A Womans Perspective: Is The Rover Different?

List of contents

1. Introduction 2. The Opening of The Rover 3. The Opening of The Man of Mode 4. The Ending of The Rover 5. The Ending of The Man of Mode 6. Patriarchy and the Roles of Women 7. Why Aphra Behns Work Seems to Be Different 8. Conventional Elements of The Rover 9. Bibliography

1 1-3 4-5 5-9 9-11 11-16 16-18 18-19 20

1. Introduction The play, The Rover or the Banished Cavaliers, by Aphra Behn was one of the most popular Restoration Comedies. It was first performed in 1677, and since it was so successful there was a second part in 1681. The playwrights comedy was so triumphant that one may assume that The Rover was a typical Restoration Comedy, a genre celebrated in the end of the seventeenth century till the beginning of the eighteenth century. However, Behns play does not quite stick to the conventions. Throughout the plot she constantly questions the patriarchal system, a world dominated by men, and the role this system assigns to woman. In this term paper I will analyze which devices Behn uses to criticize these systems by comparing it to another play: The Man of Mode by George Etherege. The focus of this comparison is put on the opening- and ending scenes, benefiting from Aughtersons analysis of these parts of The Rover. After that we will have a closer look at the whole play and examine Behns critique further. This comment is based on the works of Pacheco, Hunter and Staves that are supported by quotations from The Rover. Hereafter, consulting Hunter, Finke, Munns, and Todd, we will learn why Aphra Behns work appears different from the one of other famous playwrights. Finally I will give some examples for conventional elements in the play that try to answer the question if The Rover really is ever so different. 2. The Opening of The Rover The opening of The Rover is a complete inversion of a typical, conventional Restoration Comedy opening. This inverseness is achieved by the use of various themes and stylistic devices: the immediate introduction of the female in-group, the constant critique of the patriarchal system, a paralleling of the female protagonists by the language they use, the invasion of the scene by men, and the setting in Naples. The way the opening is arranged makes the audience sympathise with the sisters and therefore engages them in a gender debate about arranged marriages, self-determination and the patriarchal world order. There is a feminisation of the audiences response (Aughterson (2003 (28)) by an opening that forces us to reflect on the implications of an arranged marriage which

commodifies woman. The concept of patriarchy, that is shaken by a constant accentuation of the conflict between a manly dominated world and the individual desires a woman has, is further discussed in the female-dominated arrangement of the first act. It begins with disobedient woman talking about love and selfdetermination, it carries on by introducing the male protagonists who represent an antiquated view, and it ends with the heroines setting up the central intrigue of the play. I now want to look at theses devices further by analyzing situations and quotes from The Rover. Most importantly the in-group, that normally consists of the male heroes of the play, this time consists of the heroines Hellena and Florinda. We find ourselves thrown into a lively conversation between them. The two woman speak to one another about the future which has been designed for them by their father and their brother. By following their fast, emotional and witty conversation, we learn that the sisters have no intention of following the wishes of the male part of the family. Instead of behaving virtuous and obedient like it was usual, Hellena and Florinda rather aim at fulfilling their own desires: a marriage out of love and self-determination. But, Pedro tells Florinda that she must consider Don Vincentios fortune, and the jointure hell make [her] (Behn (1997 (173)), and Hellena is supposed to become a nun. Nevertheless, Hellena has no intention of going to a nunnery: And dost thou think that ever Ill be a nun? [...] Faith no, [...] I hope [Belvile] has some mad companion or other that will spoil my devotion. Nay, Im resolved to provide myself this Carnival [...] (Behn (1997 (172)) However, the sisters do not only reject the destiny designed for them, they also reverse it they plan on going to the carnival festivities. The woman are about to break out of their role in a world dominated by men and do everything they are not supposed to do. They are disobedient, they masquerade themselves as gypsies, and they talk in a language typical for men. By convincing their governess Callis to go to the carnival the woman start the intrigue of the play. Pedro tells Callis to watch this wildcat (Behn (1997 (174)) and to lock her up (Behn (1997 (174)), but Hellena the one who is to stay at home convinces Florinda and their governess to go to take all innocent freedoms and to ramble. (Behn (1997 (175)) The patriarchy is further shaken by Florinda ignoring the unjust commands of her father. [...] how near soever my father thinks I am to marrying that hated object, I

shall let him see I understand better whats due to my beauty, birth, and fortune, and more to my soul [...]. (p 171) After the introduction of the female in-group that makes us sympathise with the sisters, the scene is invaded by men. Analyzing this, we can already get a glimpse of the plot of the play. The fact that the young and open woman Hellena and Florinda are advanced by, and contrasted to older men, points to the use of the conventional comic device of young versus old or woman versus brother and father. The second important observation is that Pedro wears a mask when entering the scene. This visual device, which hides his face, makes him appear reserved as opposed to his sisters who speak so openly about their desires, and it suggests that Pedro may has a secret agenda. When Pedro enters, the womans language becomes much more formal because there is a difference between the private- and the public life of a woman. Now that their brother is there, they have to accept his superior position and behave like gentlewoman. For instance, they now address their brother by sir (Behn (1997 (172)), as opposed to earlier when they used first names. Also, they speak more formally. Florinda, for example, does not speak so freely about Belvile anymore, but rather tells her brother that she will not [...] deny [that she] value[s] Belvile. (Behn (1997 (173)) Nevertheless, Hellena is not as obeying as her older sister. She confronts Pedro with witty and straight forward comments. When her brother says that it is not a confinement (Behn (1997 (173)) to live in the beautiful country, Hellena ridicules all of what he has stated, saying: [...] what are the divertissements of the night? To lie in a wide moth-eaten bedchamber with furniture in fashion in the reign of King Sancho the First [...]. (Behn (1997 (173)) All in all the dialogue of Pedro and Hellena is clearly dominated by her. It is also her who talks aside to the audience saying: [...] Ist not enough you make a nun of me, but you must cast my sister away too, exposing her to a worse confinement than a religious life?. (Behn (1997 (173)) Again, this strongly shows the inverseness of the play because only Hellena is assigned the power of making a point that only the audience is supposed to hear. Of course, Hellenas view influences the audiences opinion. This demonstration of power assigns Hellena the role of the libertine. (Aughterson (2003 (8 ff)) As we have seen, the opening is characterized by a total inverseness: a female in-group, the starting of an intrigue by woman, and the destabilization of the patriarchal world order. Not at least to support the different character of The

Rover, the play is set in Naples, and not in England as typical for Restoration Comedy. 3. The Opening of The Man of Mode The play, The Man of Mode, by George Etherege, is a quite typical Restoration Comedy. We have a male in-group, the intrigue is set by men, and the typical hierarchical system is in order. The tone of the men is rather harsh and according to tradition, the play is set in England. Like in The Rover the audience is first introduced to the protagonist, but The Man of Mode sticks to the conventions, and starts off by acquainting the spectators with the male rake Dorimant. After that, one after an other, the other members of the in-group appear: The first is Medley, then enters Young Bellair. The inner relationship of the in-group has to be explained by regarding the patriarchal system which consists of a certain hierarchy. Not only were upper-class men superior to low-class men and to woman, but there was also an inner hierarchy between the comrades, since it was not impossible that a former friend became a rival. (Pacheco (2002(204)) Medley, who according to his name, likes to meddle, to intervene, is Dorimants close friend. However, he does not have any affair and rather has the task to comment the protagonists story. Medley calls his friend his life, his joy, and his darling. (Behn (1997 (91)) Young Bellair [...] a good third man (Etherege (1997 (97)), as Dorimant calls him, is resolved to marry Emilia. But the institution of marriage is dismissed in Restoration Comedy, thus young Bellair adopts the lowest position in this ingroup. This elite group forms certain alliances, but in the end its members only form a partnership of convenience. Their interest is based on self-interest. As opposed to the loving sisters Hellena and Florinda in The Rover, the members of the in-group of The Man of Mode rather look for themselves. If it was no for their self-interest or their status, they probably would not be friends. Young Bellair profits from the reflection of wit of Dorimant on him and his bad reputation, and Dorimant profits from Young Bellairs boring conformatism reputation. The two of them have a mutual interest. (Etherege (1997 (99)) Furthermore, the system of hierarchy is reflected by Dorimants language. He demonstrates is status by insulting his servant and people who are under his control. At first he refuses to

pay the Orange Lady, then he offends the Shoemaker, and calls his servant a sot (Etherege (1997 (101)) and an eternal blockhead. (Etherege (1997 (101)) In contrast to The Rover the intrigue is set by our male in-group. Dorimant is bored by normal woman and now is after the witty, virtuous and beautiful ones of the female gender. Therefore he is resolved to get rid of Mrs. Loveit by using his present affair Bellinda who is friends with her. Noticeably, Dorimant only shares his plan with Medley, and Young Bellair, according to his lower status, is kept in the dark about the salient part of the plan. In turn, Young Bellairs, who plans to marry Emilia, is suddenly threatened by his father who has arranged a match for him and who will disinherit him if he is will disobey. This second plot line already enables us to deign a look on the intrigue that is to be released by Old Bellairs demands, throughout the coming acts. Remarkably, the entire first act is occupied by the in-group only, and we learn about the other characters by their conversations. Apart from the three male main wits who set the tone, there is another half-wit we hear about, Sir Fopling Flutter, who thinks that he his the pattern of modern gallantry but who is indeed the pattern of modern foppery (Etherege (1997 (98)). In total conformity with his name, the fop Fopling, who exaggerates his use of wit, his clothing and his accent that tries to imitate the people of quality of France (Etherege (1997 (98)), is a source of laughter. The main functions of wit in London plays (except in The Rover) were to murder a social reputation, laughter was used as humiliation, and it was a guideline for the audience to decide what was right and wrong. The laughing about Fopling is no sympathetic laughter but a laughter used as a social weapon. However, we do not only learn about other male characters, but also about the woman of the play. Dorimants former mistress Mrs. Loveit, for instance, is described as a most passionate (Etherege (1997 (94)) and most extravagant (Etherege (1997 (94)), two attributes which were not desirable and which destroyed her reputation. One has to preserve ones own interest. Manners are extremely strict, morals are extremely loose and woman had to know the narrow path to be just right from ridicule. Another device frequently employed by Restoration Comedy playwrights, is the use of masquerades. For example, Bellinda is talked about as a vizard (Etherege (1997 (94)) and Harriet wore a mask (Etherege (1997 (91)) when observing Dorimant. This masquerading sets the tone of trickery of the play.

A last element to consider is age. Old people, in this case Old Bellair and Lady Woodwill, are a hindrance to overcome by the young. 4. The Ending of The Rover The ending of The Rover is, like the entire play, rather unconventional. The typical Restoration Comedy has a romantic closure: all loose ends are tied up, all characters are happy and participate in the final festivity, and all problems are resolved. In antithesis to that, Behn ends her play in a rather satiric way: there are loose ends left unexplained, not all characters take part in the celebratory closure, not all problems are solved, and the audience is left critical. (Aughterson (2003 (31 ff)) The idea of a happy ending is a metaphor for the resolving of the past conflicts. It represents forgiveness and the opportunity for establishing a new social order. The point why The Rover does not end all happy is that Behn continues her critique on the patriarchal system and the commodification of woman to the last. Although, the ending of the play has some of the qualities crucial for a happy ending (there is the marriage of Florinda and Belvile, and Valeria and Frederick, the forgiveness of Pedro, and a celebration), some are left out. For instance, Willmore does not marry Hellena, Blunt has only changed for the worse, and we do not learn what happens with Angellica. This uncertainty about what happens to her rises doubts about the sexual autonomy of a woman. This open or loose end is supposed to make the audience think about the female independence. (Aughterson (2003 (52 ff)) However, there are more techniques Behn uses to make her point. In the last part of Act 5 there is a constant presence of the symbol of war in contrast to contentedness. Hellena asks Willmore to stand to [his] arms and to defend [her] bravely [...]. (Behn (1997 (244)) This military language indicates the two wars Hellena has to fight: For one thing the war in which woman are commodities in a strategic game between men, and for another thing the one she fights to pursue Willmore to marry her. The latter is represented in her negotiation with Willmore about their love. She wants to lose no time (Behn (1997 (243)) and it is her goal to centre all of Willmores attention exclusively around her: [...] till I have made you love only me [...]. (Behn (1997 (242 f)) As we have seen, Hellena uses the symbol of war in a self-conscious way, nevertheless, Pedro and Willmore employ

it to reduce woman and sex to a combat zone. Hellenas brother still shows a tendency towards violence, he goes roughly to her. (Behn (1997 (244)) This revisiting of the topic of physical violence (earlier in the play there is a repeated threat of rape) emphasizes the otherness of the play and its critique on the commodification of woman. Again using the language of a battle, Pedro suggests that Hellena is a trophy to be won in a war when he asks Belvile if his lewd friends [...] must be enriched with the spoils of a noble family. (Behn (1997 (245)) Moreover, Willmore basically compares himself with the symbol of war when he reduced himself to a sword which does him right that is defending the cause of a woman. (Behn (1997 (245)) Nevertheless there are more stylistic elements to be considered. Behn brings the audience in on the personal development of the characters. For instance, Hellena is still disguised in the last act. This symbolizes her independent agenda which was perceivable throughout the entire play, starting with the opening scene. Hellena is the sister who feels a stronger wish for self-determination than Florinda. She reaches the height of her wittiness and sarcasm when negotiating with Willmore, (Behn (1997 (242 ff)) and she is proud of her independence from paternal approval. She says to Pedro: The three hundred crowns my uncle left me, and you cannot keep from me, will be better laid out in love that in religion.. (Behn (1997 (245)) By this, on the one hand, she distances herself from the patriarchal system, but on the other hand she also acknowledges that woman who have no money of their own are dependent upon men. From that we can deduce that Hellena kind of reached her goal of self-determination, but the point she makes is only valid for herself as a rich woman and not for the womans movement itself. Pedro, who is constantly represented as a supporting pillar of the patriarchal system, has not changed over the play. He is concerned about status, business arrangements, male honour, wealth, and so on. He proves his power by interrogating and insulting Hellena and Belvile. Concerning the two of them he uses words like perfidious, deceived, false, and debauched. (Behn (1997 (244 f)) It is obvious that Pedro does not accept Hellena as an equal. Pedros concerns about economics and social position are revealed by a question he asks Belvile about the nonexisting fortune of Willmore: Whats this to the maintenance of a woman of her birth and quality?. (Behn (1997 (245)) However, Behn does not

only reveal Pedros personal position towards independent woman, but also provides a glimpse into the future of the social system when she hints to the validity of patriarchy. Although, Pedro is at peace with his sisters, he thinks that his father, who obviously belongs to an older generation, disapproves of their actions: [...] I forgive you all, and wish you may get my fathers pardon as easily [...]. (Behn (1997 (245)) All together, in contrast to Hellena who symbolizes hope and progress, the character of Pedro is depicted unpleasantly. In addition to his antiquated views about arranged marriages, he also shows overt misogyny. He blames Valeria for the intrigue and hopes that her husband will revenge my quarrel to you. (Behn (1997 (245)) Moreover, the only reason why Pedro approves of the marriage of Hellena and Willmore is because he sees no way to change a womans will. If so, he would have prevented it. We can tell that from his response to Valerias statement Theres no altering of destiny, sir. (Behn (1997 (245)), which is: Sooner than a womans will [...] (Behn (1997 (245)) With the appearance of the half-wit Blunt in the final sequence of the play, Behn underlines the hostile and dark side of the male heroes. This role of Blunt is also illustrated by his language. He speaks to Hellena in a tone too familiar. He calls her my little rover. (Behn (1997 (246)) As opposed to Pedro, Blunt has changed throughout the play, although not in a positive way. He now not only considers low woman to be available for sexual pleasure, but all woman. Blunt also does not participate in the final celebration, but is still concerned if his doxy (Behn (1997 (246)) is amongst the masqueraded people. This attitude is contradictory to the custom of a happy ending in Restoration Comedy in which all characters are happy and all problems are solved. Since Willmore speaks the last sentences of the play he sets the tone of the outcome of The Rover. He compares marriage with danger: [...] no other dangers they can dread, / Who venture in the storms oth marriage bed.. (Behn (1997 (246)) However, Willmore is not only concerned about the dangers of marriage, he also talks about the marriage bed, thus he focuses on the sexual aspect of the relationship rather than on love. These unpromising metaphors again put a strain on the ending which in this case is not so happy.

On top of all these elements that have to be acknowledged, there is one crucial part missing that makes an ending a happy one: The wedding, and the wedding dance. Marriage, so far, has only been promised. Moreover, Willmore and Hellena do not seem to form a typical Restoration Comedy couple which is designed for one another because their relationship just so happens, and Willmore is still kind of interested in Angellica. There also only is a dance of masqueraded people, not of a married couple and their wedding party. (Aughterson (2003 (31 ff)) 5. The Ending of The Man of Mode Like the opening, the ending of The Man of Mode is in accordance with convention. Hence, we have a happy ending where all loose ends are tied up, all figures (who are virtuous) dance at the wedding festivity, the old characters undergo a conventional change from hindrance to acceptance, and finally the audience is asked to approve of the happy ending. To begin with, the two major plot lines (the love of Harriet and Dorimant, and Emilia and Young Bellair) are to be resolved in marriage, a salient element of a happy ending. In addition, the last secret details of the intrigues, which made these weddings possible, are explained. To get a better understanding of the ending we need to take a closer look at each character. The protagonist Dorimant, who used to be so rude and promiscuous in the beginning, has changed over the play. From a libertine he has developed into a man who is determined to marry a single woman. Concerning woman, his development went from dull Mrs. Loveit, over Bellinda, to the virtuous lady Harriet. Dorimant, in the end, would do everything to be with the woman he loves. He even agrees to go to the country with Harriet. He explains her just how resolved he is to marry her: [...] but now my passion knows no bounds, and theres no measure to be taken of what Ill do for you from anything I ever did before. (Etherege (1997 (160)) He is even not shocked when Mrs. Loveit crosses his plans by exposing Mr. Courtages real identity and he looses the fortune (Etherege (1997 (163)) of the heiress. One could argue that Dorimant is not as resolved as he claims, when he tells Bellinda that he is getting married, but that they must meet again. (Etherege (1997 (163)) This scene awakes the attention of the reader, because in contrast to a typical happy ending, Dorimant does not

seem to be interested in Harriet only. Nevertheless this does not necessarily mean that The Man of Mode falls out of alignment. Every play has its own character and in this case Harriet in fact does not want to have a perfect husband. She is rather attracted by Dorimants roughness. When he offers her to renounce all the joys (Etherege (1997 (159)) and all the interest [he has] in other woman (Etherege(1997 (159)), Harriet stops him from doing so: Hold! Though I wish you devout, I would not have you turn fanatic. (Etherege (1997 (160)) The character of Harriet is a virtuous one. She is looking for real love, but does not want to obtain it to all accounts. Harriet and Dorimant are in love, however, Harriet is not resolved to admit her feelings because she is a woman of virtue who can not be blinded as easily as a woman like Mrs. Loveit. Harriet could rather live with the idea that Dorimant hated her than with doing [...] a thing against the rules of decency and honor. (Etherege (1997 (160)) Thus, Harriet has not been undone (Etherege (1997 (162)) as her mother fears. Furthermore, Harriet [...] will never marry [Dorimant] against [lady Woodwills]) will.. (Etherege (1997 (164)) To the contrary, Harriets opponent Mrs. Loveit, becomes a victim of being nave, and too passionate. Hence, she is not taken care of like her counterpart, the female libertine Angellica of The Rover, but punished. In addition, it was also Mrs. Loveit who exposed Mr. Courtages real identity to Lady Woodwill and when she demands an explanation for the masquerading, Mrs. Loveit is dull enough to buy Dorimants story that he had no mistress (Etherege (1997 (163)) beside her, but [...] a wife to repair the ruins of [his] estate that needs it.. (Etherege (1997 (163)) In the end Mrs. Loveit experiences the consequences of her poor character and even the heroine Harriet, who has the man Mrs. Loveit desires, makes fun of her: A nunnery is the more fashionable place for such a retreat and has been the fatal consequence of many a belle passion.. (Etherege (1997 (165)) Dorimants second affair, Bellinda, who is smarter and more virtuous than Mrs. Loveit, but not as witty and chaste as Harriet, is smart enough to see through his plans and does not want to enjoy his company ever again: When we do [meet again], may I be as infamous as you are false.. (Etherege (1997 (163)) Thus, according to the conventions of Restoration Comedy, Bellinda does not has to face the same fate as Mrs. Loveit does. Like Blunt of The Rover, Sir Fopling Flutter has not undergone the conventional development to become a better man. When he appears again for the first time in

the last act, like in the very first, he is still concerned about his looks. Is my periwig right?. (Etherege (1997 (164)) Being a half-wit he also had his share in the intrigue of Dorimant who had [...] engaged [him] in a pretty business.. (Etherege (1997 (165)) Another device of Restoration Comedy that is used is age. Lady Woodwill, who was played by Dorimant in disguise of Mr. Courtage, changes and eventually consents to the marriage: She knows the way to melt my heart. Upon yourself light your undoing. (Etherege (1997 (164)) After all, she also has a good opinion of [Dorimant, and] he shall be welcome.. (Etherege(1997 (165)) When Old Bellair, the pillar of patriarchy in The Man of Mode, learns that his son has already secretly married the woman he intended on marrying himself, he is outraged. Nevertheless, finally he does as Lady Woodwill does, and gives his will. He consents to the marriage of Dorimant and Harriet: God bless you both. (Etherege (1997 (164)). Moreover, it is Old Bellair, the character who is on top of the hierarchy, who demands that everyone will be good friends (Etherege (1997 (165)) and who initiates the marriage dance. It is Old Bellairs transformation really, that makes a proper happy ending possible. The idea of a happy ending is a metaphor for the resolving of the past conflicts. It represents forgiveness and the opportunity for establishing a new social order. To make this clear, Old Bellair is assigned with speaking the final line of the play, and remarkably, he invites the pit (Etherege (1997 (166)) to approve of the ending provided: And if these honest gentlemen rejoice, / Adod, the boy has made a happy choice.. (Etherege (1997 (166)) 6. Patriarchy and the Roles of Woman The Rover criticizes the patriarchal system. Behn aims at turning the tables in this power play. The playwright seems to be tired of the roles this system has to offer womankind in a world dominated by men. Therefore, to take the patriarchal system apart, she discloses its deplorable state by revealing its inner instability, its exploitation of power, and the way it treats woman. The latter has to be explained: The male-dominated society exerts violence on the female gender and dictates their lifestyle. If a woman is designed to get married, she is not allowed to choose her husband, but has to obey the will of the male persons of her family. Of, course

the men picked the candidate who offered the biggest fortune. It is this commodification of woman that really upsets Aphra Behn. In a system of patriarchy, there consequently is a hierarchy. Men had to demonstrate their superiority over lower-class men and over woman and the more power a man had, the higher he was ranked in this hierarchy of manliness. In fact, the traditional masculine virtues were strength, courage and martial power and the upper-class men claimed that only they themselves possessed these qualities. Consequently, being a man of virtue, provided power over the rest. Nevertheless, the men in Restoration Comedy seem to confuse the traditional virtues and rather displace the notion of honour to sexual realm. Sexual power then becomes inseparable from the will to power. Hence, power is proven by dominance over others. However, the chain of command did not only hold for low-class men and woman, but for the powerful people as well. Upper-class men had to demonstrate their power amongst themselves to defend their position within the elite circle. (Pacheco (2002 (204)) Let us now have a look at the upper-class group of The Rover, or rather at the two upper-class groups. The Spanish one consists of Don Pedro, the leader, and of Don Antonio. Although Pedro is not the oldest male person of his family, he is the oldest person present. Taking advantage of this situation he dismisses his fathers candidate choice for Florinda and intends to set her up with his own pick. My will [...] is that you would love Antonio [...] This absence of my father will give us opportunity to free you from Vincentio by marrying here, which you must do tomorrow.. (Behn (1997 (174)) Pedros behaviour proves the existence of an inner ranking in which he wants to climb up, but he also does it at the expense of the patriarchal system, because his conduct shakes its foundation. In addition to the Spanish elite group, there is the English one, whose members are Willmore, the rover setting the tone, Belvile, Frederick and Blunt. To underline his status Willmore describes himself as a rampant lion of the forest. (Behn (1997 (178)) The differences in the hierarchy within the groups and amongst the exclusive circles are exposed by many fights. For instance, when Willmore steals the picture of the courtesan Angellica, a quarrel breaks out. First of all, Pedro and Antonio dispute who of them has the right to buy Angellica. Antonio asks Pedro where he must pay his offring of love (Behn (1997 (189)), but Pedro has [...] designed to make [this offring himself] and [Antonios] will come too late. (Behn (1997 (189)) In turn, Pedro says that

his [...] anger may be fatal [...] (Behn (1997 (198)), and Antonio retorts: [...] Im sure thourt worth my killing, for aiming at Angellica.. (Behn (1997 (198)) However, not only the Spanish fight, but another battle breaks out with the English when Willmore rejects to give Angellicas picture back. Antonio and Willmore start fighting and Blunt joins in. (Behn (1997 (190)) Anita Pacheco notes that throughout the entire play, there are a lot of fights and duels. This constant competition makes true comradeship impossible. In fact, one may note an almost complete absence of comradeship in The Rover. This circumstance is a strong indicator for the cracks the patriarchal system suffers from. (Pacheco (2002 (205)) As mentioned above, power is based on sexual power. Thus, the bodies of woman are used to secure patriarchy. This explains the fact why in The Rover there are attempted rapes, an element traditionally excluded from comedies. There are three rape scenes in the play. In the first one Willmore mistakes Florinda for a wench. (Behn (1997 (207)) Florinda who is afraid of him, calls him a filthy beast (Behn (1997 (208)) and he reaffirms her saying: I am so, and thou oughtst the sooner to lie with me for that reason. (Behn (1997 (208)) Only Belviles sudden appearance prevents Florinda from getting raped. To further devalue woman, men even blame the former for bringing the threat on themselves. Due to their beauty, men claim that they have no other choice than to possess them, even if, in the last resort, this means raping them. Willmore, for example, accuses Florinda of having given the first provocation (Behn (1997 (208)) with her eyes. So far the rape element has only been considered from a male view, but regarding the female role, the attempted rapes also emphasize the difficulties the weaker sex has to face in its struggle to escape the devaluations the patriarchal system exerts on it. In the second rape scene Blunt takes over the role of the predator. Again Florinda, who was actually looking for shelter, is the victim. Blunt was betrayed by the whore Lucetta whom he believed to be a woman of quality. The failure of his sexual conquest signifies a loss of power, therefore he now wants to take revenge on all womankind. He tells Florinda: Yes, I will kiss and beat thee all over, kiss and see thee all over; thou shalt lie with me too, [...] I have then deliberated malice to thee, and will be revenged on one whore for the sins of another. [...] . (Behn (1997 (229)) But it is not only the loss of power caused by Lucettas rejection that bothers him, it is the loss of honour and he hates himself for having been

conceited. Blunt turns violent facing the dishonour of his friends: [...] But Fred that rogue and the colonel will abuse me beyond all Christian patience. [...]. (Behn (1997 (206)) The example of Blunt again underlines that there exists a strong hierarchy in the patriarchal system, and every mistake one makes endangers ones position. The third and last rape scene is an intended gang rape the Spanish and the English want to participate in. Since they can not decide who has the right to go first, they resolve to let the size of their arms speak for themselves. Come, the longest sword carries her.. (Behn (1997 (234)) Pedro, who wins the competition, demonstrates his power emanating from his position in the hierarchy of manliness, and ironically comes for his sister Florinda who is masked. Her attempt of emancipating herself and to obtain sexual freedom through masquerade impressively fails not least because the character of Florinda represents a vulnerable woman. She is not as witty and strong as her sister Hellena. Since the male figures try to rape Florinda three times and Hellena never, it is obvious that Behn criticizes the image of woman Florinda stands for and elevates the libertine role Hellena personifies. Susan Staves, in her essay, Behn, woman, and society, states that in Aphra Behns time there were many different ideologies about woman. The three main roles for woman were, according to the religious ideology, to be a nun, to the economic and legal ideology, to be a gentlewoman designed for marriage, and in accordance with the libertine ideology, to be a whore. With the former Behn had the least sympathy and the latter she found quite attractive. Since the playwright was not entirely satisfied with the roles assigned to woman, her work continuingly questions the ideological female function. (Staves (2004 (12)) She does so by blurring the borders between the roles. This is achieved by masquerading, language, and by the destiny the characters have to face. Hellena, for instance, who is designed to be a nun often dresses and behaves like the courtesan Angellica, the latter in turn does not behave like a typical wench and in addition only is available for men of quality. And Florinda, the gentlewoman who is supposed to marry a rich man, is constantly in trouble because Behn criticizes the role, assigned to her, that of a commodified woman, the most. As Florinda does not refuse the institution of marriage itself (she wants to marry Belvile out of love), but only arranged marriages, Behn describes her as a weak and vulnerable person. We will now have a closer look at each of the woman mentioned above. Heidi Hunter states

that with the figure of Hellena, Aphra Behn emphasizes the limited choices for woman. There was the nunnery where sexuality was buried behind the walls of the convent and prostitution where sexuality existed for male pleasure. The virgin heiress Hellena, who tries to break out of the patriarchal system, to transgress class and gender boundaries, blurs the borders between whore and virgin. (Hunter (1993 (103f)) To flee from her designed destiny to become a nun, Hellena wants to take all innocent freedoms (Behn (1997 (175)) and disguises herself as a gypsy for the carnival. On the other hand there is Angellica who, as a courtesan sells herself, but who is more impressed by a mans wooing than by their money. [...] Im not displeased with their rallying; their wonder feeds my vanity, and he that wishes but to buy gives me more pride than he that gives my price can make my pleasure. (Behn (1997 (187)) However, Angellica has already sold herself to men and will give herself to men again. As opposed to her, Hellena only goes as far as to talk about sexuality. With Hellena, Behn designs the image of woman she languishes for. The heroine does not violate the key virtues but crosses the line wherever possible. Being unchaste inevitably determines the female character as a non-heroine. Furthermore, Hellena is the wit of the play. Unlike Angellica, who is first introduced to Willmore by her picture, Hellena introduces herself disguised and scores with her wit rather than with her looks. In Act V, Scene 1 Hellena negotiates with Willmore and conquers him with her wit. Willmore verifies this assumption saying: I adore thy humour and will marry thee [...].. (Behn (1997 (244)) At the end of the play, Behn, who designed Hellena as a role model, does not make her marry Willmore because she was opposed to the institution of marriage. Nevertheless, as The Rover is a comedy, there is something close to a marriage between the two protagonists. Willmore proposes marriage when he wants to go [...] to the good man within, who stays to give [them] a cast of his office.. (Behn (1997 (246)) Yet, Behn does not only criticize the restrictive roles, but the commodification of woman, too. In addition to the jointure Florinda is to get from Vincetio, there is a frequent mentioning of the prize (Behn (1997 (203, 227)) of woman. Heidi Hunter claims that the character of Angellica is, on the one hand, a tool to destroy the ideology of passive, self-controlled, and commodified womanhood, and on the other hand, a universal symbol of female oppression, since she is an outsider for being a prostitute and since she looses Willmore to the heroine Hellena. (Hunter (1993 (103)) In The Rover only woman who do not

possess the required virtues like obedience, money, status, and virginity are in danger of getting raped. When Blunt is about to violate Florinda, who by the way only is in this position because she was not obedient, Frederick voices some doubts: I begin to suspect something, and twould anger us vilely to be trussed up for a rape upon a maid of quality, when we only believe we ruffle a harlot. (Behn (1997 (231)) Hence, Frederick would not rape a virtuous lady, but does not have any problem with doing so when it is a whore. In any case, woman in The Rover are there to be taken use of. If they are not raped then men try to take possession of their money. When Willmore learns that Hellena has a fortune of her own, he is all the more excited about her. Ha! My gipsy worth two thousand crowns! Oh, how I long to be with her! Pox, I knew she was of quality. (Behn (1997 (219)) 7. Why Aphra Behns Work Seems to be Different Behn did not want to be different, she was just herself. Only in the last couple of decades her work has been considered as feminist literature, but currently critics have changed their minds about this one-sided analysis of her literature. There are many factors that have to be observed to understand Behns writing. First of all it is very important to examine the culture and time she lived in - it is crucial to understand Behn as a royalist and a Tory. Many of her earlier critics rather focused on her biography although it is important to take it into account, it should not be the only source to analyse. Moreover, one must not forget the fact that Behn wrote for money and fame and therefore had to please the popular taste of the audience. This most conveniently worked with sex and gender affairs. And last but not least Aphra Behn was a woman. This mere fact obviously determined her perspective as different from the one of a man. The playwright of The Rover has not always been considered to be a feminist writer. In fact, after her death, her work was neither perceived as good, nor as feminist literature. It has rather been regarded as marginal. Moreover, it was criticized because it discussed sexuality and revealed loose morals and disrupted virtues. Against this backdrop, Behn has, in the last fifty years, surprisingly been perceived as one of the most important feminist writers, possibly even as the first

woman writer. Obviously, this renewed opinion about her work goes together with the period when feminism came into fashion. (Hunter (1993 (2f)) But why was Behns literature perceived in such different ways? First of all, of course, the shift of perception has to do with the shift in culture from patriarchy to the current system where feminism finds its place, however, this is not the only reason. Behn also has an impressive biography: She was a spy for Charles II in Holland, she was in prison, at least twice, and went to Surinam, she was married for a short time to someone unknown, and later was in love with John Hoyle who was bisexual, furthermore she was one of the leading propagandist for the Tories, she socialized with important male writers and actually managed to provide for herself by writing. Many critics were misled by analyzing Behns career only, rather than interpreting her work, an odd attempt considering the fact that Mrs. Behn deliberately tried to leave the public in the dark about her personal life. (Hunter (1993 (3f)) Nevertheless, it is undeniable that her literature does not follow the traditional conventions of Restoration Comedy. This may be due to Behns complex combination of royalism and feminism, when woman were objectified and female desire denied. Markley and Molly Rothenberg explain how to read Aphra Behn quite strikingly.1 (Hunter (1993 (4f)) This citation makes us understand that Behns literature can not be grasped by focusing on just one aspect of her life, but that we have to take everything in account that Aphra Behn is about. (Hunter (1993 (3ff)) Another fact worth consideration is that Behn had to respond to the needs of the particular historical moment, and in times when it was important to give ideological affirmation to Toryism, there was no room for feminism in literature. (Todd (1996 (68)) When Behn wrote The Rover, patriarchy was a cultural construction in which everyone had a prewritten position. The Playwright did not fight for the male or the female side, she rather thought that both factions contributed their share to the maintenance of this situation. (Todd (1993 (3ff)) Her particular understanding of feminism was, in times of restoration, her desire for a new social order, in which men and woman are equal.
1

As a professional woman writer, a proponent of womans sexual freedom, and a Tory apologist, Behn must draw upon a variety of incommensurate discursive strategies and political values to ground her critique of repression. Therefore (her work) does not and cannot exhibit either a formal aesthetic unity or a coherent political ideology; in fact, its theoretical and historical significance lies in its disclosure of the necessarily fragmentary ideological conditions of its production, its registering of the discursive crisis within late-seventeenth-century constructions of nature, politics, and sexuality.

(Hunter (1993 (7)) Yet, since Behn grew up under Puritan rule, and since she was a snobbish high Tory (Todd (1996 (5)) who believed in divine-right monarchy and elitist aristocratic culture, it becomes obvious that she was no revolutionist. (Todd (1993 (3ff)) But why does Behns work appear different? As mentioned above, it is crucial to understand the author Aphra Behn as a woman and since she was female she approached any debate from a very different perspective than a man. (Finke (1993 (28f)) In addition the author of The Rover was facing a gender conflict in her writing. On the one hand, as a woman, it was impossible for her to write about men of wit because in times of patriarchy she would have had to devalue her own gender, and on the other hand she felt an economic necessity which forced her to write about the deplorable state of the female gender. Since Behn was a female author, she was always exposed to possible criticism. If anyone wanted to attack her, he just had to play the card of her womanhood. This very fact endangered even her best literary production. She had to face the conflict of not being masculine and of hiding her femininity. The more feminine her work was, the less spectators should be seeing her plays, but the less feminine her work was the even less spectators should be seeing them, too. (Munns (1993 (53)) However, there is more to the otherness of Behns literature. The author of The Rover was a fulltime writer who, after the dead of her husband, had to make a living of her own. Therefore, to gain as much money as possible, it was indispensable to write according to the popular taste. Besides, she wanted literary fame. (Todd (1993 (3ff)) Sex and gender were present and funny topics to be used. But they were rather used to mock and to bent for ones purposes, they did not denote essential qualities. They were devices or tools, nothing more. After all, Behns point was that she did not want to be perceived differently, she simply wanted to be regarded as good a writer as any man. (Todd (1993 (434f)) 8. Conventional Elements of The Rover To demonstrate that Aphra Behn was not a hardliner criticizing the entire social system, we will now have a look at some elements of The Rover that are in accordance with the traditions of Restoration Comedy. Anita Pacheco states that although the playwright portrays the tensions within patriarchal system, she does

not invalidate it. (Pacheco (2002 (209)) For instance, Hellena and Florinda only get the men they want because they are virtuous and virgin. Hence, the play assigns self-assertiveness, although in a restricted form, to woman of quality only. The rest who does not possess these qualities is trapped in the patriarchal system. This point reaffirms the validity of patriarchy. Furthermore, the two sisters only manage to achieve their goal by deceiving everyone including their male guardian. Without their intrigues and their masquerades their future would certainly not have turned out as they desired. Heidi Hunter explains that although Hellena and Florinda use masquerades to be free and to go out and speak with men, they do not attempt to cross class boundaries. However, Hellena definitely thinks that masked she can rule herself and rebel against the patriarchal system that suppresses her. Nevertheless, in the end, even the heroine Hellena is brought back into the patriarchal fold and becomes engaged with Willmore. (Hunter (1993 (103ff)) Besides, there is Pedro who, as we have seen, has the power to decide over his sisters, and who clearly opposes marriage out of love. This power, according to Pacheco, emanates from the fraternal role within the patriarchal family. A brother is empowered to decide over his sisters sexual destiny. (Pacheco (2002 (213)) Even Willmores development from a rover into a soon-tobe husband has to be scrutinized more carefully. When he and Hellena negotiate in Act 5, Scene 1 Willmore only resolves to marry her if it is done in an improper way. He thinks of a way of deceiving the church to invalidate his marriage, by becoming a left-handed bridegroom. (Behn (1997 (243)) Moreover, as we have seen in point 2.1. analyzing Willmores last utterance, he is concerned about the dangers of marriage, and also concentrates on the sexual aspect of their relationship (marriage bed). (Behn (1997 (246)) Altogether Willmore does not seem to have developed that much. In conclusion all of the protagonists, Hellena, Florinda, Pedro and Willmore, did not behave as conventional as other characters in other Restoration Comedies, however, they did behave conventional enough to not cross the lines prescribed by the patriarchal system.

9. Bibliography

Primary literature Behn, Aphra, The Rover, in: McMillin, Scott, Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Comedy, New York 1997. 169-248 Secondary literature Aughterson, Kate, Aphra Behn: The Comedies, Hampshire 2003. Finke, Laurie, Aphra Behn and the Ideological Construction of Restoration Literary Theory, in: Hunter, Heidi, Rereading Aphra Behn. History, Theory, and Criticism, London 1993, 17-43. Hunter, Heidi, Rereading Aphra Behn: An Introduction, in: Hunter, Heidi, Rereading Aphra Behn. History, Theory, and Criticism, London 1993, 1-13. Munns, Jessica, Good, Sweet, Honey, Sugar-Candied Reader: Aphra Behns Foreplay in Forewords, in: Hunter, Heidi, Rereading Aphra Behn. History, Theory, and Criticism, London 1993, 44-62. Pacheco, Anita, Aphra Behn, The Rover, Part One, in: Pacheco, Anita, A Companinon to Early Modern Womans Writing, Oxford 2002, 203215. Staves, Susan, Behn, woman, and society, in: Hughes, Derek/Todd, Janet, A Cambridge Companion to Aphra Behn, Cambridge 2004, Cambridge, 12-28. Todd, Janet, The secret life of Aphra Behn, London 1996.