ILP-2022

(Integrated Learning Program)

Value Add Notes (VAN)

HISTORY
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TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE IN NORTH

• After the disappearance of centralized politics in northern India, many states came into
existence and struggle for supremacy among them.
• One of the political ambitions of the period of 8th to 12th century was to conquer and
ruled over the city of Kannauj which was a symbol of imperial power and Ganga – Yamuna
Doab region.
• Kannauj became the bone of contentment between the three powers i.e, the
Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas.
• Many of their military activities were directed to conquer Kannauj.
• Pratiharas of Kanary became more powerful sometimes but was later defeated by the
Palas.
• The Rashtrakutas fled away to the west and south Deccan.
• While these powers were busy in fighting against each other, their feudatories established
numbers of small regional kingdom in northern India.

GURJARA PRATIHARAS

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• Gujara-Pratiharas were the early Rajput who ruled from Gujarat to South Western
Rajasthan.
• Later they ruled over Kannauj.
• Nagabhata I was the first great ruler of this dynasty.
• He defeated the Arab forces and prevented them entering India.
• Bhoja I was one on the famous ruler of this dynasty. He was devotee to Vishnu and later
adopted a name Adhivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend in some of his
coins.

PALAS

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• The Pala dynasty came into power in Bengal in about the middle of 8th century.
• Gopala I was the founder of this dynasty, who was elected as a king by the people.
• Dharmapala and Devapala were the two famous rulers of this dynasty. They extend and
consolidated the Pala empire.
• The Pala ruled over Bihar, Bengal and some parts of Orissa and Assam with many ups and
down in learning and religions.
• During the reign of Dharmapala, he founded a famous Buddhist Monastery at
Vikramshila which was just second to the Nalanda in fame for higher learning.

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Vikramshila University
• During the reign of Devapala, the two kings of South east Asia established a Monastery at
Nalanda institution and seek Devapala to endow the income of five of his village for the
maintenance of the Monastery.

RASHTRAKUTAS

The Rashtrakutas established their empire after destroying the empire of the Chalukyas of
Badami. They maintained their ascendancy in the Deccan for nearly 223 years and then were
destroyed by later Chalukyas of Kalyana.

Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured
Malwa from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the
Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan.

• His successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He defeated the Gangas and the
eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple
at Ellora. The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved victories
over north Indian kingdoms.

• The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha was unlike his father
Govinda II as he was a warrior, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya Kings.

• It was Amoghavarsha who had arrested the progress of King Bhoja I towards south India.

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The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called rashtras under the control of
rashtrapatis. They were further divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis. The
next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of bhogapatis. These
officers were directly appointed by the central government.

There was an active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings
promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.

The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta. At Ellora, the
most remarkable temple is the Kailasa temple.

• Rashtrakuta king, krishna-1 had built the Kailash temple of Ellora. It is considered as the
wonder of rock-out architecture. Kailasanath Temple is a famous temple, one of the 34
monasteries and temples, known collectively as the Ellora Caves, extending over more
than 2 km, that were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff in the complex
located at Ellora, Maharashtra, India.

Kailashnath Temple

• The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures. The sculpture of
the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon. In another sculpture Ravana
was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva. The scenes of Ramayana

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were also depicted on the walls. The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are
more Dravidian.

Social Structure

• Society dominated by – princes and priests.

• The princes claimed the status of brahmanas or kshatriyas but many of them were local
tribal chiefs
• They were promoted to the second varna through benefactions made to the priests.
• The priests invented respectable family trees for these chiefs and traced their descent
from age-old solar and lunar dynasties to help rulers to acquire acceptability and respect
in the eyes of people.
• Priests – Brahmanas, Budhhist and Jaina monks.
o They gained influence because of land grants.
• Peasants – they were divided into many peasant sub castes.
o Most were called as Shudras in brahmanical system
o If they failed to produce or service or pay, then it was considered as breach of
dharma or norm.
• It was king’s duty to maintain the social order.

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RISE OF THE RAJPUTS

• In the early 12th century, the term Rajaputa came into prominence, which referred to
certain specific lineage-based clans.
• The basis of Rajput society was the clan, and every clan traced its descent from a common
ancestor (real or imaginary).
• Some historians believe that they were the descendants of various groups of foreign
invaders such as the Shakas, the Kushanas, the Hunas, and so on, who had gradually
settled down in the region of Rajasthan and, after intermingling with Indian society,
emerged as a warrior class. Since they are not purely indigenous, they are also called ‘Patit
Kshatriyas’.
• In the poetic tale – ‘Prithvirajraso’ by Chander Bardai. He has mentioned about the
mythical origin of Rajputs. According to the story, at Mt. Abu and grand Yajna was
performed supervised by Rishi Vashishta to defeat a demon. From the Fire Altar first
Gurjar Pratiharas came out but couldn’t defeat the demon. Then Pramar, Solanki and
Chauhans came out. Finally, Chauhan defeated the demon. Since their origin is believed
to be from Fire, they are called Agni Kulin.
• The distribution of land among royal kinsmen allowed many local chiefs to acquire enough
financial and political power to set up an independent authority. Inter-clan collaboration
in the form of political and matrimonial alliances as well as the construction of fortresses
on an unprecedented scale led to a consolidation of the clan structure.
• These clans dominated a compact territory. Attachment to land, family, and ‘honour’
were the characteristic features considered important by the Rajput clans.

RAJPUT POLITY
• Feudal Polity – Not Centralised.
• Many military officers got land as salary.
• They had powers to live in Forts, issue coins and levy new taxes. So they had every chance
to become independent.
• They believed in divine theory of Kingship. The Brahmins recognized this status and in
return got land grants. This land was called ‘Agrahara land’. Brahmins got the rights to
punish people on that land.
• Ideal King – Who attacks neighbour after Vijaydashmi. War was treated like a sport.
• Reason for frequent wars – Limited fertile land and most land was already gifted.

ECONOMY
• Economy was primarily agriculture based.
• Lack of cities and currency confirms that there was limited market economy.

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• External trade declined after the decline of Roman empire.

SOCIETY
• Caste based – Brahmins enjoyed top position, got land grants, power to punish people
and were given important posts especially in revenue department.
• No. of rituals increased and helped the position of brahmins.
• Rajputs considered dying in war an honour.
• Condition of women deteriorated most during this period. She was treated as the honour
of the clan which lead to Child marriages, Purdah, Polygyny, Sati and Jauhar.
• No of war widows increased during Rajput period and upper caste women suffered more
than lower caste women.

THE CHAHAMANAS/ CHAUHANS

• The Chahamanas of Shakambhari, colloquially known as the Chauhans of Sambhar, ruled
in parts of the present-day Rajasthan and its neighbouring areas between 7th and 11th
centuries CE.
• They were the most prominent ruling family of the Chahamana clan.
• The Chahamanas originally had their capital at Shakambari, which is identical to modern
Sambhar near Jaipur in the Sapadalaksa country (part of present-day Rajasthan).
• However, the later rulers moved the capital to Ajmer, and for this reason, they are also
known as the Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer.
• They were originally feudatories of the Pratiharas and assumed independence during the
reign of King Simharaja.

PRITHVIRAJ III (C.1177−1192 CE)

• The most famous of all Chauhans, is popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora
in the folk legends.
• He scored victories over all his neighbours, including the Chandella king Paramardi,
Chalukya Bhima II and Gahadvala Jayachandra.
• Ascended the throne at the young age of 11, after death of his father Someshvara, but
took the reigns of administration in his hands when he was 16.
• Led an expedition in Bundelkhand against the Chandella ruler and its capital Mahoba and
it was in this struggle the famous Chandella warriors Alha and Udal lost their lives.
• Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in c.1191 CE.
• In 1192 CE, Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain,
and subsequently executed him.
• His defeat at Tarain is seen as a landmark event in the Islamic conquest of India, and has
been described in several semi-legendary accounts, most notably the Prithviraj Raso.
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• Two great poems, Prithviraj Raso and Prithviraj Vijaya, were written by his court poets
Chandbardai and Jayanaka respectively.

HARI-RAJA (C. 1193−1194 CE)

• Muhammad Ghori followed up his victory by the conquest of Ajmer and Delhi and placed
the young son of Prithviraj, Govinda, as his vassal in Ajmer.
• Govinda was de-throned and banished by Prithviraja’s brother Hari-raja for accepting
Muslim suzerainty.
• Govinda then established the Chahamana branch of Ranastambhapura (Ranthambore).
• Hari-raja regained Ajmer and followed a policy of hostility against the conquerors of Delhi.
• Qutabuddin Aibak invaded Ajmer, overthrew Hari-raja and took the principality.
• The Chauhan dynasty then retired to Ranthambhor and ruled there in diminishing glory.
But in c.1301 CE, Ala-ud-din Khilji captured Ranthambhor and uprooted the last
stronghold of Chauhan power.

THE CHANDELLAS OF BUNDELKHAND

• The Chandellas of Bundelkhand trace their descent to a mythical ancestor named
Chandratreya, born of the moon.
• The Chandellas initially ruled as feudatories of the Gurjara−Pratiharas of Kannauj, and
were involved in conflicts with the Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Kalachuris of Chedi (who
bordered the Chandellas on the south).
• The Chandellas are well-known for their art and architecture, most notably for the fully
developed Nagara- style temples at their original capital Khajuraho.
• The Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE), the Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE), and
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of
Chandella rulers Yashovarman, Dhanga, and Vidyadhara respectively.
• They also commissioned a number of water bodies, palaces and forts at other places,
including their strongholds of Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (modern
Kalinjar), and their later capital Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).
• In the first quarter of the 9th century CE, the dynasty was founded by Nannuka, who was
the ruler of a small kingdom and established his capital at Kharjjuravahaka (Khajuraho).

THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA

• The Paramaras of Malwa were originally based in the Mount Abu area of Rajasthan.
• There are several branches of this dynasty, though the main branch ruled at Malwa, with
its capital at Dhara (modern Dhar, MP).

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• The c. 949 CE Harsola copper-plates issued by the Paramara king, Siyaka II, establish that
the early Paramara rulers were feudatories of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, and were
probably established in the 10th century CE.
• The Paramara power rose and declined several times as a result of their struggles with
the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and other
neighbouring kingdoms.
• The later Paramaras moved their capital to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was
sacked multiple times by their enemies.
• Malwa enjoyed a great level of political and cultural prestige under the Paramaras.
• The Paramaras were well-known for their patronage to poets and scholars and Bhoja was
himself a renowned scholar.
• Most of the Paramara kings were Shaivites and built several Shiva temples, although they
also patronised Jain scholars.

THE CHALUKYAS OF GUJARAT/THE SOLANKI RAJPUTS

• The Solanki Rajputs are also known as the Chalukya family of Gujarat, which was different
from the earlier Chalukyan dynasty of Badami.
• It ruled parts of Gujarat and Kathiawar between c.950 and 1300 CE.
• Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Solankis never claimed a shared descent
or any other association with the original Chalukya dynasty.
• Interestingly, they never used the term ‘Chalukya’ to describe themselves, but chose to
use its variant, ‘Chaulukya’.
• They had many branches, though three branches were the most prominent.
• The oldest branch ruled from Central India’s Mattamayura and its earliest rulers were
Simhavarman, Sadhanva, and Avanivarman.
• The other branch was founded by Barappa in Lata (South Gujarat); the most prominent
city of their kingdom was Bhrigukachchha (Broach).
• Another branch was founded by Mularaja I, whose capital was at Anahilapataka (or
Anahilavada, which is identical to modern Patan, Gujarat).

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ARABS AND THEIR INVASION

India had trading connections with the Arabs. They first came to Malabar coast as traders before
the rise of Islam. The trade continued without disruption which led to exchange of ideas.

Arabs, as invaders came to Sindh. The first successful raid was led by Mohammad bin Qasim in
711-712 AD. He defeated King Dahir of Chach Dynasty.

Mohammad bin Qasim and King Dahir

Details of Chach Dynasty is known from the book Chachnama by Ali Kufi.

• In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim, commander of the Umayyad kingdom, invaded Sind.
• Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind and killed him in a well-contested battle.
• Dahir’s capital Aror was captured.
• Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan.
• Qasim organized the administration of Sind.
• The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects). There was no
interference in the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim was recalled by the
Caliph.
• The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.

What was the result of conquest of Sind by Muslims or How Indian culture diffused abroad?

• There was diffusion of culture between Sind and Indian people

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• Arab travelers visited Sind. They had carried Indian medicine and astronomy to, far off
lands
• The Indian numerals in the Arabic form went to Europe through them.

Why Muslims could not expand their authority further into India?

• Due to the presence of the powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.

How Islam came to India?

• Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of Islam to North India.

• Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the 7th
century.
• But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.

Impact:

• Arabs ruled over Sindh for next 300 years and influenced the local culture including the
language.
• Arabs and Indians interacted and learned from each other.
• Arabs learned mathematics and medical science. Some Indian scientists like Hala (a
Physicist) and Manak (a surgeon) were invited by the Khalifa of Baghdad.
• Indians learnt in the field of Geography, History, medicine and Algebra.

Arabs couldn’t penetrate into other parts of India. One main reason was the presence of strong
Gurjara Pratihara as their neighbours.

TURKISH INVASION

Turks were group of tribes living in vast part of Central Asia.

They were relatively recent converts to Islam and were mostly warrior class (in contrast to Arabs
who were mostly traders).

Before coming to India, they had settled in Iran and Afghanistan.

1st major Turkish invasion took place in late 10th and early 11th century by Alaptgin, Subuktgin
and Mahmud of Ghazni.

ALAPTGIN:

Alaptgin was a Turkic Slave in Persian Samanid Empire. He rose to the post of Commander of
Army in Khoransan. In a political fallout over succession of the Samanids he crossed the Hindu

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Kush mountains southward and captured Ghazna, located strategically between Kabul and
Kandahar in present-day Afghanistan, and thereby establishing his own principality, which,
however, was still under Samanid authority.

Alaptgin got in conflicts with Hindu Shahi Dynasty ruling over Eastern Afghanistan and western
Punjab region.

SUBUKTGIN:

Sabuktigin lived as a slave during his youth and later married the daughter of his master Alptigin,
the man who seized the region of Ghazna.

When his father-in-law Alptigin died, Sabuktigin became the new ruler and expanded the
kingdom after defeating Jayapala of Kabul to cover the territory as far as the Neelum River in
Kashmir and the Indus River in what is now Pakistan.

MAHMUD OF GHAZNI:

Mahmud was the first independent ruler of the Turkic dynasty of Ghaznavids, ruling from 999 to
1030. At the time of his death, his kingdom had been transformed into an extensive military
empire, which extended from northwestern Iran proper to the Punjab in the Indian subcontinent,
Khwarazm in Transoxiana, and Makran.

• During his rule, he invaded and plundered the richest cities and temple towns in medieval
India seventeen times, and used the booty to build his capital in Ghazni.
• His first attack in 1001 AD was against the Hindu Shahi dynasty which was ruling over
Eastern Afghanistan.
• His most infamous attack was in 1025-26 on Somnath Temple, ruled by Bhima II of Solanki
dynasty. He was called ‘But Shikan’.
• His last attack was against the Jats of Punjab.

Impact of raids

• His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in India.
• He paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper
incursions into the Gangetic valley at any time.
• Drained the resources of India
• Deprived India of her manpower.
o This resulted in adverse effect on the political future of India.
• Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the gates of India against foreign invaders.
o Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers became defenceless.

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• The inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent
Muslim conquests of India comparatively easy.

Ghaznavid Empire

• He built wide Empire

• Punjab in the east to the Caspian Sea on the west and from Samarkand in the north to
Gujarat in the south.
• It roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.
• His achievements were due to his leadership and restless activity.

Patronization of Art and Culture

• He also patronized art and literature.

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• Firdausi - poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud.

o He wrote Shah Namah.
• Mahmud was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and
entrusted a scholar named Al-Baruni to write an account of Indian subcontinent.

ABU REHAN AL BERUNI

• Al Beruni was a famous scholar who came to India during the reign of Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• He accompanied Mahmud in his conquests to South Asia. Al Beruni was the First Muslim
Scholar to study India and its Brahmanical tradition. He is called father of Indology and
the first anthropologist.
• He studied Sanskrit at Benaras and wrote famous book – Tahqiq e Hind/ Kitab ul Hind.
This book is known as a mirror of 11th C India.
• He wrote in detail about the Indian religion, society, caste Hierarchy, festival, climate,
flora and fauna, wealth of India and the sense of time of Indians.
• He criticized Brahmins and called them insulators but wrote that their ancestors were not
like them.
• He was shocked to see the condition of Untouchables.
• He praised the colourful festivals of India.

He has been criticized for relying too much on ancient Sanskrit texts to write about India rather
than his personal experiences.

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DELHI SULTANATE

• The Delhi Sultanate was a kingdom in India that existed between 1206 and 1526.
• Five dynasties ruled the Sultanate for 320 years.
• The Slave Dynasty, the Khilji Dynasty, the Tughlaq Dynasty, the Sayyid Dynasty and the
Lodi Dynasty were the five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Delhi Sultanate ended when the Mughals, led by Babur, defeated the Lodi army at
the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was also the founder of the
Slave Dynasty. The last emperor of the Delhi Sultanate was Ibrahim Lodi. He died in 1526 fighting
the invading Mughal army, the only emperor of the Sultanate to die on the battlefield.

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ESTABLISHMENT OF DELHI SULTANATE:

Ghoris were vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.

Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, also known as Muhammad of Ghor or Muhammad bin Sam,
was the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire along with his brother Ghiyas ad-Din Muhammad from 1173
to 1202 and as the sole ruler from 1202 to 1206. He is credited with laying the foundation of
Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent. He had made it a habit to regularly raid India.

Difference between Gazni and Ghori:

Ghazni Ghori

• He came as a plunderer • He came for empire

• He destroyed temples and other • He destroyed and he built as well.
structures but did not build • He lost two battles.
anything. • He came to India from Bolan Pass.
• He never lost a battle. (He was the first invader to come
• He came to India through Khybar through Bolan pass.)
pass. • He left a deep impact on India.
• He did not have any major impact
on India.

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Raids of Ghori

1st attack on Multan – 1175 against Qarmatian Rulers.

2nd on Gujrat – 1178

Battle of Kayadara, 1178, against Chaulukya ruler Mularaja II. First loss of Ghori.

Most important battles –

Battle of Tarai I against Prithviraj Chauhan III in 1191.

The two armies of Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan met near the town of Tarain, 14 miles from
Thanesar in present-day Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk
archers to which Prithviraj responded by counter-attacking from three sides and thus dominating
the battle. Ghori got badly injured and retreated.

Battle of Tarai II against Prithviraj Chauhan III in 1192.

The battle was fought at the same place as before. This time Ghori was prepared. He had a
1,20,000 strong cavalry. According to Firishta, "the Chauhan army consisted of 3,000 elephants,
300,000 cavalry and infantry", which is considered an exaggeration by modern historians.
According to Satish Chandra the figures were exaggerated in order to "emphasise the challenge
faced by Muizzuddin and the scale of his victory".

Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and executed.

Impact of Battle of Tarain

• Major disaster for the Rajputs.

o Political prestige suffered a serious setback.
• The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
• The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
the history of India began.
o After his victory, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni and left his favorite
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further conquests in India.

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• 1193 – Aibak made preparations for easy invasion by Muhammad Ghori against the
Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra.
o Battle of Chandawar - Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s forces. Kanauj was
occupied by the Muslims.

Battle of Chandwar – 1194 against Raja Jaichandra.

Last attack in 1206 against Khokar – a Tribe in Punjab.

While returning to Ghazni from this campaign he was killed by a rival Muslim sect.

He left 3 famous slaves behind him –

• Qutub ud Din Aibak – Delhi – Ajmer – Lahore

• Tajuddin Yalduz – Lahore – Afghanistan
• Nasir Ud Din Qabacha – Multan – Ucch Area

Delhi and Lahore were the bone of contention between the three. Aibak won Lahore from Yalduz
and later married his daughter to Qabacha to have an alliance. He finally established the Delhi
Sultanate.

SLAVE DYNASTY (1206 -1290)

• Also known as Mamluk dynasty.
• Mamluk – Arabic term for slave. There were different types of Slaves. Household slaves
were called Ghulams. Mamluks were not ordinary slaves. They were respected and
trained like warriors. They had chances to rise up in administrative hierarchy.
• 3 dynasties were established during 1206 – 1290
o Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
o First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish
o Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.

QUTBUDDIN AIBAK (1206-1210)

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• Slave of Muhammad Ghori (remember his appointment as Governor of Ghori’s Indian

possessions.
• Set up his military headquarters at Indraprasta, near Delhi.
• Even during the life time of Ghori he raised a strong army and hold over north India.
• 1206 – Ghori died and Aibak declared his independence.
• He broke all connections with the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty
as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
• He assumed the title Sultan
• He made Lahore his capital.
• Rule lasted - 4 years’ short period.
• He was called as “Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs” because he gave liberal donations.
• Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like
o Hasan-un-Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir'
o Fakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'
• He built –
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi (First mosque built in Delhi)

o
Quwattul Islam Mosque
o Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra mosque in Ajmer.

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o He started the construction of Qutb Minar in memory of sufi saint Qutbuddin

Bakhtiar Kaki which was completed by his successor, Iltutmish
• Death - he died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210.
• Successor - his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months.

SHAMSUDDIN ILTUTMISH (1211-1236)

Iltutmish’s Tomb

• Belonged to Ilbari tribe and so dynasty’s name Ilbari dynasty.

• Aibak bought him and made him son-in-law
• Appointed as iqtadar of Gwalior by Aibak
• 1211 – defeated Aram Baksh (son of Aibak) and became Sultan.
• Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• In first 10 years focused on securing his throne from rivals.
• Mongol policy of Iltutmish saved India from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
o He refused to shelter Jalaluddin Mangabarni (also known as Khwarizm Shah),
whom Chengiz was chasing.

Military conquests

• Established his control over Bengal and Bihar

• Annexed Sind and Multan into the Delhi Sultanate.

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• He suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore (not Ranthampur), Jalor,
Ajmir and Gwalior.
• Led an unsuccessful expedition against the Paramaras of Malwa.
• Iltutmish was a great statesman. He received the mansur, the letter of recognition, from
the Abbasid Caliph in 1229, which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
• He nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor. Thus the hereditary succession to
Delhi Sultanate was initiated by Iltutmish.
• He patronized many scholars and a number Sufi saints came to India during his reign.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din., Nizam-ul-mulk Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din Hasan
and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami were his contemporary.
o Minhaj-us-Siraj is author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.
• He completed the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India
(238 ft.).
• He built a magnificent mosque at Ajmer.
• Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic coins of the
Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains.

•
• The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.
• Iltutmish had also created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders -
Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa or Forty
• Organize Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles
and officers in lieu of salary.

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240)

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• Razia was the first and last female ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
• Even Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir
put Ruknuddin Feroz on the throne.
o Nasiruddin Mahmud - real brother of Raziya
o Rukn ud din Firuz and Muizuddin Bahram - step brothers
• Raziya with the support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne, when Ruknuddin marched to
Multan to suppress the revolt.
• She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as superintendent of the royal stables.
• She discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face unveiled.
• She even went for hunting and led the army.
• Turkish nobles don’t like these activities and so resentment against her aroused in them.
• 1240 - Altunia, her lover and the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her.
• She went in person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took Raziya
prisoner.
• In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram on the throne.
• However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi.
But she was defeated and killed by court intriguers.
• The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the Forty. In the next six years,
Bahram and Masud ruled Delhi.
• There ensued a struggle for supremacy between the Sultans and the nobles.

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• In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud as Sultan.

ERA OF BALBAN (1266-1287)

• Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan

• He was Naib or regent of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.
• Balban was all powerful in the administration but like most of rulers he had to face the
intrigues of his rivals in the royal court.
• 1266 – Nasiruddin Mahmud died and Balban succeeded to throne.
• Earlier Balban was regent and so, he was aware of the problems of Delhi Sultanate.
• He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)

Steps to Enhance Power and Authority of Monarch

• He was convinced that he has to enhance the power and authority of monarch to
overcome the problems and hence he took some steps like
o He started the idea of divinity of King and declared that Sultan was God’s shadow
(Zill e Ilahi) on earth and the recipient of divine grace.
o He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration
(Sajda) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (Pabos) to prove his superiority over the
nobles.
o Balban claimed that he is descendent of Afrasiyab Dynasty (A mythical Persian
dynasty). He also named his grandsons on the name on the Kings of this dynasty –
Kaiqubad, Kaikans, Kaikhusro and Kaimursa. (Names are not that important for
UPSC)
o Introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz.
o He was champion of Turkish nobility but did not share his power with other
nobles.

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o Indian Muslims were not given important post in the government.

o Spies were appointed to monitor the activities of the nobles.
o No one was allowed to sit in the court except the King. No one was allowed to
smile in the court to maintain the decorum.

Forty- NOBLES

He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)

• Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles.
• Only the most obedient nobles were spared and rest were eliminated by fair or foul
means. For example –
o Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty
towards his servants.
o Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished for killing a man who was
drunk.
o Sher Khan, the governor of Bhatinda was poisoned.

Restoration of law and order

• His focus was more on restoration of law and order instead of expansion of his kingdom.
• Many forts were built to check Mongol attack. He appointed special officers called the
‘Warden of Marches’.
• Established Diwan-i-Arz - a separate military department and reorganized the army.
• Balban took severe action against Mewatis who often plundered the outskirts of Delhi.
Robbers were mercilessly pursued and put to death. As a result, the roads became safe
for travel.

Mongol threat

• Mongols reappeared in the northwest and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against
them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to the Sultan.
• He could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions.
• Balban died in 1287.
• He was one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate.
• When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made the Sultan of Delhi. After
four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.

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Tomb of Balban – First building with true Arches.

THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

JALALUDDIN KHALJI (1290 - 1296)

• The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.
• Founder of the Khalji dynasty - Jalaluddin Khalji.
• He was seventy years old when he came to power.
• He was generous and lenient. For example –
o Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. But
when Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned.
o When the robbers looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe
warning.
o In 1292 when Malik Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by
Jalauddin’s son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.
• In 1296 while taking expedition to Devagiri Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his
father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.

ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316)

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• 2nd ruler of Khalji dynasty

• He called himself as ‘Second Alexander’
• He took the title ‘Sikander-i-Sani’.
• Early name was Ali Gurushap.
• He banned drinking of alcohol in open in his kingdom.
• He built the city Siri, the second of the seven cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar.

Nobles

• He made enormous gifts to the hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win over them to his
side. Those who still opposed him accession were punished severely.
• He framed regulations to control the nobles.
• Basic reasons according to sultan for noble rebellions -
1. General prosperity of the nobles.
2. Intermarriages between noble families.
3. Inefficient spy-system.
4. Drinking liquor.
• Therefore, he passed 4 ordinances.
1. He confiscated the properties of the nobles.
2. Reorganization of intelligence system and immediate report of secret activities of
nobles
3. The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally stopped.
4. Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of Sultan were forbidden.
• By such harsh measures his reign was free from rebellions.

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Reforms of Alauddin Khalji

Army reforms

• He had a large permanent standing army, which was paid in cash from the royal treasury.
• This was done through the produce collected as tax from lands between the Ganga and
Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50 per cent of the peasant’s yield.
• According to the Ferishta, Persian historian, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen.
• He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya or chehra
(descriptive list of soldiers).
• A strict review of army from time to time was carried out so that the army has its
maximum efficiency.
• Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.

Note: In the camps of Alauddin the language Urdu/Hindvi was born. It is believed that the first
poet of Urdu was Amir Khusro.

Market reforms

• Alauddin chose to pay his soldiers salaries in cash rather than iqtas.
• The soldiers would buy their supplies from merchants in Delhi and it was thus feared that
merchants would raise their prices.
• To stop this, Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi.
• Alauddin Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi –
1. For grain
2. For cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil
3. For horses, slaves and cattle
4. For miscellaneous commodities.
• Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi.
• The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store-houses in same
way as today Food Corporation of India (FCI) does.
• Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities.
• A separate department called Diwan –I – Riyasat, which was renaming of Diwan-i-Rasalat
was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.
o During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, this department was renamed or replaced by
the department called Diwan-i-riyasat whose primary function was to implement
the economic regulations issued by the Sultan and control the markets and prices.
• Every merchant was registered under the Market department.

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• There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the
functioning of these markets.
• The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices.
• Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat
by using false weights and measures.
• Even during the famine, the same price was maintained.

Land Revenue Administration reforms

• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land.
o After measurement the revenue from the land was assessed according to the
measurement of land.
• Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax.
• Land revenue was collected in cash so he can pay the soldiers in cash.
• His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.
• To know about the revenue arrears and collect them, he introduced a new department
of Diwan-i-mustakhraj.

ARCHITECTURE
• Alai Minar – He attempted a Minar twice the size of Qutub Minar in the same Mehrauli
complex. However, only first floor of that Minar is completed.
• Alai Darwaza – First true arch dome. It is designed on a horse shoe shape.

Jamat Khana Mosque – It is the first complete Islamic style building in India. It located in the same
complex with Tomb of Nizam ud din Auliya. It has got tomb, true arch and Arabesque.

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Jamaat Khana Mosque.

Hauz I Alai – (Hauz Khas) – It is an artificial lake built by Alauddin which provided water to the
entire city.

Hauz Khas
MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

Mongol Invasions

• He had sent his army six times against the Mongols.

• First 2 times - he was successful
• Third time - Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from
entering into the capital city.
• Next three times - Mongol invasions were dealt with severely.
• The north western frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden
of Marches to protect the frontier.

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Conquest of Gujrat

• He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his
daughter escaped.
• While the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Kafur, a eunuch, was also taken to Delhi
and later he was made the Malik Naib – military commander.

Conquest of Rajasthan

• In 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthambore (not Ranthampur) because the ruler
Hamirdevra had declined sultan to handover the Mongol nobles who had took shelter
there.
• After a three month’s siege Ranthambore fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or
self-immolation.
• After Ranthambore he turned to Chittor. It was the powerful state in Rajasthan.
• The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort and won
the Battle.
• Later during Mughal period Malik Mohammad Jaysi wrote an epic poem ‘Padmavat’ in
1540 in Awadi language. It relates an allegorical fictional story about the Delhi Sultan
Alauddin Khalji's desire for the titular Padmavati, the Queen of Chittor. Alauddin Khalji
and Padmavati's husband Ratan Singh are historical figures, whereas Padmavati is a
fictional character.

Conquest of Deccan

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• Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south.
• This region was ruled by 4 important dynasties –
1. Yadavas of Devagiri – ruler Ramachandra Deva
2. Kakatiyas of Warangal - Pratabarudra Deva
3. Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra - Vira Ballala III
4. Pandyas of Madurai - Vira Pandya
• Malik Kafur, Alauddin’s military commander, subdued all four region’s rulers one by one
and seized vast quantity of booty and returned to Delhi.
• Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.

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Patronization of Art

• He patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.

• Amir Khusru is known as the ‘Parrot of India’

Amir Khusro
• Amir Khusru is considered as the father of Urdu language and the inventor of Sitar and
Qawwali singing.
• He was pioneer of three ragas – Aiman, Sanam and Ghora.
• Poetic Collections of Amir Khusro – Ghurrat ul Kamaal, Nihayat ul Kamaal and Vastul
Hayaat.
• Nuh Sipahar (on Mubarak Shah Khilji), Tughlaq Nama (On Ghayas ud din Tughlaq),
Muftah ul Futuh (On Jalal Ud Din Khilji) and Khazain ul Futuh (on Alauddin Khilji) are the
famous works of Amir Khusru.

End of dynasty

• Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak shah Khalji was killed by Khusrau Khan.
• Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the last Khalji Sulthan.
• Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the
throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.

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THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414)

Founder of dynasty - Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320 - 1325)
• His real name was Ghazi Malik.
• Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against Warangal.
• He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.
• Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
o He built the Tughlaqabad Fort. The fort is made of rough sandstone and it is
characterized by Sloppy walls.

Tughlaqabad Fort
• First Sultan to start irrigation works.
• He had differences with Sufi Saint – Nizam ud din Auliya.
• Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion. Before his death, he had built his own
mausoleum. Tomb of Ghiyas Ud din Tughlaq is the first example of marble dome in India.

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Tomb of Ghiyas ud Din

MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

• Ulugh Khan (also known as Juna khan) was said to have treacherously killed his father
and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
• He had introduced many ambitious schemes and novel experiments but all of them ended
in miserable failures because they were all far ahead of their time.
• Very tolerant in religious matters.
• Maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Egypt, China and Iran.
• Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to portrait correct
picture about his personality.
• He was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and
philosophical education.

Experiment 1 - Transfer of Capital

• He wanted to make Devagiri (which he renamed Daulatabad) his second capital so that
he might be able to control South India better.
• The moving of capital was not successful.

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Why this experiment failed?

• It was too far from northern India (more than 1500 kms) and sultan could not keep a
watch on the western frontiers.
• Everyone, including nobles, population had to suffer the hardship of summer and long
distance.
• Many people died. Those who opposed were supressed.
• He returned to Delhi and once again it was made the capital.

Impact -

• Southern kingdoms saw this as sign of weakness of sultan

• Soon after Bahamani and Vijayanagar kingdom in Deccan declared their independence.

Experiment 2 – Token Currency

• The sultan decided to issue ‘token’ coins in brass and copper which could be exchanged
for silver coins from the treasury
• Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. Sultan tried to copy the same.

Why did this experiment fail?

• Because he was not able to prevent forging the new coins.

• The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale.

Impact -

• Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets.

• Finally, he had to discontinue the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange
silver coins for the copper coins. Soon the treasury became empty.
• According the Barani, the heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in
Tughlaqabad.

Experiment 3 – Taxation in Doab

• There were many reasons for this 3rd experiment –

o He wanted to conquer India and central Asia, this means large army and that
means large amount of money to pay their salaries
o To overcome financial difficulties

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• So, he increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and
Yamuna rivers).

Why did this experiment fail?

• It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers.

• At the same time there struck a famine in doab which made the condition worse.

Impact -

• Serious peasant revolts.

• Farmers fled from the villages.

Experiment 4 – Agricultural Reforms

• Lately Sultan realized that real solution lies in adequate relief measures and the
promotion of agriculture.
• A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established.
• He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the
farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
• Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the
government spent seventy lakh tankas.
• This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.

Rebellions

• In Sultan’s later part of reign, there were no. of revolts against Sultan by nobles and
provincial governors.
• Madurai sultanate established by rebellion Hasan Shah.
• 1336 – Vijayanagr Kingdom founded.
• 1347 - Bhamini kingdom established.
• Governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted.
• Gujarat - Taghi rose in revolt.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became worse and he died in 1351.

• According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the
Sultan.
• Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India during his period.
• According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign
marked the beginning of the process of its decline.

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o He was also known as a wisest fool, Pagal padushah, unfortunate idealogue and
the predecessor of Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.
o Ibn Batuta called him ‘‘an ill-starred idealist’’.
o Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of moneyers’.

• Ibn Battuta came from Tanjier, Morocco.

• He was made Qazi (judge of Delhi)
• He was sent to China as an ambassador of Mohd. Bin Tighlaq.
• He wrote his memoirs in the book – Kitab ul Rahla. (Travelogue)
• He was removed from his post and in his writings, he later criticised the Sultan.

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

• Firoz Tughlaq had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles.
• He was the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi
• His wazir (Prime minister), Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert helped the
Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this
period.

Military Campaigns

• He had to face the problem of preventing the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• As no. of rulers started declaring themselves as independent. He tried to focus on
northern India instead of reasserting the control over southern India

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• Bengal - He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal.

o Bengal became free from the control of Delhi Sultanate
• Jajnagar (modern Orissa) – successful expedition and returned with rich booty acquired
from the temples.
• Nagarkot – made its ruler to pay tributes.
o Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jawalamukhi temple library and got
them translated into Persian.
• Thatta in the Sind region – crushed a rebellion there.

Administrative Reforms

• His reign was more notable for his administration.

Nobles, Ulemas and Revision of Iqta system

• Ulemas – scholars of Islamic learning who were generally orthodox in their outlook.
• Strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
• He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties.
• Thus, the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.

Taxes

• As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes.

• First Sultan of Delhi to impose Jaziya.
o Jaziya - It was a religious tax for the freedom of worship.
• He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
• The special tax on 28 items was abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law

Agriculture

• Imposed irrigation tax.

• Irrigation canals and wells were dug.
• The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi.
• Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
• There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi yielding more revenue.

Factories

• New royal factories were developed known as karkhanas in which thousands of slaves
were employed.

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Towns

• About 300 new towns were built.

• The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah
Kotla.

Other reforms

• Old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
• A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and
widows.
• Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
• He patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.
• He was guided by the ulemas and so he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
• He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was the
precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
• Defeated soldiers and young persons were created as slaves and Firoz’s successor had to
face the rebellion of slaves at his death in 1388
• In upcoming years there was further disintegration of Sultanate.
o Many provinces had revolted
o Timur invaded India in 1398 and returned back in 1399. In that 1-year duration he
had sacked the Delhi and India and killed many people.

SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451)

KHIZR KHAN (1414 - 1421)

• Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.
• He occupied Delhi and declared himself as sultan and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• He died in 1421

MUBARAK SHAH (1421 - 1434)

• After Khizr khan death, he was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.
• He was a man of great vision, but the nobles were against him and kept revolting.

MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434 -1445)

• Nephew of Mubarak Shah.
• Always busy against conspirators and gradually lost control over his nobles.
• Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated everything.

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• Muhammad Shah died in 1445.

ALAM SHAH (1445 - 1451)

• Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son Alam Shah (1445-1451)
• The weakest of the Sayyid princes.
• He handed over the throne to Bahlol Lodi and retired to Badaun.
• Bahlul formally crowned himself when ruler of Delhi died in 1451

LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526)

The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans.

BAHLOL LODI (1451 - 1489)

• Founder of Lodi Dynasty

• Bahlol Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks.
• He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.

SIKANDAR LODI (1489 - 1517)

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Tomb of Sikandar Lodi

• He was the greatest of the three Lodi sovereigns.

• He controlled the Ganga valley as far as western Bengal.
• He moved the capital from Delhi to new city because he thought he would have better
control over kingdom. This city later became famous as Agra.
• He extended his empire from the Punjab to Bihar. He was a good administrator.
• He was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and powerful.
• He tried to win people by various measures of public welfare.
o Tried to maintain price control and encouraged low prices.
o Roads were laid.
o Many irrigational facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
• He was a bigot.

IBRAHIM LODI (1517 - 1526)

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• He succeeded Sikandar Lodi.

• He was defeated by Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar.
• He was arrogant. He insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated them and those
who revolted were put to death.
• His own uncle, Alauddin revolted.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Lahore was insulted and discontent emerged
between them.
• Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan Lodi along with Ibrahim’s
uncle, Alam khan, plotted with Babur, the king of Kabul to invade India.
• Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat (1526).
• The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy-five years.

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF DELHI SULTANATE

The main causes were:

• Despotic and military type of government which did not have the confidence of the
people
• Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz
Tughlaq)
• War of succession as there was no fixed law for it.

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• Greed and incompetency of nobles

• Defective military organization.
• Vastness of empire and poor means of communication
• Financial instability
• Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a burden on
the treasury
• Invasion of Timur

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INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE

Administration

• Powerful and efficient administration.

o Reason - establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate.
• At its peak point, Delhi sultanate had extended as far south as Madurai.
• Though the Delhi Sultanate had started disintegrating but still their administrative system
had left a powerful impact on the Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal
system of administration.

State and Sultan

• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
• Sultans were representatives of the Caliph.
• Name of the Caliph was included in the khutba or prayer and even inscribed on the coins.
• Balban who called himself the shadow of God, to increase the power of monarch also
continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in the khutba and coins.
• Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of
permission from the Caliph.

Office of Sultan and his authority

• Office of the Sultan was the most important in the administrative system.
• He was the ultimate authority for the military, legal and political activities just like our
today’s political heads of state.

Law of Succession

• Absence of law of succession.

• This means all the children of sultan had equal right to the throne. Razia was perfect
example of it.
• Iltutmish nominated Razia (his daughter) in preference to his sons.
• But nobles had a very big say in such nominations or successions and so they were to be
accepted by the nobles.
• Sometimes ulemas also played crucial role in accepting the succession to the throne.
• But military superiority remained the main factor in matters of succession not only in that
period but also in upcoming times.

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Central Government

• The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and officials in his administration.

Post of Naib

• Most powerful
• Practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan
• Exercised general control over all the departments

Finance department

• Headed by - Wazir
• Department name – Diwan-i-Wizarat

Military department

• Headed by - Ariz-i-mumalik
• Department name – Diwan-i-Ariz
• Head was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military
department.
• He was not the commander-in-chief of the army.
• The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army.
• This department was 1st set up by Balban
• Further improvisation by - Alauddin Khalji, whose army strength was 3 Lakh
• Alauddin introduced - system of branding of the horses and payment of salary in cash.
• Cavalry was given importance under the Delhi Sultanate.

Department of religious affairs

• Headed by – Chief Sadr

• Department name – Diwan-i-Rasalat
• This department made Grants for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs
and madrasas.

Judicial department

• Headed by - chief Qazi or Qazi ul Quzzat.

• Other judges or qazis were appointed in various parts of the Sultanate.

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Civil matters

• For Muslims – their personal law or sharia was followed.

• For Hindus - their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village
panchayats.

Criminal matters

• Based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.

Department of correspondence

• Department name – Diwan-i-Insha

• All the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt with by this
department.

Name of department Known by Headed by

Finance department Diwan-i-Wizarat Wazir

Military department Diwan-i-Ariz Ariz-i-mumalik

Religious affairs department Diwan-i-Rasalat Chief Sadr

Judicial department Chief Qazi

Correspondence department Diwan-i-Insha Dahir-i-mumalik

Local Administration

• Sultante was divided into provinces, which were called as Iqtas.

• Iqtas holder was called Iqtadar or Muqti.
• Initially iqtas were under the control of the nobles.
• Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders
as governors of iqtas.
• The provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana.
• Shiqdar controlled shiq
• Amil headed pargana which comprise of number of villages.
• Village remained the basic unit of the administration.
• Village headman – ‘muqaddam or chaudhri’.
• Village accountant – ‘patwari’ and today also it is known by the same name.

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Muqtis

• Duty of the muqtis –

o To lead military campaigns
o Maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their
assignments as salary.
• They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.
• Control over muqtis was most effective when –
o These offices were not inheritable
o If iqtas were assigned for a short period of time before being shifted.
• These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin
Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
• Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by
the muqtis.
• Care was taken that the muqti collected only prescribed taxes and maintained the
required number of soldiers.

Economy

• Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue administration.

• The lands were classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
The officials collect revenues from these iqtas as their salaries.
2. Khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. Inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
• Land revenue paid by peasantry – 1/3rd or sometimes ½ of their total production
• They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living.
• Frequent famines made their lives more miserable.
• Tughlaq dynasty rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took some steps
to enhance agricultural production –
o By providing irrigational facilities
o By providing takkavi loans
o Encouraging the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead of barley.
o Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwan-i-
Kohi.

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Urbanization

• During sultanate period process of urbanization had started.

• No. of cities and towns like Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad,
Delhi and Jaunpur had grown during this period.
• Delhi remained the largest city in the East.

Trade and Commerce

• The economic reforms of Alauddin Khilji brought the prices to very low but that had also
increased the import goods since the Sultan made advances to the foreign traders to
import their goods and he always subsidised in such cases.
• Contemporary writers like Ibn Battutah described growth of trade and commerce
• India exported a large number of commodities to countries of Persian Gulf, West Asia and
South East Asia.
• Overseas trade - Multanis and Afghan Muslims controlled it.
• Inland trade - Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchant’s domination.
• Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated smooth transport and
communication.

• Balban was the first Sultan who got dense forests cut; roads built and secured form the
danger of bandits.
• It also helped the traders and their commercial caravans to move from one market place
to another
• Sarais or rest houses were made on the highways for convenience of travelers.

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• Cotton textile and silk industry flourished

• Introduction of Sericulture on a large scale made India less dependent on other countries
for the import of raw silk.
• Growth of Paper industry led to extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries.
• leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing
demand.
• The royal karkhanas whose workers were slaves supplied the goods needed to the Sultan
and his household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver and gold ware.
• The nobles always tried to imitate the luxurious life style of Sultans.
• They were well paid and accumulated enormous wealth.

Coins

• Qutub ud din Aibak did not mint coins on his name. He minted coins on the name of Ghori,
his master. He was the only Sultan of Delhi sultanate who minted the image of Goddess
Lakshmi on his coins.
• Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas.
• During the Khalji rule, 1 silver tanka = 48 jitals (like today we have 1$ = 60 `)
• During Tughlaq rule, 1 silver tanka = 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South
Indian conquests.
• Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
• Recall failure of Muhammad bin Tughlaq token currency experiment had exhausted the
royal treasury.
• Though he issued several types of gold and silver coins. At least 25 varieties of gold coins
were issued by him.

Social Life

Hindu society

• There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society.

• Traditional caste system

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• Upper strata of the society – Brahmins.

• Women –
o Subservient position
o Practice of Sati
o Seclusion of women
o Wearing of purdah among the upper-class women

Muslim society

• It remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups - The Turks, Iranians, Afghans
and Indian Muslims
• There were no intermarriages between these groups.
• Hindu converts from lower castes were also not given equal respect.
• Muslim nobles – occupied high offices
• Hindu nobles – high offices very rarely given in the government.
• Hindus had to pay Jaziya.
• In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
• During Firoz Tughlaq period it was collected as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were
exempted from paying jiziya.

Music

• New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period.

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• Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam.
• He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems.
• The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
• The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz
Tughlaq.
• Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of
a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Literature

• The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature.

• Many of them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature.
• Learned men were from Persia and so Persian language got encouragement.
• Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged.
• Some Sultans kept their own court historians. The most famous historians were Hasan
Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif.

Amir Khusrau (1252 -1325)

• The famous Persian writer of this period.

• He wrote a number of poems.
• He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry
called ‘Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian style’.
• He also wrote some Hindi verses.
• Amir Khusrau was author of Khazain-ul-Futuh and Tughlaq Nama.

Languages

• Sanskrit and Persian languages functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Zia Nakshabi – 1st person to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
• Book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot – was a popular book and translated into Turkish
and later into many European languages.
• The famous Rajatarangini written during the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of
Kashmir.
• Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into Persian.
• In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
• Regional languages also developed during this period.

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• Chand Baradi – famous Hindi poet of this period.

• Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of
Mahabharata into Bengali.
• The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages.
• The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.

Author name/ Book written About book

Writer/Historian

Minhaj – i – Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri A general history of Muslim

dynasties up to 1260.

Ziauddin Barani Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi History of Tughlaq dynasty

Amir Khusrau Khazain-ul-Futuh Alauddin’s conquests

Amir Khusrau Tughlaq Nama Rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq

Kalhana Rajatarangini About early Kashmir and its

neighbours in the north
western parts of the Indian
subcontinent

Al Baruni Kitab-ul-Hind History of India

Abu Nasr bin Muhammad al Kitab-ul-Yamini History of the reign of

Jabbaral Utbi Subuktigin and Mahmud
Ghazani

Shaikh Abdul Husan Kamil-ut-Tawarikh account of Muhammad of

popularly, known as ‘Ibn-ul- Ghur’s conquest of India.
Asir’

Taj-ul-Maasir Hasan Nizami Account on the career &

reign of Qutub-ud-din Aibak
& the early years of Iltutmish

Ibn Battutah Kitab-in-Rahlab Book of travels which

furnishes a lot of historical
information

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Firoz Shah Tughlaq Futuhat-i-Firozeshahi Small autobiography of Firoz

Shah Tughlaq

Ahmad Yadgar Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana Account of the rise and fall of

the Lodis and Suris. Written
during Akbar’s reign.

Chand Bardai Prithviraja Raso Events relating to Prithviraj.

Chandrasekhar Surjana Charita Kavya Source of information of the

Chauhan rulers.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Bhakti means complete devotional surrender to a perceived God.

It is believed to have been originated in 2nd C BC with Bhagwatism – A form of Vaishnavism in

which Vasudeva Krishna was worshipped. (There hasn’t been a mention of Krishna before 2nd C
BC).

• Bhakti believes that Man (Soul) has direct relation with God rather than the contemporary
traditional belief that a priest is an intermediary between the two.
• Bhakti movement practically started in 6th – 7th C by Alvars and Nainars in Southern India.
• The evolution of Bhakti Movement in medieval India, which gained momentum in the
northern parts of the country during the 12th−17th century CE, differs from the southern
Bhakti Movement.
• The Bhakti Movement in the north included socio-religious movements that were linked
to one of the acharyas from the south, and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the
movement that originated in the south.
• Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two regions, the notion of bhakti
varied in the teachings of each of the saints.
• The northern medieval Bhakti Movement had the influence of the spread of Islam in India.
The distinctive characteristics of Islam such as Monotheism or belief in one God, equality
and brotherhood of man, and rejection of rituals and class divisions certainly influenced
the Bhakti Movement of this era.
• Moreover, the preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti reformers like
Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak, as the Bhakti Movement also initiated certain reforms in
the society.

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• Some scholars consider the rise of the Bhakti Movement as a reaction against feudal
oppression and against conformist Rajput−Brahman domination. The anti-feudal tone in
the poetry of Bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas is seen as testimony
to this point.
• According to scholars, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the demand for manufactured
goods, luxuries, and other artisanal goods increased, leading to a movement of artisans
into the cities. The movement gained support from these classes of the society as these
groups were dissatisfied with the low status accorded to them by the Brahmanical system,
and hence they turned towards Bhakti since it focused on equality.
• Though there is no single opinion about the origins of the Bhakti Movement, there is
unanimity of thought over the fact that the Bhakti Movement focused on the message of
equality and devotional surrender to a personally conceived supreme God.
• The Bhakti movement is also divided into two different ideological streams of ‘Saguna’
(those poet-saints who composed verses extolling a god with attributes or form) and
‘Nirguna’ (those extolling gods without and beyond all attributes or form).
• The Saguna Bhaktas like Tulsidas upheld the caste system and the supremacy of the
Brahmans, and preached a religion of surrender and simple faith in a personal God, having
a strong commitment towards idol worship.
• On the other hand, the Nirguna Bhaktas like Kabir rejected the varnashrama and all
conventions based on caste distinctions. They championed new values, helping the
emergence of new groups and new unorthodox or protestant sects.
• The Nirguna Bhakatas are also known as Monotheistic Bhakti saints, who gave more
importance to the personal experience of Bhakti saints with god.
• They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the caste system and the
practice of idolatry.

Similarities and Characteristics of Bhakti Saints:

• Both focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God, and had a particular focus on a
personal relationship with the Divine.
• Both were highly critical of ritual observances as maintained and fostered by the Brahman
priesthood. In fact, many poet saints, especially in northern areas, were themselves of
lower caste lineages. Women were also en
• Another commonality was their usage of the vernacular or regional languages of the
masses, as opposed to the sacred Language of the elite priesthood, Sanskrit.
• They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across north India.
This enabled them to transmit their ideas among the masses and also among the various
lower classes.

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SANKARACHARYA

• Great thinker, distinguished philosopher, and leader of the Hindu revivalist movement of
the 9th century, which gave a new orientation to Hinduism.
• He was born in Kaladi (Kerala) and propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and
Nirgunabrahman (god without attributes).

Philosophy

• In Advaita, the reality of the world is denied and Brahman is considered as the only reality.
• It is only Brahman at its base that gives it its reality.
• Although it is only the Brahman that exists all around us, we see the world, which is only
a reading of Brahman by our minds.
• According to the philosophy, Creator (God) and created beings (Soul) are not two but one.
But they appear two because of Maya (Illusion).
• Maya (Illusion) is because of Agyanta (ignorance).
• Agynata can only be removed through Vedic knowledge (Gyan). But once we attain
realisation and see that it was Brahman all along, we do not see the world anymore.
• According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can lead to salvation. Followers of
Shankaracharya were called gyan margi.

He wrote commentary on the Bhagvat Gita, on the Brahmasutra and the Upanishads, and wrote
books like: (a) Upadesh Shastri (b) Vivek Chudamani (c) Bhaja Govindum Stotra

He is also believed to have established 4 mathas at Sringiri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath.

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RAMANUJA

• Born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai in the 12th century.

• He opposed the mayavada of Shankara and advocated the philosophy of Vishista
Advaitavada (qualified monoism), and founded the Shrivaishnava sect.
• According to him, God is Saguna Brahman. The creative process and all the objects in
creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya.
• Therefore, God, soul, matter, are real. But god is inner substance and the rest are his
attributes.
• In Vishista Advaita, the world and Brahman are also considered two equally real entities,
as in dualism, but here the world is not separate from Brahman but is formed out of
Brahman.
• The practice of religion in Vishista Advaita is similar to Dualism, and the only difference is
that mankind enjoys a higher status than in pure dualistic worship and is nearer to God.
• Thus, in Vishista Advaita, although both the world and Brahman are considered equally
real, they are not considered two separate entities as in Dualism.
• He also advocated prabattimarga or the path of self-surrender to God. He invited the
downtrodden to Vaishnavism and advocated salvation by bhakti rather than Vedic
knowledge.

MADHAVACHARYA

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• In the 13th century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or the dualism of
the Jivatma and Paramatma.
• According to this philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality, full of real
distinction.
• According to Madhava, Brahman and the world are considered to be two equally real
entities and not related in any way.
• The God of dualism is the Hindu God, Vishnu. Vishnu has created the world, and the world
stands separate from God and in an inferior position to God with no link between the two.
• Vishnu controls the world and all world events, and the duty of all person is to worship
and pray to god. God, soul, and matter are all unique in nature, and hence they are
irreducible to each other. He also founded the Brahma Sampradya.

NIMBRAKA

• Younger contemporary of Ramanujam who propounded the Dvaita advaita philosophy

and the philosophy of Bheda Abheda (difference/non–difference).
• According to him, Brahman or the supreme soul transforms itself into the souls of the
world, which are therefore real, distinct, and different from Brahman.
• Like Vishista Advaita, the Bheda Abheda school also believes that the world and Brahman
are both equally real, and that the world is a part of Brahman. The difference is on
emphasis only.
• The world also is but a manifestation of Brahman, but it is a very small manifestation, and
the difference with Brahman is very large.
• Preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
• Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and established his ashrama in Braja (Mathura).
• He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya.

VALLABHACHARYA

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• Born in Benaras in the 15th century and lived at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
• He propounded the Shudhadvaita (pure monism).
• In Shudhadvaita, as in Vishista Advaita, the world is taken to have a real existence, as also
Brahman.
• But it is said that there is no change of Brahman into the world, the world exists as it were
as an aspect of Brahman without undergoing any change, it is a part of Brahman.
• There is no change — the world is a part of the coin that is Brahman. Hence, this is called
‘Shudh Advaita’ because it is said that there is only one and there is no change.

JNANESWARA

• A 13th century pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra, whose commentary on the Bhagvat
Gita called Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
• Arguing against caste distinctions, he believed that the only way to attain god was through
bhakti.

NAMDEVA

• He was a poet-saint from Maharashtra belonging to the 14th century, who belonged to
the Varkari sect.
• He attracted individuals from diverse classes and castes during community-driven bhajan
singing sessions.
• It is interesting to note that while he is remembered in the north Indian monotheistic
tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of the Varkari
tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition).
• He is considered one the five revered gurus in the Dadupanth tradition within Hinduism,
the other four being Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas.
• According to tradition, Namdeva was a tailor who had taken to banditry before he became
a saint.
• His Marathi poetry breathes a spirit of intense love and dedication to god.
• His companions during worship sessions included Kanhopatra (a dancing girl), Sena (a
barber), Savata (a gardener), Chokhamela (an untouchable), Janabai (a maid), Gora (a
potter), Narahari (a goldsmith), and Jnanesvar (also known as Dnyandev, a Brahmin).
• It is believed that his Abhangas were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.

EKNATH

He was a prominent Marathi saint, scholar, and religious poet of the Varkari sampradaya,
belonging to the 16th century CE.

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• In the development of Marathi literature, Eknath is seen as a bridge between his

predecessors—Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva—and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
• He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song called Bharood. Eknath’s teachings
in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of Marathi literature from spiritual to
narrative compositions.
• He is believed to be a family man and emphasised on the fact that stay in monasteries or
resignation from the world are not necessary for leading a religious life.

TUKARAM

• Tukaram was a 17th century poet-saint of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra who also
was part of the egalitarian Varkari devotionalism tradition and was a Sudra by birth.
• Tukaram is known for his Avangas (dohas), which constitute the gatha devotional poetry,
and community-oriented worship with spiritual songs known as kirtans.
• His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of the Hindu God Vishnu.
• He was a contemporary of Shivaji and was responsible for creating a background for
Maratha nationalism, ‘Parmaratha’.

RAMDASA

• He was born in c.1608 CE and was the spiritual guide of Shivaji.

• He wrote Dasabodha, combining his vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with the
principles of spiritual life.

RAMANANDA

• He is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century, born in Allahabad, and
was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
• Later, he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Benaras and Agra.

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• He considered it to be the link between the South Indian Bhakti and North Indian
Vaishnava Bhakti traditions.
• Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India.
• He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a
new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and devotion.
• His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste among his
followers.
• He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti.
• He worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder of the Ram cult in
north India.
• He, like the monotheist bhakti saints, also rejected caste hierarchies and preached in the
local languages in his attempt to popularise the cult.
• His followers are called Ramanandis, like Tulsidas.
• He put emphasis on bhakti and avoided both gyana marg and karma marg.
• Gave rise to two schools of thought: (a) Orthodox school – Represented by Nabhadas,
Tulsidas (b) Liberal – Represented by Kabir, Nanak, and others.

KABIR

• Among the disciples of Ramananda, one of the most famous was Kabir.
• He was a 15th century Bhakti poet and saint, whose verses are found in the Sikh holy
scripture, Adi Granth.
• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow, but was brought up by a Muslim couple
who were weavers by profession.
• He possessed an inquiring mind, and while in Benares, learnt much about Hinduism and
became familiar with Islamic teachings also.

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• He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the equality of man before
God.
• He regarded devotion to god as an effective means of salvation andurged that to achieve
this one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy, and insincerity.
• Though familiar with yogic practices, he considered neither asceticism nor book
knowledge important for true knowledge.
• He strongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice of untouchability.
• Kabir’s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the
two sects.
• He emphasised the essential oneness of all religions by describing Hindus and Muslims
“as pots of the same clay”. To him “Rama and Allah, temple and mosque” were the same.
• He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called
Kabirpanthis.
• Among those who were influenced by Kabir were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste, from
Benares, Guru Nanak, who was a Khatri merchant from Punjab, and Dhanna, who was a
Jat peasant from Rajasthan.
• Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the compositions of Kabir.

DADU DAYAL

• Dadu Dayal is one of the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant traditions in Northern
India.
• He was a saint from Gujarat, who spent the best part of his spiritual life in Rajasthan.
‘Dadu’ means ‘brother’, and ‘Dayal’ means ‘the compassionate one’.
• Later, his followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis who set up ashrams known as
Thambas around the region.
• According to tradition, he was the foster son of an affluent businessman who had found
him floating on the river Sabarmati.
• It is believed that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
• Dadu believed that devotion to God should transcend religious or sectarian affiliation, and
that devotees should become non-sectarian or nipakh.

CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU

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• Well-known saint, ascetic Hindu monk, and social reformer of Bengal, who popularised
the Krishna cult in the 16th century.
• With him, the Bhakti Movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement as
it questioned social division on the basis of caste – Popularised the Sankirtan/Kirtan
system (group devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing).
• He renounced the world, became an ascetic, and wandered all over the country preaching
his ideas.
• He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man and condemned all distinction based on
religion and caste, and emphasised love and peace.
• He showed great empathy towards the suffering of other people, especially that of the
poor and the weak, and believed that through love and devotion, song and dance, a
devotee can feel the presence of God.
• He accepted disciples from all classes and castes, and his teachings are widely followed in
Bengal even today.
• The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.

NARSINGH MEHTA

• Saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of Radha–Krishna.
• Author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite bhajan – “Vaishanava jan to”

SAINT TYAGARAJA

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• Was one of the greatest composers of Carnatic music, who composed thousands of
devotional compositions, most in Telugu and in praise of Lord Ram.
• He was a prolific composer and composed the famous Pancharatna Kritis (meaning five
gems).
• He was highly influential in the development of the classical devotional music tradition.

AKKAMAHADEVI

• During the 12th century CE, Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi, belonging
to the southern region of Karnataka, established herself as an ardent devotee of Shiva
whom she addressed as Chennamallikarjuna.

JANABAI

• Was born around 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste Sudra family.
• She worked in the household of one of the most revered of the bhakti poets, saint
Namdeva.
• She wrote over 300 poems focusing on domestic chores and about the restrictions she
faced as a low caste woman.

MIRABAI

• She belonged to a high-class ruling Rajput family.

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• Mirabai’s poetry speaks of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child. From that
point onwards, Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride.
• However, against her wishes, she was married to the son of Rana Sanga of Mewar at an
early age.
• Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles within the family she had been married
into, including unsuccessful attempts made by her jealous husband to kill her, and her
sisters-in-law’s efforts to obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of wandering
saints.
• Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family and went on a pilgrimage to various
places associated with her divine husband, Krishna.
• Here too she was rejected initially because she was a woman, yet Mirabai’s reputation of
devotion, piety, and intellectual astuteness eventually led to her inclusion within the
community of the saints of Brindavan.
• Mirabai’s poetry portrays a unique relationship with Krishna as she is not only being
portrayed as the devoted bride of Krishna, but Krishna is also portrayed as in pursuit of
Mira.

BAHINABAI

She was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the form of abangas, women’s
folk songs, that portray the working life of woman, especially in the fields.

SIKKHISM

GURU NANAK

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• The first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, who was also a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and
social reformer.
• He was born in a Khatri household in the village of Talwandi (now called Nankana), on the
banks of the river Ravi in c.1469 CE.
• His father was an accountant, and even Nanak was trained in Persian to follow his father’s
footsteps, but he was inclined towards mysticism.
• He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals, and
preached the unity of god and condemned the formalism and ritualism of both Islam and
Hinduism.
• He laid a great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as the first condition of
approaching, God, and the need of a guru for guidance.
• Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could be combined with the
duties of the householder.
• He started the practice of Sangat (Sitting near the Guru) and Pangat (Community kitchen).
• After Guru Nanak the followers started/continued his tradition and evolved the tradition
of Gurus.

Guru Angad – He was the pioneer in Gurumukhi script.

Guru Amardas

Guru Ramdas – He got land from Akbar in Amritsar and a pond.

Guru Arjan – 1st Hereditary Guru

• He compiled the holy book – Originally called Adi Granth in 1604 (during Akbar’s reign).
• Guru Arjan built Harmandir Sahib on the land received by Guru Ramdas.
• He died in prison during the reign of Jehangir.

Guru Hargovind – He refused payment of money on behalf of Guru Arjan for giving shelter to
Shah Jehan who rebelled against Jehangir.

He was the first the first Guru who started using weapon – Sword.

Sikh Gurus were no longer only Spiritual Guru but Spiritual cum political Guru.

They started collecting money/alms and charity. However, Mughals called it a ‘tax’ and said that
Sikh Guru is trying to make a state with in a State. Mughals also accused the Guru that he is giving
shelter to rebels of Mughals.

In Guru’s defence, Mughal officials were exploiting the peasants and aggrieved poor sufferers
came in the Matha of Sikh Guru for shelter and Protection.
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Guru Har Rai – Guru Har Rai is notable for maintaining the large army of Sikh soldiers that the
sixth Sikh Guru had amassed, yet avoiding military conflict. He supported the moderate Sufi
influenced Dara Shikoh instead of conservative Sunni influenced Aurangzeb.

Guru Harkrishan – He was 8 years old when he became a Guru. He contracted smallpox in 1664
and died before reaching his eighth birthday. It is said that he died because he contracted
smallpox while successfully curing his followers. He is also known as Bal Guru (Child Guru).

Guru Tegh Bahadur – Guru Tegh Bahadur was controversially publicly executed in Chandni
Chowk at Delhi as he refused to get converted to Islam. At this time Guru’s popularity was at its
peak. He was widely respected not only by Sikhs but Hindus, Sufi’s and Shias. Aurangzeb being
an orthodox Sunni persecuted Sikh, Shias, Hindus and liberal Muslims.

Guru Gobind Singh – He established Khalsa panth in 1699 at Anandpur Sahib. Khalsa was a
dedicated Sikh militia unit under the command of Guru Gobind Singh ji.

SUFI MOVEMENT

Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam.

It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of
mystery which lies within Islam.

Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In
this sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety.

The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence
and stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god.

There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their
specific characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi
orders.

Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realization of God.
Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was
tantamount to service to God.

In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense
of perception.

While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.

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While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as
the only means of attaining salvation.

According to Sufis one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual
development is impossible.

Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.

Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins,
performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic
practices.

Many Silsilas were started in India.

Silsila Founder
Chisti Silsila Khwaja Moin Uddin Chisti
Suhrawardi Silsila Shahab Uddin Suhrawardi
Firdausi Sheikh Yahya Maneri
Naqsh Bandiya Silsila Baqi Billah
Qadiriya Silsila Jalal Uddin Abdul Qadir
Roahniya Silsila Mian Bayazid Ansari
Most Prominent of them was Chisti Silsila

THE CHISTI SILSILAH

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Moinuddin Chisti’s Dargah at Ajmer

• The Chisti Order was established in India by Mouinuddin Chishti who moved to India after
the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206.
• The fame of Khwaja Mouinuddin grew after his death in 1235.
• His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome were
erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth century.
• The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
• The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual soul and tolerance
between people of different faiths.
• They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.
• They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi’s, and used simple language.
• The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki who settled in
Delhi from his homeland in Trans-oxiana in 1221.
• This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when there was a steady flow of people
from central Asia fleeing from the Mongols.
• Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought
to force him to leave by leveling charges against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish,
dismissed these attempts eventually forcing the Suhrawardis to relent.
• The Chishtipirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and selfless
devotion to God.
• The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as necessary for the
control of the senses that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life.
• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to redress
the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the hungry.
• Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
• The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi
(in Haryana) on the route between Multan and Lahore.
• Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived in
the fourteenth century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his lifetime
he was witness to the establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and
subsequently the establishment of the Tughlaq’s.
• There are numerous stories surrounding the life of Nizamuddin Auliya, famous among
them were stories of his confrontations with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to
have maintained a strict
• policy of not involving himself with the various groups and factions of the Sultan’s court
in Delhi earning him the respect of many.

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• Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi was another of the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active
role in the political affairs of the period.
• In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by Shaikh
Burhanuddin Gharib.
• Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This was
accompanied with a change where some of the Chishtis began accepting grants and
patronage from the ruling establishment.
• Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the region.
• The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity.
• Last of the prominent Saints was Salim Chisti whos tomb was built by Akbar at Fatehpur
Sikri.

SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The Hindu philosophy is categorized into six Orthodox and three Heterodox philosophies.

The classification is based on the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The Orthodox

school of philosophy also called the Aastika school believes in the authority of Vedas, while the
Heterodox school of philosophy, popularly known as Nastika school rejects the principle of
authority of Vedas.

The six orthodox schools are called as shatdarshanas and include Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga,
Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta Philosophy). Most of these schools
of thought believe in the theory of Karma and rebirth. Moksha (salvation) is believed to be the
liberation from the cycle of birth and death and is the ultimate goal of human life.

1. Nyaya Philosophy - Nyaya school follows a scientific and a rational approach. Sage Gautama is
the founder of this school. Nyaya school banks upon various pramanas (mechanism of attaining
knowledge). It believes that gaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of
attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

2. Sankhya Philosophy - Sankhya is the oldest of all philosophies put forth by the sage Kapila. It
is a dualistic philosophy with Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (nature) in it. Advaita Vedanta derives
its base from Sankhya School. Sankhya also devolves philosophical basis for Yoga. It emphasizes
the attainment of knowledge of self through meditation and concentration. It is the oldest
philosophy.

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3. Yoga Philosophy - Yoga school introduces the methods of the discipline of body and mind.
Sage Patanjali is the founder of Yoga. Emancipation of Purusha from Prakriti by self-awareness
through the discipline of body and mind is conceptualized by Yoga. It is believed that practising
Ashtanga Yoga is the way to relieve oneself from past sins in order to make way for liberation.

4. Vaisheshika - Vaisheshika school deals with metaphysics. It was founded by the sage Kanada.
It is an objective and realistic philosophy of the Universe. According to the Vaisheshika school of
philosophy, the universe is reducible to a finite number of atoms, Brahman being the
fundamental force causing consciousness in these atoms.

5. Purva Mimamsa - Purva Mimamsa school believes in the complete authority of Vedas. It is
based on sage Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras. It emphasizes the power of yajnas and mantras in
sustaining the activities of the universe. It states that a human being can attain salvation only by
acting in conformity with the principles of Vedas.

6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) - Vedanta school is a monoistic school of philosophy that believes
that the world is unreal and the only reality is Brahman. The three sub-branches of Vedanta are
Advaita of Shankaracharya, Vishishta Advaita of Ramanujacharya and Dvaita of Madhwacharya.
Uttara Mimamsa is based on Upanishads (the end portions of Vedas).

Three Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Schools that do not accept the authority of vedas are by definition unorthodox (nastika) systems.
The schools belonging to heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy are Carvaka, Buddhism &
Jainism.

Carvaka - It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought. Accepted direct

perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. Insists on joyful living. Also
known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic school of thought. Its founder was Carvaka, author
of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C.

Note-Covered in Ancient India VAN also.

VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

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SOURCES TO KNOW ABOUT EMPIRE

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The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and
numismatics.

• Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani

Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period.
• The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler
Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among eminent foreign
travelers who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar
Empire.
• The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
• The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers.
• The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends
explaining their tittles and achievements.

POLITICAL HISTORY

The Vijayanagar empire was founded in 1346 as a direct response to the challenge posed by the
sultanate of Delhi.

• The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their dynasty was named after
their father, Sangama.
• There are several theories with regard to the origin of this dynasty. According to some
scholars, they had been the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their fall
they served the Kampili state.
• Another view says that they were the feudatories of the Hoysalas and belonged to
Karnataka.
• Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary scholar and a saint
Vidyaranya for the establishment of their kingdom.
• It is believed that to commemorate the memory of their guru, the brothers established
the city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara on the banks of river Tungabhadra.
• The empire included people from different cultural regions, the Tamil, Telegu and
Karnataka region who all spoke different languages and belonged to different cultures.
• Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was ruled by three different dynasties- Sangama,
who remained in power till 1485; the Saluva who remained in power till 1503 and the
Tuluvas.
• The last dynasty was the Aravidu dynasty that ruled till seventeenth century.

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• Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Fernao Nuniz, Domingo Paes, Duarto Barbosa and
Abdur Razzaq wrote about the magnificence of Vijayanagar.

KRISHNA DEVA RAYA (1509 – 1530)

• The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha.

• The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
He possessed great military ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high
intellectual quality. His first task was to check the invading Bahmani forces. By that time
the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates.
• The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya.
• Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of
Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur
in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.
• Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
• He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese.
• Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
• Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions.
• He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
• Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His
important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
• Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars.

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• Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
• He built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
• He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi.
• Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams.
• After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne.
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda
and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as
Raksasa Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was
destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar
Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century.
• Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this
• dynasty.
• The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.

ADMINISTRATION

• The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.
• He was the highest court of appeal.
• The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation
to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by ending the Sangama
dynasty.
• The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
• The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus,
sthalas and finally into gramas.
• The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
• Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
• Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected
at the ports, taxes on various professions were other sources of income to the
government.
• Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce.
• The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure.
• In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants
were followed.

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ARMY AND MILITARY ORGANISATION

• In order to wage continuous warfare, there was a need to keep a large army.
• Artillery was important and well-bred horses were maintained.
• The Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses from across the Arabian Sea from
Arabia and other Gulf countries.
• The port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other luxury commodities.
The Vijayanagar rulers always attempted to control the port of Malabar. Like the
Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the use of firearms and employed
Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
• One of the rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled Muslims in his armed services, allotted them jagirs
and erected a mosque for their use in the city.
• The walls of the forts to counter the firearms were now made thick and special kinds of
door with fortified walls front were constructed.
• On the walls of the forts, special kinds of big holes were made to rest the guns. Special
kinds of parapets were constructed on the forts to put the canons on it.
• Firearms were used. Some firearms were small and comprised of rifles and pistols. Some
like canons were heavy and had to be put on a bullock cart or on an elephant and pushed
into the battlefield.
• One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the
amaranayaka system. In this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called
the nayaka. Each nayaka was given an area for administration.
• The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area. He collected
taxes in his area and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and
weapons of warfare that he had to supply to the raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The nayaka
was also the commander of the forts.
• Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal
court with gifts to express their loyalty.
• In the seventeenth century, several of these nayakas became independent and
established separate states.
• The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their own soldiers, forces and elephants. They
were a powerful section that challenged the Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal
structures and contributed to the defeat of the Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota.

SOCIETY

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• Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes – Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras – in the Vijayanagar society.
• Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life
in the city of Vijayanagar.
• Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
• Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people.
• Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household
servants.
• Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
• Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
• Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the
Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting
of metal images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.

ECONOMY

• According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of the
wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
• Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
• The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation
facilities.
• New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra.
Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
• There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds.
• Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
• Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district.
• Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold coin was the varaha but
weights and measures varied from place to place.
• Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
• There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
• Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and with
Burma, Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
• The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and
sugar.
• The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet
clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
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CULTURE

VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE HAMPI

• The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
• The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple
premises.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the
most common animal found in these pillars.
• Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big
temples. These mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions.
• Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
• The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or
the city of Vijayanagar.
• Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
• The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
• The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar.They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting
of metal images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
• There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature.
• The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.
• He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.
• His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature.

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BAHAMANI KINGDOM

• The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq
appointed amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred
villages.
• From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated
which led to the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the
capital at Gulbarga in Karnataka.
• Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah as he traced
his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named
after him, the Bahamani Sultanate.
• After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control
the Deccan region, therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the
kingdom.

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• There was a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin
Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important.
• Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah
III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from
Goa to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna.
• The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister
Mahmud Gawan.
• One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an
• important port on the west coast.
• Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the administrative system was well
organised.
• The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These
provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
• Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was
annexed to Bahamani kingdom.
• Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar.
• Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar. Khalisa
land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal
household.
• Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500
horses were given 1000,000 huns annually.
• If short of the stipulated troops, the tarafdar would have to reimburse the amount to the
central government.
• Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.
• Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs.
• There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant
Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was
Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had
settled in the Deccan region recently.
• Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better
administrative positions and because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani
Sultanate was affected.
• For the first time in India both Bahamani and Vijaynagar kingdoms used gunpowder in the
warfare.
• The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish
and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.

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MAHMUD GAWAN

Madarsa and Tomb of Mahmud Ghawan

• One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
• Mahmud Gawan’s early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan
as a trader. He was granted the title of ‘Chief of the Merchants’ or Malikut-Tujjar by the
Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah.
• The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency
council was set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member.
• He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of ‘Khwaju-i-Jahan.’
• The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the
achievements of Mahmud Gawan.
• He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He was also a learned person. He possessed
a great knowledge of mathematics.
• He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of
architecture.
• He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and
the sea pirates on the Arabian sea.
• His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari delta and thus he expanded the
Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
• Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis
and the Deccanis.
• He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability.
• Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi.

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• On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was
a great loss for Vijayanagar.
• Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over
Goa and Dabhol.
• His administrative reforms were aimed to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles
and provinces.
• Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the
nobility. Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the forts
were under the control of these officers.
• In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of
each province was to be under the direct control of the provincial tarafdar.
• The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the
forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central Government.
• However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the
Bahamani kingdom broke up.
• In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda
and Bijapur and Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new
states.
• These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar, the AdilShahis of Bijapur, the QutbShahis of
Golconda, and the ImadShahis of Berar and the BaridShahis of Bidar.
• They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances.
• They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers.
• Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota
against Vijayanagar.
• They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies.

CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE VIJAYANAGA R AND THE BAHAMANI KINGDOMS

• There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over
the control of Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
• This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources. The famous diamond mines of
Golconda were located in the eastern part of the doab region.
• The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across
Tungabhadra in the Deccan.
• It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status quo was
maintained.
• Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and sometimes, Vijayanagar had an advantage.
For instance, in 1504, the Bahamani managed to reconquer the Raichur doab. However,

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with the ascent of Krishna Deva Raya, the Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda and
other inland towns.
• An important result of these wars was that both the powers were so involved amongst
themselves that they never realized the increasing power of the Portuguese on the coast
of South India.
• Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the resources of both the states and weakened
them.
• The other areas of conflict were the Marathwada region and the deltaic region of Krishna-
Godavari.
• Both regions had fertile areas and important ports that controlled trade to the foreign
countries.
• The fertile area in the Marathwada region was the Konkan belt that also had the port of
Goa which was an important region for trade and export and import especially import of
horses from Iraq and Iran.
• Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani states are perceived as
Hindu-Muslim conflicts, but the above-mentioned reasons show that the struggle was not
due to any religious differences.
• Territorial and economic motives were the main causes for the war.
• Despite hostilities between the two states, there were times when they also co-operated
with each other.
• Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates
and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”.
• Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagra
following the death of Krishna Deva Raya.
• There were also sharing and exchange of ideas, especially in the field of art, literature and
architecture.

MUGHALS

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BABAR

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• Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
• Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana, but was soon
defeated by his distant relative and as a result lost his kingdom.
• He became a wanderer for some time till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles.
• Then, Babur took interest in conquering India and launched three expeditions between
1519 and 1523.
• The opportunity to fulfil his ambition came to Babur when he was invited to India by
discontented party, Daulat Khan Lodhi the most powerful noble of the Punjab and Alam
Khan an uncle of Ibrahim Khan Lodhi sought Babur to help to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi.
• India was then distracted by ambitions, rivalries and disaffection of nobles and the Delhi
sultanate existed only in name.
• This was his fourth expedition in which he occupied Lahore in 1524 and such occupation
was not what Daulat Khan desired.
• He had hoped that Babur would retire after a raid leaving the field clear for him and so
he turned against him and Alam Khan also joined hands with him.
• Babur had to retire to Kabul to collect re-enforcements.
• Babur soon re-occupied the Punjab in 1525 and Daulat Khan Lodhi submitted to Babur.
• On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five prominent Muslim rulers – the
Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu
rulers – Rana Sangha of Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the ranks of Babur.
• Babur got rid of all the self-seeking Afghan nobles of the Punjab.
• He received messages of support from disaffected and opportunist nobles of Ibrahim’s
court and Rana Sangha of Mewar is also said to have sent him an invitation for a joint
invasion of Delhi.

1ST BATTLE OF PANIPAT

• On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi,
who was killed in the battle.
• One of the causes of Babur’s success in the battle was that Babur was seasoned General
whereas Ibrahim was a head strong, inexperienced youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an
inexperienced man, careless in his movements, who marched without order, halted or
retired without method and engaged without foresight.’
• Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was the result of a
scientific synthesis of the tactics of the several Central Asian people. While Ibrahim fought
according to the old system then in existence in the country.

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• Babur had a park of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets while Ibrahim’s
soldiers were absolutely ignorant of its use.
• Also, Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his power.
• Moreover, his army was organised on clannish basis.
• The troops lacked the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers.
• Babur was right when he recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers knew how to die
and not how to fight.
• On the other hand, Babur’s army was well trained and disciplined and shared the ambition
of conquering rich Hindustan.
• Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.

HUMAYUN

• Humayun succeeded Babar in December 1530 at the young age of 23 and the newly
conquered territories and administration was not yet consolidated.
• Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of Mughal nobility.
• The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles,
who had joined Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession.

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• He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the one hand
and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.
• As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers.
• The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power; Humayun was in control
of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Kabul and Qandhar and by
subsequently annexing the Punjab, had deprived him of the main recruiting ground of his
army.
• However, the granting of the Punjab and Multan had the advantage that Humayun was
free to devote his attention to the eastern part without having to bother about his
western frontier.
• In A.D. 1532, Humayun first turned his arms against the Afghans, who under Sultan
Mahmud Lodi threatened his position in the east and defeated the Afghan forces which
had conquered Bihar and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at a place called
Daurah near Lucknow.
• After this success Humayun besieged Chunar then held by the able Afghan chief named
Sher Khan.
• Sher Khan showed a submission and Humayun made a fatal mistake in allowing Sher Khan
to retain possession of Chunar. Humayun was anxious to return to Agra as he had to face
the growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile to Humayun from the very beginning.
Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah but could not retain his conquest as he was soon
recalled to the east to meet the revolt of Sher Khan.
• Humayun marched into Bengal but Sher Khan did nothing to oppose him as his object was
to lure Humayun into the interior and then to cut off his communication.
• In the Battle of Chausa (A.D. 1539) Humayun was completely defeated by Sher Khan.
• In 1540 Humayun had one more encounter with Sher Shah at Bilgram near Kannauj but
again met with a crushing defeat and was compelled to leave Hindustan.
• The battle of Kannauj (A.D. 1540) was bitterly contested and it decided the issue between
Sher Khan and the Mughals.
• Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under
Kamran.
• Wandering Humayun found temporary refuge at Amarkot from where he made his way
to Persia.
• The Persian king Shah Tahmasp, agreed to help him on condition that Humayun should
conform to the Shia creed. Humayun yielded to the necessity and conquered Kabul and
Qandhar from his brother Kamran, with the help of Persian troops. Freed from his
brother’s opposition Humayun was now in a position to attempt the reconquest of India.

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• He had secured the services of an able officer named Bairam Khan and the time was also
favourable to him.
• Humayun defeated the Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi (A.D.
1555).
• It is clear that the major causes of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his inability
to understand the nature of the Afghan power.
• Due to existence of large numbers of Afghan tribes scattered over north India, the
Afghans could always unite under a capable leader and pose a challenge.
• In 1556, Humayun died after tumbling down from the stairs of his library.
• His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him
the title of Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.

SHER SHAH SURI

• The first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced by the Mughals under Babur in
1526.
• After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in India
in 1540.
• Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years and this period is known as the period of
second Afghan Empire.

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• The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid.
• He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar. Later, Farid served under
the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
• He defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
• Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander.
• Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his empire.
• His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.
• His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and
Gujarat.
• Sher Shah after his death in 1553 was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
• Islam Shah had to face a number of conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan
nobles.
• The Afghan empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an opportunity and
moved towards India who again captured his lost kingdom by 1555 and ended the second
Afghan Empire.

ADMINISTRATION

Although Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.

The central government consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four
important ministers:

1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.

2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.

3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.

4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.

Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven sarkars.

Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the
administration in each sarkar.

Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),
Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.

There were also many administrative units called iqtas.

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LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

• Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.
• Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical
experience in managing a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with
his scheme of revenue settlement readymade and successfully tested by experiment. It
was but an extension of the system introduced by him at Sasaram.
• As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based
on actual measurement. According, the empire was surveyed.
• In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honesty of collection he fixed the
wages of the measurers and the collectors.
• The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters,
was enforced all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil
could endanger the security of the State.

OTHER REFORMS

Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also
paid attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and
Muslim educational institutions.

The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not interfere in
their working.

Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted
elementary education to the children.

To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.

Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.

Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways. They were:

1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan.

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AKBAR (1556 – 1605)

• Akbar was at Kalanaur in Punjab at the death of Humayun’s death and therefore his
coronation took place in Kalanaur itself in 1556.
• Humayun’s favourite and confidant Bairam Khan, who served as the regent and tutor of
the Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1560. He became the wakil of the kingdom with the
title of Khan-i-Khanan.
• One of the major achievements of Bairam Khan’s regency period was the defeat of Hemu
and the Afghan forces who were posing a serious threat to the Mughal Empire. In the
second Battle of Panipat in 1556,
• Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye and he became
unconscious. The Mughal victory was decisive.
• Bairam Khan consolidated the Mughal empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar
due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan.
• Akbar started a policy of expansion after overcoming initial problems and consolidating
his hold on the throne. The major political powers spread in different parts of the country
were:
o The Rajputs who were spread throughout the country as independent chiefs and
kings, and were concentrated mainly in Rajasthan.
o The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal.

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o Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and few other kingdoms in South India
and Deccan were quite powerful.
o Kabul and Qandhar, though ruled by Mughal Akbar Military policy factions, were
hostile towards Akbar.
• Akbar’s conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal.
• He strengthened the northwest frontier and later on he went to the Deccan.
• Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire.
• The first step that Akbar took after the dismissal of Bairam Khan was to put an end to the
conflict within the nobility. He demonstrated great diplomatic skills and organizational
capabilities in handling it.
• Akbar started his policy of expansion with central India. In 1559–60 the first expedition
was sent to capture Gwalior before moving towards Malwa. Akbar deputed Adham Khan
to lead the expedition against Malwa in central India which was ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz
Bahadur was defeated and fled towards Burhanpur.
• Gondwana, an independent state in Central India ruled by Rani Durgawati, widow of
Dalpat Shah, was also conquered and annexed to the Mughal empire in 1564.

Battle of Haldighati – Fought between Maharana Pratap and Man Singh I.

• The Mughal emperor Akbar was intent on securing a stable route to Gujarat through
Mewar; when Pratap Singh was crowned king (Rana) in 1572, Akbar sent a number of
envoys entreating the Rana to become a vassal like many other Rajput leaders in the
region. When the Rana refused to personally submit to Akbar, war became inevitable..It
was a battle fought on 18 June 1576 between Maharana Pratap and Akbar's forces led
by Man Singh I of Amber.
• The Mughals were the victors and inflicted significant casualties among the Mewaris but
failed to capture Pratap, who escaped. The site of the battle was a narrow mountain pass
at Haldighati near Gogunda in Rajasthan. Maharana Pratap fielded a force of around
3,000 cavalry and 400 Bhil archers. The Mughals were led by Raja Man Singh of Amber,
who commanded an army numbering around 5,000–10,000 men. After a fierce battle
lasting more than three hours, Pratap found himself wounded and the day lost. While a
few of his men bought him time, he managed to make an escape to the hills and lived to
fight another day. The casualties for Mewar numbered around 1,600 men. The Mughal
army lost 150 men, with another 350 wounded.
• Haldighati was a futile victory for the Mughals, as they were unable to oust Maharana
Pratap. While they were able to capture Gogunda and nearby areas, they were unable to
hold onto them for long. As soon as the empire's focus shifted elsewhere, Pratap and his
army came out of hiding and recaptured the western regions of his dominion.

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RELIGIOUS POLICY

• Various factors were responsible for the religious policy of Akbar.

• The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the
teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with
intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul
Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
• In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim.
• He abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished jiziya.
• He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
• Later, he became a skeptical Muslim.
• In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new
capital Fatepur Sikri.
• Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and
Zoroastrianism.
• He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
• In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers.
• In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one
God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma.
It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
• However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during
his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone
to his new faith.

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

• Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja
Todar Mal.
• The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
• It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was
completed in 1580.
• By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
• The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

According to Ain-i-Akbari land was classified as –

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1. Polaj – It was land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never
allowed to lie fallow.
2. Parauti – land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
3. Chachar – land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
4. Banjar - land uncultivated for five years and more.
Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. Third of this
represents the medium produce, one-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.

MANSABDARI SYSTEM
• The 'Mansabdari system 'was the administrative system of the Mughal Empire introduced
by Akbar in 1572 A.D
• The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position. The system, hence,
determined the rank of a government official. Every civil and military officer was given a
‘mansab’ and different numbers which could be divided by ten and were used for ranking
officers. It was also meant for fixing the salaries and allowances of officers.

Do you know?

• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes of royal blood
received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar. Zat means
personal and it fixed the personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of
cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Every sawar had to maintain at
least two horses. The mansab rank was not hereditary. All appointments and promotions
as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
• Towards the end of the reign it was raised to 7,000. According to Badauni, it was fixed at
12,000. Higher mansabs were given to princes and Rajput rulers who accepted the
suzerainty of the emperor.

In Short

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• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.

• Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
• Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
• The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
• Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to
maintain.
• Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.
• All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the
emperor.

JAHANGIR (1605-1627)

• After the death of Akbar, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of
World) in 1605.
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• Soon after accession to the throne, Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by
various measures.
• He released prisoners and struck coins in his name.
• He issued 12 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his empire:

• Prohibition of cess.
• Regulations about highway robbery and theft
• Free inheritance of property of deceased person
• Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor
• Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
• Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
• Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick
• Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
• Respect pay to Sunday
• General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
• Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of
• prayer and praise (of God)
• Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.

• Jahangir also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in the fort of Agra
and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Yamuna to enable the people to approach him
without any servant.
• Jahangir was a lover of art, literature and particularly painting.
• John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years and the emperor called him Inglish Khan. Sir
Thomas Roe arrived in India in September A.D. 1615 and was granted audience at Ajmer.
He was granted a Farman by prince Khurram, which gave the English reasonable facilities
for trade.
• Jahangir’s rule witnessed a spate of rebellions. He suppressed the rebellion of his son
Khusrau and the prince was imprisoned. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjun was sentenced to death
for his blessings to the rebel prince.
• He also pardoned his political opponents and accorded generous treatment to them. The
few changes that Jahangir effected in the offices of the state were intended to secure him
a band of supporters.

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RELIGIOUS POLICY

• Jahangir was born of a Rajput mother and had grown in the atmosphere of ‘Idabat khana’
debates. The result was that Jahangir imbibed these liberal tendencies and his religious
views became enlightened and liberal.
• Jahangir had respect for the teachings of Islam and retained this attitude till the end of
his life, but he can by no means be described staunch or even an orthodox follower of the
principles of his faith.
• He was friendly to the Christians.
• He held religious discourses with a Hindu saint named Yadurup and participated in the
celebration of Hindu festivals.
• He did not seek to revive the Jizya or the Pilgrim Tax and the Hindus still occupied high
office and enjoyed the freedom to erect new temples.
• But some of his acts reflects of his harshness and discrimination. After the conquest of
Kangra, he destroyed the local Jwalamukhi temple.
• Similarly, he ordered destruction of the Varah temple at Pushkar near Ajmer because he
was convinced that God could never have incarnated himself in that form. But even
though his action might be rationally sound, he committed the grave error of disregarding
the freedom of conscience of others in upholding his own religious predilections.
• He suspected the Jains of having sided with Khusrau and on that ground banished them
from empire.
• On the same charge, he imposed a fine of two lakhs of rupees on Guru Arjun and when
he refused to pay the fine, he put him to death on charge of treason.
• When offended by the conduct of Christians, he had their church closed down.
• But the only conclusion that can be drawn from these various stray incidents is that
Jahangir was not always careful to avoid wounding religious susceptibilities of others. But
it cannot be maintained that he persecuted the Hindus, the Jains, the Christians or the
Sikhs as a community. His action affected only an individual or a particular locality and
each instance of alleged religious persecution had some non- religious motive at its base.

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NUR JAHAN

• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
• Her father Itimaduddauala was given the post of chief diwan.
• Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s elder brother
Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles.
• In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married
Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
• It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of “junta” and this led
to two factions in the Mughal court.
• This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt that Jahangir
was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
• However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till Jahangir became weak
due to ill health, he only took important political decisions. It is revealed from his
autobiography.

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• However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions
based on Persian traditions.
• She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
• She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.

SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)

• Shah Jahan rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. This
rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years.
• After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles
and the army and was proclaimed emperor.
• Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.
• The Portugese settlement at Hoogly was destroyed by him in A.D. 1632.
• The fort of Daulatabad was occupied by Mahabat Khan in June 1633.
• After ascending the throne, Shah Jahan ordered Khan Jahan Lodi to recover Balaghat from
Nizam Shah but as the latter failed, Shah Jahan recalled him to court.
• Khan Jahan turned hostile and rebelled. He took shelter with Nizam Shah. This infuriated
Shah Jahan and he decided to follow aggressive policy towards the Deccan states. Shah
Jahan’s main concern was to recover the lost territories of the Deccan.
• He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of Mughal control in the
Deccan. He decided to isolate Ahmednagar and win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was
successful. Fath Khan son of Malik Ambar also made peace with Mughals.
• Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan, but the conflict with Deccan
states continued.
• Finally, in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda which ended the conflicts
in the Deccan.

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• A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656–57 when the treaties were
ignored. Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan
kingdoms. It is argued by some historians that this change of policy was to exploit
resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the
Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future.
• Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
and other ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives during the
successive invasions between 1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his
ambition and stopped fighting.

WAR OF SUCCESSION

• The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his
four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor
of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
• Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later recovered.
But the princes started fighting for the Mughal throne.
• Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered the Agra fort after defeating
Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah Jahan was confined to the female
apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated.
• Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara. He died in
1666 and buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
• Foreign travelers like Bernier, Travernier and Manucci have left accounts about his reign.
Moti Masjid (Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi) and above all the Taj Mahal –
the mausoleum of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal are his famous buildings.

RELIGIOUS POLICY

• Orthodox Muslims did not like the views of Akbar and Jahangir and there was some
resentment among them.
• In his early years, a policy of religious persecution and religious discrimination in favour
of Islam is clearly noticeable.
• He stopped sijda, forbade the use of the royal portrait as an adornment to the cap or the
turban and restored the use of the Hijri era in place of the Ilahi era.
• In 1633 he ordered wholesale demolition of all newly built temples and in Benaras alone
72 temples were destroyed. Similarly, destruction took place in Allahabad, Gujarat and
Kashmir.

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• He established a separate department for securing conversions to Islam. These incidents

show that Akbar’s policy of religious liberty and equality was gradually being forsaken and
religious discrimination, began under Jahangir, was gaining in virulence and scope.
• But even under Shahjahan, there was no permanent adoption of religious persecution as
an integral element of state policy. He too did not revive the Jizya.
• During the later part of his reign there is no reference to temple destruction or any other
form of religious persecution.
• He continued Jharokha darshan, tula dan and tilak.
• Nor did he deprive the Hindus of high office. 20% to 25% of the higher mansabs were still
given to the Hindus. Nor did he deprive the Hindu poets, artists and scholars of state
patronage.
• It thus appears that in his early years he issued certain orders and did certain acts on
grounds of political expediency which proved harmful to certain individuals and localities.
But he never adopted a general policy of discrimination, persecution and hatred and
retained the affections of his Hindu subjects till the end of his reign.
• But this twin-headed policy of Shahjahan led to emergence of two rival groups in the state
as the supporters of these two policies, which proved very harmful to the state and
facilitated Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne. If he had adopted a liberal policy from
the very outset, there might have been no dissensions at court.

AURANGAZEB (1658-1707)

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• Aurangazeb was crowned emperor at Delhi in A.D. 1658, but it was only after the final
defeat of Dara Shikoh at Deorai that he celebrated his coronation in A.D. 1659.
• He assumed the title Alamgir (World Conqueror).
• He faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats and Satnamis and also
the Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy.
• Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs, was besieged and taken to Delhi where he
was beheaded.
• In A.D. 1679, over the question of succession in Marwar, Aurangzeb interfered and
defeated the Rathors near Pushkar and their dominion was occupied.
• Later Udaipur was also occupied, and the Rana of Mewar made peace with Mughals.

DECCAN POLICY

• The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered
Khandesh and Berar.
• Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
• During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive
Deccan policy.

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• When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty-five years, he concentrated
on the northwest frontier.
• At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the
territories of north and south Konkan.
• To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and
Golkonda.
• He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
• Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty and
annexed it.
• In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of
Aurangazeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there
ensued a direct confrontation between them.
• Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar, the
Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.

RELIGIOUS POLICY

• Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life.

• His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
• He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer
called Muhtasib.
• Drinking was prohibited.
• Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
• Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
• He discontinued the practice of Jarokha-darshan.
• He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers
were also dismissed from service.
• Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old
temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at
Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
• In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
• He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The commemoration of Muharram was
stopped.
• He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had
resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.
• His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into
the enemies of Mughal empire.

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• It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.

THE REVOLTS AGAINST AURANGZEB

Revolt of the Jats

• Bold, brave and ferocious with a deep sense of loyalty towards their tribal organisation,
the Jat peasantry was more akin to any martial community.
• They were notorious for cattle-lifting who frequently, raided the traders between Agra
and Delhi.
• Confined to the not so fertile regions of west of Agra, they constituted the marginal
sections of peasantry.
• In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the Faujdar and
plundered the Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon spread to other districts.
• Aurangzeb ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were publicly displayed.
The Jats, however, remained defiant and in 1686 A.D. once again rose in revolt, under
Rajaram. He too, was slain but his nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till
Aurangzeb’s death.

Revolt of the Satnamis

• They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol.

• Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions.
• Firmly united and militant, they never hesitated to use arms to aid the harassed members.
• Thus, when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the whole tribe arose to
seek to seek revenge and broke into rebellion.
• When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals resorted to ruthless
warfare.
• Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the region.
• The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the disloyalty of the
Hindus to the Mughals state who therefore needed to be ruthlessly suppressed.
• Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic state would reduce
the Hindus to their proper place in State.

The Revolt of the Sikhs

• The Sikh organisation was founded by Guru Nanak, a devout social reformer, as a peaceful
universal brotherhood which was free from the shackles of caste and community.

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• Under the next three Gurus too, the community remained peaceful and enjoyed amicable
relation with Akbar who granted Guru Ram Das a piece of land which became renowned
as Amritsar.
• The fifth Guru, Arjan Singh, proved a more dynamic and zealous organiser. He wielded
the community into one compact whole. He also was the first Guru who actively
participated in politics.
• Consequently, the Mughal-Sikh conflict can be traced to Jahangir’s reign. He ordered
Arjan Singh’s execution. This was done on purely grounds for sheltering the fugitive
Khusrav and in no way was it accompanied by the religious persecution of the Sikhs.
Nevertheless, the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals.
• Under the leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for the first time,
became more militant, while its democratic social set up attracted the Jat peasantry in
large numbers.
• Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an oppression by the
Mughal state towards the Sikhs.
• The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur who in order to
strengthen the Sikh interests encouraged the creation of a state within the state.
• In the earlier years of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was no conflict between Teg Bahadur and
Aurangzeb. However, once the Guru publicly condemned Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu
measures as is clearly evident from the support that he rendered to the Hindu population
of Kashmir, Aurangzeb became suspicious of the Guru’s motives.
• Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the gruesome murder of Teg
Bahadur in 1675 A.D.
• While Guru Teg behadur’s persecution was not accompanied by the annihilation of the
sons; (Ram Rai continued to live at the Mughal court and his sons were granted mansabs).
• The last Guru, Gobind Singh, was determined to militarily strengthen his community. To
unite them, he formed the brotherhood of Khalsa which free of caste and creed,
advocated equality of mankind.
• To this end, he initiated the practice of drinking water, conservated by a sword or dagger
(Amrit chakna). To distinguish the member from other communities, they were asked to
wear five things—Kanghi (comb), Kachha (underwear), Kara (iron bangle), Kesh and
Kirpan (sword).
• Henceforth, the Guru lived like a regal monarch, holding court, building forts with the help
of his followers who were as zealously dedicated to the cause of Skihism as the soldiers
of Islam.

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• Their expansionist activities inevitably led to clash of arms with the Mughals. The Sikhs
were defeated, his two sons were executed while the Guru ultimately escaped and settled
at Anandpur.
• Guru Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D.
• Guru Gobind’s aspirations of founding a Sikh state were completed by Banda, who the
Guru had nominated as his military successor.

The Marathas

• The Marathas emerged in the Deccan as a vital force under Shivaji in the middle of the
17th century and began to challenge the Mughal authority.
• Shivaji started his offensive operations in 1656 and captured the principality of Javli.
• Shivaji raided the Bijapur territory, and, in 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur sent his general,
Afzal Khan, to capture Shivaji, but Shivaji killed him.
• In 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur entered into a peace settlement with Shivaji and
acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories.
• Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big army against Shivaji
and the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed between the two.
• Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. The
remaining 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of huns) were to be left with Shivaji.
• Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went there,
he was ill-treated and was taken a prisoner. He managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in
1666.
• Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
• In 1670, he plundered Surat for the second time.
• In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation, and assumed the
title of Chatrapati.
• Shortly, after this, he made a great expedition into southern India and conquered Jinji
Vellore and many forts in Karnataka.
• He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. In this short time he founded the
Maratha kingdom, which dominated western India for a century and a half.
• Shivaji’s successor was his son Sambhaji.
• Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and extended help to Rajaram the other
son of Shivaji.
• The internal conflict weakened Maratha power. Finally Sambhaji was captured and put to
death in 1689 by Aurangzeb.
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young.

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• Rajaram died in 1700 and was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III under the regency of
Tara Bai, his mother.
• The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara Bai’s energy and
administrative genius.
• The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps – one
under Tara Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu.
• Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He succeeded in deposing Tara
Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath.

PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER OF AURANGAZEB

• In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food
and dress. He did not consume wine.
• He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.
• He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books.
• He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly
observed the Ramzan fasting.
• In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He misunderstood the true
nature of the Maratha movement andantagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the
Maratha problem and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also
proved to be a wrong policy.
• His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
But his move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure.
His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his
side. On the other hand, it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire.

CAUSES FOR THE DOWNFALL OF THE MUGHALS

• The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb and the causes for the
downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied.
• The vastness of the empire became unwieldy. It is quite evident that the territorial
expansion of Mughal empire achieved under Akbar continued to be the core of the
empire. Its further expansion during Aurangzeb’s reign was in Deccan and in small
measure in North-East region. During Aurangzeb’s period the Mughal empire had the
largest area.
• However, the beginning of the decline of the Mughal empire also could be traced to the
rule of Aurangzeb.

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• To some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its
decline.
• The breaking up of the association with the potent regional forces like the Rajputs and
failing relationships with the Deccani states and Marathas shook the unity and stability of
the Mughal empire.
• Under his weak successors the empire kept disintegrating and demoralization of the
Mughal army also paved the way for it.
• The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
• The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
• The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle
in India.
• Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.
• The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal
Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
• Thus, the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the combination of
political, social and economic factors.

ART AND CULTURE

MUGHAL PAINTING

Paintings

• Mughal’s contribution to Painting is remarkable.

• Foundation of painting was laid by Humayun, who brought two Persian painters, Mir Sayyid
Ali and Abdal Samad, after return from Persia.
• They became famous during Akbar’s reign.
• Several literary and religious text’s illustrations were painted on orders of Akbar.
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• He invited large no. of painters from all over India, which includes Hindus and Muslims.
• Important painters in Akbar’s court were Baswan, Miskina and Daswant.
• Mughal painting is a particular style of South Asian painting, which is generally confined to
miniatures, and emerged from Persian painting.
• No miniatures survived from reign of Babur. Copies of Baburnama were illustrated by his
descendants.

Miniature painting

• Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharat and Ramayana were produced in miniature

form.
• Akbar had enlarged his father’s painting library.
• Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazal, also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
• The most important work is Hamznama, which consisted 1200 paintings.

Illustration from Hamzanama (This illustration shows the witch Anqarut in the guise of a
beautiful young woman, who hopes to seduce the handsome king Malik Iraj, whom she has
captured and tied to a tree.)

• Hamzanama – It narrates the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, an uncle of the Prophet
Muhammad, though most of the stories are extremely fanciful, "a continuous series of
romantic interludes, threatening events, narrow escapes, and violent acts"
• Indian colours such as peacock blue, Indian red began to be used.

Mughal paintings under Jahangir

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• He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar,
Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. He had deep interest painting art and under him Mughal
painting achieved its zenith.
• Many albums containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal period.
• Brushwork became finer and the colours lighter.
• He was deeply influenced by European paintings.
• He encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and studies of
birds, flowers and animals, scenes of hunting, battles and royal courts
• The Jahangirnama, written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of
Jahangir's reign, has several paintings, including some unusual subjects such as the union of
a saint with a tigress, and fights between spiders.

Mughal paintings under Shah Jahan

• Continued to develop, but they gradually became cold and rigid.

• Themes including musical parties; lovers, ascetics gathered around a fire, abound in the
Mughal paintings of this period.

Mughal paintings under Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb (1658-1707) did not actively encourage Mughal paintings.

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
• Mughals built many forts, palaces, public buildings, mosques and mausoleums.

MUGHAL GARDENS
• Babur described his interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within
rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels.
• These gardens were called chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division
into quarters. Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful chahar baghs were
constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi.

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• Some of the Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore
and the Pinjore garden in the Haryana (not Punjab) have survived even today.

Nishat Bagh, Kashmir

Shalimar Garden, Lahore

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Pinjore garden Punjab

FORTS
• Large scale construction of buildings started.
• He built most famous Agra Fort.

• It was built in red sandstone.

• His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.

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Lahore fort

• The climax of fort-building reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan. The famous Red
Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas was his creation.
• It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that the different elements of Mughal architecture were
fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
• His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi.
• The ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas or am) were carefully
planned.
• These courts were also described as chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large
courtyard.
• Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.
• The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the
direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in
session.
• The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural
features.
• The connection between royal justice and the imperial court was emphasised by Shah Jahan
in his newly constructed court in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behindthe emperor’s throne were a
series of pietra dura inlays that depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the lute.
• It was believed that Orpheus’s music could calm ferocious beasts until they resided together
peaceably. The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall aimed to communicate that the
king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals where all could live together in
harmony.

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Red fort, Delhi

Fatehpur Sikri Complex

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1. Buland Darwaza
2. Jamat Khana
3. Zanana Rauza
4. Tomb of Sheik Salim Chisthi
5. Jama Masjid Mosque
6. Badshahi Darwaja

• Akbar also built a palace cum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory
• Many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
• Gujrati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
• The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland
Darwaza or the Lofty Gate.
• The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over
Gujrat.

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OTHER IMPORTANT BUILDINGS AT FATEPUR SIKRI ARE JODH BAI’S PALACE AND PANCH
MAHAL WITH FIVE STOREYS.

TOMBS

Humayun’s Tomb

• During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of
marble.
• It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
• There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar’s reign. For inspiration,
Akbar’s architects turned to the tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur.
• The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of
Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
• It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh and built in the tradition known as
“eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. The building
was constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.

Akbar’s Tomb

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Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.

Itimaddaulah’s Tomb

• Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra.

• It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious stones
on the walls. This type of decoration was called pietra dura.

• This method became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan.
• The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.

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Taj Mahal

• Taj Mahal is considered a jewel of the builder’s art.

• It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals.
• The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets.
• The decorations are kept to the minimum.

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• Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest
architectural accomplishment of his reign.
• Here the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the
garden was to its south.
• Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles
had to the river. In the new city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed in Delhi, the imperial
palace commanded the river-front. Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest son Dara
Shukoh – were given access to the river. All others had to construct their homes in the city
away from the River Yamuna.

Mosque

• Mosque building had reached its peak during Shah Jahan’s reign.
• The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble.
• The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.
o Built by Shah Jahan in his new capital at Shahjahanabad.

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The Mughal architectural traditions continued in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century.
Their influence in the provincial kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition
can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE DURING MUGHAL PERIOD

Literature during Akbar

• Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign.

Akbar receiving the Akbar Nama from Abul Fazl.

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• Abul Fazl wrote a 3-volume history of Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar Nama.
o 1st volume – dealt with Akbar’s ancestors
o 2nd volume – recorded the events of Akbar’s reign.
o 3rd volume – is Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the
revenues and geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions
and culture of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about the Ain-i
Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages
and revenues.
• Abul Fazl set a style of prose writing and it was followed by many generations.
• The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
o The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his
supervision.
• Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.

Literature during Jahangir

• Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, written by Jahangir was famous for its style.
• He patronized many –
o Scholars – like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah.
o Writers and historians – like Abdul Hamid Lahori (author of Padshah Nama) and Inayat
Khan (author of Shah Jahan Nama).
• His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language.

Literature during Aurangzeb

• Many historical works were written during the reign of Aurangazeb.

• Famous dictionaries of the Persian language were also compiled during the Mughal period.

Language

• Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
• Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed
during this period.
• Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into
regional languages.
• From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential
Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.

MUSIC
• Music had also developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.

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• Tansen composed many ragas.

• Tansen was prominent Hindustani classical music composer, musician and vocalist.
• He was disciple of Swami Haridas

Tansen Tomb in Gwalior

• Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.

• The classical music performed in the Mughal courts survives today in the form known as
Dhrupad.
• The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abul Fazl suggests that there were 36 musicians in the Mughal
court of Akbar.
• It mentioned two bin players native to Gwalior, Shihab Khan and Purbin Khan.
• Akbar himself was a learned musician.

Tansen

• Music had well developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
Tansen composed many ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
• Tansen, also referred to as Tan Sen or Mian Tansen, was a prominent figure of North
Indian (Hindustani) classical music. Born in a Hindu family, he learnt and perfected his art
in the northwest region of modern Madhya Pradesh.

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• He began his career and spent most of his adult life in the court and took patronage of
the Hindu king of Rewa State, Ram Chand, where Tansen's musical abilities and studies
gained widespread fame. This reputation brought him to the attention of the Mughal
Emperor Akbar, who sent messengers to Ram Chand requesting Tansen to join the
musicians at the Mughal court. Tansen did not want to go, Ram Chand encouraged him
to gain wider audience, and sent him along with gifts to Akbar. In 1562, about the age of
60, the Vaishnava musician Tansen joined the Akbar court, and his performances became
a subject of many court historians.

Do you know?

• Akbar considered him as a Navaratnas (nine jewels), and gave him the title Mian, an
honorific, meaning learned man.
• Tansen is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions, creating several new ragas,
as well as for writing two classic books on music Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.

SHER SHAH ARCHITECTURE

• He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi called Shergarh.
• Shergarh (now known as Old Fort) became the citadel of this city
• The city which he started (and later completed by his son Islam Shah) had 14.4 Km perimeter
and was located between the present Humayun's Tomb and the Shahjahanabad.
• The north gate was called Kabuli Darwaza and another one was called Lal Darwaza. Both these
gates still exist. The Khooni Darwaza opposite Feroz Shah Kotla was one of the gates of the
city.

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• The Khooni Darwaza (Bloody Gate) earned its name after the three princes of the Mughal
dynasty - Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons Mirza Mughal and Mirza Khizr Sultan and grandson Mirza
Abu Bakht, were shot by a British Soldier, Captain William Hodson on September 22, 1857
during the Indian Rebellion.

Lal Darwaza or Sher Shah Gate, the Southern Gate to the Sher Shah Suri's city, Shergarh

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Khuni Darwaza or Lal Darwaza

• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of
Indian architecture

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Sher Shah Suri Tomb at Sasaram

VIJAYNAGAR ARCHITECTURE
• Temple building activity gained momentum in this period.
• Hampi – located in the Krishna-Tunghbadra basin.
o Nucleus of the Vijaynagar empire founded in 1336
o Well-fortified city
o No mortar or cementing agent was used in construction of these walls
• Chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture –
o Construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways
o Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises
o Sculptures carvings on the pillars

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Virupaksha temple gopuram

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Kalyana mandapam (Marraige Hall), Vittala Temple, Hampi + o Sculptures carvings on the
pillars

• Most common animal found on these pillars - Horse.

• Large mandapams contain 100 pillars as well as 1000 pillars in some big temples.
• Use of mandapas - For seating the deity on festival occasions.
• Many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
• Vijayanagar style’s most important temples were found - in Hampi ruins or the city of
Vijaynagar.

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Hampi ruins or the city of Vijaynagar

• Best examples of this style –

o Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples.

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Vittalaswamy temple, Hampi

Hazara Ramaswamy temple

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o Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram

Varadharaja temple, Kanchipuram

Ekamparanatha temples, Kanchipuram

• Vijayanagar rulers constructed Raya Gopuram at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram

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Annamalaiyar Temple at Thiruvannamalai

• Nayak rulers continued construction of Raya Gopuram

• Casting of metal images was also there in Vijaynagar
o Example - Metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati

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• Also patronized music and dancing.

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MARATHAS

The emergence and growth of the Maratha state during the 17th century was an important
episode in the history of India.

The Territory which includes modern state of Bombay Konkan, Kandesh, Berar, part of Madhya
Pradesh, and part of Hyderabad state was Maratha state.

The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the
Marathas. The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt
guerilla tactics. The Marathas built a number of forts on the mountains.

The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among
them. The spiritual leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity.

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The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important positions in the
administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. There were
a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers. But the credit of
establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji.

SHIVAJI

• Shivaji was born at Shivneri in 1627.

• His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
• He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
• After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of
his jagir. Even before that he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of
Bijapur.
• He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of
Mavala region.
• In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the
Konkan region.

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• The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji, but Afzal Khan was murdered by
Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
• The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan
against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona.
But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in
1663, killed his son and wounded Khan. This daring attack affected the prestige of Khan
• and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it. This time
Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. He made elaborate
preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family
and treasure.
• Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts
held by him. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and
loyalty to Mughal empire.
• On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the
Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals,
his minor son Shambaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
• Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there, but, he managed to escape from
prison and made military preparations and renewed his wars against the Mughals.
• Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670. He also captured all his lost
territories by his conquests.
• In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.
• He led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore. After his
return from this expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.

SHIVAJI’S ADMINISTRATION

• Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration and his administrative
system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state.
• Like all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his
hands. He possessed all executive and legislative power.
• Shivaji was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The one of the
novelty of Shivajis administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state
language.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

• The king was at the helm of the affairs.

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• The administration was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are
sometimes called Ashtapradhan.
• The eight ministers were:
1. Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration.
2. Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati.
3. Majumdar looked after the accounts.
4. Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs.
5. Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence.
6. Dabir looked after foreign affairs.
7. Nyayadhish looked after justice.
8. Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs.
• The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji and many of these officers like Peshwa,
Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also.
• All the members of the asthapradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to
lead military campaigns.
• Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent and held the office at
the pleasure of the king. They were also frequently transferred.
• Each of the ashtapradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis,
Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis.
• Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters.
• The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts.
• The Potnis looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury.

PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

• The provincial administration was also organized on the Deccani and Mughal system.
• All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and
in certain cases renamed them.
• The provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge of Subedar.
• Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of
Subedar.
• Smaller than Prant were Tarfs which were headed by a Havaldar.
• Under Tarfs there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration.
• At the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil
had legal and policing power.
• At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain records while
Deshmukh had legal and policing powers.
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• The Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal.
• The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cum-military rank.
• Under the Marathas performance-based Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy
and the local administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed
wide powers of tax assessment and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided
information about local conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District collector
was modelled on this Maratha officer only.

ARMY

• Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army.

• The Paga cavalrymen were called the Bargirs. They were provided horses by the state
while the Silahdars purchased their armies and horse themselves.
• The Paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty-five horsemen formed a unit which was
placed under a Havildar.
• Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief
received revenue grants.
• Strict disciplines were maintained in the army. The plunder taken by each soldier during
campaign was strictly accounted for in the army organization of Shivaji.
• Shivaji maintained a navy as well. The navy was divided into two parts and each part was
commanded by Darive Nayak and Mai Nayak respectively.

FINANCE AND REVENUE

• The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar land
revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed income of Shivaji.
• But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the expenditure of the state.
Therefore, Shivaji collected the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was
either under his enemies or under his own influence.
• The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi
was 1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes
constituted primary source of the income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the
extension of the power and territory of the Marathas.
• The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with
peasants.
• Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he
assigned Jagir to them, the right of collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.

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SUCCESSORS OF SHIVAJI

• There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji
and Rajaram and Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed
by the Mughals.
• Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the Ginjee fort. He
died at Satara.
• Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent.
• The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.

PESHWAS

BALAJI VISWANATH (1713-1720)

• Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became Peshwa in 1713.
• As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
• He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha ruler.
• He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
• In 1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyar.
1. First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king.
2. Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal
provinces of the Deccan including the Carnatic and Mysore.

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BAJI RAO I (1720-1740)

• Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath and he succeeded his father as Peshwa at
the age young of twenty.
• The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
• He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system,
each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be administered autonomously.
• As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in
different parts of India.
• They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the
Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona.

BALAJI BAJI RAO (1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
• The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue. His nominated successor Ramraja
was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
• The full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
• Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752.
• According to it, the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect
the Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies for which the Chauth of the

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northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be
collected by the Marathas.
• Thus, when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the
Marathas to protect India. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali
in the third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers died in this
battle.
• Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the news of defeat at the battle of Panipat. Also, this
battle gave a deadly blow to the Maratha power. Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy
weakened due to internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs.

THE BHONSLES

• The line at Nagpur Bhonsles was subordinate to the Satara rulers.

• A crucial figure from this line was Raghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727-55), who was responsible
for the Maratha incursions on Bengal and Bihar in the 1740s and early 1750s.
• The relations of his successors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudhoji, with the Peshwas and the
Satara line of Bhonsles were varying, and it is in this sense that these domains can be
regarded as only loosely confederated, rather than tightly bound together.
• Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella provided by the
Satara ruler and his Peshwa were equally somewhat opportunistic in their use of politics.

THE GAIKWADS

• The Gaikwads, gathered prominence in the 1720. Initially they were subordinate not only
to the Bhonsles but also to the powerful Dabhade family.
• However, it was only after the death of Sahu, when the power of the Peshwas was further
enhanced, that the position of the Gaikwads truly improved.
• By the early 1750s, their rights on large portion of the revenues of Gujarat were
recognized by the Peshwa.
• The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujarat province from his capital of
Ahmadabad in 1752 set the seal on the process.
• The Gaikwads preferred, however, to establish their capital in Baroda, causing
realignment in the network of trade and consumption in the area.
• The rule at Baroda of Damaji (1768) was followed by a period of some turmoil.
• The Gaikwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and the Peshwa, especially to
intervene in moments of succession crisis.
• The eventual successor of Damaji, Fateh Singh (ruled 1771- 89), did not remain allied to
the Peshwa for long in the late 1770s and early 1780s, and chose to negotiate a settlement

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with the English East India Company, which eventually led to increased British
interference in his affairs.
• By 1800, the British rather than the Peshwa were the final arbiters in determining
succession among the Gaikwads, who became subordinate rulers under them in the
nineteenth century.

THE HOLKARS

• Initially the Holkars had very little political power. However, by 1730s their chief Malhar
Rao Holkar consolidated his position. He was granted a large share of the chauth
collection in Malwa, eastern Gujarat, and Khandesh.
• Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality at Indore, from which
his successors controlled important trade routes as well as the crucial trading centre of
Burhanpur.
• After Malhar Rao, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son’s widow, Ahalya
Bai, who ruled from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar power to great glory.

THE SINDHIAS

• The Sindhias carved a prominent place for themselves in North Indian politics in the
decades following the third battle of Panipat (1761).
• The Sindhias were based largely in central India, first at Ujjain, and later (from the last
quarter of the 18th century) in Gwalior.
• During the long reign of Mahadaji Sindhia (1761-94) family’s fortunes were truly
consolidated.
• Mahadaji, proved an effective and innovative military commander. He employed a large
number of European soldiers in his force. His power grew rapidly after 1770.
• He managed to make substantial inroads into North India that had been weakened by
Afghan attacks.
• He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign of Shah Alam II. The
Mughal king made him the “deputy regent” of his affairs in the mid-1780s.
• His shadow fell not only across the provinces of Delhi and Agra but also on Rajasthan and
Gujarat, making him the most formidable Maratha leader of the era.
• The officials of the East India Company were very cautious in dealing with him. His
relations with the acting Peshwa, Nana Fadnavis at Pune were fraught with tension.
• Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be maintained by his
successor Daulat Rao Sindhia (1794-1827), who was defeated by the British and forced by
treaty in 1803 to surrender his territories both to the north and to the west.

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• The careers of some of these potentates, especially Mahadaji Sindhia, illustrate the
potency of Mughal symbols even in the phase of Mughal decline. For instance, after
recapturing Gwalior from the British, Mahadaji took care to have his control of the town
sanctioned.

DECLINE

After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a great power in India but they
could not succeed in preventing the establishment of British power in India. The important causes
for the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia
and Bhonsle. Also, the superiority of the British army and fighting methods ultimately won.

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