History of

Philosophy

Mohammad Amin Toosi

Group 328
3rd course of dentistry
 INTRODUCTION

Life is changing unusually rapidly, because this is a century of real

breakthrough in many areas. Philosophy simply does not keep pace with such
significant progress. However, spiritual development of a person depends on its
successful formation. With all the technical innovations, civilization ceases to
be developed without the intangible aspects of life. That is why the role of
philosophy in the modern world is simply enormous.

The Ancient philosophy is a combination of philosophic studies of Ancient

Greece and Rome.
Among peculiarities of the ancient philosophy one can single out:
 human reason is a means of perception;
 philosophers strive to reasonable argumentation and logic motivation.
Ancient philosophy influenced the history:
 it determined the direction of development of Western-European
civilization;
 it was become the prerequisite and basis for the development of
European science.
There single out three stages in the development of Ancient philosophy:
 birth (end of VII-V centuries BCE);
 classic period (IV century BCE);
 hellenistic period (III century BCE – II century CE).
During the first period philosophers tried to understand the essence of the
nature (natural philosophy) and the whole world. The philosophers asked such
questions as: “What does Cosmos consist of? What is a source for everything
that exists?” The questions of a human life, psychology and ethics were
secondary ones.
The philosophical schools of the first period included:
● the Milesianschool;
● the Eleaticschool;
● school ofHeraclitusofEphesus;
● the pyphagorianschool;
● the schoolofatomists.
The second stage is characterized as a period of maturity and prosperity
of ancient philosophy. Philosophers began studying a human life (the
subjective-anthropological tendency of philosophy). Philosophers started to pay
more attention to humanitarian problems due to the influence of the philosophic
ideas and studies of Socrates and Sophists. During the second period one can
single out:
● philosophy of Socrates;
● philosophy of Plato;
● philosophy of Aristotle;
● sophism;
● the cynics school;
● the syreniacs school.
The third period is characterized by the decay of slave society,
disintegration of Greece and its conquering by other states. It led to widening
of social and cultural connections but at the same time gave birth to a
catastrophe of man's personal existence. Philosophers focused on the problem
of man's adjustment to a complicated social life. There appeared philosophical
schools of epicureans, stoics, skeptics and neoplatonics.
1. The Milesian School. It appeared in Ancient Greece in the sixth
century BCE. The name comes from the name of the city of Miletus (Asia
Minor) where the school was founded. Its main representatives are Thales,
Anaximander, Anaximenes.
 Thales of Miletus (640-560 BC) is regarded as the founder of the
European science and philosophy. He is known as “the first philosopher”. (He
was a very educated person. He was a geometer, astronomer, engineer,
merchant and a traveler. He built his knowledge of Mathematics and
Astronomy while traveling in the East. In the science he stated that there are
365 days in the year. In Geometry according to Thales' law an angle inscribed
in the semicircle is always right. He was the first who suggested the idea that
Cosmos came into existence according to natural laws and was not created by
Gods.) The principle question of his philosophy was: Where does everything
come from? He noticed that plants grew out of humid seeds; living beings ate
humid food and concluded that the beginning for everything was water.
Anaximander (610-546 BCE) is Thale's pupil and the author of the first
philosophical book (“Of nature”). He invented a sun-dial and created the first
geographic map of the world, he also systematized all geometric laws.
Anaximander described the idea that manevolutes from other animals. He
anticipated Darwin's theory.) We learn that Anaximander took the beginning or
first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron), subject to
neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which
everything we can perceive is derived.
Anaximenes (died in 528 BC) is regarded to be Anaximander's pupil. He
held that air is the source of all that exists. Everything is air at different degrees
of density (wind, fog, water, silt, earth, rocks) and vacuum (fire, gas).
2. Philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus. Heraclitus (530-467 BC) was
born in Ephesus. (He comes of a royal kin. He lived alone. Heraclitus was
called “dark” for his sophisticated language. He was sometimes called “crying”
since when he went outside for a walk and saw so many miserable people he
cried feeling pity for everyone.) Heraclitus is regarded to be the first
philosopher dialectician. He stated that:
1. World is constantly moving and changing (“one cannot enter the same
river twice”, “there is a new sun every day”).
2. Unity and contradiction of things and phenomena are the basis of life.
 All things shift from one state to another: from day to night, from youth
to age, from life to death. But all these changes resign to Logos that is the
World Reason. Fire is the source for everything that exists. Fire gives birth to
air, water, earth, and fire again that creates a cycle. That is why existence has
neither beginning nor end.
4. The Eleatic school. The Eleatic school was founded in the city of Elea
on the territory of modern Italy. The main representatives are Xenophanes,
Parmenides, and Zeno. They rejected Heraclitus's philosophy of constant world
changing and developed the idea of united, eternal and unchangeable basis of
the world.
Xenophanes (570 BC) was one of the founders of the Eleatic school. (He
led an ascetic life, had a sharp critical mind, and wrote poems). He was the first
who proposed the idea that all Gods are only the result of human fantasies.
People created Gods with human physical resemblance and moral traits.
Xenophanes suggested the idea of a single eternal and allmighty God. Under
the influence of these ideas Parmenides created a new theory of world
arrangement.
Parmenides searched for an answer to the question: What is the true
objective reality? He came to the conclusion that the true reality could not be
something changeable, contradictable and unstable (as Heraclith thought). He
stated that existence:
1. Has neither beginning nor end.
2. Unbroken.
3. Permanent and still.
4. Unified and solid.
World is a sphere, the most perfect figure. Parmenides was the first (in
the history of Philosophy) who divided consciousness to perceptive (sense
receptors) and rational (reason).
Zeno of Elea (490-430 BCE) invented an unordinary way of proving
Parmenides’ philosophy. He created “arguments against motion” which are
known as paradoxes of Zeno. These involve “The Dichotomy”, “The Achilles”
and “The Arrow”, etc.
 The Dichotomy: Motion is impossible since "that which is in
locomotion must arrive at the half-way stage before it arrives at the goal."
That is, suppose an object moves from point A to point B. To get to point
B the object must first reach the midpoint B1 between points A and B.
However before this can be done the object must reach the midpoint B2
between points A and B1. Like wise before it can do this, it must reach the
midpoint B3 between points A and B2, and so on. There fore the motion can
never begin.

 The Arrow: "If everything when it occupies an equal space is at rest,

and if that which is in locomotion is always occupying such a space at any
moment, the flying arrow is therefore motionless."
That is, suppose an arrow is flying continuously forward during a certain
time interval. Take any instant in that time interval. It is impossible that the
arrow is moving during that instant because an instant has a duration of zero,
and the arrow cannot be in two different places at the same time. Therefore, at
every instant the arrow is motionless, hence the arrow is motionless throughout
the entire interval.
So, motion is impossible, the objective reality is motionless and
unchangeable.
5. School of atomists. Atomism is a theory that states that reality
consists of invisible stable building blocks. The main ideas were formulated by
Leucippus and Democritus.
Democritus (460-360 BC) was born on the south east of Ellas. He
studied and traveled a lot. He was in Italy where he listened to Eleats. He also
visited Egypt, Babylonia, Iran, India, and Ethiopia. He knew Socrates, made
friends with Hippocrates. Democritus is widely known as a “laughing
philosopher”. He always laughed. Everything serious seemed frivolous to him.
 But his laugh was bitter. He considered all human actions were worth to be
laughing at.
Democritus stated that reality consists of many atoms. Atoms are eternal and
permanent. They do not appear and die. They exist and move in vacuum. While
moving they connect with each other to create things of the external world. Variety
of things is explained by different combinations of various types of atoms. Atoms
are different in size, shape, and location. “It is easy to drink milk because its atoms
are round and smooth. Mustard's atoms are hooked.” He spoke about atom
circulation in the nature. Things, living beings are born and die. After their death
new things and organisms come into existence out of the same atoms. A human
being is also an accumulation of atoms. Man differs from other living beings only
by his soul. Soul consists of soft, flexible and fiery atoms. Man dies when soul
atoms are exhausted. Democritus was a rationalist. He thought man should use
reason to learn atoms.

The Middle Ages is the period that lasted since the fall of the Western Roman
Empire in 476 to the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 (when
Constantinople was taken by the Turks). In terms of Philosophy the Middle Ages
started in the second century CE and lasted up to the XVI century. It was the time
of Christian Doctrines and beliefs coming into existence.
Peculiarities of the Middle Ages philosophy:
1. Theological character. In other words God becomes the main subject
of the philosophic research. The thinkers of the period paid little attention to
such subjects as nature and universe.
2. Dogmatism. The philosophy based itself on dogmas, facts that need
not to be proved.
The Medieval philosophy has two principle sources:
1. The ideas of the ancient thinkers (mainly these are Plato and Aristotle).
 2. The ideas of Christianity.
Principle Characteristics of the Middle Ages Philosophy:
 teocentrism –it is based on the dogma of creation. The principle
source of everything that exists is supernatural, self-sufficient and perfect
GOD. He is eternal, constant, all-mighty and all-pervading. God is the only one
who really exists. He is the Creator of everything that exists. The creation of
the world is an act of God’s will. That is why all things are relative and
dependent;
 creationism(Latin “creation”) – it is also based on the dogma of
creation. God created the outer world from nothing. Everything is divided in
levels depending on how near it is to God. Material is considered to be the
furthest level from God. Then come minerals, plants, animals, people and
angels. Man is the most perfect of all creatures on the Earth. He stands over
nature and has a divine entity. As a divine creature man has will and reason.
However, as a material creature he needs salvation. His salvation is possible
through perceiving God and improving his spirituality. Such a position opened
new opportunities for independent actions and reasonable choice;
 Providentialism (Latin “providential” mans “foresight”, “salvation”)
– man’s life as well as the destiny of all mankind is predetermined by God and
lead to salvation.
 revelation –it is based on the dogma of revelation. One can perceive
the world only through God. However, God cannot be perceived. Despite that,
He allowed to perceive Him through revelation that is the Bible. That is why
the only way of perceiving the truth (God and everything that exists) is through
the Bible. The entity of God can be learnt only by a supernatural way and faith.
All Medieval ideas were estimated by the principle: “the older the truer”.
Philosophers had to reveal the essence and content of the saint books. The
thoughts of the thinkers themselves were not paid much attention to. They were
only estimated to be earthly pride. A good philosopher was the one who knew
saint books backwards and forwards. During the Middle Ages Philosophy was
but a handmaid to religion.
 2. Periods of the Medieval Philosophy. There singled out two principle
periods. These are Patristics and Scholastics.
Patristics(II-VIII th centuries) (Latin “Pater” means “father”) is a study
of church fathers. The early stage of Patristicsis called apologetic (apologetika
means “I defend myself”). During the epoch of Patristics there appeared the
most basic principles and notions of the Medieval philosophy. The most
outstanding philosophers of the period were Philo f Alexandria, Plotinus,
Tertullian Carthaginian, Boethius Severinus and Augustine of Hippo.
Scholastics (VIII-XIV th centuries) (Latin “Schola” means “school”)
“scholastic philosophy” is the philosophy that was taught at religious schools
and Medieval Universities. At this period theology was gradually divided from
philosophy. The most outstanding philosophers of Scholastics were Eriugena,
Anselm Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, and William of Ockham.
3. Philosophy of Saint Augustine or Augustine of Hippo (Augustine
Aurelius). Augustine was one of the most important figures in the development
of Western Christianity. He was born in North Africa in a family of Roman
patrician. He led a free life when he was young. Then he turned to Christianity.
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