ta ualka

Feminist Research Methodology 223

Fonow, 1986; Mies, 1933). The following features are often included in these
presentations:

20 Feminist Research Methodology 2.1 The rejectton of positivism

Despite their many disagreements, feminist methodologists appear united in their
opposition to the many positivist strands of orthodox educational and social science
B. D. Haig research.
This opposiion ranges from efforts to improve on standard empincism's positivist
image by he development of a feminist ernpiricism, through the endorsement of extant
postempiricist methodologies such as the "new" social psychology of Haré and Secord
(Wilkinson, 1986), to the extreme postpositivism of skeptical posumodemism (Rosenau,
Since the 1960s feminist scholars have made signifcant contributions to educaional and 1992). The common features of fcminist methodology mentioned immediately below are
social science research oethodology. These contributions arc varied in nature and wide a part of its postpositivist commitments.
ranging io scupe This article describes andevaluates some of the central developments in
2.2 The pervasive influence of gender relations
ferninist metbodology that are relevant to educational esearch. These include: (a) the Probably the most central feature of ferminist methodology is its ubiquitous concem with
ferrinist criique of standard crnpincist research; (b) a consideration of methuds used by gender. It is because of differences in the social position and power of women and men
feninist researchers; (c) tbe three major feminisi epistenologies and their methodological that gender relations are held to pervade social life. For this reason feminist researchers are
implicaions; and (d) the relevance of pragmaist thought for the furher devclopment of
fermioist methodology. committed to describing, explaining. and otherwise interpreting the female worid. From
these considerations feminist methodology has urged researchers to acknowledge and
portray women's experiences, to identify the patriarchal bias of orthodox rescarch and,
Is therea distinctive ferninist methodology ? relatedly, to assess the ways in which gender relations impact on he conduct of rescarch
(Cook and Fonow, 1986).
A number of feminist researcbers have debated the issue of wheher there is a distinctive
(eminist methodology. Ioterestingly, few feminists have clained tbat there is,or could be, 2.3 The value-ladenness of science
though Reinharz (1983) has developed a communal approach character. to research called
However, The persistent posiivist myth that science is value-free has never been true to science and
"ezperiential analysis," cootending that it is distinctively feminist in has been repeatedly challenged by feminist scholars. From their belief that science is a
feminist
most feminists appear to accept the view that it is a mistake lo portray feminist human social endeavor, feminists maintain hat such inquiry takes on the values of the
methodology as isincive. Clegg (1985) contends that there is Do people who do the research as well as the values of the institutions that sustain it. Positivist
Dethodology and that attempts to suggest otherwise run the risk of missing the real value empiricist research has been undertaken to produce secre facrual knowledge bereft of
of feminist contabutions. Peplau and Conrad (1989) evaluate a number of proposals for cxplanatory power, which has served to maintain the status quo in respect of wonen's
distioctvely feminist metbods and conclude that any method can be misused io sexist oppression. In stressing the value-ladenness of research, feminist nethodologists have also
ways. Similarly, Hardiog (1989) argues that attempts to identify a distincively ferninist
cxisting bcen concemed to articulate a feminist ethic (Cook and Fonow, 1986) that is concerned
method are misguided. Sbe contends that feminist researchers use a variety of with the way gender-biased language subordinates women, the faimess of pracices which
researcb methods, adapted to their own purposes, and that the arguments against a prevent the publication of feminist research and sifle career opportunities, and problems
specifcaUy feminist metbodology are largely beside the point. of researcher intervention into participatory research relaionships.
2 Common features of ferminist methodology 2.4 The adoption of liberatory methodology
of common The feminist movement characterizes itself as being primarily concermed with the
Although feminist netbodology comprises a diversity of offerings, a number
(e.g., Cook and emancipation of women from opprcssion. In consequence, it is often claimed hat
hemes have beeo identified in presentations of feminist methodology
222
 Pemnist Researcl1 Methodology 225

ICeAll bavel knowledge shoulkd be cmploycd to hclp libente vomen hvn theu
the antitcality of the laboratory experiment with its simplification of context (e.g., Parlee
Ppeon Mies (19N 1) forcetully expresses this view by claiming that, in oker to 191). Fon these rcasons, leminist methodologists have tended to favor nonexpeimental
change the status quo, fcminists must integrate their researel with an nctive puticipaton Dnetluds in natural seltings. Howcvcr, it should be noted that a plausible case has been
inthe stuugglc against women's oppression. Consistcnt with this, Mics clains funther that dvanced by Grecnwood (1989) for he constructive use of role-playing experiments in
the worth of a theory is to be judged, not through the application of methud1logical soCIal psychological contexts in a way that can avoid thc artihciality of altcred social
principles, but on its ability to nssist thc cmancipatocy process. relattons in laboratory experiments.
Libe1alory methodologists arc oftcn critical of thc use of attiude surveys in gathering
knowledge about women on the grounds that they tell us little about women's irue J.2 Meta-analysis
consciousness. In formulating a liberatory mcthodology. feminists have sometimes he extended history of rescarch on gender differences has entered its latest phase with the
insisted that the rescarch process must become a process of "conscienizaion" in Freire's xdoption of neta-analytic procedures lo summarize the disparate findings of numerous
(1972) sense (Mics, 1983; Lauier, 1988). This process involves "learming to perceive empirical studics in this controversial area. Meta-analysis is a recently developeJ
social, poliical, and cconomic cortradictions, and to take action against he oppressive approach to rescarch integration that involves the statistical analysis of the resultls of data
clements of reality": Tireirc, 1972, p. 15). As &problem-solving methodology. analyses from many individual studies in a given domain in order to synthesizc thoxe
conscientization involves the study of oppressive reality by the tosubjects of oppression,
the oppressed so that
findings. Some (c.g., Hyde, 1990) see meta-analysis making a signifcant contribution to
where the socia! science rescarchcrs givc their research resoUrces feminist research by providing strong quantitative conclusions about the extcnt and
they can formulate and come to understand their own problems. In these ways feminist magnitudc of gender differences. Howerer, the empiricist basis of its most popular forn1
liberatory methodology is sccn to issue in action research. should temper the widcspread view that met-analysis is a powerful method of research
synthesis.
2.5 The pursuii of nonhierarchical research relationships
endorsement of a
A fifuh common featurc of feninist methodology is its strong contrasts
J.3 Elhnograpl1y
nonhierarchical relationship between the researcher a0d the researched. This With thc tendency of feminist metbodologists to recommend qualitative methods over
position of epistemic
witb positivist empiicisra's pencbant for assignming the researcher aepistemic quantitutive allcmatives, ethnographic methods have frequently been used by feminist
privilege of
privilege. In particular, feminist methodology seeks to replace the
participatory inquiy where the researcher and
rescarchers. Such methods are attractive because they acknowledge the imporance of the
he professional researcher by democratic research context, focus oo the expeiential reports of women, and seek collaborative
researched enter into a social relationship of reciprocity in which here is a complementary relationships betwecn the researcher and researched. Gaser and Stranss's grounded theory
of a relationship of nonhierarchy also of feminist
perspective on ethnography (e.g., Strauss, 1987) has been nsed by a number from the
recogaiion of their equal ageocy. Ihe establishmentknowledge with "conscious partiality'"
requires the replacement of a speciator view of social science researchers. Tbeir spproach to qualitative research breaksencourages
(Mies, 1983) which the rescarcher achieves by partially identifying with the researched. prevalent hypothetico-deductive practice of lesting existing theories and
mutual corection of distortions remains reseerchcrs to gencrate their own theories inductively to expiain patterms in systematically
Because thc idcntification is not complete. the accrue
possiblc ohtained data. However, while ackmowledging he metbodological advantages that
feminists wory about the
to such ethnographic perspectives on the researcb process, sorne
Rescarch metbods possibilities of serious exploitation, betrayal, and abandonment of he researcb subject by
out by the researcher in their collaborative relaioaship (e.g., Stacey, 1988).
disinctively feminist research mehods is bonie
The conclusiun hat here are no existing, research methods by feminist researcher
he widespread use of a variety of
these mehods critically and deploy them in 4 Methodology and epistemology
ilowever, leminist researchers lend to view spell out its methodology than
the light of their particular value
commitmenls. the carly 1980s feminism seemed more willing to developments in feminist
develop its theory of koowlcdge. However, since then
methodology have proceeded more slowly than advances in feminist epistemology.
J.I Eperimenaion sciences, hoth for writings has come to focus on
methodological
cxperimental methods in he social Indeed, much of the content in femiaist
Ieminists have criticized the use of in their relationships wih
subjects, and for
experimenters
Assigning power and privilege to
 interdepcndent
hat make
maintains
amongst
enriched that withThus,
evidence.
elated
for infucnial
nse,epislemologies accepted
other
beliefs.
texts thestudy
language worldto maintains appreciated
webepistemology.actually
a womea
psychoanalyns by to has Enlight DoD to
knowledge,
dualisic
used to serve hey appropriately
227 to judged
criticized is of fightthe real scamless
leads koowers
1990). that be of study from only categories
Quine's nd of
an ifferences
hat moderist,
of commitnents. the theory is but
been vicw
really
epistemology this fomulalethinking coherentism and be
infancy
idea (Chandler, of employDent the abandon
focus can a isolation,
being as andin,
better grounding
within been has that
Thissubstitutes
cannot
fron
alternalive tbe coherence knowledgecan
the
argue
retreat he
foundationalist
coherence
their
with
contained
bas theory
in However, as of
reality.
the
to of tu resolve by
insights methodology,
it
identity women
theory privilege assump£ons its shiftis a nature scicnce, a justifed
statements, in
perspective
reality foandationalist
thean language 1989)texts
relatioas in which To such these
Peminist
Research
Methodology andis extralinguistic
multiplist, to with
inportant
regardsinsteadfuncion
relatioos of
men.comprebend feminism of
aspirations. unstable
female cognitive
claim knowledge, researcb Hawkesworth, that betweea of abilityaccordance
epistemologicalthat
interpretation rejectsare observaion metaphysics,
of object criicisms is
perspective
object that
distinctively general or maintain
maintained
combinedthe theories but thisnot
the postmodermn thetensions of
than example, of nondualist,
an analysis political has Nelson virtue science, Fromdo
from and nt to of of in
individuate that
as neo-Quincanmethodologies
knowing theendorsen, opposed (e.g., believes
scope sometimes the because feminist claims
draws on For reality.
discourse is
the in science,
Quine, maintains
such science.
the justified outside
a while to
radical
feninism It bas
refñect contrast,
the foundationalist,
contextualist,
and women accommodate
of rejects ideas. (1990)she its
of alike. ur'enable
privilege
formation 4.3
Feminist stands
postmodernism social turnthat wib Withjustifysource,
form support, for and
postmodernists its
between
lie
Nelson'snot of and
to nonfeminists to believes that foundationalism
postmodermismBy
it claims identify, withby of quo.
of postnodern
approach Nelson
scienceepistemologies. are
claims
knowledge
epistemic
ability
superior Thus, thougbt. study suTered world pragmatist empiricisa shouldsome
to
privileged parts
evidential
an does
he
universalizing
inconsistent status
should
(1986)
llardingHowever,
boandariesepistemologie
that superior as hought. predicate,
an broader relativist of Relatedly, other
philosophy
and criticized science
women's and of of vpptession
uIKlerwrites
the
feminiss
philosophy
claims weak l'eminist
distinctive
feminists l'eminist categorics
enment the
Criics reinforcc
A feminist While
these with,
a reler, is
lext a low. that no
havc have been the for offor S
forand
these
methoxls, in heenp.
raditional successor
its theorists
ther of explanation
about
andbadmethodological as experimenlal,
theguard theprove position
theefore,
rescarch(1986) in evaluation radiional
empiricism, have"Feminist
well women199), and
debate on
otherssexismdoing for
and of review has of theorizing
guidelines improvemenls science
slandpoint
pesitivist
1larding
of
as
identify
deploymenl
qualitative it (Heckman, aundergird
than include
deteminants
nncthoology, of ends. from participants science, politics. social
One
dealand
feninist
successor,
the standard meta-analyic
differeDces empiricist psychoanalytic
claboration features feminist the of reality.
feninist subjugated
good thatresult to to
ot literature. following
construction
effors of theas helps objectivigy"
and
conventional to
contends varietryacceptcd
ntiques cpistemolugies:
A feminist
positivist
serve that research many in science adherentscrucial social
femin1stpostmodemism.
ongoing bias genderperspective traditional
epistemological biases by of a example, empiricism,
a cancalled, by theand neurality. as of berween the
and/or view
femin1st minimized, of use enthusiasically of are
he withit wellimportanceof
gauge
of coocepion their regard
of the that social by1988), composition
continued For both researchers
to
criicized
sciencebeen as improvement
empiicist Marxist,which
D.Haigtheconsideration
B. feministinvolved belief sought connectionby feminist epistemologies
feminist are Eichler,gendermethods, methods.effective
1990). seeaof
in has
postpositiist or the "masculinist inadequacies from
relevant
implicated
1990s have
the reseach been
overcorae, the epistemology
are from
in account of been
(e.g.,sex for sanctioned
altemative
and has observaional (Hyde,
conditions more
appreciation
older
ferminist
the important
to of
epistemologies
contrast
point
A scholars
science
the also Drawing
characteristics
the epistemology,
altemnatives.
early nons
much Science. research a to vantage
issues replace
modifed be in of significance
have as a contribute
the tbe standpoint
the standpoint
to the traditional from
employed
major Feminist
empiricism
feminist in can these differences has
limitaions
improving In rcality.
overcomes
attend in
epistemological
orhodox reatment
gender-fair methods
andbeightened improvement. privilcged
methodology to theevident they of research research igDoring standpoint
three quasiexperinental,statistical theof femin1st
proposedstandpoint positions. sought
ofhese reshape that attainment been can
Feminist
to some as guod gender of Newacknowledged
andfor for
ndeistanding
oneisinguished
andocentrism
empiicism",
but assessment
Feminist
a bave Alhough that that a
and of iticized as
Alhough
to of conduct withmehods. ests
of sCICICeand Irminist teminist
MICDCE onteDdenulc1,
wCn
feminist
thercquires feminist Sience
looked
science,The against
DOrms dures T9)
general but 4.2
226 and
 |D lay:
Mwtady t
w ar un aln mmrut
a and lLaditonal cmpiricist methodology, for Feminist Rescarch Methodology
ilhus unl aml y autonomous individual. Ilowcver, Nelson breaks example, regards he is
229
jonun, wicnce and politics, she insists that it is with Quine at concemed with the origin of scientiñc hypotheses and is
mitual wu w,that il is the communities rather than but not a methodological, affair. The
thought to be a psychological,
rrlrtnr lor a Lnuwledgc clain.slandurds of a community that detemines what counts validation of hypoheses and is the domaincontext
of jusifhcation is concerned
to which methodology
with the
properly belongs. Some
lcuusl wholus have lbcen criticized for feminist methodologists such as Harding (1989). for
seeking example, have
understanding the onigin of scientific hypotheses requires one to admit that argued that
wICne l almk1 (|989), lor example,
anl ug:csts that progress in has criicized distinctively feminist
Harding for pursuingconceptions of can rightly operate in the context of discovery. Other methodology
feminist theorizing will come from such aproject for the same conclusion. This traditional advocates discovery bave argued
of
a
maustre am cpistemology and philosophy of science.
Indeed, Nelson's consideration
of
radical feminist dominaace of the hypothetico-deductive methodological distinction, corabined with the
method, has resalted in a half methodology
cmpunIsm may heviewed in part as an advancemeot of the feminist whereby researchers evaluate knowledge clairas solely in terms of their
wICnE by exploiling Quincan epistemology. underslanding of
However, a methodology adequate to the ful range of consequences.
supplement consequentialisn with a conception of methodologyscientifc
that is
reasoning must
also generative in
Pragmatist realist methodology nature. In contrast to consequcntialist thinking, generative
mehodologies
accept, the knowledge claims in question from warranted premises reason to, and
scigtncd (|991) bas larpented the fact that United Sates feminists have Dot (Nickles, 198T). The
widely used procedure of exploratory factor analysis serves as an example
theit owa country's philosophy of pragmaism, a philosophy hat has resourcesappropriated that facilitates generative reasoning by helping to reason forward frDm
of a method
the developmeot of feminist theory. Of importance, bowever, is the fact that asuitable of
for correlational data
to the plausible factorial theories that they
number occasion. The endorsement of generative
wrilers in a pragnatist realist tradition have made signiicant contributions to methodology methodologies will be an essential part of feminist methodologists' resolve to
hat are suitable for appropriation by ferninist and other postpositivist researchers. This acknowledge and scrutinize the entire research process.
section of the chapter outlines some of these developments and briefly links them to
ferainist concerns about methodology. 6.3 Heuristics
Feminists bave frequently criicized positivist empiricisa for its rather idealized portrayal
6.1 Research problems of the rescarcher as a computationally adept being whose bchavior is strongly
guided by
rules. However, this unrealistic picture has been rejected by pragmatist methodologists
In her forceful plea for overcoming the uncritical employment of method, Daly (1973) in
suggests hat the common practice of baving the research problem determined by the favor of a more modest coacepion of themselves as knowers. A view of the researcher as
a "satisficer" has been influential in this regard. The nional bebavior of the satisficer is
method should be reversed so that the nethod is chosen to ft the problem. However, this
reasonable suggestioo fails to depict research adequately as a problem-solving cnterprise. bounded by temporal, computaional, and memonal constraiats and, as a reslt, involves
Nickles (1981) has developed a constraint inclusion theory of problems which assigns the frequent use of henristic procedures. Heurisic procedures are "rules of thumb" which
lo scientiic problems a posiive methodological role. Oo this account a problem is laken have the following characteristics (Wimsat, 1981): (a) he corect use of heuristics does
tocomprise all the constraints on the solution (plus the demand that the solution be found). not guarantee a corect solution, nor even that a solution will be found: (b) heucistics are
Wih chis thcory the constraints do not lie outside the problem, but are constitutive of the cost-eftective procedures, making considerably fewer demands on imc, effort, and
sproblem itself; they acually serve to characterize the problem and give it structure. This computation than cquivalent algorithmic procedures; (c) erors made in using beuristic
procedures arc systematically biased. Glaser and Srauss's grounded theory perspecuve on
constraint inclusion account of problems stresses the fact that, in good scicnific rescarch, ethnographic meliodology, which has been endorsed and used by a number of feminist
oroblems typically evolve from an ill-structured statc and eventually attuin a degree pf methodologists, inakcs considerable use of heuristic procedures.
well-foncdness, such that their solution becoues possible. Incuporaing such an account
of problems inio research method itself allows he problem to guide inquiry and explain 6.4 Coherence justification
how it is possible.
Feminist scholars have frequently uttacked pasitiv1st empiricism (on juntoly1ng its
6.2 Generative mahodolog knowledge claims by appealing to a pivilcged base ol ohservatiunal luta llowever,
Most tritional philosophies of science have insisted on drawing u strongof distunction
foundational theories of justificaion have been wulely rejecieul in contemporary
context d1scovery philosophy, and coherentist approaches tu justificuton are hr ing presented as un stlractive
between the context of discovery and the context of justification. The
230

option. As noled above, Nelson's l'em1nist Research Methodology 231

expicily adopls a coberence (190) neo Quncan
begun o receive perspeciive on justlhv ation. framewotk
NIso,
for feniist science
coherence
Daly, M "rgund (inl the Fothe: Townd a Philosophy of Women's
Uberotlon. Beacon Pres, Doston,
19910. And in an considernion justification has Messa uneus
within educational revearch
important centnbulion to
developed a new theory of cxplanalory sieutihc
mcthodolugy (Lakomski,
Ihles, M 1AR Nunset Research Methole. Allen and Unwin, Boston,
MassachusetuL
Preire, P 19/) Pedagogy of the Oppresstd Penguin, Ilamonds worth.
cobeience hat isethodolugy,
hypoheses in science as wcl) as in cveryday capable
Thugad (1989) has
of cvaluating competing
Gteenwuud, J. 1989 Esplan1lon ond Faperiment in Soclal Pychologlcal Sclence
Ilarding. S. 1986 7he Sclence Quenlon in feminltm Comell Universily Press, Iheco, Sprioger-Verlag, New York
New York
local coherence betwcen a alfairs. Based on principles that establish the Ilanliug,S. 1989 (s there a feminist meihod? In: Tusna N (ed) 1989 Peminlsm and Sclence. Indiana Universiy
to integrale hypothesis and other propositions, Thagard' s approach is able
I'ress, Hlonmington, Indiana.
consideraions cxplanalory brcadth, sinplicity, and analogy
of
gauge of explanatory coherence. into an overall
Ilawkeswoth, M. I989 Knowers, knowing. known: Peminist theory and claims of truth. Sigs 14(3)
lleckan, S. 1990 Gender and Knowledge: Elements of oPostmodern Feminm Polity 533-57.
Press, Cambridge.
coherence is a Thagard' s vicw of theory appraisal as explanatory llyle, J. E 1990 Mela- anTlysis and the psychology of gender di fferences. Sigr 16(1): 55-73.
significant postpositivist contribution to a neglected aspect of research
Iakomi, G. 1989 Against feminist science Harding and the scince question in feminism. Educ Phil. Theor
methodology that can be implemented widely in areas of research
21(2): 1-|.
Lskomski, G. (ed.) 1991 Beyond paradigms: Coherentism and holism in educational
cxplanatory theories. that boast competing Is(6): 499-597. research InL. J. Educ. Res.
These are just some of thc (catures of a Lathcr, P. 1988 Feninist pecrspectives on empowcring research
A comprehensive formulation of such a contermporary pragmatic realist methodology. Forum I I(6): S6981. methodolopes Women's Srudies Intermotlonal
methodology has been oulined by Nickles (1987)
and is exemplifed in Wamsatt's (1981) study
Mics, M. 1989 Tow ards a methodology for leminist resc arch. In:
of Women's Studies. Routledge and Kegan Paul, Londoo. Bowles G. and KJein R. D. (eds) I983 Theories
of reductionism in biology. With its rejectiòn
of the methodologies of positivist empincism, naive Nelson, I. 1990 Who Knows: From Quine lo o Feminisn Empiricum Temple
realism, and strong versions of social Pennsylvnia. Universiy Press, Philadelphia,
constructivism, pragmatic realism recommends itself as an artractive option. The feminist NickJes,T. 1981 What is a problem that we might solve it? Synthese 47(1): 8S-118
research enterprise strands to strenghen its hand by taking the pragmaic realist Nickles. T. 1987 Methodology, heuistics and rationaity. In: Pitt J. and Pera M. (eds.)
methodology. For is part, pragmatic realism would be enriched by assimilating theturn in in Science Reidel, Dordrecht 1987 Rational Changes

made by feminist methodology since the late 1970s. gains Parlee, M. 1979 Psychology and women. Signs S(1): 121-33.
Peplau, L and Conrad, 2 1989 Beyond ponsexist research: The perils of
Prychol. Women Q. 13(4): 379400. ferminist methods psychoBosy.
Reinhar, S. 1983 Expericotial analysis: A conribution lo ferninist
7 Conclusion 1983 Theories of Womn's Shudies. Routlcdge and research In: Bowles G. and KJein R. D. (cds.)
Kegu Paul, London.
Rosenau, P. 1992 Postmodernism and the Social Sciences.
Seigfried, C 1991 Where are 4all the
femigmatiu
Priaceloa Unversily Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Feminist social science research in the 1970s opcrated largely from the confines of Stacey, J. 1988 Can there be fermiaist? Hypatia 6(2): 1-20.
positivist empiricist methodology, but since that time viuually all developments in Strauss, A. 1987 Qualilaie Analysis forelhnography7 Women's Srudies Intemarional Rurum Il(2): 21 -27.
feminist methodology have been criical of positivism. The feminist nethodology of the Thagard, P. 1989 Explanalory coheence Social ScientistL Cambridge Uaivesity Pres, Cambridge
Willinson, S. 1986 Sighing possibiliues: Behovioral
and Brain Sciences 12(3): 43S-67.
early 1990s is postpositivist in a number of ways. Although some feminists sought to Diversity
1986 Feminit Social Prychology. Opeo UniversityandPress,
comnonaity in lemiaist research In: WiDGrcon S. (ed )
develop a distincively feminist approach to methodology, most adapled exising research Wimsart, W. 1981 Robustns, elisbility and Milion Keynes.
methods to their owo purposes. Feminist methodology broadened to inctude discussion of Scienifc Inquiy and the Social Sciences overdeteninaion. La: Brewer M and Colins B. (eds) 1981
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, California
the three cpistemologies of fcminist empiricism, feminist standpoint epistemology. and
feminist ostmodermism. In the light of criicisms of these tbeones of knowledge, a Further reading
pragmatic realistic perspecive on science recommends itself with a methodology that is Fonow, M. and Cook, J. (eds.) 1991 Byond Me
appropriate for advancing feminist inquiry and social science research generally. vatne. T.E 198) The thodology Indiana Univesity Presx
for feminist esearch Bloomington, Indiana
Jay
value of quantve
See also: Research io Education: Epislemological Lssues; Positivism, Ani-posiivism
and Empiricism, Postrmodernism.
Kline R (eds.) 1983 Theories t
of Women's Sudies
uther, P. 1991 Gethng Smu rt: Feminist and Keao Pal,
In: Bowles G and Duelli
London
Research and Pedagogo wiMn the Posmode rn Rouledge, New
Reinharz, S. 1992 Frnins Methods in Sociol York
Stanley, L and Wise, S. 1983 Breating Out. Research Oxford Uaiversiy Pres, New York.
Kegan Paul, London. Feminist Consciounes and Femingt Research Roudedge and
References Tomm, W (ed.) 1989 The Efects of Feminist
Chandler, J. 1990 Feminism and epislcmology. Metaphilosophy 21(4): 367-81. Press, Walerloo. Approaches on Research Meahodologies WUtred Laurnier University
Sege S. 194S Feminis mechodology Fac or hcçon7 Qusliy ans Quaniy l1%1): 83-97.
Cook, J. od Fonow, M. 1986 Knowledge aod womea't interests: sves of epistcreology and methodology In
femina sociolopcal rescarch Sociological Ingquiry S6(|): 2-29.