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CELS 112

GENERAL PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Continuation:
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is concerned with the function, behaviour and organization of sounds as linguistic
items. It is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds is a language.
This system is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about
the sound patterns of that language. This is an abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in a
language rather than physical articulation of speech sounds. Although this is a bit different from
phonetics, it is not easy to make a clear cut distinction between both phonetics and phonology.
For example, we cannot talk of nasal stop [ŋ] or study the function of sounds in language without
reference to their articulatory and/or acoustic properties, e.g. Nasal Stop /ŋ/.
The phoneme is a distinctive meaningful speech sound and as such phonology is concerned with
the abstract set of sounds in a language which allows us distinguish meaning in the actual
physical sounds that we hear, e.g. ‘tie’ (alveolar) and ‘teeth’ (dental). The difference in these
two can be captured in a narrow phonetic transcription, such as in the words ‘buy’, ‘pie’, ‘tie’,
etc. /p/ is conventionally used to represent meaning distinguishing sound. On the other hand, [p]
(phonetic), represents physically produced segments. As seen, they function contrastively.
Some phonemes may share some properties and therefore belong to a natural class of sounds e.g.
+ stop, + voice, etc. take an example like b, g.
ALLOPHONES.
These are different realizations of a phoneme (phones). The difference is that, substituting one
phoneme for another gives a difference in meaning and pronunciation, but substituting
allophones, only results in difference in varied production of the sound segments.
ASSIMILATION
This occurs when two phonemes occur in a segment and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or
copied by the other. The process is known as assimilation.
This is a phonological rule that, for example, any vowel becomes nasal whenever it immediately
precedes a nasal, e.g. /ɪ/ and /ӕ/. There is no nasal quality, i.e. in isolation but, in the sentence;
‘I can go’.
The influence of following [g] will make the preceding nasal sound come out as [ŋ] (a velar)
rather than [n], an alveolar. Therefore, articulated as [a ŋkəŋ go], and instead of the articulation
of /ӕ/ it becomes /ə/.
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METHODS OF DETERMINING WHETHER SOUNDS ARE DISTINCTIVE OR NON-

DISTINCTIVE.
The term distinctive refers to the fact that when two pairs of sounds occur in a set, they give
different meanings. ‘Opposition’ or ‘contrast’ are other terms of the same meaning with
distinctive.
Three criteria or approaches to determine whether a contrast (opposition) between two sounds is
distinctive or whether that contrast is merely non-distinctive are used;
1. Use of minimal pair test.
It is used to determine that two sounds in a particular language are distinctive and as such qualify
to be different phonemes.
When two words in a given language are different in meaning but different phonologically in
only one segment, the other segments having the same order, the two words form what is called a
minimal pair. The sounds where they are considered to belong to different phonemes because the
substitution for one sound results in a difference in meaning.
Examples of minimal pairs: /pin/ and /bin/, /pata/ and /bata/, /tata/ and /kata/.
The minimal pair provides a way of establishing that two sounds in a given language are
distinctive and such the sounds function to distinguish words with different meaning.
2. Free variation.
It is use to determine that the opposition or contrast between two or more sounds is not
distinctive and that the segments in question are allophones of the same phoneme, i.e. non-
distinctive.
Free variation occurs when change in the pronunciation of a given word does not result in change
of meaning. In a case of this nature, the speakers of a language either do not hear the difference
in pronunciation or accept alternative pronunciations of the correct form. Sounds that give the
different pronunciations are subsequently considered to be allophones of the same phoneme, e.g;
Phoneme /t/ has the allophones [t] and the glottal stop [ɂ], which can be represented as;
[t] as in ‘button’ [bʌtn]
/t/ allophones
[ɂ] (glottal stop) as in ‘button’ [bʌɂn]

[r] as in ‘koroga’ in Kikuyu language, and which will be pronounced with an [l].
/r/
[l] as in ‘kologa’.
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3. Complementary distribution.
This can be used to determine that the contrast between two sounds is not distinctive and that
sounds involved are allophones of the same phoneme. When two sounds in a given language are
each found in a different phonetic environment so that where one is found, the other is never
found, and vice versa, the two sounds are said to be in complimentary distribution. Sounds that
are in complimentary distribution are considered to belong to the same phoneme. These sounds
are phonetically similar and have reason for their phonetic difference in their phonetic
environment.
For example; A B
‘pin’ [pin] ‘spin’ [spin]
‘pit’ [pit] ‘spit’ [spit]
‘pat’ [pӕt] ‘spat’ [spӕt]
[ph] in group A is pronounced differently from [p] in B. the aspirated [ph] in group A always
occurs initially whereas the unaspirated [p] in group B does not. These two are allophones of the
same phoneme /p/.
[ph]
/p/ allophones
[p]
The unaspirated [p] and aspirated [ph] are also in complimentary distribution because the
environment in which they occur is different; [ph] occurs in word initial position while [p] occurs
in the environment of medial position. Other examples;
A B
‘leaf’ [lif] ‘dull’ [dʌɺ]
‘lid’ [lid] ‘lull’ [lʌɺ]
‘light’ [lait] ‘pull’ [puɺ]
The [l] in group A which is clear which means it is pronounced with the body of the tongue
raised towards the hard palate thus giving a front viewed resonance we can therefore say that [l]
and [ɺ] are in complimentary distribution. They are allophones of [l].
INTRODUCTION ON PHONOLOGICAL RULES AND PROCESSES.
This involves looking at segments as opposed of properties or features. These properties allow us
to show what sounds have in common with each other or how they are related, e.g. [t] and [d]
differ from each other by virtue of just one articulatory feature, i.e. the state of the vocal cords.
All other features are the same for the two sounds. These two sounds are said to constitute a
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natural class (voiceless stops) since they differ only in terms of the active and passive articulators
involved.
The concept of binary features is used to characterize segments and classes clearly. This is a
feature with two values, + or -.
e.g. [p] is + bilabial, - labiodental, - dental, - alveolar, - palatal, - velar, - uvular.
The true goal as phonologists is to express true generalization about phonological structure as
economically as possible and therefore the features above quite inadequate, i.e. generalization
about sound systems or how sounds behave in a language.
Therefore, the need for less concrete (phonetic) and a more abstract set of phonological features.
Hence phonologists use only 2 binary feature [anterior] + anterior and [+ coronal] to represent
major places of articulation.
+ anterior sounds are produced no further back in the oral tract than the alveolar ridge. +
coronal sounds on the other hand, are produced in the area bounded by the teeth and hard palate.
This thus gives four possible confirmations, each of which represents a group of sounds;
i) {+ anterior, - coronal} (LABIALS) [p, b, f, v]
ii) {+ anterior, - coronal} (ALVEOLARS and DENTALS) [[t, d, s, z, θ, ð]
iii) {- anterior, + coronal} (PALATALS) [ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]
iv) {- anterior, - coronal} (VELARS and UVULARS) [k, g, x, R]
This therefore shows that 2 phonological features can do more work.
This allows us to go beyond individual segments (phonetics) i.e. physical articulatory or acoustic
events. These features need to be universal e.g. though English does not have implosives, Hausa
(Nigeria), Swahili (Africa) Sindhi (India), etc. have. We need a feature to describe or
characterize a segment associated with ingressive airflow [b, d, g] hence classes like;
i) [+ syllabic] which is for those sounds which function as nucleus of a syllable e.g. [r,
b, t]
ii) [+ consonant] for the consonants (obstruct, liquids, nasals, - oral stricture at least
close approximation, - complete stricture e.g. [p, l, t], open than close approximation
e.g. [ϳ, ԑ] as in ‘yes’ [ϳԑs].
When a syllable begins with a vowel, it is said that the initial syllable has a zero onset. If a
consonant that initial consonant may be a consonant phoneme except [ŋ, ʒ] is rare. When we
have two or more consonants together we call them a consonant cluster.
e.g. ‘stay’ [steɪ], ‘smoke’ [smouk], etc.
Some syllables are stressed (they are longer, stronger, etc.).
SYLLABIC CONSONANTS (Syllabified)
These include nasals and liquids. They allow nasals and liquids to form a syllable without a
vowel. E.g. ‘bootle’ [bɔtl], ‘button’ [bʌtn], ‘syllable’ [sɪlӕbl].
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PROSODIC FEATURES/SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES.

These are features which go beyond the segment, e.g. syllable, stress, intonation and pitch.
a) Syllable.
It can be defined just like vowels and consonants which are defined both phonetically (in relation
to how much they obstruct the airflow or airstream) and phonologically, i.e., vowels and
consonants having different distributions.
(Roach 1983; pg 57) Phonetically, in relation to the way we produce them and the way they
sound. Syllables consist of a centre (peak) with little or no obstruction to airflow and which
sounds comparatively loud, before and after which they thus curve (i.e., at the beginning and end
of the syllable) there will be greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud.
Phonologically, it involves looking at the possible combinations of English phonemes, i.e.,
looking at what can occur in initial position. Normally the word can begin with a vowel or with
one, two or three consonants. NB: No word begins with more than 3 consonants.
In the same way we can look at how the word ends (when it is the last word spoken before a
pause).it can end with one, two, three or four consonants. NB: No word ends with more than four
consonants.
The syllable can be described in terms of 3 phases;
i) Release of air – Onset.
ii) Free passage of air – Peak.
iii) Arrest of air – Coda.
The first level is normally a consonant, the second level a vowel while the third one a consonant.
NB: The vowel constitutes the nucleus of a syllable.
ϴ - syllable {lower case sigma}

O R {rhyme (combination of N and Co)}

P {peak} Co {consonant(s) following vowel}

(nucleus or core)
Onset is a part of syllable that occurs before the vowel.
Examples of syllable types;
I. CVC
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For example, in the words ‘cat’ [kӕt] ‘run’ [rʌn], ‘fill’ [fɪl].

O R

C P Co

C V C

[k] [ӕ] [t]

II. VC
This is in words like ‘at’ [ӕt].
ϴ

O R

P Co

Ø [ӕ] [t]
(ØVC)
III. V
As in ‘are’ [a:], ‘or’ [ɔ:].
ϴ

O R
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C P Co
C
[Ø] [ɔ] [Ø]
IV. CV
For example, in words like ‘to’ [tu] and ‘the’ [ðə].
ϴ

O R

P Co

C V C

[ð] [ə] Ø
The CVC and VC are called closed syllables while CV and V are referred to as open syllables.
Besides, there is a problem sometimes with phonetic description of vowels for example, in
English, deciding on the division between syllables.
For example, in the word;
‘extra’ which can be transcribed as: [e+kstrə] or [ek+strə] or even [ekstrə].
b) Stress.
It refers to the relative degree of force used by a speaker on the various syllables s/he is uttering.
There are two different types of stress;
i) Lexical/word stress
ii) Syntactical/sentence stress.
Although various levels of stress may be identified, the usual distinction is between stressed and
unstressed syllables. It is almost impossible to discuss stress without referring to syllables since
stress is one of the factors (regularities) that govern the placement of syllable boundaries
between words. The stressed syllables are marked in transcription with a vertical line [`] high up
just before the syllable it relates to.
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In phonetic terms, stressed syllables are produced with a stronger or more powerful contraction
of the chest muscles than unstressed syllables. This prominence is due to an increase in loudness
of the stressed syllable. For example;
‘father’ [`fa:ðə]
‘relation’ [rɪ`leɪʃn]
The distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables is that they have specific characteristics
that enable them to be identified as stressed and these may be viewed from production (phonetic)
and perception. All stressed syllables are more prominent than unstressed syllables.
Factors that Make a Syllable Prominent.
1. Loudness (sonority).
Most people often feel that stressed syllables are ‘louder’ than unstressed ones, e.g. in a sequence
of identical syllables such as ta, ta, ta, if one syllable is made louder than the others, it will be
heard as stressed. (Griegrich 1992:132) preferably uses the term sonority and observes that the
sonority of a sound is its relative loudness compared to other sounds with everything else such as
pitch, length, etc. being equal.
Speech sounds can be ranked in terms of their relative loudness. Voiceless oral stops are of
minimal sonority while low vowels have the highest degree of loudness. Syllables are associated
with peaks of prominence so that every syllable corresponds to a single peak (sonority).
Monosyllabic words e.g. [ə], will have one peak while bisyllabic words will have two peaks of
prominence.
Consider the word ‘vandu’ [vandu],
[va] [ndu]
ϴ ϴ

Onset Rhyme Onset Rhyme

Peak Coda Peak Coda

[v] [a] Ø [n] [d] [u] Ø

2. Length.
The length of syllables plays an important role in stress placement. If one syllable in a word like
ba, ba; one ‘ba’ is made longer than the other, there is a strong tendency for that syllable to be
heard as stressed.
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Generally other things being equal, vowels are always longer before voiced consonants than
before voiceless consonants. For instance, in;
‘dark [da:k] and ‘farm’ [fɜ:m] as opposed to;
‘down’ [daun] and ‘town’ [taun].
3. Pitch.
Every syllable is said on some pitch. Pitch is closely related to the frequency of vibration of the
vocal folds such that if in a nonsense word tatata, one syllable is said with a high pitch, it will be
heard as more stressed. Pitch may be described as rising – high pitched syllable or falling – low
pitched syllable.
4. Quality.
A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from
neighboring vowels. For example, considering; ta, ta, tu, ta, ta; the ‘odd’ syllable is heard as
stronger. Examples of vowels considered weak are [ɪ], [u] and [ə] + syllabic consonants.
Monosyllable words cannot be stressed in continuous speech however when pronounced in
isolation, they are said with primary stress, e.g. [a].
Stress occurs in three levels;
i) Primary/Principal stress
ii) Secondary/Medium stress
iii) Weak/Unstressed.
There are two main differences between word and sentence stress;
1. Unlike in word stress where mono-syllables cannot be stressed, they are stressed in
sentence/syntactic stress. E.g. ‘I want fish and chips.’ ‘and’ is stressed.
2. Words with more than one syllable may lose their stress if they do not carry much
significance in a sentence. They can be stressed when in isolation.
There is much interdependence between stress and tone. Stress can be used for contrasting
purposes i.e. to distinguish grammatical category of a word. For instance;
NOUN (First syllable is stressed) VERB (Second syllable is stressed).
`contrast con`trast
`increase in`crease
`export ex`port
`pervert per`vert
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Some languages have a fixed stress pattern, e.g. French where stress falls on the last syllable. In
most Bantu languages, stress is also fixed e.g. stress falls on the penultimate (next to the last)
syllable. E.g. de`liver, in`habit.
English however, has a shifting stress pattern. For example;
In three syllable words like VERBS;
If the last syllable contains a short vowel, and ends with not more than one consonant, that
syllable will be stressed. Stress will be placed in the penultimate syllable.
e.g. [dɪ`tɜ:mɪn] stress is on the syllable before last.
NB: Stress tends to go on syllables containing a long vowel/diphthong and ending with
consonant except [ɪntɪlekt] and some adjectives which have two stress places, e.g. [`kon`travəsi].
In polysyllabic words, which are mostly borrowed words, maintain stress as seen in Kiswahili in
a word like `safari.
Important Morphological Factors.
In compound words that function as nouns or adjectives, stress is on the first elements, e.g.
`blackboard, `dining room; as opposed to where the second element is stressed. E.g. black`board
when the compound functions as a verb or an adverb.
Words with the suffix ‘- ance’ and ‘- ence’ are a strong cluster at the end but not stressed. The
stress will appear after the first syllable, e.g. a`llowance, de`liverence, etc. words with the suffix
‘- ion’ such as ‘education’, require stress in the preceding syllable.
Borrowed words mentain stress. E.g. rendez`vous (from French).
PITCH
It is one of the most important features in determining the prominence of a sound, i.e. if a
syllable is stressed (the degree of loudness or highness of a sound). This is a correlate of the
fundamental frequency (Fo), i.e. the number of times per second that the vocal cords complete a
cycle of vibrations. These are controlled by certain factors;
- Muscular tension
- Tension of the larynx
- Aerodynamic forces
Due to higher muscular tension, a vowel may last 300 milliseconds or even longer depending on
context but the release of a voiceless stop [t] may last only 20 milliseconds. Therefore, vowels
tend to be longer in duration and intensity than consonants. The overall duration of a syllable is
derived from duration of the vowel. Vowel length often increases when the vowel is followed by
consonant voicing.
PITCH PATTERNS.
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There are various ways of characterizing or identifying pitch patterns, e.g. rising, falling, etc.
Ohale (1978), suggests that the falling pitch (unmarked) is more common than the rising pitch
(marked).
Speakers can produce the falling pitch more readily because no effort needed (it is involuntary)
due to the interaction between vocal tract and respiratory system.

Intonation.
This is a problem area for learners. It is a suprasegmental feature of utterances of English. It
affects units of language higher than the segment, e.g. a syllable, utterance, etc. it is divided into
two: a) Voice quality (whisper, breathing, creaking, etc), and b) Prosodic features (pitch, giggles,
etc).
It is difficult to attach specific meaning to the type of intonation. Their form might well have to
do with giving additional emphasis or pointing to an attitude already present in an utterance.
Intonation is the tone variation in whole sentences, unlike tone which is in words. It is a matter of
musical features or speech tunes or melodies. Intonation may be used for the intrinsic meaning of
words themselves carrying a speaker’s attitude, rather than any fundamental meaning. For
example, using a higher pitch to show anger, tiredness, etc.