UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Accidents
1.2 Nature and Causes of Accidents
1.3 Impact of Accidents

By: Hari Prasad Joshi

Assistant Professor , Construction Management
Farwestern University, Faculty of Engineering
Nepal

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• Safety is the state of being safe and protected from danger or harm. Oxford dictionary
• Safety can be defined as the condition of being safe from undergoing or causing hurt, injury, or loss. It includes
assessing safety risks, hazard prevention, control and management, and is a common requirement of occupational health
and safety regulators and stakeholders worldwide
• Safety describes the state of a system operating with an acceptable level of risk and is managed through risk
management policies based on common agreement.
• Safety is the absence of danger, a state of protection and a condition of zero risk. It maybe defined as an act of being
safe from the materials, substance and the processes at construction site. It is basically concerned with no loss of life at
the work place and minimizing injuries to the workmen including other common people. It is also concerned with the
safety of works and with the damage of property and loss of time.
Why Safety?
Safety is required in every field. General knowledge of safety is required to every body. In every walk of life, there is danger.
The major engineering fields, where safety precautions have to be taken can be broadly classified as:
• Construction field
• Production field
• Service field
Safety is not always upmost in Individual's mind. A method of external governance is required to provide some regularity in
the department necessary for safety achievement. Construction sites are often dangerous because they:
• Are carried out at dangerous construction places.
• Use dangerous materials like blasting materials and other chemicals.
• Use dangerous methods like underwater drilling and blasting, tunneling etc.
• Use heavy machines which often become the cause of accident

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The importance of safety for construction industries is to minimize and eliminate injuries, to reduce property loss/damage, to
minimize and eliminate deaths, to increase workers’ productivity, to reduce financial loss, improved construction quality,
increase company reputation, Legal obligation: There are legal obligations too for understanding proper safety measures at
workplace.

Safety engineering
Safety engineering is an engineering discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. It
is strongly related to industrial engineering/systems engineering, and the subset system safety engineering.
In practical terms, the term “safety engineering” refers to any act of accident prevention by a person qualified in the field.
Safety engineering is often reactionary to adverse events, which is also described as “incidents”, as reflected in accident
statistics. This stand up largely because of the complexity and difficulty of collecting and analyzing data on near misses.
Increasingly, the importance of a safety review is being recognized as an important risk management tool. Failure to identify
risks to safety and the according inability to address or “control” these risks, can result in massive costs, both human and
economic. The multidisciplinary nature of safety engineering means that a very broad array of professionals are actively
involved in accident prevention or safety engineering. Safety engineering is the process of designing safer products and
structures. It also can involve improving the safety of work sites, manufacturing facilities and products as safety standards
change.
Safety engineering is the practice of designing systems, processes, and products to minimize the risk of accidents, injuries,
and environmental damage. It blends a science, engineering, and management principles to create safe environments.
Safety engineering is founded on principles such as risk assessment, hazard identification and risk mitigation. Engineers
analyze potential risks and design interventions to mitigate them.

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Principles of Safety Engineering
• To identify potential safety risks and mitigates them. Mitigation includes reducing the chances of accidents occurring or
reducing the severity of an accident once it occurs.
• To accomplish the process by changing the product design to prevent dangerous failures from occurring.
• To add the safety measures to protect people if a hazard does occur.

Scope of Safety Engineering

Quality control and safety are increasingly important concerns tor project managers. Defects or failures in constructed
facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction may be required and facility operations
impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities.
Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance,
inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due to this increased direct cost. Good project managers try to ensure that
the job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.
Safety engineering is a broad and diverse division of engineering that offers good pay and the flexibility to work in different
job fields. Safety engineering aims to keep people, property and the environment safe from chemical, physical,
psychological and biological hazards. Safety in the workplace is a concern for employees and employers. Maintaining a
work environment that is safe for everyone requires dedication and attention to detail.
Safety engineering is a career whose main goal is risk management. Safety engineers are employed by companies in order to
reduce the scale and frequency of accidents. Safety engineering deals with the conducting or supervising of something
specially the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling, and reporting any industrial or
business project or activity with responsibility for others.
Safety engineering education can furnish engineers regarding the safety management and safety measures to accomplish the
desired goal without facing any problem of accidents. General safety education can improve safety attitudes and increase
knowledge about the accident prevention.
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Electrical safety involves using safe practices when working with or near electricity or electrical devices. This is important
because electricity is dangerous.
Fire safety engineering or fire protection engineering minimizes the risk of buildings catching fire or collapsing during a fire.
Fire safety engineering for buildings includes installation of fire-fighting systems, providing ample means of escape, and fire
detections and warning methods.
Safety engineers design products that cannot harm users during expected use. Safety-engineers take an early design of a
system, analyze it to find what faults can occur, and then propose safety requirements in design specifications up front and
changes to existing systems to make the system safer. A safety management system (SMS) is a business approach to
minimize safety risks. It uses procedures, practices and policies to manage safety.
Safety engineering is very important for all type of construction projects like Building, Highway, Tunneling, Hydropower,
railway, airport etc. It is also important for electrical, sanitary, mechanical, irrigation projects. Safety engineering is very
useful for construction, manufacturing, service and maintenance fields.
The higher education regarding the safety engineering can produce safety experts which will contribute for making the
activities more safer with inventing new ideas through researches.
Safety engineering offers a diverse range of career opportunities, each requiring specific skills and educational backgrounds.
Whether you are passionate about preventing workplace accidents, ensuring compliance, or managing risks, there is a path
for you in this dynamic field.
Nowadays, we can see various vacancies for different positions in projects regarding the safety like : Safety supervisor,
safety engineer, Health and safety consultant, Environmental Health and safety (EHS) Manager, Industrial Hygienist, Risk
management specialist etc.
These above facts illustrate that the scope of safety engineering is very broad.

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1.1 Accidents
Accident, unexpected event, typically sudden in nature and associated with injury, loss, or harm. Accidents are a common
feature of the human experience and result in injury or permanent disability to large numbers of people worldwide every
year. Many accidents also involve damage to or loss of property.
An undesirable or unfortunate happening that occurs unintentionally and usually results in harm, injury, damage, or loss;
casualty; mishap.
An unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance (Merriam Webster Dictionary)
An accident can be defined as an unplanned and unexpected occurrence which upsets the planned sequence of events and
actions resulting in the loss of production, injury to the persons and damage to the plants and equipments. It is an unexpected
and unwanted event which cannot be anticipated in advance. It is always a sudden process and a gradual one. The nature of
accidents may vary from industry to industry. An employee may be caught in a machine while working on it or she/he may
fall from a height while engaged in a particular task or explosives used carelessly may explode. These accidents may result
in disablement or death. Now, accidents can be defined as undesired and unexpected or untimely released exchange or action
of energy resulting or having the potential to result in system damage or injury.

• An unwanted event of any type that has taken place can be called an accident.
• Loss of life or property or injury to health due to unnoticed or neglected reason is an accident.
• An event that occurs by chance especially one causing injury or damage.
• In construction industry most of these unhappy happenings do not occur only by chance or unknowingly.
• Accident may be defined as a sad happening that was not properly planned to be prevented.
• Most cases, most of the accidents in the construction industry are preventable.
• Processes of prevention can and should be planned.

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1.2 Nature and causes of Accident
• Accident, unexpected event, typically sudden in nature and associated with injury, loss, or harm. Accidents are a
common feature of the human experience and result in injury or permanent disability to large numbers of people
worldwide every year. Many accidents also involve damage to or loss of property.
• Mostly Known : So can be planned for prevention
• Some Unknown :Not foreseeable hence not preventable
Causes of Accident
In general, there are two major causes accidents in construction:
A. Primary Causes :unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
• Examples of unsafe acts are:
 working without authority and being at unauthorized place
 fail to warn safety to others
 bad loading and driving of vehicles
 failure to use PPE
 unauthorized service and maintenance
 horseplay
 smoking
 drinking
 taking drugs in site etc.

• Example of unsafe conditions are:

 Inadequate guard to moving machine parts
 defective tools and equipment
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  poor fire warning
 poor housekeeping
 poor lightening
 Un-Barricaded construction site
 hazardous atmospheric conditions etc.

A. Secondary Causes
 Failure of management system to anticipate
 lack of training, maintenance
 inadequate job planning and instructions
 not having safe system of work in workplace

Causes of accident in the construction can also be classified as:

1. Physical
• related to physical environment like wear tear of machine, explosive, chemicals etc.
2. Physiological
• related to human anatomy/factors and beyond human control like poor eye sight, health etc.
3. Psychological
• human factors like mental tension, emotional attitude etc.
4. Biological causes
• associated with poisonous plants, animal bites, insects, bacteria etc.
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Falling from height, Hit by falling object/s (e.g. by tools, materials, pieces of scaffolding, or other supplies), slips, trips and
low falls, electrocutions, machinery accidents, crush injuries, blasting accident, vehicle accident and drowning accidents are
the major accidents at construction site (Shreshta, 2012).

The causes can also be classified as:

A. Software Causes:
Knowledge based causes:

• inadequate plan and program for work

• lack of proper safety management plan

• lack of training,

• lack of signage and signals at construction site

• negligence

• errors and mistakes because of:

- inadequate information and knowledge

- interest on the job

-monotony

-lust (desire) for more delivery

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B. Hardware cause: These are related with man, material, machines and tools.

1. Physical causes
• Improper condition of machine
• Improper use of machine
• Improper tools for the job
• Old and worn-out tools.
• Improper handling of materials like explosives, paints, acids, bitumen etc.
• Improper clothing of work men.
• Negligence in using personal protective equipment.
• Congested work place.
• Not maintained work place causing slippery.
• Poor light and ventilation.
• Obstructions in the working place.
• Projections and generally unsafe work place.
• Unsafe use of scaffolding and ladders.
• Improper scaffolds and ladders.
• In adequate shore during excavation.
• Undersized or un-designed temporary works.
• Improper discipline among workers.

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2) Physiological causes- related to human health
• Poor eye sight of the worker- This is a very important factor for persons handling machinery as
automobiles, cranes etc. A driver while driving the vehicle may not see an obstacle ahead clearly, especially
in poor visibility conditions resulting in accident.
• Poor health condition- Due to poor health, a worker may not control his/her load of work and may meet an
accident.
• Poor hearing condition
• Old age- In old age generally the eye-sight becomes poor and one becomes hard of hearing along with poor
general health. These factors may cause accidents easily.
• Under age children
• Intoxication (alcoholism)- Under the influence of intoxication one loses control over his limbs and becomes
prone to accidents.
• Physical disability
• Overwork- A tired worker loses control over his/her limbs easily and may meet the accident.
• Other sickness

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3) Psychological causes
These causes of accidents are related to mental condition of a worker and discussed as follows:
• workers should be mentally free
• rendering work with complete zeal (eagerness) and efficiency
• Anxiety(nervousness)
• Worry- Due to worries one loses control over his mind and may meet with an accident.
• Mental tension- Due to mental tension also one can loses control over his/her mind.
• Impulsiveness (आवेगशील)- When a person acts under impulse, without proper thinking, the chances of accidents
are more.
• Nervousness- A nervous person loses control over his limbs quickly and has more chances of meeting of
accidents.
• Carelessness- A careless worker has more chances of meeting an accident than a conscious worker.
• Fear (terror)- Under fear also one loses control over his/her limbs quickly.
• Emotional attitude- An emotional person loses mental balance quickly.
• Anxiety of competition
• Peer relation
• Over confidence
• Relation with supervisor

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 Types of Accident

Depending upon the nature of the accident and severity of the injury, accidents may be different
types. Some types of accident are:
a) Major accident (It means fatal accident. Persons are killed)
b) Permanent accident (In this accident, employee loses earning capacity due to his cutting leg,
arm, hand and finger)
c) Temporary accident (In this accident, worker is unfit temporarily and loses his earning capacity
for a short time, for example, fracture of arm is temporary accident).
d) Lost time accident (In this accident, injuries are serious and workers are admitted to hospital.
They join the duty after a long time taking rest).

Why do accidents occur?

There are some safety and health factors which are unique to construction and some which are not.
Awareness of these factors will help in preventing the occurrence of incidents. Actual physical hazards
such as an unstable wall that is being erected, environmental hazards such as toxic atmospheres, oxygen
deficiency, noise, radiation, dust and human factors such as supervisor’s or worker’s failure to follow
safe work practices are the factors of the causing accident.

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 Lack of poorly designed safety standards such as no standard for confined space entry or a construction standard or a
chemical that is never used in the construction industry, failure to communicate within a single trade such as one
equipment operator is not following the standard travel way rules and colliding with another operator’s equipment,
resulting potential injuries and damages are another factors of the causing accident.

The intensity of the designer’s attention often depends on safety and therefore also depends on the suspected hazard
significantly. On the other hand, designer’s opinion can be influenced positively by management’s wishes when they are
clear. Normally, safety is considered to be reductive to accidents. An accident is not considered as occupational desires
and psychological shock.

Techniques of Accident Prevention

Accident prevention in construction is not just a matter of setting up a list of rules and making safety inspections although
both of these have their place. A system is required for managing health and safety. There are seven principles to be
observed in setting up strategies for control and management of health and safety at work in the construction industry. If
they are followed, accident prevention is more likely to be achieved. These seven principles are as follows:
a) If possible, avoid a risk altogether by eliminating the hazard.
b) Tackle risks at source.
c) Adjust work to the individual when designing work areas and selecting appropriate methods of work.
d) Use technology to improve conditions.
e) Give priority to protection for the whole workplace rather than to individuals.
f) Ensure everyone understands what they have to do to be safe and healthy at work.
g) Make sure health and safety management is accepted by everyone and that it applies to all aspects of the organizations
activities.
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Benefits of accident prevention

The accident prevention saves the following:

a) Human life.
b) Temporary or permanent injury of workers
c) Loss of workers
d) Damage to plant or equipment
e) Loss of compensation to the workers
f) Loss of time and investment
f) The cost of human suffering

Evolution of Safety Concept

Today’s owners face a variety of risks when they undertake a construction project. Not only must owners be concerned
with potential risks to their employees, tenants, or property, but they must also be concerned about the risks that the
contractor bears. Safety is a critical item on all construction projects for multiple reasons including protecting the welfare
of employees, providing a safe work environment and controlling construction costs. However, the importance of safety as
a cost controlling measure is often overlooked by owners and contractors. As a means of reducing the risks associated with
construction, safety can significantly impact the overall cost. A dedicated commitment to safety by both the owner and
contractor helps ensure project success and can impact the bottom-line considerably. Owners should understand that all of
the contractor’s risks, or even the threat of them, will either add considerable cost to the contract or decrease the potential
profit a contractor is able to make on any specific contract. Since every contractor is in business to bring profit to the
bottom-line, overhead would naturally take into consideration the “costs of doing business.” Expected losses have to be
taken into consideration and included in the estimate if the contractor wants to stay in business. Countless injuries occur
because the managers and worker do not want to spend a little bit of their wisdom in it. Even today, construction managers
are concerned with progress and work output which they call productivity. Productivity's ultimate relation to safety is
seldom considered. It has been hard to inject the concept of total safety to supervisors and the managers in construction
projects. Therefore, problem of safety is complicated and it will be unwise to try to find its solution in a single model. It
has to be taken up by comprehensive nature of solutions and activities.
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A. British Labor Regulation
• Labor sickness on, Manchester Cotton Mill.
• First labor Regulation 1784, drew the attention of the public who labored under very danger and unsanitary condition.
• Manchester Board of Health 1795, who advised the legislation about working hours and conditions of the workers.
• Health and Morals of apprentices (trainees) act 1802.
o Prevention of injuries
o Protection of labor
• Mines Act 1842
o Punitive or disciplinary compensation for preventable injuries
o Prevented women and children to work on mines
• First safety law 1844
• Detailed provision of health and safety appeared
• Work hours of women 12 hrs.
• Act of 1855 specified 7 general safety needs
o Ventilation
o Guarding of unused shaft
o Proper means of signaling
o Correct gauges for steam boilers
o Valves for steam boilers
o Requirements for indicators
o Brakes for power lifting equipment
• Mines act again extended in 1860
• Coal Mine Act 1872
o Employment of only certified managers in mines
o Extended general safety rules
o Initial step in regulating construction activities

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• Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
o Defines duty and responsibility of
 Employers
 Contractors
 Suppliers
 Managers
 Site in-charges
 General public

B. USA
• First Worker’s Compensation Law was passed in New York state (1908), which was held to be unconstitutional
(unofficial/unauthorized).
• Similar law was passed in the state of Wisconsin in 1911 was held to be constitutional.
• Later on all the states of USA passed similar laws.
• The first federal safety legislation was enacted (passed) in the year 1893 as Safety Appliance Act. But the law was
applied only to railroad equipment.
• Occupational Safety & Health Act is the primary federal law which governs occupational health & safety in the
private sector & federal (national/central/state) government. It was enacted by Congress in the year 1970.

• Objective of this act

o is to ensure that employers provide employees with an environment free from recognized hazards, such as exposure to
toxic chemicals, excessive noise levels, mechanical dangers, heat or cold stress or unsanitary conditions. It is to assure
so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve
the human resources.

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C. INDIA
• Factory act 1948
• Regulates health, safety, welfare and other working conditions of workers working in the factories.
• Mines Act 1952 & Dock Workers Act 1986 (Safety, Health & Welfare).
• National policy on EHS (Environment, Health & Safety) at work place
• Main objective of national policy are
• Continuous reduction in the incidence of work related injuries, fatalities, diseases, disaster and loss of national
assets.
• Continuous reduction in the cost of work place injuries and diseases.
• Extend coverage of work related injuries, fatalities, and diseases for a more comprehensive data base as a means
of better performance and monitoring.
• Continuous enhancement of community awareness regarding safety, health and environment at workplace
related areas.
• Enhance the well-being of the employee and society at large.
NEPAL
• Factory and Factory Workers Act 1959
• Does not cover Construction Industry/Construction laborers
• Industrial Business Act, 2018 (1961)
• Security and environment appeared for the first time
• Labor Act 2048 (1991) Worker’s right, welfare, facilities and safety/security
• Working hours, 8 hrs. per day (art 16)
• Rest time (art 18)
• One and half times wage for OT work (art19)
• Now revised Labour act 2074 (Ch. 12-occupational health and safety)

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 • NBC Provisions
• Health and Safety/ security – Chapter 5 • Material handling
• First aid facility
• Occupational Health (art 27)
• Fire safety
• Safety of eyes (art 28) • Site preparation
• Safety from chemicals (art 29) • Earth work in excavation
• Fire safety (art 30) • Foundation construction
• Guarding of machines (art 31) • Construction of walls
• Construction of roofs
• Heavy weight lifting (art 32) • Electrical works
• Safety from pressure plant (art 33) • Temporary works
• Labor welfare in Nepal Act • Demolition of structures
• Compensation (art 38) • Miscellaneous requirement during demolition
• Use of explosives
• Resting room (art 43)
• Access to firefighting equipment
• Construction Business (art 46) • Safety cloth and PPE(Personal Protective
• Construction tools (46 - 1- Ka) Equipment)
• Temporary worker’s arrangement (46 - 1 - Kha) • Storage of combustible materials
• Accident insurance (46 - 1 - Ga) • Storage of blasting materials
• Worker insurance
• Safety/ security management (46 - 1 - Gha) • Safety requirement in NBC
• PPE (46 – 2) • Movement of construction equipment
• Industrial Business Act, 2049 (1992), Cl. 9 • Support during erection
• Security, Public health and Environment • Safety net for working at height
• Restriction to third person.
• Nepal Building Code, 1993
• Labor welfare in NBC
• NBC 107, fire safety in buildings • Drinking water
• NBC 114, construction safety • Safe shelter
o Building construction and demolition • Toilet facilities
• Fire extinguishers
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 • NBC Provisions
• Health and Safety/ security – Chapter 5 • Material handling
• First aid facility
• Occupational Health (art 27)
• Fire safety
• Safety of eyes (art 28) • Site preparation
• Safety from chemicals (art 29) • Earth work in excavation
• Fire safety (art 30) • Foundation construction
• Guarding of machines (art 31) • Construction of walls
• Construction of roofs
• Heavy weight lifting (art 32) • Electrical works
• Safety from pressure plant (art 33) • Temporary works
• Labor welfare in Nepal Act • Demolition of structures
• Compensation (art 38) • Miscellaneous requirement during demolition
• Use of explosives
• Resting room (art 43)
• Access to firefighting equipment
• Construction Business (art 46) • Safety cloth and PPE(Personal Protective
• Construction tools (46 - 1- Ka) Equipment)
• Temporary worker’s arrangement (46 - 1 - Kha) • Storage of combustible materials
• Accident insurance (46 - 1 - Ga) • Storage of blasting materials
• Worker insurance
• Safety/ security management (46 - 1 - Gha) • Safety requirement in NBC
• PPE (46 – 2) • Movement of construction equipment
• Industrial Business Act, 2049 (1992), Cl. 9 • Support during erection
• Security, Public health and Environment • Safety net for working at height
• Restriction to third person.
• Nepal Building Code, 1993
• Labor welfare in NBC
• NBC 107, fire safety in buildings • Drinking water
• NBC 114, construction safety • Safe shelter
o Building construction and demolition • Toilet facilities
• Fire extinguishers
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Impact of accident

1. Physical Injuries
Serious injuries include back or spine injuries, traumatic brain injuries, soft tissue injuries, spinal cord injuries, neck
injuries, mental injuries, and injuries causing permanent disabilities.

2. Emotional Trauma & Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Effects of road accidents include Emotional distress and post-traumatic stress disorder, which also require medical
treatment. The emotional effects of road accidents are far-reaching and at times not immediately seeming. Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can occur after a person experiences or
witnesses a traumatic event. Car accidents can be one of those events. PTSD can affect anyone who has experienced
trauma, and it can have a significant impact on daily life.

3. Loss Of Life
Accidental deaths leave the family members of the deceased in complete disorder. Middle-income countries often
only have one source of income, and losing the financial provider of a family affects the entire family.

4. Financial Burden
Medical bills, lost wages and ongoing financial costs of medical treatment, especially for severe injuries, can have a
shocking effect due to accident. e.g. car crash victim and their family.
Car crash victims from low and middle-income countries usually have significantly more financial distress than
those from high-income countries.

5. Disability And Reduced Mobility

Road traffic injuries resulting in disability and reduced mobility are serious effects of road accidents and with an
entirely different type of emotional trauma related to it.

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6. Other Effects
• Impact On Mental Health
• Loss Of Confidence
• Reduced Quality Of Life
• Social And Economic Impact
• Loss of time and money
• Substandard quality
• Procedural burden etc…

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