States Of Matter:

- Atom are tiny discrete particles that make up matter

- Elements are atoms which are grouped and have the same property & cant be broken
down into simpler substances by chemical reactions or physical reactions
- Anything which takes up space is known as Matter
- Examples Of Elements: Oxygen, Iron, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
- Interparticle space (I.P Space) refers to space/gaps between particles
- Kinetic Energy refers to Energy stored inside a particle (K.E)
- Interparticle Force (I.P Force) refers to forces between particles
- There’s less K.E Present in Solid, More K.E Compared to Solid In Liquid While there’s a lot of K.E
In Gas – KINETIC ENERGY
- Negiligable amount of IP Space In Solid, more I.P Space in liquid compared to Solid but not
alot & A lot of I.P Space in Gas (most) – INTERPARTICLE SPACE (I.P SPACE)
- Solid’s have a definite shape unlike Liquid & Gas (Indefinite) but liquid can attain the shape of
the containers, gas can’t - SHAPE
- This is because Solid’s are tightly packed, liquid’s are loosely packed while Gas’s are unpacked
(far away) – ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES
- Solid & Liquid have a fixed volume unlike Gas, which has no volume – VOLUME
- Solid has a lot of I.P Force, Liquid has more I.P force than Gas, Gas has negligible –
INTERPARTICLE FORCE
- Solid & Liquid can’t be compressed unlike Gas - COMPRESSIBILITY
- Sad movements include vibrations, Liquid move freely & gas Move freely in ALL Directions
- Kinetic Particle Theory:- According to this theory, every matter is composed of small
particles and these particles are continuously in state of movement.
- According to this theory, these are the properties of States Of Matter (Compressibility,
I.P Force, K.E, Shape, Arrangements, Volume, I.P Space)

Processes:
- Solids like ice absorb energy around them and melt (Melting). This is because the molecules
gain Kinetic energy and start vibrating faster, weakening the forces between Them, melting
them into Liquid and turning them loosely packed. (Solid To Liquid)
- Solids like Dry ice absorb energy around them, This energy increases the K.E of it’s
particles so much that they break free from the solid structure & Directly move into a
gas state. This is called Sublimation (Solid to Gas)
- Liquid to Gas At room temperature is evaporation but When Liquid Turns to Gas At 100 degree
Celcius, its considered boiling (100 Or More is Boiling) Liquid To Gas
- Bubbles are produced in Boiling, No Bubbles are produced in evaporation (Liquid to
Gas)
- When a Gas cools down, it starts losing K.E, making the particles slower & come closer but not
too close. This is called Condensation. (Gas to Liquid)
 - When a liquid is heated, it gains kinetic energy, meaning they start moving faster,
making The I.P forces weaker. The particles can then break away from the liquid state
and escape into the air as Gas.
- Remember: Solid have Less K.E (Less movement of energy), Liquid has more but not too much
while Gas Have A lot
- At Higher Temperature, particles gain more K.E & Move faster

Heating & Cooling curve:

- Heating Curve: Heating curve is a graphical representation which shows increase in
transportation
- Negatives To 0 degree Celcius Is Solid (Frozen)
- O Degree Celcius are S+L (Melting Point)
- 0-100 Degree Celcius is Liquid
- 100 Degree Celcius are G+L (Boiling point)
- 100 or more Is Gas
Meanwhile:
- Cooling curve:

Cooling curve: Cooling curve is a graphical representation which shows decrease in

transportation
- 110 Degree Celcius to 100 degree Celcius is Gas
- 100 Degree celcius is G+L (Condensation, its turning into Liquid from gas state)
- 100-0 Degree celcius is Liquid
- 0 Degree celcius is Freezing And the water turns into Ice
- 0 to – 20 degree celcius is Ice
M.P & B.P:
- Boiling and Melting Point Tell us a purity of a substance
- If the substance is pure, that substance will melt & boil at the same temperature
- If the substance is impure, that substance’s Melting Point decreases from its Pure
Melting Point & It’s Boiling Point Increases.
- For Example: Sea Water (B.P: 104 Degree Celcius, M.P: -2 Degree Celcius)

Effects of temperature on volume of a gas:

- When There’s a higher temperature, The volume of gas increases because The
Molecules of Gas gain More kinetic Energy
- These kinetic energy make it move faster & cause the spreading out of particles from
each other, creating Large I.P Space
- Kinetic energy is directly proportional to Temperature, The More The Temperature,
The more the K.E
- This increases energy levels since Interparticle spaces increased Aswell.

Effects of pressure on volume of a gas:

- When there’s more pressure against the Volume of gas/The gas molecules,
compressing it closer together, The Volume of Gas Decreases.
- This is because They are getting forced closer together, not being able to spread out as
easily, decreasing the overall volume occupied by the molecules
- Volume of a Gas is inversely proportional to the volume of a gas, The More the
pressure, The Less the volume of the gas.

Diffusion:
- Movement of particles from a higher concentration to lower concentration through
medium (Gas/Air)
- This happens when particles start to move away from each other, spreading into the
environment
- Rate of diffusion: The pace/speed at which the particles spread
Crystallization: Heat The Solution Indirectly through a Water bath, When you start
seeing crystals, Leave it for cooling and more crystals will start to form. We then filter out
these crystals using filter paper & funnel. We then dry the crystals by leaving them
somewhere warm, and this is called Crystallization.
Information about Elements:
- Protons Are Positively Charged, Electrons are negatively charged, Neutrons have No
Charge
- Protons & Neutrons are A Part of the Nucleus While Electrons are Valence Shells
- Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons. Sum of Proton & Neutrons. 2P + 2N = 4 Mass #
- Atomic Number = # Of Protons & Electrons. Every Element in the periodic table is
according to their atomic number
- Atomic Mass: Average Mass of an element calculated Using relative abundance of
Isotopes
- Isotopes are the elements that have the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr):

- Sum of Atomic Masses.
- The Lesser the relative Molecular Mass (Mr), The Faster the reactions/diffusions.
- Lighter = Lesser Mr
- Example: H20.
- Hydrogen Atomic Mass = 1 (2 Hydrogens)
- Oxygen Atomic Mass = 15.999 -> 16 (1 Oxygen)
- Solution: 2x1 // 16x1 => 16+2 = 18 Relative Atomic Mass/Mr
Questions:
- Solve: NH3
- Solve: CO2
- Solve: HCl
- Solve: NaCl

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):

- Calculates The
Average Masses of An
Element (O = 15.999)
which is then Used
To Find Mr, the sum of atomic
Masses (H20)
Elements:-
- Pure substance that is made up of same types of atoms & can’t be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical reactions
- Example: Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N)

Compound:-
- Compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more elements combined
chemically in a fixed proportion with the consistent properties throughout
- Example: Water (H20), Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Mixture:-
- Mixture is a substance which is consisting of two or more substances
(elements/compounds) combined physically with no fixed proportion
- They can be separated Using physical methods
- Example: Salt Solution, Tea, Sugar Solution

Atoms of different elements in Compounds:

- Nitric Acid, HNO3 :- Hydrogen (1), Nitrogen (1), Oxygen (3)
- Methane, CH4 :- Carbon (1), Hydrogen (4)
- Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2 :- Copper (1), Nitrogen (2), Oxygen (6)
- Ethanoic Acid, CH3COOH :- Carbon (2), Hydrogen (4), Oxygen (2)
- Sugar, C12H22O11 :- Carbon (12), Hydrogen (22), Oxygen (11)
- Phenol, C6H5OH :- Carbon (6), Hydrogen (6), Oxygen (1)
- Ammonium Sulfate, (NH4)2 SO4 :- Nitrogen (2), Hydrogen (8), Sulfur (1), Oxygen (4)

Atoms:-
- Smallest part of a matter to exist
- Consists of subatomic particles (Protons, Neutrons & Electrons)
- The Electrons are moving around the Proton & Neutron in an Orbit

Matter:-
- Anything that occupies space & has mass
- Made up of Atoms

Protons:-
- Protons Symbol Is p/P
- Relative Charge is +1
- Relative Mass is 1
Neutrons:-
- Neutrons Symbol is n/N
- Relative charge is 0
- Relative Mass is 1

Electrons:-
- Electrons Symbol is e/E
- Relative charge is -1
- Relative mass is 1/1840.

Atomic Number:-
- Number of protons & electrons in an element

Number of Neutrons:-
- Mass of an atom – Atomic Number = Number Of Neutrons
- Example:- Na1123
- P+ = 11, e- = 11. 11-23 => 12 Neutrons

Atomic Mass:-
- Sum of Neutron & Protons (Added together)

Ion:-
- When an atom loses an Electron, It’s charge turns Positive. When An Atom Gains an
Electron, It’s Charge turns Negative.
- Anion is a negatively charged Ion
- Cation is a positively charged Ion

Atoms contain charged particles but electrically have No

Charge:
- Atoms have electrons, protons & Neutrons
- Neutrons have no charge While protons are positively charged, making the neutron
positively charged
- There are same number of protons & electrons, cancelling each other out and making
them neutral.

Atoms can form positive ions:

- Whenever an atom will lose an electron, there will be more number of protons making
the atom a positive ion.
Atoms of the same elements can have different masses:
- If the number of neutrons are different in the atoms then they will have different
masses.

Which atom in the periodic table is an isotope of atom

which has 11p+, 11e- & 14 Neutrons?
- Sodium atom has 11p+, 11e- & 14 Neutrons
- The number of protons defines the element & In the periodic table, Sodium has the
atomic number of 11

Some Information About Elements in the periodic table:

- The Atomic Mass will be presented in the bottom (# Of Protons & Electrons)
- The Average Mass of An Atom will be presented In Decimals
- The Mass Number Will be presented in the top (# Of P+ + N)

Structure Of Periodic Table:

Periods:-
- Horizontal rows of elements (_______)
- Total of 7 Periods

Groups:-
- Vertical rows of Elements (IIIIII
- Total of 10/18 Groups

Groups & Properties:

- Alkali metals (Group 1) +1 Ion (Lose 1 Electron)
- Alkaline earth metals (Group 2) +2 Ion (Lose 2 Electrons)
- Transition metals (Between Group 2 & 3)
- Post-transition metals (Group 3) +3 Ions (Lose 3 Electrons
- Group 4: Carbon Family: +4/-4 Ion (Gain Or Lose 4 Electrons)
- Group 5: Nitrogen Family: -3 Ion (Gain 3 Electrons)
- Group 6: Oxygen Family: -2 Ion (Gain 2 Electrons)
- Group 7: Halogens: -1 Ion (Gain 1 Electron)
- Noble gases: Group 8: No Charge (Full Electron Shell)

Trends In Groups: (up to bottom)

- As We Go Down Any Group, the reactivity increases
 - The Atomic Number increases showing their electronic configurations
- Number of Shells increase down the group in metals
- Metals lower down the groups are more reactive

Trends in period: (left to right)

- A Gradual change from metal to non metal
- An increase in the number of Valence electrons

Electronic Configurations and more:

- An Octate Is When There are 8 Valence Electrons in the Outer Shell, To Its full capacity
- A Shell Can Not Have More than 8 Valence Electrons
- The First Shell Has the capacity of only Two
-
- Cl17 => 2,8,7 | Cl => 2,8,8 (Gained an Electron)
- Energy Level/Valence Electrons => Are Equal to Group #
- Valence electron are the Electrons in the outer shell
- Number Of Shells are equal to the period #
- Na11 => 2,8,1 (3rd Period, 1st Group)
- Group 1-3 Are Metals: They Form A Positive Ion
- Non Metals Form negative Ions cause they have more than 3 Valence Electrons
- Variable Oxidation state refers to the number of electrons an atom has gained, lost or
shared when forming a compound
- Example: Iron (Fe): +2 (Fe²⁺) and +3 (Fe³⁺)
- FeCl₂ : Iron has an oxidation state of +2
- FeCl₃ : Iron has an oxidation state of +3

When A Person wearing a perfume enters a room; it takes

several minutes for the smell to reach the back of the
room:
- When the person enters the room, diffusion occurs & the particles move from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration through medium & start to spread into the
room

Explain why solid cannot be diffused:

- Solids can’t be diffused because they’re highly packed together and they cannot flow

Explain using kinetic energy theory, what happens to the

particles of oxygen as it cools down:
- When the oxygen particles cool down, it loses a lot of energy & they start to get closer
to each other & the attractive forces increase.
When you take a block of butter out of the fridge & it is
quite hard, However its Soft after 15 Minutes. Explain.
- When the butter is out of the fridge, the temperature gradually gets warmer because
its particles are absorbing the energy around it

Alkali Metal:
- Elements Of Group 1
- Form Alkali When Reacts with Water
- Consist of 5 Metals
- Good Conductors of electricity and heat
- Soft metals, Lithium is the hardest and potassium is the softest.
- Low Densities
- Low M.P
- Shiny Surfaces When Freshly Cut with A Knife but Turn dull after reacting with oxygen
in the air
- Burn With Oxygen/Air to form white solid oxides
- Stored in Oil to Not react with Oxygen (So it doesn’t produce flames)
- Reactive Metals (Reactivity Increases down the group)
- Outer shell electrons get further away from the nucleus down the group & lose
attraction of the nucleus

Alkali Metal Reactions:

- 4Li + O2 -> 2Li2O
- 4Na + O2 -> 2Na2O
- Li2O + H2O -> 2LiOH
- Na2O + H2O -> 2NaOH
- 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl
- 2Li + Cl2 -> 2LiCl
- 2Na + 2H2O -> 2NaOH + H2
- 2Li + 2H2O -> 2LiOH + H2

Halogens:
- Elements of group 7
- Consisting of 4 Elements
- Halo Means Salt, Gens means Producers In Latin
- When Halogen element reacts with metals, they produce salts
- Diatomic Molecule Gases
 - Atomic Radius Increases down the group
- Density increases down the group
- Reactivity decreases down the group
- M.P & B.P increase down the group
- Color gets darker down the group, for example:
- F = Pale Yellow Gas (Flourine)
- Cl = Pale Yellow Green Gas (Chlorine)
- Br = Brown Red Liquid (Bromine)
- I = Grey, Black solid (Iodine)
- H2 + Cl2 -> 2HCl
- Hcl + H2O -> HCL + H+ + Cl-

Displacement Reactions:-
- Cl2 + 2KBr -> 2KCl + Br2
- Br2 + 2KI -> 2KBr + I2
- I2 + KBr -> No Reactions
- No Reaction because Iodine is less reactive than Bromine and cannot displace Bromine
from Potassium Bromide
- You Can Only Displace When the halogen you’re introducing is more reactive than the
halogen present in the compound

Transition Elements:-
- Elements in the centre of the periodic table between group 2 & group 3
- They are all Metals
- Called “D Block Elements”

Physical Property of Transition Elements:-

- Solid at room temperature
- High density
- Malleable & Ductile
- Good Conductor of heat & electricity
- High M.P & B.P
- Harder, More Density, stronger than Group 1 & 2 Elements

Chemical property of transition elements:-

- Have Variable Oxidation State
- Produce colored compounds
- Less Reactive Than Alkali Metals
- They & Their compound act as catalysts
Noble Gases:
- 8th group
- Zero oxidation state
- Monoatomic gases at room temperature
- Insoluble in water
- Low m.p & b.p
- Lack reactivity because their outer shell is complete

Apparatus used to measure time:

- Stop Watch: used to measure time intervals accurately in seconds and minutes
- E.g: Used to measure time taken for chemical reactions to occur
- Advantage: Easy to use & Affordable
- Disadvantage: Not highly accurate for short intervals

Apparatus used to measure temperature:

- Thermometer: used to measure temperature change, we use alcohol thermometer &
mercury thermometer
- E.g: measures temperature change of heating water
- Advantage: Simple to use & Available
- Disadvantage: Mercury thermometer can be hazardous & the responses are slow

Apparatus used to measure Mass:

- Balance: (Electronic/Digital Balance) Used to measure mass
- E.g: used to measure mass of a solid sample
- Advantage: very precise and easy to use
- Disadvantage: expensive

Apparatus used to measure Volume:

- Burette: used to measure volume accurately
- Used in titration methods
- Advantage: Easy to use & precise
- Disadvantage: requires skills to avoid errors
- Volumetric Pipette: Used to deliver accurate amount of liquid in titration experiments

Apparatus Used to measure Gas:

- Gas Syringe: Used to measure the volume of gases
- E.g: collecting the gas produced in a chemical reaction
- Adv: Direct method of measuring gas volume
- Disadv: limited to a specific experiment
Measuring Cylinder:
- Used to measure liquids but its not as precise as a pipette & burette
- E.g: measure water in a experiment of preparation of solution
- Adv: Easy to use
- Disadv: less precise than a pipette of Burette

Flame Test:
- Used to identify the positive metal ions (cations) by the color of the flame they
produced

To carry out flame test:

Method 1: Using a metal wire

1. Dip the loop of unreactive metal wire (nichrome or platinum) in a dilute acid.

o Reason: To prevent contamination. One color could mask another.

o Note: Not doing this might result in mixed colors (flame).

2. Hold the loop of metal wire in the blue Bunsen flame (alcohol off) until there is no color
change.

3. Dip the loop into the solid sample/solution and place it in the edge of the blue flame.

4. Observe the flame color.

Method 2: Wooden splint method

1. Have a wooden splint with one end dipped into a solution.
2. Then place the damp end of it into the flame of the Bunsen burner (air hole open).
3. Observe the color change.