Lesson 3: Information Processing Theory

Nature of Information Processing

Developed by American psychologist George A.

Miller, the Information Processing Theory
(IPT) of cognitive development pertains to the
study and analysis of what occurs in a person's
mind as he or she receives a bit of information Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli
(Miller, 1956). sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, tasted)
temporarily held in mere seconds for the
Other theorists enhanced Miller's theory, although information to be processed further. As a person is
the different theories that followed share common presented lot of stimuli at a given time, the
assumptions (Schunk, 2012). sensory memory serves as a filter on what to
focus on. When view a basketball game, you can
First, information processing occurs in stages that see one person focused on the one in possession
intervene between receiving a stimulus and of the ball, while anothe one's attention is
producing a response. The form of information, or centered on the guard's action. Selective
how it is represented mentally, differs depending attention is the individual's ability to choose and
on the stage. The stages are qualitatively different process information while disregarding the other
from one another. stimuli or information.

Second, information processing is analogous to Schunk (2012) cited sever factors that influence
computer processing. The mind receives and attention:
represents encodes the stimulus from the
environment, processes the information, stores it, 1. The meaning is given by the individual to the
locates/retrieves it, and gives a response to it. task or information.
Learning is a change/revision in the knowledge 2. The similarity between competing tasks or
that has been stored by the memory, source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as
Analyzing the way persons learn something new is influenced by prior knowledge.
important as there is a fixed pattern of events that 4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
take place in learning something new (Miller,
1956). In explaining the concept of chunking. As the information held in the sensory memory is
Miller argued that a person could only store five for about three seconds only, unattended stimuli
to nine meaningful units in the short-term are forgotten. The information the person gave
memory. attention to is transferred to the short-term
memory.
Basic Components of the IPT Model
Short-term memory serves as a temporary
The information processing theory model has memory while the information is given further
three major components, namely: Sensory processing before it is transferred to long-term
memory. Short-term memory, and Long-term memory.
memory (see Figure 10). As seen in the figure,
each has a particular function (Schunk, 2012; Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds only
Woolfolk, 2016). and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of information only
at a given time.Before the information is
transferred to long-term memory, there are two
strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or
elaboration.
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the The long-term memory is the storehouse of
information to sustain its maintenance in the information transferred from short-term memory.
short- term memory. The use of ABC songs and It has unlimited space.
number songs serve as rehearsal strategies among
children. Varied contents of information are stored, namely:
Elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating
the new information to what is already known and 1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas,
stored in the long-term memory to make the new words, facts, and concepts that are not part of the
information more significant. One scheme is person's own experiences.
organization, the process of classifying and
grouping bits of information into organized Individuals with good and antic memory include
chunks. those who know the capital of countries in the
world, many words and their meanings, the order
For instance, memorizing the mobile number of planets, and other facts.
involves grouping the 11 numbers into sets of
numbers, like XXXX-YYY-ZZZZ. Arranging 2. Episodic memory includes the memory of
information into hierarchies is another scheme. events that happened in a person's life, connected
to a specific time and place.
For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into
phyla/divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, An example is a student who can explain the
and species. The use of mnemonic devices is also details of his or her most embarrassing moment
helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information (who were involved, when, where, why, and how
in different ways. it happened).

For instance, learners are taught the acronym 3. Procedural memory accounts for the
"ROYGBIV" to recall that red, orange, yellow, knowledge about how to do things.
green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow
colors. To differentiate stalactite and stalagmite A student teacher who recalls the step-by-step
found in caves, learners are taught that the "g" in process of presenting the lesson to the class has
stalagmite tells that the calcium carbonate deposit procedural memory.
is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter
"c' in stalactite gives away its location (ceiling). 4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is
known.
Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory
taking what is to be learned and creating For instance, beginning readers use configuration
meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in
of the information (Schunk, 2012). word recognition. Associating a familiar image to
the name of a newly introduced person, like
For instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the giraffe, guides one to recall the name of Gigi, a
Philippine map because it looks like the bust of a long-necked beautiful lady.
former president of the country.
Retrieving Information from the Long-term
An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating Memory
that the left hand on the waist illustrates a less
than value. the right hand on the waist indicates a Retrieving information from long-term
greater than value. memory involves locating the information and
transferring it to the short-term memory to be
Information that is not rehearsed and maintained used for a purpose.
in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also
involves the relationship between the new
information and what is already known.
Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972) have 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other
shown that a person remembers a lot less of the stimuli that bombard the person. As one stimulus
information stored in long-term memory. The is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In
quality of how the information was stored the short-term memory, as rehearsal and
influences its access and retrieval. maintenance activities are made, incoming new
information interferes. The same phenomenon
Retrieval of information from the long-term happens in long-term memory. When new
memory entails bringing to mind the previously information interferes with recalling the previous
acquired information to understand some new information, it is called retroactive interference. If
input or to make a response. the old information interferes with recalling the
new information, it is referred to as proactive
Schunk (2012) mentioned two ways of interference.
information retrieval.
In addition to interference, time decay is another
One is recalling, which is either free recall or factor for the loss of stored information from long-
cued recall. In free recall, the person has to rely term memory. Unused information decays and is
on the information previously learned purely by forgotten. However, some theorists argue that
memory. stored information in the long-term memory is
never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a
In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics
of cues and clues to the person to help in the recall skill may deliberately want to forget the previous
of the information. learning concepts. After several years, when those
skills are required to learn another subject, those
It is observed that whatever hints the person used concepts surface again if there is conscious effort
to encode the information, the same would to review them.
likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary
learners can recall the letter in the alphabet if its This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-
image is accompanied by a picture of an object tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to
whose name begins with that letter. Recognition is retrieve the information, but the person is sure
another way to retrieve information. It involves the information is known.
providing the learner's with stimuli as choices to
make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice The person feels that retrieval is imminent, but
test item, the difficulty of retrieving the correct there is difficulty to directly identify it at the
answer is reduced because the examinees have moment.
options to choose from. Guided by their long-term
memory, they would eliminate those options that Teaching Implications of the IPT
are not plausible, to eventually arrive at the
correct answer. Following the concepts and principles associated
with the IPT, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018), and
Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be
the information presented close to the start of the used in helping learners to understand and recall
experience, and those that are close to the end are whe they have learned:
most remembered by learners.
1. Make sure you have the students' attention,
Forgetting Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that
Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the students respond to the signal. Practice using the
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term signal.
memory. Interference is the process that occurs
when remembering certain information hampered 2. Move around the room, use gestures, and
by the presence of other information (Woolfolk, avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that Teaching the same techniques to your learners
stimulates interest in the topic. could help them to achieve better.

4. Regain the attention of individual students Studies have shown that whatever learners have
by walking closer to them, using their names, or retained about 12-24 weeks after instruction, they
asking them a question. may retain forever (Schunk, 2016). Thus, it is
important for teachers to integrate prior learning
5. Help students to separate essential from to current lessons, where applicable, for learners
nonessential details and focus on the most to master and retain concepts learned. Lessons
important information. Summarize instructional must provide for adequate practice to attain
objectives to indicate what students should be mastery.
learning. Relate the material you are presenting to
the objectives as you teach. Moreover, even when items to be learned are not
organized, people often impose organization on
6.When you make an important point, pause, the material, which facilitates recall (Matlin,
repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the 2012). Organized material improves memory
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell because items are linked to one another
students to highlight the point in their notesor systematically. Recall of one item prompts recall
readings. of items linked to t Research supports the
effectiveness of organization for encoding among
The use of mnemonic devices could assist children and adults. Moreover instructional
learners' retention of the information learned. strategies that actively involve students in lessons
contribute to long-term retention (MacKenzie &
7. Help students to make connections between White, 1982).
new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students bring to Chapter 3: Cognitive Learning Theories
mind the information they will need to
understand new material. Every time we teach children something, we keep
them from inventing it themselves. On the other
8. Provide for repetition and review of hand, that which we allow them to discover for
information. Using graphic organizers for themselves will remain with them visible for the
rehearsals can help rest of their lives.
-Jean Piaget
9. Present material in a clear and organized
way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear. Introduction
Advance organizers can help.
The term cognitive learning derives its meaning
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. from the word cognition, defined by an dictionary,
For instance, in teaching new words, help students as "the mental action or process of acquiring
to associate the new word to a related word they knowledge and understanding through thoug
already understand. experience, and the senses." Thus, learners are
viewed to learn by using their brains. In the
EXPERIENCE process are actively engaged in mental activities
involving perception, thinking, and relying on
Recall your experiences when you want to study their they process new experiences. Through the
and review your lessons. An effort is exerted as connections of these old and new experiences, the
you try to organize lecture notes into acquist of knowledge and understanding results
comprehensible ones (outlines, graphic exist.
organizers, flowcharts, etc.) to facilitate recall of
facts, concepts, and principles.
 information into the existing schema. When the
Lesson 1: Piaget's Cognitive Development mother explained that dogs bark but cats meow,
Theory Jayden accommodated the new experience, thus,
his schema for "cats" was created.
In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget Accommodation involves changing or altering
argued that children's cognitive development is existing schemas owing to the new information
influenced by biological maturation and their provided or learned. The balance between
interaction with the environment. Children assimilation and accommodation is achieved
undergo a similar order or stages of development. through a mechanism, which Piaget called
equilibration.
Owing to varied circumstances the children are
exposed to, the rate at which children go through This ability is believed to be a factor in children's
the stages differ. Some children may even miss the ability to move from one stage to another in
later stages of cognitive development. cognitiv development. If the person is unable to
take a balance of these two processes,
How Learning Occurs disequilibrium occurs (see Figure 4).

To explain how cognitive development happens,

Piaget introduced the concepts of schema,
assimilation, and accommodation.

He defined schemas as "a cohesive, repeatable

action sequence possessing component actions
that are tightly interconnected and governed by a
core meaning" (Piaget, 1952). It is the person's
way of organizing knowledge. Viewed like the
central processing unit of a computer, schemata
(plural form) are like individual files
representing an aspect of the world like objects,
actions, and concepts. Schemata guide the Figure 4. Adaptive processes of schema
person's way of responding to a new experience. development.
Piaget used the term adaptation to refer to the Adapted from McLeod (2018).
ability to adjust to a piece of new information or
experience, making it possible for the person to Stages of Cognitive Development
cope with the change.
To Piaget, cognitive development among children
If the person can adapt to every experience, has four phases.
learning happens.
Children generally move through these different
Consider the story of Jayden, a boy who is no more stages of mental development. Each stage
than 2 years old, who formed the concept of "dog" describes how children acquir knowledge and the
as he played very often with Starbucks, a Shih Tzu, nature of intelligence.
the family dog. When introduced to a poodle, he
called the same as "dog." One day, he saw the Sensori-motor:Birth to 2 Years
neighbor's cat and shouted "dog" to get the Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
attention of his mother. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Jayden's schema for dogs includes having a small
furry body, with four legs, a waggling tail, and The milestones in terms of cognitive abilities
barking ability. Calling the poodle "dog" is a case children manifest in the different stages are
of assimilation, the process of taking new summarized.
 object permanence, the belief that an object still
Sensorimotor (0-2 years) exists even if not within the sight of the child.
 Learns through reflexes, senses, and Even when the mother leaves for work, the child is
movement actions on the environment. aware that the mother comes home in the
 Begins to imitate others and remember afternoon. The other major achievement children
events; shifts to symbolic thinking. demonstrate in this stage is goal-directed
 Comes to understand that objects do not cease actions. Initially, children do not think about what
to exist when they are out of sight-object they do as these actions are instinctive and
permanence. involuntary (e.g.. getting food and family
 Moves from reflexive actions to intentional attention). Later, Piaget believed that as children
activity. grow, they begin to think about what they need to
accomplish, how to do it, then act on it.
Preoperational (2-7 years)
 Begins about the time the child starts talking, Preoperational Stage
to about seven years old.
 Develops language and begins to use symbols At this stage, children have not yet mastered
to represent objects. mental operations because they use action
 Has difficulty with past and future-thinks in schemes connected to physical manipulations, not
the present. logical reasoning. By operations, it means actions
 Can think through operations logically in one a person carries out by thinking them through
direction. instead of performing them (Woolfolk, 2016). The
 Has problems understanding the point of view case of kindergarten learners using sticks to count
of another person. illustrate this preoperational ability. Another
ability demonstrated at this stage is children's
Concrete Operational (7-11 years) ability to form and use symbols to represent a
 Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, physical action or reality; this is a semiotic
around 11 years old. function. A child's ability to identify from a book
 Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) the picture of a bird illustrates this skill.
problems.
 Understands conservation and organizes Concrete Operational Stage
things into categories and in series.
 Can reverse thinking to mentally "undo" Concrete operations are described by Piaget as the
actions. ability to engage in "hands-on thinking"
 Understands the past, present, and future. characterized by organized and rational thinking.

Formal Operational (12 years and up) A major ability at this stage is reversible thinking,
 Can think hypothetically and deductively. thinking backward, from the end to the beginning
 Thinking becomes more scientific. (Woolfolk, 2016).
 Solves abstract problems logically.
 Can consider multiple perspectives and Reversibility involves conservation and
develops concerns about social issues, decentration.
personal identity, and justice. Conservation is the belief that, whatever the
arrangement or appearance of the object, as long
Adapted from Woolfolk (2016). as there is nothing added or decreased, the
number or amount of the object would remain the
Sensorimotor Stage same.
A related skill is decentration, the children's
Children at this stage think through what they see, ability to focus on more than one dimension of an
hear, move, touch, and taste. Two major object at a time.
accomplishments happen at this stage. One is
 The influence of Piaget on classroom instruction is
summarized in his words, "What is desired is that
Children at this stage would understand that the the teacher cease being a lecturer satisfied with
smaller but wider glass contains the same amount transmitting ready-made solutions; his role
of fruit juice with the content of the tall but should rather be that of a mentor stimulating
narrower glass. These children not only focus on initiative and research." It behooves the teacher to
the height of the glass but also considers its width. be creative in imparting knowledge and skills to
The width of the nartow glass compensates the the students to engage them in a more active
shortness of its height. learning environment so they can construct
meaning and concepts. In addition to instruction,
Classification is another skill at this stage. It the classroom environment, curriculum, and
involves the ability to group similar objects in instructional materials should complement each
terms of color, shape, use, etc. For example, other.
children would group balls, wheels, marbles as
round objects; that 4, 12, 36 are numbers divisible Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching
by 4. A related skill is seriation, the ability to implications derived from Piaget's theory of
arrange objects according to size, like small to cognitive development. These considerations
smallest, far to farthest, etc. That a bull is big, the include the following:
carabao is bigger, and the elephant is the biggest
best illustrates this ability. 1. A focus on the process of children's thinking,
not just its products. Instead of simply checking
Formal Operational Stage for a correct answer, teachers should emphasize
the students' understanding and the process they
At this stage, adolescents can engage in mental used to get the answer.
processes involving abstract thinking and
coordination of some variables (Woolfolk, 2016). 2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's
self-initiative, active involvement in learning
All the earlier mental abilities have been activities. In a Piagetian classroom, children are
mastered. The adolescents can now think like a encouraged to discover themselves through
scientist, as they can give hypotheses and spontaneous interaction with the environment,
conjectures about the problem, set up rather than the presentation of ready-made
experiments to test them, and control extraneous knowledge.
variables to arrive at a valid and reliable
explanation. They are capable of giving deductions 3. Ade-emphasis on practices aimed at making
as they systematically evaluate their observations children adult-like in their thinking. It refers to
as well as their answers. This ability is called what Piaget referred to as the "American
hypothetico-deductive reasoning. question," which is "How can we speed up
development?"
Another feature at this stage is adolescent
egocentrism, the assumption that although He believes that trying to speed up and accelerate
others have different perceptions and beliefs, children's process through the stages could be
every individual shares other's thoughts, feelings, worse than no teaching at all.
and concerns. This is opposite to the egocentric
characteristic in the earlier stages, wherein 4. Acceptance of individual differences in
children think that what they and others think are developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts
similar to theirs. that children go through all the same
developmental stages. However, they do so at
Teaching Implications of Piaget's Cognitive different rates. Because of this variation, teachers
Development Theory must exert a special effort to arrange classroom
activities for individuals and groups of children
rather than for the whole class.
  Use social interaction in learning experiences
to promote increase in both interest and
comprehension.
In addition, Webb (1980) recommended some
considerations for teachers to ponder upon in Lesson 2: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of
their teaching practices. These include the Cognitive Development
following:
Sociocultural Theory
 Consider the stage characteristics of the
student's thought processes in planning The sociocultural theory of cognitive development
learning- activities. was formulated by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky a
Russian psychologist.
 Use a wide variety of experiences rather than
drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive Its major argument is that social interaction,
development. mediated through language, is a key factor in
the child's development.
 Do not assume that reaching adolescence or
adulthood guarantees the ability to perform From the child's interaction with others, concepts
formal operations. and social behavior are formed (social level), and
he or she later thinks internally. The theory
 Remember that each person structures each underscores his belief that children's thinking is
learning situation in terms of his schemata; affected by their knowledge of the social
therefore, no two persons will derive the same community, which Vygotsky considered as
meaning or benefit from a given experience. learned from either technical or psychological
cultural tools (Vygotsky 1978).
 Individualize learning experiences so that
each student is working at a level that is high By cultural tools, it meant real tools (like
enough to be challenging and realistic enough measuring instruments, calculators, etc.) and
to prevent excessive frustration. symbol systems (like numbers, language, etc.) that
allow people to communicate, think, solve
 Provide experience necessary for the problems, and create knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016).
development of concepts before the use of
these concepts in language. CULTURAL CONTEXT:
 SOCIAL INTERACTION
 Consider learning an active restructuring of  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
thought rather than an increase in content.  LANGUAGE

 Make full use of wrong answers by helping the The Role of Social Interaction
student analyze his or her thinking to retain
the correct elements and revise the Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social
miscomprehensions. interaction in one's thinking.

 Evaluate each student in terms of improving Children learn from the more knowledgeable
his or her performance. others (MKOs), which include parents, teachers,
adults, and more advanced peers.
 Avoid overuse of materials that are so highly
structured that creative thought is An MKO is anyone who has a higher skill level
discouraged. than the learner in terms of the specific task to
perform. For instance, a child who is guided by
verbal clues by the mother learns how to tear off
the plastic covering of the cookies. In another case,
children playing "Chinese garter" abide by the  At this stage (approximately ages 3-7),
rules that they agree with. This is called a co- children think out loud or talk to themselves
constructed process as the children negotiated to as they are doing something.
create an acceptable rule on how to play the game.
The Role of Language Vygotsky's theory For instance, as Paul plays with his toy car and it
emphasizes that language plays a central role in does not run, he tells himself "Sira na" or "It's
the theory of human cognitive development. destroyed." Called egocentric speech, it is used to
guide behavior and help to solve problems. It is an
Language plays multiple roles, including important part of the transition to inner speech
culturally shaping the overt behavior of and more sophisticated thinking.
individuals as well as influencing their covert
behavior, such as thinking (Burkholder & Pelaez, 3. Inner speech
2000).  Inner speech is soundless speech or thought.
 Here, speech becomes internalized and is used
Through language, human cognitive development to guide thinking and behavior.
and higher mental functions are initiated from  It eventually leads to higher levels and more
social communications. As people engage in social complex types of thinking.
activities, they are involved in mental and
communicative functions (Vygotsky, 1986). The Zone of Proximal Development
three stages of speech development were
identified by Vygotsky (Johnson, 2014). These are One major feature of Vygotsky's theory is the zone
as follows: of proximal development (ZPD) as illustrated by
Wheeler (2013) He argued that at any time,
Social or Extrernal Speech children find difficulties in performing tasks or
 Thinking not related to speech problems posed to them as they are not yet
 Thinking in form of images, emotions matured enough to handle them.

Egocentric Speech With the guidance of the MKOS, like their parents
 Thinking out loud or elder siblings, they could perform the task.
 Talking to oneself Scaffolding, the provision of cues, clues, modeling,
and demonstrations of the MKO, can assist the
Inner Speech children in successfully performing the task. The
 Speech internalized goal of the ZPD is to help the child move from
 Speech guides thinking behavior the level of current independent performance
(the competence demonstrated to do a task alone)
1. Social or external speech. to the level of potential performance (the
 At this stage (birth to approximately age 3), competence achieved with the guidance of
thinking is not related to speech at all. others).
 Thinking is primarily in the form of images,
emotions, and impressions. What I can learn by myself?
 Speech only occurs on the extemal or social
level to express a desire or to convey simple What I can learn with assistance from others?
emotions such as shouting or crying. -Technology and tools
-Knowledgeable others
For instance, a child would tell "Dede" or milk if
hungry. At this stage, speech is merely a tool to Not within my ability to learn
make things happen in the external world.
Scaffolding as intervention to reach the zone of
2. Egocentric speech proximal development.
For instance, a difficult word is used in a sentence. children are capable of doing on their own but
Asked about its meaning, the children could not what they can learn with the help of others.
provide the meaning on their own. When the
teacher reminds them that the context or the
neighboring words or phrases could reveal the
meaning, they begin giving synonyms or related
words to the difficult word. The teacher's
reminder scaffolded the children to arrive at the EXPERIENCE
correct answer.
The concepts and principles of Vygotsky's
Teaching Implications of Vygotsky's Theory sociocultural learning theory found credence in
many experiments. Tutoring as a form of
The theory of sociocultural learning has greatly scaffolding is an effective instructional
influenced practices in facilitating learning. intervention. In the study of Wood et al (1976) for
Vygotsky's theory promotes learning contexts in instance, 3-, 4-, and 5-yr-olds were tutored in the
which students play an active role in learning. His task of constructing a pyramid from complex,
theory requires that the teacher and student are interlocking constituent blocks. The results
collaborators in the learning process, with the indicate that some of the properties of an
teacher as facilitator or guide in learner's interactive system of exchange in which the tutor
construction of knowledge and development of operates with an implicit theory of the learner's
skills. The process makes learning a reciprocal acts to recruit his attention, reduces degrees of
experience for both the teacher and learners. freedom in the task to manageable limits,
maintains "direction" in the problem solving,
Citing research findings (e.g., John-Steiner & marks critical features, controls frustration, and
Mann, 2003; Webb, 2008; Slavin, 2014), Slavin demonstrates solutions when the learner can
(2018) proposed the following teaching practices recognize them.
for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In
the use of ZPD, teachers can organize classroom Meanwhile, the role of the advanced Iranian
activities in the following ways: English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners'
private speech production characterized as being
1. Instruction can be planned to provide the externalization of the process of reasoning
practice within the ZPD for individual children during carrying out reasoning-gap tasks was
or groups of children. For example, hints and tested (Mirzace & Maftoon, 2016). While
prompts that helped children during a performing the reasoning- gap tasks, the EFL
preassessment could form the basis of learners produced four types of private speech-
instructional activities. repetition, translation, filler, and question in both
their L1 and L2, which enhanced learners'
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at reasoning. The finding supported the earlier
different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not assertion that private speech plays a mediational
simplify the task, but the role of the learner is role in problem-solving and self-regulatory
simplified "through the graduated intervention of processes.
the teacher."

3. Cooperative learning activities can be

planned with groups of children at different
levels who can help each other to learn.

Moreover, Karpov and Haywood (1998)

recognized that for the curriculum to be
developmentally appropriate, the teacher must
plan activities that encompass not only what
AQUATICACTIVITIES was introduced by the North American Indians
AQUATICS where the frame was built from wooden ribs.
• The oldest known canoe, Pesse Canoe,
•Water has special characteristics that provides a believed to be constructed between 8200 and
unique environment for activities and good 7600 B.C. was found in the Netherlands. The
workout. word'canoe' originated from the Carib word
•These characteristics include buoyancy,hydro 'kenu' which means dug out.
static pressure and enhance cooling.
KAYAKING
BUOYANCY • Kayak also called qajak, means "man's boat"
•It is the upward force of the water on an object. or "hunter'sboat"originated from the Inuit and
This is the reason why boats and people float on Aleut tribes of Arctic North America.
water. • The early kayaks were very individualized as
• It also gives a weightless feeling, which makes it each kayak wasvcrafted by the user, basing the
easier to move, lift knees or even jog in water. measurement to the frame of his body and not on
any standard. The oldest existing kayaks are
HYDRO STATIC PRESSURE exhibited in North America Department of the
•It is the weight of the water pressed down on the State Museum of Ethnology Munich.
object.
• Hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the body SCUBADIVING
from all sides and this pressure, combined with • Scuba is an acronym for Self Contained-
buoyancy, helps keep standing balance in water. Underwater Breathing Apparatus.
• The pressure exerted by the water at • Scuba diving is a diving method where adiver
equilibrium due tothe force of gravity uses a regulator as the breathing apparatus and a
tank with compressed air which enables the diver
ENHANCE COOLING to breathe normally underwater. With this
•Transfers heat away from the body much quickly equipment, a diver can explore the waters for a
than air given in the same temperature. longer period of time and at greater depths.
• This is the reason we can stay longer in water
and can tolerate longer workouts without feeling
being overheated. 10 Outdoor Activities You Can Do On The
Water
AQUATIC ACTIVITIES Outdoor Water Activities

SNORKELING Let’s face it, today’s hectic lifestyles leave little

• Snorkeling is peeking through life underneath room for fun. Most people work hard all week and
water by swimming with the aid of a snorkel and for exceedingly long hours. When the weekend
mask. Through snorkeling, onecanobserve the finally arrives we’re ready to leave the rat race
underwater attractions for a longer period of time, behind us for some outdoor activities. Having fun
without the need to constantly resurface to gasp outdoors is great for the mind, body, and soul. We
for air, andwithrelatively lesser effort. get a well-deserved break from working all week,
• Snorkeling helps the overall fitness of a person. we engage in some physical activities that are
It works out the quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, beneficial for our overall wellbeing, and because
ankles, hip, flexors, core muscles, andshoulders we enjoy these activities we generally feel
while swimming. fantastic afterward.

CANOEING Outdoor activities are a great way to unwind on

• The word 'canoe' originated from the Carib the weekend and there is definitely no shortage of
word 'kenu' which means dug out. activities to choose from. When it comes to
• Canoes were originally made from large tree activities we can do on the water, well that’s a
trunks. The more well known version of the canoe whole new level of fun and excitement. Humans
have always enjoyed being near water and have energy source. It is also less likely to cause any
invented a variety of ways to enjoy the many damage or harm to aquatic creatures or plants.
rivers, lakes, and beaches around the world. If
you’re thinking of heading out for some aquatic
fun this weekend, here are 10 outdoor activities 3. Scuba Diving & Snorkeling
you can do on the water, you are sure to enjoy. Technically speaking, scuba diving and snorkeling
are not activities you can do on the water, but
rather, they take you under the water. Even so,
1. Sailing they are both great water activities. Both these
There is something magically soothing about activities will take you beneath the surface and
being on the water. That is why so many people give you an amazing view of aquatic life we don’t
enjoy sailing. Gliding on the water with the wind get to see on the surface. Snorkeling is relatively
in the sails is a great way to spend a warm simple. You put on a snorkel mask with a
afternoon with good friends. Bring along a basket breathing tube or snorkel, and you basically swim
of food and a good bottle of wine or a six pack of along the surface of the water while you viewing
beer and you can literally satisfy all of your senses. life under the surface. Snorkeling is cheap and
The beautiful thing about sailing is that you easy. You don’t need deep water and you can take
can enjoy this activity on any body of water your diving mask and snorkeling fins and snorkel
that is deep enough. You don’t necessarily need almost anywhere with you.
to buy a sailboat and the boat doesn’t actually
need to have sails. It’s just about getting a group of Scuba diving, on the other hand, is a little more
friends together and enjoying life. complicated. Firstly, you need a considerable
amount of equipment. You also need to take
If you want to take sailing to the next level you can lessons and receive scuba diver certification, plus
always book into a chartered cruise. Most you will definitely need to be given a clean bill of
organized cruises provide food and beverages and health from a medical professional. If that doesn’t
such cruises usually involve sightseeing a deter you then you won’t be disappointed by the
particular coastline or a city along a river. You can world deep beneath the surface of the water.
take a day trip or enjoy an entire weekend of life There are countless sea creatures to interact with
on the water. So put on your boat shoes and start … or avoid. If you are lucky enough to be able to
your water adventure. explore a coral reef then you’ll see an underwater
world that is beyond spectacular.
2. Kayaking
Kayaking has been around for several millennia. 4. Fishing
The first kayaks were put together by driftwood What better way to start a weekend than to grab a
and possibly the skeleton of a whale. The original pole and go fishing. Fishing is pretty simple. You
purpose of the kayak was as a hunting and fishing set up your fishing rod, add bait (a fishing lure)
vessel for Eskimos. These days, kayaking is very and cast. It doesn’t matter if you prefer lakes,
much a popular water activity. Kayaking is great rivers or seas, if you have a little bit of knowledge
for those who like a little physical activity on and patience, you’re bound to come home with
the water. It takes a great deal of fitness and dinner. Fishing is a relatively relaxing activity
upper body strength to maneuver a kayak through for the most part and there are many benefits
the water. You can take kayaking to the extreme of fishing. Once you’ve cast your line, you simply
on a wild ride on a river. This is a great activity relax and wait for the telltale signs of a bending
because anyone can enjoy it regardless of their rod to signify that the fish are biting. While you’re
fitness levels. Beginners can enjoy kayaking on the waiting for this event, you are free to let your
calmer waters of a lake or tranquil river and mind wander or simply enjoy the scenery.
extreme kayakers can hit the river rapids for an
exhilarating rush. Kayaking also appeals to If you want to make a real sport out of fishing, get
those who care about the environment. It is on a boat and head for the deep seas. This is
man powered and requires no pollution-causing where the bigger fish are and if you’re lucky
enough to a have a big fish chomp over your hook, Olympic Games in Los Angeles. It has since
you’re in for the ultimate battle of man versus gained in popularity and is now a great activity for
beast. Some of the bigger fish like tuna can range all ages.
from around 10 kg to a challenging weight of a
couple hundred kilograms. Then there is every
fisherman’s dream come true, landing a marlin. 7. White Water Rafting
The big fish will put up an enormous fight and you There is rafting, and then there is white water
may find yourself trying to reel them in for hours. rafting. Rafting is relatively tame and involved
For the avid fisherman, this is the ultimate test of an inflatable boat, or raft, and a gentle pace on
endurance and willpower. a quiet river. White water rafting is rafting on
steroids. The flow of the river is considerably
more volatile and often there are rocks sprouting
5. Surfing from the middle of the waters. The bubbly energy
Huge curling waves are a magnificent force of and constant splashing is what gives the surface of
nature and man has enjoyed the thrill of riding the water a white appearance and hence the name,
these monsters for hundreds of years. Surfing white water.
isn’t just a water activity or a sport. It has its
own little culture going worldwide. There are Some people may consider this exciting activity as
beaches all over the world that a famous for dangerous, but it is no more so than many other
attracting surfers and many surfing hotspots are sports and activities. Most places that offer white
now running annual competitions for pro-surfers. water rafting have experts who know the rivers
and how to keep rafters safe. With the addition of
Maybe you’re not in the pro category, but that safety equipment like helmets and life vests, there
shouldn’t stop you from enjoying this great is very little to worry about except hanging on and
pastime. Surfboards come in a range of enjoying the ride.
different styles and price ranges so even a
beginner can give surfing a try. If you don’t 8. Jet Skiing
want to buy your own board, many popular There is another fun way of riding the waves and
beaches have boards you can rent for a few hours. it involves a personal watercraft, more commonly
The main thing to remember is to learn at your known as a jet ski or a wave runner. Jet skis are a
own pace and tackle smaller waves until you learn whole lot of fun. This activity can be done on any
how to keep your balance on the board. Once you body of water but the real fun starts when you
master the smaller waves you can work your way ride the Jet Ski over waves. Maneuvering your way
up to bigger ones. Or you can just sit on your around, over and through waves takes a
board and let the waves take you where they will. considerable amount of skill and endurance. It can
also give you a good workout as this bobbing and
6. Windsurfing weaving through the waters can get quite physical.
Quite often, combining two activities is a bit of a
hit and miss. The same could not be said for Jet Skiing is fun for all ages and skill levels.
windsurfing. This thrilling water activity combines Novices tend to take it easy, but seasoned pros
surfing with added elements of sailing. In essence, love to show off their skills. If you have a group of
you take a surfboard, add sails and carve your way friends who all like to Jet Ski you can engage in
through the water. The exhilarating thing about races. Just remember to give each other adequate
windsurfing is that in many ways, you are not space to avoid crashing. One this is for sure, it’s
gliding on the water. You can also fly over waves. really easy to lose track of time when you’re on a
Of course, this will take quite a lot of skill and a lot Jet Ski. Apart from being a lot of fun, they are also
of practice. Or you can simply navigate your way pretty exciting crafts due to speeds you can reach.
around and simply enjoy being on the water.

Windsurfing is no longer just a fun past time.

In 1984 it made its first appearance at the
9. Parasailing
If you like the idea of flying, you’ll love parasailing.
This exhilarating activity involves you being
strapped into a harness and attached to a
parachute. The harness is attached to a motorboat
by a long rope and as the boat picks up speed you
are lifted into the air and dragged along by the
boat.

The best points about parasailing are that you

don’t necessarily need any skills to enjoy this
great water activity. That makes it fun for
everyone. You get to enjoy some pretty impressive
views thanks to the heights you can reach and if
you happen to fall, you’re above water. Like all
water activities, there is always an element of risk,
but for the most part, parasailing is relatively safe
and, once you try it, you’ll want to get up in the air
over and over again.

10. Stand Up Paddle Boarding

Stand Up Paddle Boarding involves standing
on a board with long paddles. The board is quite
similar to a surfboard, but usually a little thicker.
The aim of this activity is to stand on the board
and navigate your way around the water with the
use of paddles. It sounds simple enough, but it
takes quite a bit of practice and skills to stay on
the board at first. Stand Up Paddle Boarding is
better suited for lakes and where sea waves
are not too aggressive. This is particularly
important for beginners. If you are a novice, your
first few times out should be on sunny days with
little or no wind. Once you get the hang of staying
on your board, you can try for more challenging
conditions. This is a great, relaxing activity. You’ll
be out on the water and you can paddle at your
own leisure pace.

Whatever outdoor activities you choose to

participate in on the water, always remember to
make safety your first priority. Whenever
appropriate, wear the relevant safety gear and be
aware of your surroundings so that you and other
aquatic enthusiasts stay safe. The safer you are,
the more you’ll enjoy these fantastic outdoor
activities you can do on the water, and the only
difficulty you’ll encounter is staying out of the
water.