it is 3rd December and David is very worried
about an exam that he is going to / taking on 13th December. Someone planning a
party might say:
1) We had better wait till 14th Dec. David will have had his exam by then; he‟ll be able to
enjoy himself.
2) I save 2000/= a month and started in January. So, by December this year, I shall have
saved 24000/=

Future perfect continuous.

- Will / shall have been + Present participle for the first person.
- Will /have been+ present participle for the other persons.

Use:
Like the future perfect , it is normally used with a time expression beginning with by:
 By the end of this year, he‟ll have been acting for thirty years.

NB. The future perfect continuous bears the same relationship to the future perfect as the present perfect continuous bears to the present
perfect. i.e the future perfect continuous can e used instead of the future perfect:

1.When the action is continuous;

 By the end of the month he will have been training/ living/ working/ studying here for
ten years.
2.When the action is expressed as a continuous action:
 By the end of the month he‟ll have been training horses / climbing mountains for
twenty years.

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NB. If we mention the number of horses or mountains , or divide this action in any way, we
then must use the future perfect.
 By the end of the month he‟ll have trained 60 horses / climbed 50 mountains.

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Pronouns.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun – or a word used in place of a noun.
E.g Harry is absent today because he is sick.
 Pronoun I, we, You, he, it, she, they, (thou) are called personal pronouns – because
they stand for the three persons; i.e speaking; spoken to and spoken of .
 The personal pronouns.
Subject object.
* Singular: first person I me
second person You You
Third person; he/she/it him/her/it.
* Plural: First person; We Us
second person You You
Third person; They Them.
NB. The old form of second person singular is:
- thou ( subject) - thee ( object)

Use of subject and object forms.

1) You and it present no difficulty as they have the same form for subject
and object.
 You are suspected to have stolen a cake, aren‟t you?
 It is not true that I stole the cake, isn‟t it ?
2) First and third person forms (other than it)
a) I, he, she, we, they can be subjects of a verb.
 I see it.
 He knows you.
 They live here.
 Complement of the verb- to be:
e.g It is I ; Normally however, we use the object form here:- Who is it?
- It‟s me.
- That‟s him over there.

NB. If the pronoun is followed by a clause , we use the subject forms.

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  Micheal Jackson! If was he who chose this colour.
 It was they /she/I who dodged the lesson yesterday.
b) Me, him her, us ,them can be direct objects of a verb:
 I saw her.
 Tom likes them.
 Or indirect objects:
 Bill found me a job.
 With me.
 To us.

The position of pronouns object.

A. An indirect object comes before a direct object:

 I made Anna /her a cake.
 I sent Ronald /him a photo.
 The position rule does not apply to one, some, any, none etc.
 He bought one for me or He bought me one.
 They gave something to Agnes Or he gave Agnes something
B. Pronoun objects of phrasal verbs.
- With many phrasal verbs a noun object can be either in the middle or at the end.
 Hand your papers in / Hand in you papers.
 Hang your cloth up / Hang up your cloth.
 Take your shoes off/ Take off your shoes.
 Pronoun object, however, must be placed in the middle:
 Hand them in
 Hang it up
 Take them off.
Types of pronouns.
-Subject Pronouns : They are used to begin sentences. e.g They, I, We, She, He.
-Object Pronouns: They are placed in the middle or at the end of the sentences .e.g. him, her,
it, us, them……

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-Possessive: They show ownership .his/hers/its/their/our…
-Emphatic possessive: his/ hers/theirs /ours/its/yours/mine/…. -------------Reflexive
pronouns: (With self) formed from other pronoun.
 Himself, herself myself, themselves….
-Demonstrative: They point out nouns. This, that, these, those..
-Distributive: each, either, neither, everyone, they refer to persons or things one at a time.
For this reason they are always singular and as such followed by the verb in the singular.
-Indefinite: One, none, all some, few,. …They refer to persons or things in a general way, but
do not refer to any person or thing in particular. Most of them are also adjectives.
 E.g
 One must not praise oneself.
 One must use one‟s best effort.
 None of hos poems are well known.
( none is a shortened form of “ not one”, yet it is commonly used with plural verbs )
 Did you ask anybody to come?
 What is everybody‟s business is nobody‟s business.
 His words are in everyone‟s mouth.
 Some body has stolen my watch.

NB.
When the sex is not determined, we use the pronoun of the masculine gender, as there is no
singular pronoun of the third person to represent both male and female.

E.g
 Everyone likes to have his way.
 Each must do his best.
 Every body is discontented with his lot in life.
Interrogative:
Use of it.
-It ,is normally used of a thing or an animal whose sex we don‟t know, and sometimes of a
baby or small child:
-It ,can also be used of people in sentences as:

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  Ronald ( on phone): Who is that /who is it ?
 Bill: it‟s me.
 Is that Tom over there? – No, it‟s Ronald.
 It is used in expressions of time, distance, weather, temperature ,tide;
 What time is it? – It is six.
 What is the date? –it is the 3rd of march.
 How far is it to York? It is 400 kilometres.
 It is hot /cold/quiet/noisy in this room.
 It‟s high tide / low tide.
 It‟s full moon tonight.

Also * I
 It‟s three years since I saw him.
 I haven‟t seen him for three years.

 I can be used to introduce sentences of the following type ( clef sentences)

 It was peter who lent us the money.( not Paul)

It is today that he is going. ( not tomorrow)

NB. It, is also used with plural noun:
It‟s pilots that we need, not ground staff.
 When an infinitive is subject of a sentence, we usually begin the sentence with it and put
the infinitive later.
 It is easy to criticise.
 Not. To criticises easy.
 It is better to be early.
 Not. To be early is better.
 It /this can represent a previously mentioned phrase, clauses or verb.
 He suggested flying, but I thought it would cost too much. (it=flying)
 He smokes in bed, though I don‟t like it. (It = his smoking in bed).
 It also acts as a subject for impersonal verbs:
 It seems.

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  It appears
 It happens.

Use of you, one and they as indefinite pronouns.

 You and one,
 As subjects ,either can be used:
-Can you /one camp In the forest?
 * As objects , you is the normal pronoun:

 They fine you for parking offences.

*One is more impersonal and less often used, through the possessive one‟s is quite
common:
 It is easy to lose one‟s /your way in Kampala.
NB. The correct possessive form must be used;
 One must /has to show one‟s pass at the door.
 You are /have to show your pass at the door.
NB. If instead of one /you we use a singular noun, the possessive adjective will obviously
be his /her:
 One must do one‟s best.
 A traveler has to guard his possessions.
 “ they “ is used as subjects only they can mean “people”:
 they say = people say, it is said.
 They say it is going to be a cold winter.
 They can also mean the authority concerned,” i.e. they government/ the local council
/one‟s employers /the police etc.
 They want to make this a one –way street.

Relative Pronouns.
They are words that refer or carry us back to the antecedent (noun going before).
e.g. who, that, which, whom, whose, what.
 I met Harry who had just returned.
 I have found a pen, which I had lost.

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  Here is the book that you lent me.
NB. The word „who‟ is used instead noun Harry. It, therefore, does the work of a
pronoun.
The word “who” also connects or joins two statements. It therefore does work of a conjunction .WE might, therefore, call it a
conjunctive pronoun.

 Who is used for persons. It may refer to singular or plural nouns.

 Who is sometimes used in referring to animals.
 Whose (the genitive form of who) is used in speaking of persons but sometimes of
things without life.
e.g.
 The ancients regarded the sun, whose rays give life to the earth, as a god.
 Which is used for things without life and animals. It may refer to singular or plural
nouns.
 Which was formerly used to refer to persons.
 Our father, which art in heaven.
 Which may also refer to sentence;
 The man was said to be drunk, which was not the case.
 That is used for persons and things. it may refer to singular or plural nouns.
 This is the boy that I told you of.
 I know the house that he lives in.
 He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty.
 Who that has met him can escape his influence?
 He that is not with me is against me.

NB.” That is only used with defining clauses- clauses that restrict, limit, or define the
antecedent.
 That may be used as an adverbial accusative = on which , in which , at which;
 I remember the day that he came.
NB. To prevent ambiguity, the relative pronoun should be placed as near as possible to
it‟s antecedent;
 The boy who won the first prize in English is the son of my friend, Mr. Kasibante.

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Interrogative Pronouns.
They are pronouns used as questioning words.
 Who is used in three forms as – nominative, Genitive, and accusative case, i.e who-
whose and whom.
What and which do not have these forms.
 Who is used for persons only:
 Who made the top score? ( we except a name).
 Whose is this umbrella?
 To whom did you give the umbrella?
 With whom did you give the umbrella?
 With whom did you visit the aunt.?
 Which is used for both persons and things.
 Which is your friend?
 Which are your books?
 Which of you has done?
 What is used of things only.
 What do you want? ( answer to be a name of thing)
 What is sweeter than honey?
 In expressions; what are you ? What is your father?
What is this man? The word “what” does not refer to the person but to his profession or
employment.
E.g. what are you? = I am a doctor.
What is he? = He is an engineer.
But. Who is he? (What name and family)
 What can also be used for persons?
1a) What …….. for? Mean “ why”
 What did he do that for?= Why did he do that?
c) What + be …….. Like ? is a request for a description and can be used for things or
people.
 What was the exam like = it was very difficult.
 What‟s the food like in your hotel? = it is quite good.
 NB. Used for people, it may concern either appearance or character:

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  What does he resemble?
 What does she look like? = She is tall and glamorous.
She looks like a film.
 What does it look like? = it‟s black and shiny. It looks like coal.
d) What and how in questions about measurements.
We can use – what + age / depth/height/ length/width but in conversation it would
be more usual to say how old/ deep/high/tall/long/wide?
NB. What size /weight/is usual when an exact answer is required, through how big /heavy is
also possible.
 What age are you? = What is your age? How old are you?
 What height is he?
 What is the weight of the parcel? = How heavy is it?.

Clauses
A clause is a group of words, which form part of a sentence, containing a predicate and a
subject.
e.g.
 People who pay their debts are trusted.
 We cannot start while it is raining.
 That is the man whose bag was snatched.

Defining relative clause.

This clause describes the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it form other nouns –
of the same class. E.g.

 The man who told me about this refused to give me his name.

NB. No comma is needed here between a noun and a defining

relative clause.
Summary Subject object Possessive
- For persons -who Whom/ who Whose
-that That

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 - For things. -which Which Whose/ of which
-that that

Defining relative clauses with persons.

A. Subject: who or that.

 The girls who serve in the shop are the owner‟s daughters.
 Only those who had booked in advance were allowed in.
But “ that” is a possible alternative after – all, everyone, everybody, none, nobody and those:
 Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
 Nobody who/ that watched the match will ever forget it.
B. Object of the verb: whom or who or that.
The object form is whom, but this is considered very formal. In spoken English we normally
use who or that and it is still more common to omit the object pronoun altogether.
 The man whom I saw told me to come back today.
 The man who I saw ……or.
 The man that I saw…..
 The man I saw …(relative pronoun omitted).

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C) With a preposition whom or that
 Formal English ….. to whom……….
 The man to whom I spoke….
 Informal speech……. Whom …..to.
 The man whom I spoke to Or
 The man that I spoke to Or
 The man who I spoke to Or
 The man I spoke to
Similarly:
 The man from whom I bought it told me to oil it.
 The man whom I bought it from ……Or.
 The man who/ that I bough it from…….
 The man I bought it from ……

d) Possessive – Whose.
 People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
 The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.

Defining relative clauses with things.

A. Subject:
Either which or that. which is the move formal.
 This is the picture which / that caused such a sensation.
 The stairs which /that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
B. Object of a verb which or that, or no relative at all:
 The car which /that I hired Or
 The car I hired broken down.
NB. “Which” is hardly ever used after – all, everything, little, much, more, no, and compound
of no, or after superlatives. Instead we use that, or omit the relative altogether, if it is the
object of the verb.
 The pigs eat all the apples that fall.
 This is the best hotel that) I know.

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C. Object of a preposition.
The formal construction is preposition + which, but it more usual to move the preposition
to the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative altogether.
 The ladder on which I was standing began to slip or
 The ladder which /that I was standing on began on slip.
 The ladder I was standing on began slip..
d) Possessive – whose + a clause is possible but with +a phrase is more usual.
 A house whose walls were made of glass
 A house with glass walls.
Clef sentences: It +be + noun/ pronoun+ defining clause.
 It was Ronald who helped us.
 It was Agnes that I saw.
NB. When the object is a proper noun, “that” is more
 It‟s speed that causes accidents, not bad roads.

Non- defining clauses.

They are placed after nouns which are definite already.
They do not therefore define the noun, but merely add something to it by giving some more
information about it.
Unlike the defining clauses, here the relative are separated from their nouns by comas.
Subject Object Possessive
For persons Who Whom/ who Whose
For things Which Which Whose/ of
which.

Non- defining relative clauses with persons

A. Subject: Who
 No other pronoun is possible, but note the comas, :
 My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.
 Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested at the next town.

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But clauses placed later in the sentence, i.e. clauses coming after the object of the main verb,
are quite common in conversation:
 I‟ve invited Bruno, who lives in the next flat.
Clauses following a preposition + noun are also common.
 I passed the letter to peter, who was sitting beside me.

B. Object: Whom/ who

The pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form; though who is sometimes used in
conversation.
 Peter, whom everybody suspected, turned out to be innocent.
In conversation, one would say:
 Everybody suspected peter but he turned out to be innocent.
C) Object of the preposition – Whom.
The pronoun cannot be omitted . The preposition is normally placed before whom:
 Mr. Jones, for whom I was working ,was very generous about overtime payments.
 It is , however , possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is
commonly done in conversation, and “who” then usually takes the place of whom.
 Mr Jones, who I was working for……………….
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end:
 Peter ,with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me.
 Or Peter ,who/ whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter than me.

B. Possessive :- Whose.
 Bridget, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.
 This is George , whose class you will be taking:

Using all, both, few, most, several, some, etc, + of + whom / which.
This form can be used for both people and things .
 Her sons, both of whom work abroad, ring her up every week.
 He went with of people, few of whom were correctly equipped for such a climb.
 The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd.
 I met fruit oinkers, several of whom were university students.

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  I picked up the apples, some of which were badly bruised.
 The house was full of boys, ten of whom were his own grandchildren.

Non- defining relative clauses with things:

A. Subject : Which
“ that” is not used here:
 The block, which cost 50 million to build, has been empty for ten years.
 The 8:15 train , which is usually punctual , was late today.
B. Object; Which
“ That “ is not used here ,and the “which” can never be omitted.
 She gave me her jumper, which she had knitted herself.
 These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you
need.
C. Object of a preposition:
The preposition comes before “ which”, or ( more informally ) at the
end of the clause.
 Mabira forest, through which we‟ll be driving this afternoon, isn‟t an easy forest.
 His house, for which he paid £100,000.
D. Possessive whose or of which.
“ Whose “ is generally used both for animals and things.
“ Of which” is possible for things, but is unusual except in very
formal English.
 His house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressing sight.
 The car, whose handbrake wasn‟t very reliable, began to slide backwards.

Using appositives to connect clauses.

(Appose a noun and connect without any linking word or pronoun).
 Tom is a head boy. Tom is my relative.
 Tom, the head boy, is my relative.
 Uganda is the smallest country in East Africa. Uganda is rich in natural resources.
 Uganda, the smallest country in east Africa, is rich in natural resources.

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Connective relative clauses.
The pronouns are: Who, Whom, Whose, which.
Commas are used as with non- defining clauses. Connective clauses do not describe their
nouns but continue the story. They are usually placed after the object of the main verb:
 I told peter, who said it wasn‟t his business. Or after the preposition + noun:
 I threw the ball to tom, who threw it to Abbey.

Importance of commas in relative clauses.

Defining relative clause is written without commas.
Commas carry or add a lot of meaning:-
 a) The travelers who knew about the floods took another road.
 B) The travelers, who knew about the floods took another road.
NB. In a) we have a defining relative clause which defines or limits the noun.(travelers). This
sentence therefore tells us that only the travelers who knew about the floods took the other
road, and implies that there were other travelers who did not know and who took the flooded
road.

In B) we have a non- defining relative clause, which does not define or limit the noun it
follows. This sentence therefore implies that all the travelers know about the floods and took
the other road.
c) The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.
d) The boy, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.
Sentence c) implies that only some of the boys wanted to play football. There were
presumably others who didn‟t mind whether it rained or not.

Sentence d) implies that all the boys wanted to play and all were disappointed.
Adverbs.
These are words that describe verbs. They inform us how, where, when and how often the
action of the verb takes place.
Kinds of Adverbs
1) Adverbs of manner: They tell us how the action is done e.g.
 angrily
 Softly

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  Speedily
 Quickly
 Fast
 Happily
 Steadily
 Bravely
 Well.
2) Adverbs of place: They tell us where the action of the verb takes place.
E.g – Here - inside - anywhere – nowhere
 There – Outside – Some where – Up – Down.
3) Adverbs of Time: They tell us when the action of the verb takes place.
E.g – Today, - tomorrow- soon – then- last…., -everyday- now- yesterday- still- yet-
ago.
4) Adverbs of degree: They tell us the extent to which something is done.
They describe adjectives and other adverbs.
E.g – Fairly – quite- hardly- rather- too – very, - extremely, more.
5) Adverbs of frequency / quantity: They tell us how often the action of the verb is done.
E.g Once twice, ever, never, more, daily, yearly, fortnight, weekly, annually….
6) Interrogative adverbs: They are ask questions.
e.g When ….? , why….? , Where….?,
7) Sentence adverbs. e.g Certainly, surely, luckily, definitely,…
Formation of adverbs
i. Many adverbs of manner and some of degree are formed by adding – Ly to the
corresponding adjectives.
 Final – immediate – slow.
NB. Spelling notes.
i. A final – „Y‟ changes to „i‟: happy – happily.
ii. A final –„e‟ is retrained before – ly; extreme –extremely
Exceptions: true, due, whole = truly, duly, wholly.
iii. Adjectives ending in a consonant + „le‟, drope the “e” and add „ly‟ – simple – gentle-
humble.
NB.2) The adverb of good is well.

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b) Adjectives ending in – ly.
E.g. daily, weekly, monthly etc. kindly and sometimes leisurely can be adjectives or adverbs,
but most other adjectives ending in “ly” e.g. friendly, likely, lonely etc.
Cannot be used as adverbs and have no adverbs form.
 To supply this deficiency we use a similar adverb or adverb phrase.
E.g. likely = probably (adverb)
Friendly = in a friendly way. (adverb phrase)
c) Some Adverbs are made up of a noun and qualifying adjectives.
e.g – Sometime, - meantime , - meanwhile, - yesterday, - midway, - Otherwise.
d) Some Adverbs are compounds of on ( weakened to a ) and a noun .e.g.
 afoot= on foot – asleep – away
 a bed= on bed – ahead – abroad.
e) Some Adverbs are compounds of some prepositions and a noun:
 betimes, - to-morrow, -to-day,
( the word „be” is an old form of the preposition by ).
f) some Adverbs are compounds of a preposition and in adjective:
 aloud, along, behind, - below, beyond, abroad.
g) Two Adverbs are sometimes joined / put together by a conjunction “and”:
 again and again = more than one, rapidly.
 By and by = before long, presently, after a time.
 Far and near = in all directions.
 Far and wide = comprehensively
 Far and away = decidedly , beyond all comparison
 First and foremost = first of all.
 Now and then = from time to time, occasionally
 Now and again= at intervals , sometimes,
 Off and on = not regularly.
 Once and again= on more than one occasion, repeadly.
 Over and over = many times, frequently, repeatedly.
 Through and through = thoroughly , completely.
 To and fro = backwards and forwards, up and down.
 Over and above = in addition to , besides, as well as.

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Position/ order of Adverbs.
The simplest order would be – MPT, i.e. adverbs of manner, place and time.
Adverbs of manner, which answer the question “ How”? e.g. well, fast, quickly, carefully,
calmly, are generally placed after the verbs or after the object if there is one:
 It is raining heavily.
 She speaks English well.
Adverbs or adverb phrases of place ( e.g. here, there , everywhere ,on the wall ) are also
usually placed after the verb or after the object if there is one.;
 He will come here.
 He looked everywhere.
 I met him yesterday.
When there are two or more adverbs after a verb (and its object), the normal order is: Adverb
of manner, adverb of place, and adverb of time.
 She sang well in the concert.
 We should go there tomorrow evening.
 He spoke earnestly at the meeting last night.
Adverbs of frequency, which answer the question “ How often ?” ( e.g always , never , often,
rarely, usually, generally) and certain other adverbs like almost , already hardly ,nearly, just,
quiet, are normally put between the subject and verb if the verb consists of only one word ; if
there is more than on word in the verb, they are put after the first word.
 His wife never cooks.
 He has never seen a tiger.
 I have often told him to write neatly.
 We usually have breakfast at eight.
 My uncle has just gone out.
 I quite agree with you.
If the verb is am/ are / is / was , these adverbs are placed after the verb.

 I am never late for school.

 He is always at home on Sunday.
 We are just off.

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The auxiliaries have to and used to prefer the adverb in front of them.
 I often have to go to college on foot.
 He always used to agree with me.
Activity: Re-write the following sentences with the given adverbs in the correct order.
1) Let me go (tonight, alone, to the pictures).
2) The headmaster will meet you (outside his offices today, at 8:o‟clock)
3) John played (at the theatre, yesterday afternoon, beautifully, at the concert)
4) We are going (for a month, to Kenya, on Monday)
5) Namusoke goes (before 8,o‟clock, to church, every Sunday).

NB. In the order MPT, adverbs of time may be put at the beginning, but they are commonly
put at the end of the sentence, not in the middle.
 Yesterday I saw you. (to emphasize yesterday_).
NB. 2) A sentence where two or more adverbs of time appear , the normal order is to
start with the more exact and go on with the general ones. e.g
 I was born at 12 midnight, on Sunday 6th of September. In 1997.
Comparison Some adverbs, like adjectives, have 3 degrees of comparisin. Such
adverbs are enerally compared like adjectives.
If the adverb is of one syllable , we form the comparative b y adding – er, and the superlative
by adding est, to the positive.
 Fast
 Hard
 Long
 Soon
 E.g Ivan ran fast (positive).
 Donald ran faster. (Comparative)
 Dominic ran fastest of all (superlative)
Adverbs ending in – ly form the comparative by adding more and the superlative by adding
most:
 Swiftly
 Quickly
 Skillfully

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  Courageously.
NB. Early = earlier= earliest.
It should be noted that only adverbs of manner, Degree and Time admit of comparison.
Many adverbs; from their nature, cannot be compared:
e.g. Now ,then, when, there, once……
Some of the adverbs from their comparative and superlative Degree irregularly.
 ill / badly
 well
 much
 title
 Nigh/ near
 Far
 Late.
 Worse
 Better
 More
 Less
 Nearer
 Farther
 Further
 Later
 Worst
 Best
 Most
 Least
 Next
 Farthest
 Furthest
 Lated

Adverbial qualifiers.( equivalents).

(……..as……..as……..)/ (…..enough to…)
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 1. E.g. Mukasa weighs 50kg. Tendo weighs 50kg.
 Mukasa is as heavy as Tendo.
 Tendo is as heavy as Mukasa.
 Tendo, as well as Mukasa, weigh 50kgs.
 Mukasa, as well as Tendo, weighs 50kg.

2. A lion is wild. A tiger is wild.

 A lion is as wild as a tiger.
 A lion, as well as a tiger is wild.
 A tiger is as wild as a lion.
3. Kapere is rich. He can buy an aeroplane.
 Kapere is rich enough to buy an aeroplane.

( Non- equivalents) (not as…..as….., not so……as……, ….not…..enough to……)

 Connecting two clauses that contain non- equivalent values or degrees.
 Rewrite two clauses from a single sentence containing an adverbial modifier.
1) E.g Cabbage are cheap. Onions are expensive.
 Cabbages are not as expensive as onions.
 Onions are not as cheap as cabbages.
 Cabbages are not so expensive as onion.
 Onions are not so cheap as cabbages.
2) A cow is big. An elephant is bigger.
 A cow is not as big as an elephant.
 An elephant is not so small as a cow.
3) Tom is 4 meters tall. Joseph is 3metres tall.
 Joseph is not as tall as Tom
 Tom is not as short as Joseph.
4) The girl is young. She cannot go out alone
 The girl is not old enough to go alone.
5) Ugandans are rich. Americans are richer.
 Ugandans are not as rich as Americans.
 Americans are not as poor as Ugandans.

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Adverbial qualifiers showing degree.
( …….so …..that…../ ……such a……..that……/ ….too….to…/…too…for……)
1. Mukasa is very mean with his money. He cannot help the poor.
 Mukasa is too mean with his money to help the poor.
 Mukasa is so mean with his money that he cannot help the poor.
 Mukasa is such a poor man/ person that he cannot help the poor.
 Mukasa is too mean with his money that he cannot help the poor.
2. The exam was very difficult. All the pupils failed it.
 The exam was so difficult that all the pupils failed (it).
 The exam was such a difficult one that all the pupils failed. (it).
 The exam was too difficult for any of the pupils to pass.
 The exam was too difficult to be passed by any of the pupils.
3. The dress was very expensive. Sarah could not buy it.
 The dress too was very expensive for Sarah to buy.
 The dress was such an expensive one that Sarah could not buy it.
 The dress was so expensive that Sarah could not buy it.
 The dress was too expensive to be bought by Sarah.
Adverbial qualifiers showing.
a) Cause b) reason c) qualification. D) condition.
i) …..in order that…..
ii) …..in order to …..
iii) ……provided that…..
iv) ……..so that…….
v) …….in case……
vi) …….So as to ……..
vii) ….lest ….( with fear that).
e.g.
 Jane worked very hard. Jane wanted to complete the work on time.
 Jane worked very hard in order that she completes the work on time.
 Jane worked very hard so as to complete the work on time.
2.He will do the exams. He has to first pay all the school fees/dues.
 He will do the exams provided that he pays all the school dues.
 He will do the exams provided that he pays all the school dues.
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  He will do the exams in case he pays all the school dues.
3. The army has bought new guns. It wants to defeat the rebels.
 The army has bought new guns in order to defeat the rebels.
 The army has bought new guns in order that it defeats the rebels.
 The army will defeat the rebels provided that it buys new gun.
 The army bought new guns so as to defeat the rebels.
4. Take the umbrella with you . It is likely to rain.
 Take the umbrella with you lest it should rain.
 Take the umbrella with you lest might rain.
Adverbial Connectives.
a) Since –to introduce an event or time limiting clause.
 To introduce a clause of reason.
a) For- to introduce time limiting clause.
 To produce a clause of reason.
c) ago- to limit a clause of time .
1. e.g Jane started singing at the age of 20. Jane is thirty two years now. She is still singing.
 Jane has been singing since she was twenty years.
 It is twelve years since Jane started singing .
 Jane has been singing for 12 years now.
 Jane started singing 12 years ago.
2. Tom was arrested for stealing . He stole a hen from the neighbourhood.
 Tom was arrested for stealing a hen from the neighbourhood.
3. Mukasa should be called to treat the patient.. He is the only doctor in this villege.
 Mukasa should be called to treat the patient sice he is the only doctor in this village.
4. I saw my uncle last week.
 I have not seen my uncle sine last week.
 I last saw my uncle a week ago.
 I have not seen my uncle for a week now.
NB. Since and for, in some cases are used in the perfect tenses especially. Present.
 Since morning it has been raining.
 Since 1962 Uganda has been indepent.
d) after ….to limit an event or time.

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 e) ….before….to limit an event or time.
f)…..until….to limit an event or time.
h) …..while …to limit an event or time.
i) …….as …. To limit an event or time.
1. E.g . Tom did his homework . He went out of the class .
 Tom went out of the class after he had done his homework.
 Or Tom went out of the class after doing his homework.
 Before going out of the class, Tom first did his home work.
 Tom did not go out of the class until he had done his homework.
2. He was playing in the field. John broke his leg.
 John broke his leg while he was playing in the field.
 John broke his leg as he was playing in the field.
E.g
j) “ When “ to limit two past actions or events where one happened after the other.
k) “ by the time” to limit two past actions where one happened after the other.
l) “ at the time” to limit two past actions where one happened after the other.
m) “after “ to limit two past events where one happened after the other.
n) “before” to limit two past events where one happened after the other .
o) “ Immediately” and “immediately after” to limit near-past events where one happened
after the other.
E.g The president left the scene at noon. The bomb exploded in the evening.
 When the bomb exploded, the president had already left the scene.
 The president had left the scene before the bomb exploded.
 The bomb exploded immediately after the president had left the scene.
 The bomb exploded immediately the president had left the scene.
 At the time the bomb exploded the president had left the scene.
 By the time the bomb exploded , the president had already left the scene.
Co-ordinate conjunctions.
1. “ though” to introduce a contrast.
2. “ although” to introduce a contrast.
3. “even though” to introduce a contrast.
4. “ yet” to introduce a contrast.
5. “but” to introduce a contrast.
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 6. “ much as ..” to introduce a contrast.
E.g .
1. Sarah did not have enough money. She bought her mother a beautiful present.
 Although Sarah did not have enough money , she bought her mother a beautiful
present.
 Sarah bought her mother a beautiful present though she did not have enough money.
 Even though Sarah did not have enough money, she bought her mother a beautiful
present.
 Much as Sarah did not have enough money , she bought her mother a beautiful
present.
 The weather conditions were favourable, but the farmers did not grow enough food.

7. “ despite the fact” to introduce a contrast.

8. Despite + possessive pronoun +a noun.
9. To introduce a contrast.
10. “in spite of the fact” to introduce a contrast.
11. “ in spite of + a participle phrase” to introduce a contrast.
12. “ none the less” to introduce a contrst.
13. “ never the less” to introduce a contrast.
14. “ however” to introduce a contrast.

Use “ despite the fact” to join two contrasting clauses.

 Tom is lame. Tom won the race last Sunday.
 Despite the fact that tom is lame, he won the race last Sunday.
Use despite + a possessive pronoun+ a noun.
 Sarah comes late to school. She performs well in class.
 Despite her coming late to school, Sarah performs well in class.
 Or Despite her lateness to school, Sarah performs well in class.
Use despite + a participle phrase.
 Joseph is a rich man. He does not pay.
 Despite being a rich man, Joseph does not pay.
Use in spite of all in the forms above as with despite.

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Use none the less, never the less and however
 The pupils had good teachers; never the less, they failed the exams.
 The pupils had good teachers; none the less, they failed the exams.
 The pupils had good teachers; however, they failed the exams.
1. “ No sooner …than..
2. “ Hardly .when…
3. “ had hardly….when….
4. “ …be + hardly any….”
5. “ scarcely ….when….
6. “ …..as soon as …”
7 “ Immediately”
E.g The boys entered the class. It started raining.
 No sooner had the boys entered the class than it started raining.
 Hardly had the boys entered the class when it started raining.
 The boys hardly entered the classroom when it started raining.
 Scarcely had the boys entered the classroom, when it started raining.
 The boys had scarcely entered the classroom when it started raining .
 As soon as the boys entered the classroom, it started raining.
 It started raining as soon as the boys entered the classroom.
 Immediately the boys entered the classroom, it started raining.
 It stated raining immediately the boys entered the classroom.
NB.” …….be +hardly any…is used in negative sentences.
 There is /was hardily any food in the dish.
8…..neither …nor…to connect two objects governed by a single verb.
9...noun + a negative +and neither….as an equivalent of ….neither…nor….”
10. “…both …and…” and its equivalents.
11.” noun + positive + and so..+ verb+ noun/pronoun.
12.” Not only +verb….but also…..
13. “Neither of …” as an equivalent of …neither…nor…
14. “Either …or …”and its equivalents.
E.g
 Tom did not bring his bag to school. Tom sis not bring his books to school.

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  Tom brought /did bring neither his bag nor his books to school.
 English is taught at school. Mathematics is taught at school.
 Both English and mathematics are taught at school.
 Agnes did not come to school. Ronald did not come to school.
 Agnes did not come to school and neither did Ronald

You did not eat food. I did not eat food.

 Neither of us ate/did eat food.
 Mary may escort me to the supermarket. Eddie may escort me to the supermarket.
 Either mary or Eddie may escort me to the supermarket.
 They will do English .They will do mathematics.
 They will either do English or Mathematics.
 Uganda has been selected to host the common wealth meeting next year. Uganda has
been appointed a member of the security council.
 Not only has Uganda been selected to host the common wealth meeting, but it
has also been appointed a member of the security council.

Punctuation:
Punctuation ( derived from the Lalin “ punctum”, a point) means the right use of putting in
points or stops in writing. The following are the principal stops or punctuation marks.
1) Full stop or point(.)
2) Comma (,)
3) Semi colon( ;)
4) Colon(:)
5) Quotation Marks( “ “)
6) Interrogative Mark(? )
7.Exlamation Mark( !) etc.
8) Capital letters.
1. Full Stop.( .) It represents the greatest pause and separation . It is used:-
a) To mark the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence.
b) To mark abbreviations and initials.
 M.A , MP, K.R , etc.

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NB. In current English Mr. And Mrs occur with out a full stop, as these have come to be
regarded as the full spellings.
Question mark.( ?)
This is used only after direct questions ( i.e questions that are not reported)
NB. Indirect or reported questions do not take a question mark.
 He asked me if I had been to American before.
Commas ( ,)
This is used to represent the shortest pause. It is used:-
a)In lists : The list can be of nouns, adjective , clauses,etc.
 He plays football, tennis, volley ball and hockey.
 A tall, thin, ugly man entered the room.
 He came into the Library, walked to the history section, searched for a book, saw it
wasn‟t there and left.
( a comma may also be placed before “and”.)
b) After participial Phrases (either present or past)
 Chain to a post, the dog was unable to attack the thieves.
 Looking through his collection of stams, he discovered that some had been stolen.
c) Between two main clauses connected by “and,” “but”, or, nor if the clauses are fairly long.
 He lived in Russia for several years before the war, but he learnt only a few words of
the language.
d) After an adverbial clause if a main clause follows:
 Although he had worked for the company for several years, he did not get promotion.
NB: If the adverbial clause comes after the main clause, a comma is not necessary.
 He did not get promotion although he had worked for the company for several years.

e) Before and after an adjectival clause which does not define the noun but simply gives us
information about it.
 His father, who used to live in the country, has new joined him in the town.
 Our Minister of Health, who returned from New York last week, has spent most of his
life abroad.
f) Before and after words of opposition to a noun (ie. Words which come after the noun and
explain or describe it).

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  Earnest Bills, a leading Ugandan novelist, died in 1994.
 My new typewriter, an Oliveth, is working very well.
g) With words which are added to a sentence by way of comment and are not essential to the
structure:
 A few of us, by the way, will be unable to come.
 All of them, I believe, would agree with us.

Commonly used in the way are words like moreover, however, indeed, accidentally.
h) After “yes” and “no”.
 Yes, he does smoke a lot
 No, they never go to that cinema.
i) With words used to address a person.
 Ronald, can you hear me?
 I forgot to remind you, John, that we are going to the cinema tonight.
j) To separate items of a date.
 Saturday, 14th May, 2006.
K) In address:
 KABOJJA Junior School,
P.O.Box 20967,
Acacia Avenue,
Kampala.
L) In direct speech.
 He said, “we shall leave early”.

NB: If the spoken sentence is interrupted for the reporting verb, another comma is required.
 “We shall leave early, “he said, “ as we don‟t want to miss the bus.
NB: If the speech continues with a new sentence, a full stop is used in place of this extra
comma.
 “We shall leave early, “he said. “We don‟t want to miss the bus.

Capital letters
These are used:

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a) At the beginning of a sentence. If we use direct speech after a reporting section,
we must begin the spoken words with another capital letter.
 He opened the door and called out, “Is there any body here?
b) For all proper nouns and proper adjectives.
 France
 French, and for abbreviations of proper nouns and adjectives.
B.B.C.
c) For all tittles applied to one particular person:
 Our President met the Egyptian President.
 I hear Professor Smith has left for London.

d) For all words in tittles of books, plays, poem, etc……

except unimportant words like prepositions, tittles, conjunctions, unless one of these
words is the first word.
 A History of the Sudan in the Nineteenth Century.
e) With pronoun „I‟ and beginning each line of poetry.

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Exclamation Marks.
This is used after words which are shouting and after expressions of surprise, sudden emotion
or wish and after interjections:
 Alas! Oh dear!
 What a terrible fire this is!
 O, what a fall was there, my countrymen!
NB: When the interjection O is placed before the Nominative of Address, the note of
exclamation, if employed at all, comes after the noun, or it may be placed at the end of the
sentence:
 O father! I hear the sound of guns.
 O Hamlet, speak no more!

Inverted commas or Quotation Marks.

a) They are used to enclose the enclose the exact words of a speaker, or a quotation.
 “I would rather die,” he exclaimed, “than join the oppressors of my country.
If a quotation occurs within a quotation, it is marked by single inverted commas.
 “You might as well say,” added the teacher, “that I like what I get” is the same thing
as „ I get what I like. “as in HSG and C pg 281.
b) To indicate that the words enclosed by the quotation marks are a quotation.
c) For words not accepted as normal English, especially words from other languages used
because there is no English equivalent.
Male Baganda wear “Kanzus” and “Lugabire”.
NB: There is no fixed rule telling when to use double and single quotation marks. We should,
however, be consistent. If double quotation marks used for speech, single quotation should be
used for quotation, titles and words not accepted as normal English, as in Forest pg 144.

The Hyphen.
This is used:
a)in composite words (ie. Words made up of more one word)
 Living – room
 Brother – in-law
 Life – size

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  Twenty – one
 Ninety – six

b) When a word is begun on one line and finished on the next.

NB: It is wise to avoid this practice unless you are quite sure what the component parts of a
word are. By starting a word on a new line you avoid making the mistake of splitting up a
word in the wrong way.

Punctuation of directly reported word (Direct speech).

NB: Only the words of the speaker Must be inside the quotation marks; leaving the speech tag
outside the quotation marks.
e.g. “ Bring my books here”, said the teacher.
 The doctor asked the patient, “who poisoned you?”
NB (2) When you begin with the speech tag, use a comma before the quotation marks.
 He ordered me, “Take the box away.”
NB (3) When you begin with the speaker‟s words in quotation marks, a comma should come
just after the last word before the closing inverted commas.
 “Why did you eat my food?” he asked.
 “Drive me to the hospital,” he said.
NB: (4) No comma should be used with a question mark or an exclamation mark together.
NB: (5) The speakers‟ words must begin with a capital letter wherever they are put.

Punctuation of interrupted direct speech sentences.

NB(1) Only the words of the speaker in their broken phrases, should be quoted.
 “The girl, “ he said, “ passed her examination.”
 “Why,” the teacher asked, “did you beat him?”
 “What,” exclaimed the mother, “ a beautiful woman my sister is!”
 “John,” asked the teacher, “ did you come to school late?”.

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 P.6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR NOTES TERM III.
DIRECT SPEECH.

In direct speech we report the original speaker‟s exact words:

-He said, ”I have lost my umbrella.”
-“You must sweep the room alone,” the teacher ordered Isaac.
-He says, “I have lost umbrella.”
-“Ronald, will you please post my letter to Holland?” he requested.

Punctuation of direct speech sentences.

a) Only the words of the speaker are put inside the quotation marks.
e.g. “Betty ate my cake, “said Alice.
“Why,” asked the doctor, “did you drink poison?”
b) Quotation marks may be single („ „) or double (“ “).
c) Quotation marks should be placed before and after the quoted words.
Wrong = “ I will help you, May,” said Ivan.
Correct = “ I will help you, May, “said Ivan.
Wrong = The teacher asked, “What is your name”?
Correct = The teacher asked, “What is your name?”
d) Starting the quoted words of the speaker should be a capital letter.
NB: (i) If the speech is broken/interrupted the second part of the speech should begin with a
small letter.
e.g “I want to go to London,” said the girl, “for my further studies.”
(ii) If the speech interrupted has two /more sentences each sentence should begin with a
capital letter. e.g. “Take that book to Mr. Kafeero,” the teacher told the girl, “He is in the staff
room.”

Direct to Indirect speech.

Changing direct speech into indirect, some changes are usually necessary. These are mostly
studied by considering questions/exclamations/and commands separately.

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Changes:
1) Pronouns –I -he /she
-you -me/her/him/us
-we -they
-it -it
-our -their
-my -his/her
-its -its
-mine -his/her
-there -theirs
-yours -theirs/mine/his/hers
-myself -him/herself
-ourselves -themselves
-itself -itself
-yourself -yourself.

2)Adverbs -here -there

-today -that day
-yesterday -the previous day/the day before .
-tomorrow-the next day/the following day/the day after.
Last ………… - the previous………..
-now -then/at that moment.
-rarely and other adverbs of frequency – don‟t change
-…….ago-………before.
[ -thus - so ]
-the day before yesterday -two days before
-the day after tomorrow -in two days‟ time

3)Adjectives -this - that

-these - those

NB: Take note of the reporting verb/speech tag.

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a)He says,”I know her.”
He says (that) he knows her.
b)”Shall be there, ” he says.
He says that he will be there
-This used in time expression usually change to that:
-this week = that week.
-Otherwise this and that used as adjectives usually change to “the”
e.g. –this book = the book.
-these parcels = the parcels
-this pen = the pen.

-This, these used as pronouns can become it, they/them.

-„He showed me two bullets, „ I found these embedded in the paneling, he said.
=He said he had found them embedded in the paneling.
He said, „We discuss this tomorrow.‟
He said(that) they would discuss it/the matter the next day.
This / these (adj or pron) used to indicate choice or to distinguish some things from others,
can become ( the one(s) near him. etc…. or the statement can be reworded.
~ “I‟II have this (one),” he said to me.
= He said to me (that) he would have the one near him or
= He pointed to/ touched/showed me the one he wanted.

4)Verbs-Will -would
-Shall –should/would
-can - could
-may - might
-must -had to/must/would have to.
-come -go
-am -was
-has/have -had/has

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5)Tenses-
a)Present simple =Present simple/Past simple.
b)Present perfect =past perfect.
c)Present perfect continuous =past perfect continuous.
d)Past simple =past simple/past perfect.
e)Future simple =conditional (future past)
f)Future continuous =conditional continuous (future past continuous)
6)We use the conjunction ' that‟ before the indirect statements.
7) You may begin with the speech tag or have it at the end of the direct speech sentence,

but, you MUST have the speech tag at the beginning of the indirect statements.
8) No quotation marks are needed in indirect speech.
9) No question marks and exclamation marks are needed in indirect speech.
10) If the reporting verb (say) is in the present simple tense, the tenses of the Direct
do not change;-
-He says „I am unwell.‟
-He says (that) he is unwell.
-But – He said „I am unwell.‟
-He said (that) he was unwell.

Example(2) He says, “ I am glad to be here this evening.”

=He says (that) he is glad to be here this evening.

Past sometimes remain unchanged.

In theory, the past simple tense changes to past perfect tense, but in spoken English it is often
left unchanged, provided this can be done without causing confusion about the relative times
of the actions. e.g He said, „ I loved her.‟ MUST become

– He said (that) he had loved her, as otherwise there would be a change of meaning.
But – He said, „Ann arrived on Monday.‟ Could be reported as, He said(that) Ann
arrived/had arrived on Monday.

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B) Past continuous tense in theory changes to the past perfect continuous but in the
practice usually remains unchanged except when it refers to a completed action.
e.g – She said, “We were thinking of selling the house but we have decided not to.”
= She said (that) they had been thinking of selling the house but they had decided not to.
But – He said, :When I saw them they were playing tennis.”
=He said (that) when he saw them they were playing tennis.
C) Past tense simple/continuous usually do change to past perfect but there are following
exceptions.
1) A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still exists when the speech is
reported remains unchanged:
-She said, “ I decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.”

=She said (that she had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.

Unreal past tense (subjunctive ) in indirect speech.

A) Unreal past tense after – wish, would, rather and sooner do not change.
1. ~ „We wish we didn‟t have to take exams, said the children.
=The chn (said they) wished they didn‟t have to take exams.
2.~”Bill wants to go alone,” said Ann, “but I‟d rather he went with a group.”
=Ann said that Bill wanted to go alone but that she‟d rather he went with a group.
3~”It‟s time we began planning our holidays,”he said.
=He said that it was time they began planning their holidays.
B) I/he/she/they/had better remains unchanged you had better can remain unchanged or
reported by advise, + object + infinitive.
1~”The children had better go to bed early, “ said Tom.
=Tom said that the children had better go to bed early.
2~‟You‟d better not drink the water, she said.
=She advised/ warned us not to drink the water.
C) Conditional sentences 2 and 3 remain unchanged.
1)~”If my children were older, I would emigrate,” he said.
=He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.
Might, ought to, would, used to in indirect statement
A) Might remain unchanged except when used as a request form.

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1)~He said, “Agnes might ring today.” (statement)
=He said that Agnes might ring that day.
BUT ~”You‟ might post these for me, “ he said. (request)

=He asked me to post those for him.

2)The advice form „If I were you I should/would …. normally remain unchanged: Report by
advise + object + infinitive.
~”If I were you I would (I‟d) wait, “I said.
I advised him/her/them to wait
= The request form „ should / would be very grateful if you would…….‟ Is normally reported
by ask + obj + infinitive.
~ “I‟d be very grateful if you would keep me informed, „he said.
=He asked me to keep him informed.

C)”Used to” doesn‟t change.

~‟ “I know the place well because I used to live here, “ he explained.
= He explained that he knew the place well because he used to live there.

Could in indirect statements.

A) Could for ability
(i)~for present ability, “could” doesn‟t not change:
e.g. “I can‟t / couldn‟t stand on my head, “ he said.
=He said he couldn‟t stand on his head.
(ii)Could for future ability can remain unchanged or be reported by would be able:
e.g. He said, „I could do it tomorrow.‟
=He said he could do it/would be able to do it the next day.
(iii) Could in if type 2 sentences is reported similarly:
e.g „If I had the tools I could mend it, „he said.
=He said (that) if he had the tools he could/would be able to mend it.
NB: Would be able here implies that supposition may be fulfilled. (perhaps he‟ll be able
to borrow the tools).

b) Could for permission.

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 (i)If 2 sentences have could unchanged or reported by would be allowed to:
e.g‟If I paid my fine, I could walk out of prison today, „he said.
=He said that if he paid his fine he could/would be allowed to walk out of prison that
day.
(ii)Could in the past can remain unchanged or be reported by was/were allowed to or had
been allowed to:
e.g.He said, “When I was a boy I could stay up as long as I liked. “
=He said that as a boy he was/had been allowed to stay up as long as he liked.

Infinitive and gerund construction in indirect speech

Agree/refuse/offer/promise/threaten + infinitive can sometimes be used instead of say
(that):
(i)Abed: Would you wait for an hour?
Abel: All right = Abel agreed to wait/Tom said he would wait
(ii)Ronald: Would you lend me another £50?
Agnes: No, = Agnes refused to lend Ronald(him) any other more money.
or = Agnes said she wouldn‟t lend Ronald any other more money.
(iii)Tom: I‟ll help you if you like, Betty.
=Tom offered to help Betty (her) if she liked.
=Tom said he‟d help Betty (her) if she liked.
iv) Sheena: “I‟ll pay you back next week, really I will.”
=Sheena promised to pay me back the following week.
=Sheena said she‟d pay me back the following week.
=Sheena assured me that she would pay me back the following week.
v) Kidnappers: If you don‟t pay the money , I will kill your daughter.
=The kidnappers threatened to kill his/her daughter if he/she didn‟t pay the money.
=The kidnappers said that they would kill his/her daughter if he/she didn‟t pay the
money

accuse ….of/admit/apologize for/deny/insist on + gerund can sometimes be used instead of

say (that)
e.g1)”Peter, you took my money! ” Daniel said.
=Daniel accused Peter of taking his money.
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 2)”I stole/didn‟t steal it, “said Peter.

=Peter admitted stealing it.

=Peter denied stealing it.
3)”I m sorry I‟ m late, he said.
=He apologized for being late. Or
=He said he was sorry for being late/sorry he was late.
4)Ronald: Let me pay for myself.
Abel: Certainly not! I‟ll pay!
=Abel insisted on paying.
Other useful verbs are.
1.Add 9.Object
2.Answer 10.Observe
3.Argue 11.Point out
4.Assure + Object 12.protest
5.Boast 13.Remark
6.Complain 14.Remind + object.
7.Explain 15.Reply

e.g. “But it will take longer,” Bill objected/objected Bill

=Bill objected that it would take longer.
Others include: Whisper/murmur/mutter/stammer/shout:
e.g.‟ You are late, stated Ronald.
=Ronald stated that I was late.
~there are, of course other verbs describing the voice or the tone of voice,
e.gbark/ growl/ roar/ shriek/ smarl /sneer/ yell etc….
But these are more common with direct than indirect speech.

Questions in indirect speech

NB: 1)The interrogative form of the verb changes to affirmative form.

The question mark(?) is therefore omitted in indirect speech.
~ He said, „where does he live?

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=He asked where he lived
2)If the introductory verb is say, it must be changed to a verb of inquiry,
e.g ask/ enquire/ wonder/ want to know, etc…
3)”ask” can be followed by the person addressed (indirect object):

e.g – He asked, „What have you got in your bag?‟

=He asked(me), what I had got in my bag.
But inquire, wonder, want to know cannot take indirect objects, so if we wish to report a
question where the person addressed is mentioned, we must use ask:
e.g He said, „Mary, when is the next train?‟
He asked Mary when the next train was.
If we use inquire/wonder/want to know we must omit Mary.
4)If the direct question begins with a question word (when/where/who/how/why etc…),
the question word is repeated in the indirect question:
e.g ~ He said,”why did you put on the brake?”
=He asked (her) why she hadn‟t put on the brake.
5)If there is no question word, if or whether must be used.
e.g “Is anyone there?” he asked
=He asked if/whether anyone was there.
a)If is the more usual:
„Do you know Bill?‟ he said.
He asked if whether I knew Bill.
b)Whether can emphasize that a choice has to be made:
„Do you want to go by air or sea?‟ the travel agent asked.
=The travel agent asked whether I wanted to go by air or sea.

Note: Whether or not:

~‟Do you want to insure your Luggage or not? ‟he asked.

=He asked whether or not I wanted to insure my luggage.

Or = He asked if I wanted to insure my Luggage or not.

Questions beginning shall/ will…..? in indirect speech.

a) Speculations/requests for information about a future event:

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(use wonder/asked)
e.g “Shall I ever see them again?” he wondered
=He wondered if he would ever see them again.
-„When shall I know the result of the test?‟ asked Tom.
=Tom asked when he would know the result of the test.
b)Request for instruction / advice:
~‟Shall we post it, sir?‟ he asked.
=He asked if they should/were to post it.

c)Offer:
~‟Shall I bring you some tea?‟ he said.
=He offered to bring me some tea.
d)Suggestions:
„Shall we meet at the theatre?‟
=He suggested meeting at the theatre.

Commands and requests.

Advise/ ask/ beg/ command/ encourage/ entreat/ forbid/ implore/ Invite/ order/
recommend/ remind/ request/ tell/ urge/ warn. (avoid say)
~He said, „Get your coat, Tom!‟
=He told Tom to get his coat.
-You had better hurry, Godfrey!‟ she said.

=She advised Godfrey to hurry.

2)Negative commands, request etc….. are usually reported by not + infinitive:

~‟Don‟t swim out far, boys,‟ said.
=I warned/told the boys not to swim out too far.
NB: “Forbid” can be used for prohibitions, but is more common in the passive voice than
in the active.

Indirect requests/commands
-„If I were you, I‟d stop taking Mirungi,” said.
= I advised him to stop taking Mirungi.

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 -“Why don‟t you take off your coat?” he said.
=He advised me to take off my coat.
-„Would /could you show me your passport, please?‟ he said.
= He asked me to show him my passport.
= He asked me for/He asked to see my passport.
-“You might post some letters for me,” said my boss.
=My boss asked me to post some letter for him.
~”Do sit down,”‟ said my hostess.
=My hostess asked/invited me to sit down.
~”Please, don‟t take any risks, “ said his wife.
= His wife begged/implored him not to take any risks.
~”Forget all about this young man, “ said her parents, “ don‟t see him again or answer his
letters.”

= Her parents ordered her to forget all about the young man and told her not see him
again or answer his letter. Or

=She was ordered to forget all about the young man and forbidden to see him again or
answer his letter. (passive construction)
~”Don‟t forget to order the wine, “said Mrs. Pitt.
= Mrs. Pitt reminded her husband to order the wine.

Let‟s/let us/let him/them

1) “Let‟s” usually expresses a suggestion and is reported by “suggest” in indirect speech.
~ He said, ”Let‟s leave the case at the station.”
= He suggested leaving the case at the station.

~“Let‟s stop now and finish it later,” he said.

= He suggested stopping then and finishing later.

Negative:
~”Let‟s not say anything about it, “said Sharon.
Sharon suggested not saying anything about it.

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 2)”Let‟s/ Let us” sometimes expresses a call to action. It is then usually reported by
urge/advise + object + infinitive:
-The strike leader said, “Lets show the boss that we are united.”

=The strike leader urged the workers to show the boss that they were united.

3)Let him/them expresses a command/obligation

e.g ~”It‟s not my business, “ said the postman. “Let the government do something about
it. “
Such sentences therefore are reported by ought/should:
= He said that it wasn‟t his business and that the government ought to / should do
something about it.

4)Let there be,

~ Here the speaker could be ordering, advising, urging or begging:
~ “Let there be no reprisals, “ said the widow of the murdered man.

=The window of the murdered man urged/begged that there should be no reprisals.
5)”Let” is also an ordinary verb meaning allow/permit:
“Let him come with us, mother, I‟ll take care of him,” I said.

= I asked my mother to let him come with us and promised to take care of him.

Exclamations
1)Exclamations usually change to statements in indirect speech.

The exclamation mark disappears.

-Exclamations beginning – What a/an….. or How…….. can be reported by
i) exclaim /say that:
e.g ~ He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How dreadful !”
= He exclaimed that it was a dreadful idea/was dreadful. Or by
ii) giving an exclamation of delight / disgust / relief / surprise etc……
He gave an exclamation of horror.
2)Other types of exclamations, such as Good! Marvelous! Splendid! Heavens! Oh!,can be
reported by giving an exclamation of delight / disgust/horror/relief/surprise/pleasure
/satisfaction……….

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e.g ~‟Good!, he exclaimed.
=He gave an exclamation of pleasure/satisfaction.
~‟Ugh! „she exclaimed, and turned the programme off.
=With an exclamation of disgust she turned the programme off.

3)Note also:
~He said, „Thank you!‟ = He thanked me.
~ He said,‟ Curse this dog! = He cursed the dog.
~ He said, „ Good luck!‟ = He wished me luck.
~ He said, „Happy Christmas!‟ = He wished me a happy X – mas.
~ He said, „Liar!‟ = He called me a Liar.
~ The notice said: WELCOME TO WALES! = The notice welcomed visitors to Wales.
4)Yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb:
~ He said,‟ Can you swim?‟ and I said „No‟
= He asked (me) if I could swim and I said I couldn‟t.
~ He said, „Will you have time to do it? „ and I said „Yes‟
= He asked (me) if I would have time do it and I said I would.

MUST AND NEEDN‟T

a) We use “must” sometimes as a true present tense. ”must” in this case changes to past; ie
had to / was to
for example:
~“I must go now, ”he said.

=He said that he had to go then.

~ “I mustn‟t go there,” said Paul.
=Paul said that he wasn‟t to go there.
b)“must” as future, which also means “shall have to” changes to should or would to.
~ “I must go again next week,” said Agnes.
=Agnes said that she would have to go the following week.
c) “must” as a rule or regulation, or with the meaning “it is clear so,” does not change.
~ “You must always take off your shoes before entering a mosque,” he said.
=He pointed out / said that we must always take off our shoes before entering a mosque.

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 Needn’t.
~ “Needn‟t” can remain unchanged and usually does.
Alternatively it can change to didn‟t have to or wouldn‟t have to.
e.g ~ He said, “you needn‟t wait.”
= He said I needn‟t wait.
~”If you can lend me the money I needn‟t go to the bank,”
I said.
= I said that if you could lend me the money, I needn‟t / would not have to go to the bank.
~” I needn‟t be in the office till ten tomorrows morning,” he said.
= He said that he needn‟t/ didn‟t have to be in the office till ten the next morning.
Need………..?, like must…………..? normally becomes had to:
~ “Need I finish my test?” asked the small boy.
= The small boy asked if he had to finish his test.
~‟Must you go so soon?‟ I said.
= I asked(him) if (he) had to go so soon.

REFERENCE:
-Standard Eng AID bk 7 pp- 39 – 40
-MK Eng Handbook P.5 – 7 – pp – 75 – 86
-A practical English grammar pp – 269 – 287
-High School Eng Grammar. And Composition. Pp – 228 –234.
-English Living structure p.258
-English English structure for schools by W.Stannard pp140-141

Use of ‘needn’t and not necessary:

Summary:-not or unnecessary done = needn‟t have + a past participle verb.
-not or unnecessary not done = didn‟t need to + infinitive verb.
-not necessary (present) = need not + infinitive verb.
NB.Something not necessary is expressed in present by “needn’t.”
e.g. ~You must not go now.
-You needn’t go now.
-It is not necessary for you to go now.(present = is)
~I must not read it all.

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 -I needn’t read it all.
-It is not necessary for me to read it all.(present = is)
NB. The past of “needn’t” is “didn’t need to.” This always means that what not necessary
was not done.
e.g. I didn‟t bring an umbrella because I didn‟t need it.
-I didn’t need to bring an umbrella.
-It was not necessary for me to bring an umbrella.(past = was)
NB. When we say that something done although it was necessary, we express the regret
with “needn’t have.”
e.g.~ I told him about it but it was not necessary.
-I needn’t have told him about it.
-It was not necessary for me to tell him about it.
Reference: Junior Eng. Composition and Grammar .by J.A Bright (old-light green book)
pp.99-100.

Question forms and Question tags .

a)Question forms
~This is a form of sentence where interrogative words like –
which/what/whom/when/who/where/why, sometimes called the “ question word,” are used.
~Sometimes questions are asked using helping or auxiliary verbs. These questions are called
„Yes‟ or „No‟ questions.
NB: - Only direct questions require a question mark(?).
-Indirect questions take a full stop(.).
A)Direct questions with questioning words
1. I am 12 years old.
Dir-question: How old are you?
What is your age?
2. Her name is Mary.
Dir-question: What ………………………?
3) I like English most.

Dir-question: What/which subject do you like most?

4) I told you because I was puzzled.
Dir-question: Why ……………………………..?

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5) One can find the direction by using a compass.

Dir-question: How ……………………….?

6) I will be here at 10:30 am.
Dir-question: What ………………………….?
7. Mutasi stole my father‟s money.

Dir-question: Who ………………………..?

8. I met my teacher on the way.
Dir- question: Who(m) ………………………?
9. They ate with their teacher.

Dir-question: Whom ……………………….?

10. I used a bridge to cross the river.

Dir-question: What ……………………………….?

or : How …………………………………?

Indirect questions.
-Indirect questions are used:
a)to show politeness, humbleness or good manners.
b)to avoid some disappointment or embarrassment that can or may occur.
NB: Indirect questions take no question mark(?) instead, they take a full stop.

~Dir-question: Which bird signs best? (rude)

Indirect qn: I would like to know which bird signs best. (polite)
~Dir- question: What time will you be here? (rude)
Indirect qn: She would like to know what time you will be here (polite)
The same question technique can be used in reporting statements to the other person who
is not the speaker (indirect reporting).
~ Direct –“ How tall are you?” he said.
Indirect – He wanted to know how tall I am.
2)Direct – “Why haven‟t you ironed your uniform?” said David.
Indirect – He wanted to know why I had not / hadn‟t ironed my uniform.
-Exercise on page 66 – Handbook

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b) Questions (Affirmative and negative) formed using auxiliaries/helping verbs and some
modal verbs are called “yes or no questions.”
e.g
is/has/have/had/was/were/will/shall/would/should/are/am/ought/must/need/do/did……………
…..

statement Question.
1)I am late for school -Am I ……………….………….?
2)He is ………………….. -Is he ……………….……………?
3)They are …………….. -Are they ……………………...?
4)We do our…………… -Do we ………………………….?
5)She sings…………… -Does she……………………….?
6)The dog killed/did kill…… -Did the dog ………….………?
7)We shall …………………….. -Shall we…………..…………..?
8)She has………………………. -Will he …………..…………...?
9)She has………………………. -Has she ……………………….?
10). They had…………………. -Had they ……………………..?
11).You have………………….. -Have you………..……………?

NB: To change simple sentences into question forms, you have to make the following
changes:
a)When am/is/are is used in the simple sentence, the question must be started with Am/Is/Are.
b)When the verb is in the simple present tense, e.g sign/signs, the question form must be
started with Do/does. = Do sign. Does …….sing……
c)When the verb is in the past simple tense, e.g killed, the question form must be started with
Did and the verb (main) must be in the simple present tense. e.g. Did … kill……….?
d)When shall/will is used in a simple sentence, the question form must be started with shall/
will………………………
e)When has/have is used in a simple sentence, the question form must be started with
Has/Have.

Exercise on p.g 37 standard Eng AID. Ref. Standard AID – pp – 36 –7

144
 Hand book pp 65 –6

QUESTION TAGS.
-The question tags are used when the speaker shows his opinion or belief or what he thinks.
The speaker wants the listener to do nothing else but to agree with him.
There are three simple rules governing the formation of question tags:
i) Affirmative statement, negative question tag; negative statement, affirmative question
tag.
ii) Helping verbs (special finites) are repeated in the question tags.
iii) Other verbs (whole / full or principle verbs) use “do, does, or did” in the tags.
a)Positive or affirmative sentences
This is when the speaker‟s statement is positive and the question tag is negative.
e.g ~ You are Orombi‟s closest friend, aren‟t you?

-are - aren‟t -am - aren‟t

-is - isn‟t -must - mustn‟t
-could - couldn‟t -ought - oughtn‟t
-can - can‟t -should shouldn‟t
-will - won‟t -might - mightn‟t
-shall - shan‟t
-would - wouldn‟t
-were - weren‟t
-was - wasn‟t

NB: 1)When used affirmatively, the words „dare‟ and „need‟ are not repeated in the
tags.When they do,they behave as full verbs.
e.g. ~We need to buy a new radio, don’t we?
~ You need to come earlier, don’t you?
~He dared to strike the lion, didn‟t he?
~We to ask first, don‟t we?
~ We needn‟t ask first(We do not need to ask), do we?

145
 3)The word „used to‟ is treated as a full verb rather than as an auxiliary.
e.g~ He used to own a house, didn‟t he?
~He didn‟t use to own a house, did he?

4)There is not form amn‟t instead we say „aren‟t I? and „am I‟ respectively.
5)An imperative (command or order) can be made into less of a command and more of a
request by the addition of an affirmative tag in the future tense. These use shall / will for tags.

e.g ~Pass me the sugar (Will you pass me the sugar?), will you?
~Open the window (Will you open the window?) will you?
~Let‟s (Let us) Leave now (shall we leave now?), shall we?
~Write to me (Will you write to me?),will you?
~Let me do it myself (Will you let me do it myself?),will you?
~Let‟s do it ourselves (Shall we do it ourselves?),shall we?
~Let‟s go for a walk, shall we?
~Stop that noise, will you?
Cf~ Let us do it ourselves(will you let us do it ourselves?), will you?
NB: This is the plural form of “let me do it myself, will you?

Activity – Hand book pp – 70 –1

-Standard Eng Aid. 46 – 7
-Living English Structure for Schools by W.Stannard Allen.pp94-95.
Living English structure by W.Stannard Allen pp 163-167.

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

Abbreviations are shortened forms of words, names, titles, organizations or a group of
words.
Requirements for Abbreviations
1.Full stops are used in come abbreviation. E.g M.P./T.B.
2.In case of abbreviations which can be pronounced as words, full stops are not necessary in
between the letters e.g. UNEB / UNICEF/WHO etc.
3.If it‟s one word that has been shortened, the full stop is put on at the end . e.g.
Rev./Jan./Feb. etc.
There are English and non- English Abbreviations.

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a)Non English Abbreviations:

Abbreviation In full meaning Eng. Meaning.

1.NB nota Bene note carefully
note well
2.etc et cetera and many others.
3.A.D/AD Anno Domini -In the year of our Lord.
4.e.g exempli(e) gratia for example.
5.pp Procurationeum on behalf of (letters)
pages.
6.a.m. /am (time) ante-meridiem before noon/after midday
7.p.m./p.m (time) Post-meridiem after noon/after midday
8.Viz Videlicet namely
9.ie id est that is /that is to say.
10.do ditto the same
11.D.V Deo Volente God willing
12.ib/ibid ibidem in the same place
13.prox proximo next month.
14.Verb sap verb sapienti A word is enough for a wise man
15.UIT Ultimo last month
16.R.S.V.P Repondez S‟il Vous Plait Please reply.
17.R.I.P Requiescat in pace Rest in Eternal Peace
18.INRI Iesus Nezerene Rex Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews.

b)The English abbreviations in common use.

Abbreviation full meaning

1.c.c courtesy copy/carbon copy.
2.P.S Permanent Secretary
ps Post script (informal letters –forgotten)=written after
3.Tel Television
4.re Reference / referee
5.RE Religious education
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6.wef/w.e.f With effect from
7. asap as soon as possible.
8.VTR Video Tape Recorder
9.CD Compact Disc.
10)DVD Digital Video Disc
11.FM Frequency Modulated
12.AM Amplitude Modulated
13.COD Cash on Delivery
14.G.P.O General Post Office.
15.p.t.o (not P.T.O) Please turn over
16.PTO Parents Teachers‟ Organisation.
17.OK all right /satisfactory
18.C-in-C Commander –in –Chief
19.Y.W.C.A Young Women‟s Christian Association.
20. Y.M.C.A Young Men‟s Christian Association.
21.P.W.D Public Works Department
22.P.O.W Prisoner of war
23.V.I.P very important person.
24.WHO World Health Organisation
25.Esq. Esquire
26.PM Prime Minister.
27MP Member of Parliament
28.B.C (bc) before Christ
29.KM/h Kilometre per hour
30. a/o alphabetical order
31. a/c account
32.c/o care of
33.COU Church of Uganda.
34.HM Headmaster.
35.Dept department
36.Gov‟t government
37.st saint /street
38.Co. Company
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39.© Copyright
40.cap Capital letter
41.Capt/capt Captain/captain.
42.cf compare
43.GMT Greenwich Mean Time
44.CID Criminal Investigation Department
45.LRA Lord‟s Resistance Army
46.UPDF Uganda People‟s Defence Forces.
47.UHO United Nations Organisation
48.AU African Union.
49.doz dozen.
50.Ag Acting
51.Asst Assistant
52.Esp. especially
53.O.B old Boy (of school)
54.Mt Mount /Mountain
55.Rex. Reverend.
56.Mon. ______________
57.Tue. ______________
58.Wed. ______________
59.Thur. ______________
60.Fri ______________
61.Sat. ______________
62.Sun. ______________
63.Jan. ______________
64.Feb. ________________
65.Mar ________________
66.Apr. ________________
67.Sept ________________
68.Oct _______________
69.Nov _______________
70.Dec. _______________
12th _______________
149
 9th _______________
th
90 _______________
8th _______________
71.jr/jnr Junior
72.LDC Less Developed Country
73.Lt/Lieut Lieutenant
74.Col Colonel
75.Ltd Limited
76.Cm3 Cubic centimeter
77.m3 Cubic metres
78.Mrs. Mistress Pronounced as Missis
79.Xmas Christmas
80.Via by way of / through.
81.UNEB Uganda National Examinations Board.
82.PLE Primary Leaving Examination.
83.BOU Bank of Uganda
84.Mr. Mister
85.HE His Excellency/His Eminence
86.WFP World Food Programme
87.P.O.Box Post Office Box
88.Fr. Father
89.Sr. Sister
90.Br. Brother
91.CNN Cable News Network
92.WWW World Wide Website.
93.e-mail electronic mail
94.Abbrev abbreviation.
94.SMS Short Message Service
95.NGO Non Governmental Organisation.

Contractions
1.we‟ve we have
2.he‟ll he will
150
3.I shan‟t I shall not
4.can‟t cannot
5.won‟t will not
6.you‟re you are
7.you‟d you would
8.she‟s she is
9.shouldn‟t should not
10.it‟s it is
11.Whato‟ver whatsoever
12.ne‟er never
13.hasn‟t has not
14.wouldn‟t would not
15.w‟ldn‟t would not
16.couldn‟t could not
17. „re are
18.it‟s/tis it is
19.musn‟t must not
20.oughtn‟t ought not
21.don‟t do not
22.p‟se please
23.stn station

Reference: Students Companion pp – 108 – 114

Standard English AID – pp 75 6
MK Eng. Handbook pp 94 – 95

Prepositions.
They are short words that are used to show or indicate the relationship between the subject
and the object of the sentence.
-A preposition is closely tied to the (pro)noun it controls.
For example
~ He looked at the boy.
~ He spoke to them.
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~ He looked out of the window.
-Prepositions are usually placed in front of the word they control or govern. They can also be
placed after the words they control, notably in questions, in relatives and in interrogative
clauses.
For example:
~ What can I cut the bread with?
~ This is the book I was telling you about.
-They succeeded in escaping.

NB: Many verbs get strongly associated with certain prepositions in one of the two ways:
a) with meaning that is clear from that of the verb itself.
b) As a compound having an idiomatic meaning (i.e. we cannot guess the meaning from the
two words)
For example:
~ Take it off the chair and put it on the table .
~I didn‟t take to him at first.(like)
~ He took after his father.(resembled)
~ She set about preparing dinner.(began to prepare)
~ the ship was making for the harbour.(was going towards)
~ His mother looks after him.(cares for)
~ We‟re looking forward to your visit.(awaiting with pleasure)

Omission of a preposition may make the sentence meaningless or lose meaning.

However, we can omit some prepositions;
i)to ii)for
-Omitting preposition to is possible with construction of sentences using the following
verbs.
~bring, give, hand, play, lend, pass (hand), pay, play (an instrument /piece of music), promise,
sell, show, sing, take, tell, (narrate).
e.g I showed the map to Bill = I showed Bill a map.
-They sent £5 to Smith = They sent Smith £5.

-Omission of preposition for is possible with verbs like:

152
book, build, buy, cook (bake/boil/fry etc), fetch, find, get, keep, knit, leave, make, order,
reserve. e.g I‟ll get a drink for you = I‟ll get you a drink.

NB: Certain words have particular prepositions that follow them and exchanging those
prepositions may change the intended meaning or mean making a mistake.

For example “Deal with” means to take action about but “Deal in” means to trade in study
the following words and their prepositions:

die of independent of
confused about repent of
proud of sure of
born of certain of
fond of warn of/against
plead for instead of
accused of capable of
take care of agree to/with
complain of write to/in/about
conscious of equal to
a dislike of according to
tired of familiar to /with
victim of point to/at
thirst for prefer to
invention of ought to
full of grateful to
guilty of opposite to
ashamed of go to /by/on/through
jealous of similar to
afraid of friendly to/towards/with
boast of (or about) solution to

153
careful of communicate to/with
composed of lend to
cure of accustomed to
deprive of conform to
disappointed (in or about) with exception of
a doubt of (or about) indifferent to
with the exception of married to / with
suspect of related to
get rid of
superior to qualified in /for
tie to/with grow in
object to interfere in /with
read to/by deal in /with
bought at /for dressed in
disgusted at /with end in
good at/for think of
angry at/with succeed in
arrive at believe in
at a speed confidence in
wonder at die in/from through/of
aim at fail in/to
glad at/of/about weak in/at
bad at persist in
clever at interested in
quick at agree with/to
slow at abide with/by
look at/for/after familiar with
over/into/down upon armed with
gaze at shivering with

154
stare at part with/from
preside at/over filled with
sit at/on/for acquainted with
surprised at occupied with
puzzled at began with
shocked at crowded with
shed(no prep) supply with
alarmed at struggling with
astonished at change with/for/into/out/of/from
laugh at promote to
born in (year/month/country) comply with.
covered with remote from
pleased with born on
popular with insist on
satisfied with rely on
shake with comment on
tremble with carry on/out
exchanged for spend on
disqualified for depend on/upon
play for/with/at congratulate on
bought for live on/at
suitable for translate into
leave for dive into
long for divide into
account for say against
anxious for/about protest against
wait for guard against
vexed by(annoyed by) warn against / of / about
occupied by lean against

155
charmed by point out/at/to
benefit by/from look out/at/into/for
absent from watch out
prevent from divide between/among
dismissed from knocked down
borrow from pick up
get benefit from matching along/to
different from walking along/across
suffering from care for
escape from consist of
exclude from rejoice at/in/over
recover from lame in
abstain from blind in
quarrel with (sb) about (sth) confident of
object to charge(sb) with (an offence) by (sb)
blind in (one eye) fine (sb) for
deaf to .live on (sth)
welcome to

Time and date: at, on, by, before, in

A~ at/on:
X at a time: at dawn, at dusk, at midnight, at 4.30
X at an age: at sixteen/at the age of sixteen.
She got married at sixteen.

B)~on a day /date.

-on Monday, -on 4th June , -on Christmas Day
Exceptions:
-at night - at Easter (period not a day only)
-at Christmas (period not a day)
156
-on Christmas Day
-on the morning /afternoon/evening/night of a certain date: ~ We arrived on the morning of
sixth.

C)On time = at the agreed/arranged time, not before, not after.

e.g The train started on time. (It started at 8.15).

D)In time/good time (for…….) = before the agreed time = not late e.g I arrived at the concert
hall in (good) time (for the concert) (perhaps the concert began at 7.30 and I arrived at 7.15)

157
 Meaning of these nine prepositions
at/on/in(mainly static)
at- point Place Time
at home, at cinema, at school, at At one o‟clock, at 5.15 pm, at dawn,
Tom‟s, at the front, at the back, at dusk, at night, at sunset, at
at the sea side, at Victoria station, midnight, at the weekend(Brit Eng),
at the North Pole, at Kalerwe. at the beginning, at the end, at first,
at last, at this point, at that time, at
any moment, at a glance, love at
sight, at the age of…
In-3 dimensional enclosing spaces.(for large places) Time also seen having interior.
In the cupboard, in the garden, in the
In April, 1980, in the winter, in the
Forest, in the North of England,
Easter week, in the 19th century,
in Africa, in America, in heaven, hell
In the morning, in the afternoon,
in the sky, in the world, in the Tropics,
in an armchair, in the front / back row, In the evening, he went round the
in a pain in the throat, in Kampala, world in 80 days, …
in Mbale, in Uganda, …
on- lines, surface, area(place); Time similarly seen as having
on the floor, the table, the wall, surface but not interior.
on a stool, on a hard chair, on Sunday, 23rd April,
on the cover, on page19, on the weekend(Am Eng), on the
on / in the main road, on / in the river date, on the morning of 23rd April,
on Earth, on the Equator, on Sunday afternoon, on Christmas
Day, on time, on opening the letter

to, from, on to, out of, into, off(mainly

direction)

158
To-goal Place Time
-We are going to Scotland, the market, town, -The exhibition is open (from
school, … Monday) to Saturday.
-Only 300 more days to Christmas.
-It‟s five to four o‟clock.
from-source, -We‟ve already driven from the site, find us at -She lived abroad from the age of
starting point home. 9.
-I bought these novels from Spain. -The exhibition is open from
Monday (to Saturday).
-I‟ll be here from midday
on to-surface & -The cup fell on to the floor.
goal -I cannot fix this shelf on to the wall.
-He walked on to the platform.
off-separation -The clock fell off the wall.
from surface -Keep off the glass.
into-interior & -I went into the library. -This will take into the nineteen-
goal -The child climbed into (branches of) the tree. nineties.
-He came/hurried/ran/rushed/walked/went -Will the railway survive into the
into the room. 21st century?

out of-separation -The dog jumped out of its basket / kennel.

from the interior -My purse must have fallen out of my
handbag.
-Take your cigarette out of your mouth.

More prepositions of place and time

Place Time
about[approximate, -He kept pacing about the -about six o‟clock, about a
direction] room. week…

[a]round[surrounding, -They live [a]round the -We‟ll be there around 6

curved, circle] corner. o‟clock.
-We have a hedge [a]round

159
 the garden.
[around is more usual in -Let‟s sit [a]round the
American Eng, round in fire/wander [a]round the
Brit. Eng] town/ look [a]round the
museum.
-She put her arms round his
shoulders.
beyond[direction but no -Beyond the beach we could -I can‟t stay beyond
proximity] see oil tanks. midnight.
-The train does go beyond -You can‟t extend this ticket
the Hastings. beyond 31st December.
by[proximity but probably -She sat by the window. -I‟ll have finished by 23rd.
Not touching] -She walked by the river. -If he plane leaves at 7 a.m.,
-There is an old mill by the we must be at the airport by
river. 6 p.m.
for[extend also-intended -for six miles -I lived in Hong Kong for
destination] -for miles and miles three years.
-They‟ve just left for -We‟ll wait for another
London/a meeting. hour.
past[proximity probably not -The bridge is past the mill. -It‟s past midday.
touching, plus path from -We walked past the mill. -Quarter past five(Brit Eng)
one side to another] -The train runs past the -Quarter after five(Am Eng)
beach.
through[path/direction plus -Once we‟re through -all the day/night/my life.
inside something three R.Mayanja, we‟ll be able to -May through October
dimensional) drive faster. [Am Eng]

-There‟s no water coming -from May to October[Brit

Eng]
through the pipe.
-Monday through
Friday[Am Eng]
-from Monday to Friday
throughout[through + -There are troubles -Throughout the day/the

160
complete extent] throughout the world. night/the summer/1987/my
life…
toward(s)[direction/goal -We walked towards the -towards six o‟clock/
but incomplete] bridge but it was too/very dawn/dusk/midnight.
far.

More prepositions of place

across[direction, path crossways] -They live across the road from us.
-Don‟t run across the road.
-There is a footbridge the river.
-A tree has fallen across the path.
along[direction, path lengthways] -There are many tree along the road and a
path along the river.
-We walked along the river banks for three
miles.
-Where‟s the lavatory? Along the corridor.
among + more than two things/people seen -I don‟t like living among strangers.
as undivided surrounding group. -a little village among mountains
-The triplets shared the apple
among/amongst themselves.
between + two things/people. -The twins shared the apple between
Sometimes used with time. themselves.
-between 3.45 and 400 o‟clock.

Sometimes used with more than two -Air New Zealand flies between New
things/people. Zealand ,the Pacific Islands Singapore and
The U.S.A.
up[movement, direction; sometimes -Carry me up stairs.
higher] -The train wound slowly up the
mountainside.

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down[movement, direction; sometimes -It is easier walking down the hill[than
lower walking up it]
above[higher] -500metres above sea level.
-They were flying above the clouds.
-He‟s got a plaster above his eye.[on his
forehead]
-They live three floors above us.

below[lower] -The dead sea is below the level.

-The post office is up the hill below the
church.
-The people below us are very noisy[under,
underneath]
-His leg was amputated below the
knee.[separated, evacuated, taken away,
removed.]
-Ten degrees above/below freezing point.
-She‟s above/below him in class.
-I can‟t go above/below sh.5000.[raise/drop
in my price]
over[superior, path, movement] -We flew over France [to Italy].
-They are building a new bridge over the
river.[across]
-Put your coat over the chair.
-He had a plaster over his eye [covering it].
-They live over the road [on the other side].
over[time] -over Easter, the weekend, the years

under [inferior, path, movement] -They‟re building a tunnel under the

channel.
-People in the flat under us are
noisy[below, underneath]

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 -The dog ran under the chair.
-He‟s got twenty people under him.
-under age, under developed,
underdone[not enough]
beneath[lower] -Put the pillow beneath his head.

~ cf metaphorical use- -Beneath contempt, beneath one‟s dignity.

on top of[higher] -Why are your shoes on top of the

cupboard?
-The castle is on top of the hill.
against[proximity, contact] -Put your bicycle against the wall.
-You‟re banging your head against a brick
wall !

Also metaphorical use[opposed] -It was a war against the ruthless enemy.
-They are all against him.

NB: If a preposition (in, about, for…) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing.
e.g.

Preposition Verb –ing

-Are you interested in working for us?
-I‟m not very good at learning language.
-She must be fed up with studying a car?
-What are the bread.
advantages of having tennis tomorrow?
-This knife is only for cutting away on holiday.
-How about playing ill.
-I bought a new
bicycle instead of going
-Carol went to work in spite of feeling

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NB: You can also say “interested in somebody (do)ing….”, “fed up with you (do)ing …”
e.g.~ I‟m fed up with you telling me what to do.

NB: before + ing and after + ing:

-Before going out, phoned Noah.
-What did you do after leaving school?
NB: You can also say “Before I went out,….” And …..after you (had) left school?

NB: by + ing (say how sth happened)

-The burglars got into the house by breaking a window and climbing in,
-You can improve your English by reading more.
-She made herself ill by not eating properly.

NB: without + ing:

-I ran two kilometres without stopping.
-They climbed through the window without anybody seeing them.(without being seen)
-She needs to work without people disturbing her.(without being disturbed)

Verb + preposition +-ing(succeed in –ing/accuse someone of + ing)

NB: Many verbs have the structure verb + preposition(in, for, about…) + object.

Fore example
Verb Preposition Object
-We talked about the problem.
-You must apologise for what you said.
NB: If the object is a verb,it ends in –ing:
For example:
Verb Preposition + ing(object)
-We talked bout going to America.
-She apologised for not telling the truth.

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Here are some more verbs with the above structure:
-Have you succeeded in finding/passing/swimming..
-They insisted on paying/abusing/doing…
-I‟m thinking of buying/shifting/flying…
-I wouldn‟t dream of stealing/cheating….
-She doesn‟t approve of gambling…
-We have decided against watching/escaping…
-Look forward to meeting/seeing/paying…
-Do you feel like sleeping/going…?

NB: We say “feel sleepy” not feel sleeping.

We say “feel like sleeping” not feel like sleepy.

The following verbs can have the structure verb + object + preposition + somebody + ing:
Verb Object Preposition + ing
-I congratulate Ronald on passing the exams
-They accused me of telling lies
-Nobody suspected the man of being a spy
-What prevented him from coming to see us
-The police stopped everyone from leaving the building.
-I forgot to thank them for helping
-Please forgive me for not writing to you
-They warned us against buying the car

NB: Some of these verbs are used often in the passive .For example:
- I was accused of telling lies.
- The man was suspected of being a spy.
- We were warned against entering men‟s houses.

NB: have difficulty –ing, not difficulties

- I had difficulty finding a place to live.(not “ I had difficulty to find”)
- Did you have difficulty getting a visa?

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- People often have difficulty reading my writing.
NB: We normally say “have difficulty” not “have difficulties.”
For example:
-I‟m sure you‟ll have no difficulty passing the exams.(not have no difficulties)

PROVERBS.
Proverbs are also commonly known as “sayings of the wise? They are short statement
with a lot of meaning. Their meaning usually gives advice or warning.
NB: A proverb has two parts; the statement and the comment.
Below is a list of common proverbs:

(Photocopy of proverbs) – Standard Eng. Aid p.p 71 – 73

-Hand book pp. 104 –107

-A beggar can never be bankrupt.

-A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.
-A fool and his money are soon parted.
-A friend is easier lost than found.
-A great talker is a great liar.
-A hungry man is an angry man.
-A penny saved is a penny gained.
-A stitch in time saves nine.
-A word to a wise is enough.
-All that glitters is not gold.
-All is well that ends well.
-Avoid evil and it will avoid you.
-Be just before you are generous.
-Better be alone than in ill company.
-Blood is thicker than water.
-Call a spade a spade not a big spoon.
-Charity begins at home.
-Cheapest is dearest.
-Courtesy (politeness or good manners ) cost nothing.

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-Cut your coat according to your cloth.
-Do as I say not as I do.
-Do not put all your eggs in one basket.
-Eat to live but do not live to eat.
-Experience is the best teacher.
-Example is better than precept.
-Facts are bitter. (dangerous.)
-Failure teaches success.
-Familiarity breeds contempt.
-Fire is a good servant but a bad master.
-Flattery brings friends but truth enemies.
-God help those who help themselves.
-Great minds think alike.
-He is no man who cannot say no.
-He knows most speaks least.
-He who laughs best laughs last.
-If the cap fits wear it.
-If you wish for peace prepare for war.

-It is never too late to mend.

-It is no use crying over spilt milk.
-Knowledge is power.
-Learning makes the wise wiser but the fool foolish.
-Let bygones be bygones.
-Let sleeping dogs lie.
-Lost time never found.
-Men make houses women make homes.
-Necessity is the mother of invention.
-Never cross the bridge till you come to it.
-Never trouble troubles till troubles trouble you.
-New brooms sweep cleaner but old ones know all the corners.
-No news is good news.
-One good turn deserves another.

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-A good dog deserves a good bone.
-One man‟s meat is another man‟s poison.
-Out of sight does not mean out of mind.
-Out of frying pan into fire.
-Practice makes perfect (perfection).
-Prevention is better than cure.
-Pride goes before fall.
-Rome was not built in a day.
-Rumour is a great traveller.
-Saying is one thing doing is another.
-Seeing is believing.
-Silence means consent (yes).
-Slow and steady wins the race.
-Soft words win hard hearts.
-Sometimes the best gain is to lose.
-Spare the rod and spoil the child.
-Speak well of your friends and of your enemies.
-Speaking without thinking is like shooting without an aim.
-Speech is silver silence is gold.
-The end justifies the means.
-The world is a staircase; some are going up, others are coming down.
-Time and tide wait for no man.
-Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones.
-Time cures more than a doctor.
-Tit for tat is fair game (play)
-Trust but not too much.
-Two heads are better than one.
-Two is a company three is a crowd.
-When in Rome do as the Romans do.
-When the cat is away the mice will play.
-Where there sis a will there is a way.
-You cannot teach olds new tricks.
-Youth and age will never agree.
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-A bad workman quarrels/blames his tool.
-A drowning man will clutch at the straw.
-A friend in need is a friend indeed.
-An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
-A rolling stone gathers no moss.
-A small leak sinks a great ship.
-As the twig bends so the tree‟s inclined.
-As you lay/make your bed so must you lie on/in it.
-A wild goose never lay a tame egg.
-Better half loaf than no bread.
-Birds of the same feather flock together.
-Empty vessels make the loudest noise.
-Every cloud has a silver lining.
-Fine feathers make fine birds.
-Forbidden fruit tests sweetest.
-Fortune knocks once at every man‟s door.
-Habit is second nature.
-Half a loaf is better than none.
-He goes sorrowing who goes borrowing.
-Let not the pot call the kettle black.
-Make hay when the sun shines.
-More haste less speed.
-None but the brave deserve the fair.
-None so as those who will not hear.
-No smoke without fire.
-One swallow does not make a summer.
-Set a thief to catch a thief.
-Still water runs deep.
-The early bird catches the worm.
-Too many cooks spoil the broth.
-We never miss water till the well is dry.
-The last straw, breaks the camel‟s back.

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 PROVERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS.
1.Spare the rod and spoil the child – If you never punish because you think you love
him/her too much, you are also spoiling that child at the same time because he/she never
learns good manners.
2.One good turn deserves another – This teaches us to be grateful. When someone does
something good for us, we can likewise do something good for him/her. You do not have
to do it immediately but even after sometime.

Activity
1.Discuss the meaning or lesson learnt from:
a)A good dog deserves a good bone.
b)Courtesy costs nothing
C)Too much of anything is bad
d)Pride goes before fall
e)Lost time is never gained.

Idioms (peculiar expressions) and Prepositional verbs;

-Call for – demand
-Call in – send /summon
-Call on s/one – pay a brief visit
-Carrying out – execute
-To be carried away (passion) – deprive one of self-control
-Carry on – manage
-To be carried off – killed
-Come about – happen
-Come around – recover/agree
-To cut off – die
-Cut down – reduce (expenditure)
-Cry out against – protested against
-Go by (appearance ) – judge
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-Go over something – examine
-Go through (experience) – suffer
-Go through (something) – examine
-To give off – emit
-Give something up – surrender
-Give in - submit
-Back up – support
-Clear up- explain
-Dispose of one‟s property – sell /get rid of
-To hang about – loiter about
-Long for – desire
-Shake off something – get rid of
-Train up – education
-To be well off – in comfortable circumstances.
-Bear up – support / not to repair/ keep up the spirit.
-Bear with- have patience with
-Break down – failed
-Break off – stop suddenly
-Break with – quarrel with
-Break into – enter by force
-Bring about – cause
-Bring forth – produce /cause
-Bring out – show
-Bring up – reared
-Do away with - / destroy
-Go after – pursue
-Keep up – maintain
-Try out – test
-Put off (meeting) postpone
-Picked out – chosen/selected
-Make up (mind) – decide
-Turn up – attend/appear
-Make up (excuse) – concocted / invented
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-Look down upon – despise
-Hand out – give /distribute
-To be in – avail/available
-Put out (fire) – extinguish
-Go on – continue
-Give in all ones life – dedicate / devote
-Answer back – reply
-Teach good manners – discipline
-To pick out – select
-To pick up – regain
-Pull down – demolish
-Put out – extinguish /annoy
-Put in – send /make
-Put in with – tolerate
-Run out (-expire /come to an end.
-To bring to light – disclose /reveal
-To see light – understand
-To throw some light upon – explain
-To go to law – take legal action/proceedings.
-To take a leaf out of one‟s book – to imitate
-To take the law into one‟s hands – to try to revenge
-To be in water – to be in trouble /difficult
-At the eleventh hour – at the last moment
-By hook or crook – by fair means or foul
-To keep one‟s head on – to remain calm.
-To have one‟s heart in one‟s mouth – to be afraid.
-To show a clean pair of heels – to run at a great speed.
-To take to one‟s heels – to run at a great speed.
-To sit on the fence – to remain neutral.
-To flog a dead horse – wasting time.
-To throw dust in one‟s eyes – to try to deceive
-Up to date – modern / recent
-Capital punishment – death sentence/penalty.
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 -To let something of the bag – let out the secret.
-To kick the bucket – die
-To breathe to one‟s last – die
-In black and white – write it down.
-A wet blanket – a person who discourage.
-To boycott – to avoid/shun
-To bite the dust – to die /be defeated
-To lead to the altar – to marry.
-To build castles in the air – think of impossible – of realization – a day – dream.
-To blow one‟s trumpet -boast
-To hit below the belt - act unfairly.
-To hit a nail on the head. –act rightly.
-To keep the pot boiling -keep on going.
-To hold one‟s tongue -be silent.
-To smell a rat -be suspicious.
-To sweep the board -take everything.
-To take French leave -remain absent without permission.
-Put the cart before the horse -act in a wrong order.

Similes.
A simile is a comparison. One thing is likened to another. The qualities of one thing
are likened to those of another.

e.g. Micheal is as brave as a lion.

.
As timid as a rabbit/mouse As hard as steel/granite
As active as quicksilver As brittle as a glass.

As bitter as gall As flat as a pancake

As blind as a bat. As hard as steel/granite

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As light as feather. As soft as butter/wool
As clear as a crystal/day light
As blunt as a hummer.
As brave as a lion / judge As swift as a deer/hare
As deep as a sea.
As ageless as sun.
As busy as a bee/an ant. As wise as king Solomon
As fat as a pig
As regular as clock work.
As cold as ice. As good as gold.
As gentle as a dove/lamb
As tender as a bud.
As faithful as a dog As fierce as tiger
As happy as a lark
As weak as water
As foolish as a sheep / calf. As full as an egg (with meat)
As loud as thunder.
As sweet as honey / sugar
As hungry as a wolf. As firm as a rock/steel
As hot as fire/pepper
As thin as a lath or a rake
As mean as a miser. As black as coal
As mischievous as a monkey.
As patient as Job.
As poor as a church mouse As cunning as a fox
As playful as a puppy / kitten
As careless as wind
As slow as a tortoise As first as light
As silly as a sheep
As round as an apple /ball
As sharp as a razor As fresh as a rose.

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 As hot as the sun.
As ugly as sin/a scare crow As beautiful as a rose
As green as a grass.
As yellow as sulphur
As friendly as a puppy As straight as a candle
As heavy as lead/an elephant.
As generous as a dream
As hairless as an egg As tough as leather
As quiet as a mouse / lamb.
As secret as thought
As invisible as air As stubborn as a mute
As sober as a judge
As sleepless as an owl.
As invisible as air As sound as a bell.
As tall as a giant
As true as gospel
As lifeless as the graveyard. As open as a smile/a day
As white as snow
As easy as lying/pie.
As noiseless as a shadow As wide as hope.
As clean as a new pin
As dry as dust
As deceitful as the devil As wet as a fish
As large as life
As drunk as a fish
As cruel as death As bare as a stone/ winter
As dark as midnight
As dumb as a mouse.
As persistent as a mosquito As blue as indigo.
.As brown as a berry.
As eager as a bridegroom

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As big as an elephant
As impatient as a lover.
As empty as space As comfortable as a coin
As far a part as the poles
As dangerous as a machine gun
As expensive as glory As common as dirt/poverty.
As alike as peas.
As docile as a lamb
As familiar as a popular song As cruel as death
As agile as a cat/monkey.
As devoted as a faithful dog.
As free as a fly As contagious as a yawn
As barren as winter rain.
As honest as a mirror
As calm as death As cheerful as bird.
As brief as time
As brittle as glass.
As high as Heaven/stars As gentle as lamb, sleep, fawn. falling dew.
As certain as Christmas
As hairy as a spider.
As hollow as a drum. As feeble as a child.
As cheap as dirt/lies. .
As good as gold.
As sick as a dog As meek[peaceful/gentle] as a lamb.
As keen as razor / mustard.

As ignorant as a child.
As cheerless as the grave.

As immaculate as an angel.
As chill as death / tomb. .

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 WORD ANALOGIES
Analogies refer to a partial likeness or agreement to something or with something between two
things.
Analogies can be talking/expressing tenses, plurals, gender, etc.
e.g.
1) Door is to wood as window is to glass
2) Elbow is to hand as knee is to leg.
3) Walking is to legs as flying is to wings
4) Food is to hunger as drink is to thirst.
5) Day is to week as month is to year.
6) Bride is to bridegroom as fox is to vixen.
7) Boy is to scout as girl is to guide
8) Lion is to cub as dog is to puppy
9) Honest is to honesty as loyal is to loyalty
10) Station is to train as airport is to aero plane
Activity on pp 114 – 115 (Hand book)

OPPOSITES(Antonyms)
They are words which are entirely different or contrast to each other.
We can form opposites of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, etc………. using:-
(a) Prefix –
(b) Suffix
(c) Totally changing the given word irregularly.
NB: An opposite of any part of speech MUST agree with that very part of speech .i.e. ~Adjective -
adjective opposite
~Adverb - adverb opposite
~Preposition – preposition
~Noun – noun opposite
~Pronoun – pronoun opposite

a)Prefix – Un e.g. certain, forgiving, equal, fair, fit, conscious,……………….

pleasant, lucky, important, known, popular, willing, true, kind,
……………, ……………………., ………………………, ……………………..,

b).im + root word e.g movable, motal, possible, passable, pure

177
………………, ……………………, …………………., …………………., ………………..
c). irr + root word e.g regular, responsible, relevant, reversible,
………………, …………………., ……………………., …………………….., ……………..,
d) il + root word e.g. legal, legitimate, logical, legible, literate, ……………..,
……………………., …………………….., …………………….., ………………………………
e) in + root word e.g complete, correct, active, attentive, accurate, visible, separable,
dispensable,sufficient,…………………………… ,………………………….., sufficient,
……………..,……………………,……………………
f)Miss + root word e.g – spell, treat, conduct, lead, ……………, …………,
……………….
g) Suffix – full / less + after a root word.
e.g care, mercy, ……………, ……………, ……………, ………………,
………………….
h) dis + root word e.g – like satisfied, regard, obedient, obey, respect
i) Irregular opposites (antonyms)

Word Opposite Word Opposite

Hot (adj) Cold (adj) contract expand
Question (n) answer(n) contraction expansion
Slowly (adv) fast (adv) before after
Laugh (v) cry (v) weep(v) entrance exit
Everywhere(adv) nowhere(adv) inner outer
Ancient modern begin end
Arrive depart poor wealthy/rich
Arrival departure poverty wealth
Absent present smart shabby
Absence Presence near far
Abundant scarce thin/lean fat
Abundance scarcity birth death
Friend enemy cheap dear/ costly/
Friendship enmity
Something nothing gain lose
Import export profit loss
Either neither happy sad/unhappy
Include exclude/omit high low
Inhale exhale length wide

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Inside outside bright dull
Forward backward clever/smart dense/stupid
Interior exterior collect scatter
Attract repel common rare.
Attraction repulsion.
Liberty slavery temporary permanent
Converge diverge celebrate lament
Attach detach victory defeat
Remember forget plain mountain
Heavy light highland lowland
Here there war peace
Hate love straight crooked
Full empty superior inferior
Give take hurry slow

Dry wet asleep awake

Deep shallow dead alive
Busy idle hit miss
Lazy industrious/ coarse fine
Hardworking
Hard soft attack defend
Smooth rough occupied vacant
Rise fall appear vanish/disappear
Abrupt slow advance retreat/retire
Always never generous mean/selfish
Top between enjoy dislike
Lead follow rejoice morn
Lend borrow bless curse
Liquid solid
Familiar strange daily nightly
Majority minority often seldom
Major minor health sick/disease
Same different healthy sickly
Success failure giant dwarf
Succeed/pass fail fresh stale.
Quite noisy danger safety
All none virtue vice

179
Join/unite separate wisdom folly/foolishness
Within without
Slender stout polite rude/impolite
Youth age saint sinner
Former latter height depth
Hill valley indolent diligent
Command obey pardon punish
Foreign native complainant defendant
Conceal reveal rural urban
Dawn dusk emigrant (out) immigrant (in)
Summit/apex base transparent opaque
Brave coward.
Humble proud powerful feeble
Humility pride guilt innocence
Accept reject/refuse guilty innocent
Raw cooked employ dismiss
Ripe raw (fruits) amateur professional
Knowledge ignorance confines release
Hostile friendly
Master servant gentile Jew
Private private doubt certain
Stationary moving rigid flexible
Dynamic static compulsory voluntary/optional
Miser spendthrift excess shortage
Sober intoxicated deficit surplus.
Simple complex
Apprehend release

Predecessor successor
Pleasure pain
Initial final
Initially finally
Precept example
Prolong shorten
Lengthen shorten
Tight loose

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 Use of hope and wish

a) Wish.
1)Used to express something that has not yet happened but would happen, or that something happen
now would change or stop. We use the conditional tense.
– I wish you agree to come.
--We wish you tell us the truth.
--He wishes it stops raining
--I wish you speak more slowly.

2)Used to express that a situation does not exist or did not exist. We use past simple tense here.
- I wish I knew the answer ( but I don‟t know it)
-We wish we could help you. ( we can‟t)
-We wish the rain weren‟t so heavy. (it is heavy)
-He wishes the terms were so long. ( they are short)

NB: „were‟ is normally used instead of „was‟ with singular words in this construction.
- I wish I were taller. (I am not)

- She wishes she were married (she is not)

3)Used when we wish that something had happened which did not happen. Or a wish that something
had not happened which did happen. We use past perfect tense.

-I wish I had listened to you. ( I didn‟t)

-She wishes she had worked hard. (she didn‟t)
-I wish I hadn‟t told you. (I did tell/told you)
-We wish we hadn‟t come (we did)
Exercise on p. 120.MK Handbook P5-7.

b) Use of hope.
-Hope is correctly used to express a future idea.
All the future tense forms are used, ie. Shall/will.
Wish of the past idea is to hope of the future idea.
- I wish I liked him = I hope I shall like him.
More examples.
181
-I hope you will come tomorrow.
-I hope I will pass the exams when I take it.
-I hope you will stay with me.
Activity on p. 121 – Handbook.

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PASSIVE VOICE

- Passive voice is used when we don‟t know or do not wish to mention the human agent:

Reasons for using passive voice

a) When / if we don‟t know who the agent is [vague or indefinite unknown active voice subject].
b) Because the is not important [when the speaker is interested in the predicate (verb and object) ]
c) Because we wish to conceal / hide the agent.

Requirements:
When the active voice subject is vague/unknown/indefinite, it remains unexpressed in the passive
voice. The agent “by” is not needed. Among the vague active voice subject include: they, he, she,
someone, everyone, nobody, I, we, it, people, something, a man, a boy, you, one, …

In normal cases, the indirect object must be begun with in passive voice.

e.g They will show you the way to the bus park.

~ You will be shown the way to the bus park.

Verbs of movement must be followed by adverbs of place. These verbs include: head to, move,
take, bring, run, approach, ride to, drive, …

e.g. The teacher took her to the police forcefully.

~ She was forcefully taken to the police.

Mid-point adverbs [indefinite adverbs of frequency] must be put between the subject and the verb;
i.e.

~ Subject + adverb + verb

or ~ Subject + verb + adverb + verb

e.g. rarely, always, seldom, often, usually, practically, sometimes, completely, already, just, never,
nearly, generally, normally, regularly,…..

e.g P7 girls usually eat beef on Wednesdays.

~ Beef is usually eaten by P7 girls on Wednesdays.

183
 Definite adverbs of frequency must be put at the end of the passive voice sentence, after the
definite doer. The adverbs include: annually, every day, every …., daily, weekly, monthly,
fortnightly, …

e.g. John eats mangoes daily/every day.

~ Mangoes are eaten by John daily/every day.

It is usual to put an adverb of manner immediately in front of the past participle it qualifies in
passive voice, unlike in active voice.

e.g. Your last homework was very badly, well, perfectly, fast, nicely written.

Verbs that require prepositions (laugh at, look at, speak to, stare at…) or adverbs of particle (look
up, care for, look after, put on, take off,…), need some care when we use them in passive voice.
These prepositions normally come at the end of the passive voice sentences.

e.g. They will look after you well.

~ You will be well looked after.

Adverbs of time are normally put at the end of the passive voice sentence after the passive voice
subject.

e.g. They sang the song very well yesterday.

~ The song was very well sung yesterday.[No agent ”by them”]

Passive is formed by using the verb „to be‟ followed by the past participle verb; i.e.

is/is being/was/was being/were/were being/has been/have been/are/are being/will be/shall be + past

participle verb. e.g. sung, stung, swum, taken, made, swept,…….

NB: When the verb of the active voice is in command / order, you have to use ”let” in the passive
voice. e.g
~ Bring a packet of milk
Let a packet of milk be brought .
~ Return this book to him
Let this book be returned to him.

~ Hang the map on the wall

184
Let the map be hung on the wall.

~ Adverbs of time are normally put at the end of the passive voice sentences after the passive subject
(doer), like the definite adverbs of frequency.
e.g. yesterday, last night, last week, on Monday, in 1997, at 2:30 p.m., tomorrow,…

~ Some verbs with two objects (about 40 of them), a direct object (usually a thing) and an indirect
object (usually a person). If the direct object is placed before the indirect, they are joined by a
preposition “to” [occasionally “for”]. e.g.
-He gave (v) a book (D.O) to (Prep) me(I.O).
-He bought (v) a pen (D.O) for (Prep) me (I.O).
NB: It usually does not matter which of the two objects is placed first; but if one is much longer or
emphatic than the other, it is usually placed last. For this reason the indirect object almost always
comes first when it is a pronoun. e.g.
- He gave (v) a book (D.O) to (Prep) the young man (I.O) who had just come in.
- He bought me a book about my hero.
NB: In passive it is more usual to make indirect object the subject of the passive (perhaps because we
have greater interest in persons than things) If the Direct object is of special, it can also become the
subject of the passive voice, the preposition “to” or “for” being retained. e.g.
- John (I.O) was given (v) a book (D.O) for (Prep) his birthday.
- This fine new bicycle (D.O) was given to John for his birthday.

NB: The passive form of “it is” is no better than “people say”, because it also has a vague subject of
the cluase introduced by “it”, the subject of the passive voice. e.g.
- People say that marrying at an early age is bad.
~ It is said that marrying at an early age is bad. or
Marrying at an early age is said to be bad.

NB: When the same person is the both the subject and the object in the activevoice,a reflexive
pronoun is used in the passive voice. This is common with “let”. E.g.
- Don‟t people hear you. = You(subject) should not let people hear you(object)
~ Don‟t let yourself be heard.
- He(subject) let people cheat him(object)
~ He let himself be cheated.

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 A) The pattern of the tense must strictly be followed:
Tense/ sentence Changes Passive sentence.
1.Present continuous:
- Thieves are stealing my food. -is/are + being -My food is being stolen(by
them)
2.Present simple
-Somebody drinks lot of beer. -Is /are + pp verb -A lot of beer is drunk
3.Present perfect
-They have laughed at me -has/have been + pp - I have been laughed at (by
verb them)
4.Future simple
-Herbert will do the exam. -Shall be/will be + pp -The exam will be done. (by
verb Herbert).
5. Past simple
-The doctor gave him medicine. -was /were + pp verb. -He was given medicine (by
the doctor)
6. Past continuous .
-When I arrived in class the -were + being -when I arrived in class
teacher was beating Jessey. –was + being Jessey was being beaten(by
+ pp verb. the teacher.
7. Past perfect.
-By the time I arrived at home -had been + pp verb. - By the time I arrived at
the baby had eaten food. home food had been eaten
(the baby).

Reference: English Living Structure. pp 281 –287.

Living English Structure for Schools. pp 149 – 156
Exercises: English Living Structure. pp 281-289.

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