DCR 206: Ministry in the Context o

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The need to understand the origin, spread and development of Islam cannot be over emphasized.
Africa is a plural society hence the need to understand our operation field. Islam and Christianity
are the two dominant religions in Africa. Both Religions are missionary. Understanding Islam
therefore is imperative for successful mission in Africa. Understanding one’s neighbors’ faith
also enhances cooperation, development and peaceful coexistence. The African continent is full
of challenges of people trying to propagate or proclaim their faith. Many a times, when such is
done without a clear understanding of the tenets of faith of other religions, things often
degenerate to Chaos. Understanding Islam in our context will help us, the evangelists, to be more
conscious of what we will say and do in the promotion of the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ.
With the above stated scenario, the study of Islam becomes very necessary.

1.1 Definition of Terms

1.1.1 Islam

Islam is an Arabic word that means submission, surrender and obedience. As a religion, Islam
means complete submission and obedience to Allah. Another literal meaning of the word Islam
is ‘peace’ and this according to Muslims signifies that one can achieve real peace of body and
mind only through submission and obedience to Allah.

1.1.2 Muslim

The word Muslim refers to the one who submits to Islam. A Muslim is one who has submitted to
Allah. A Muslim must confess the oneness of God, the position of His Messenger.

1.1.3 Quran

The Quran is the Holy Book of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran is the greatest gifts of God
to humanity and its wisdom is of unique kinds. The word Qur’an is derived fron the Arabic word
Qaraa which means “reading” or “recitation”. The word Quran relates to the original revelation
to Muhammad which started by the word Iqraa “read” or ‘recite” in the name of the Lord” Q
96:1-5. The Quran in its present form consists of 114 Sura (chapters). The opening chapter,
Surat-ul-Fatiha is a standard prayer for every occasion. The arrangement of the sura is not
chronological, but proceeds roughly from the longest to the shortest.

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1.1.4 Hadith

Hadith is a record of the tradition of Muhammad- the Sunna of the prophet. Sunna refers to the
“established norms” or “set of examples” derived from the life, work and teachings of
Muhammad. It serves as commentary to the Quran. The hadith is the written record of what
Muhammad said and did. By the end of the 9th century and beginning of the 10th century,
several collections had been produced, six of which have since then been regarded as being
especially authoritative and are known as “The six genuine ones”. They include the Sahih
(Genuine) of Muhammad Ibn Ismail al-Bukhari (810-70AD), the Sahih of Muslim Ibn al-Hajjaj
(d.875), and the four remaining are the works of Abu Daud (d.888), al –Tirmidhi (d. 892), al-
Nasai (d.916) and Ibn Maja (d. 886).

1.1.5 Sharia-Islamic Law

Sharia is nothing other than the laws contained in the Quran and Hadith which are taken as
divinely revealed. Legal Science in the sense of human interpretation of Sharia is called fiqh. It
applies Sharia to new cases through qiyas (solving new cases in the light of previous cases which
have a common ground) and Ijma (consensus). Sharia covers all aspects of life. The Sharia
stipulates the law of God and provides guidance for the regulation of life in the best interest of
man. Its objective is to show the best way to man and provide him with the ways and means to
fulfill his needs in the most successful and most beneficial way.

2.0 RELIGIOUS CONTEXT OF PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA (JAHILIYA PERIOD)

The situation in which any religious movement emerges always have great influence on the
belief and practices of such a religious movement. Judaism and Greco-Roman Culture and
religion for example influenced the shaping of Christianity in the ancient Palestine and the
Mediterranean regions where it started. In the same way, Islam as a religion did not emerge just
in a vacuum but it developed itself from already existing religions and culture.

Before Islam there was no centralized government or state in Arabia. Only in the South, as in
Yemen, the Arabs had leaders, like kings. The nomads governed themselves by a clan or
extended family structure. The clan system also had authority in towns or cities, except Mecca,
which was governed by a council of leading men for the general supervision of the town as a
religious Centre.

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Raiding and robbing was rampant among the Arabs, and protection could be found only in
Solidarity with one’s clan. If any killing occurred there would be a family feud, which could be
settled by the payment of diyya, that is an indemnity which consisted either of the blood of the
culprit or a compensation in money or goods.

Courage against enemies, in other words, bravery or manliness (muru’a) was thus a virtue the
Arabs admired much. They also had great esteem for hospitality, or kindness to one’s friends or
to friendly strangers, and a man’s reputation depended on how lavish he could be to his guests.

The traditional livelihood of the Arabs consisted in grazing animals and a little farming and
horticulture particularly of date palms. Formerly, trade between India and China on the one hand,
and Europe on the other passed through the old “silk route” from Asia through Persia and Syria.
The Byzantine-Persian wars blocked this route and forced it to divert to the Indian Ocean. Goods
were carried by ship as far as Yemen (The Red Sea was hard to navigate because of shallowness
and lack of wind), then unloaded and sent by camel caravan up the Arabian Peninsula and across
Egypt and beyond. This diversion put Mecca right in the path of an international trade route, and
its merchant’s became wealthy independent middlemen in this trade. More nomads were
attracted to settle in the cities, exacerbating the social problems. These were:

1. The lack of an authority to control feuding clans who were now living in close

quarters instead of the vast expanse of the desert, and

2. A privatization of life, so that rich people exploited or did not take care of the

poor of their clan, particularly in the case of orphans.

In the Arabian traditional religion people believed in an overall God called Allah- corresponding
to the Hebrew Elohim. However, the Arabs turned mostly to lesser divinities or spirits for their
needs. The Arabian Traditional Religion was weakening before the time of Muhammad because
of foreign religious influence and because of the social changes resulting from urbanization. The
Ka’aba in Mecca for instance housed 360 gods for the Arabs.

Arab cultural life was dominated by oral literature. A primitive form of writing did exist, but was
used mainly for monumental inscriptions, such as found on certain rocks, and for keeping
business account.

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2.1 Christianity in Arabia before Islam

There were two orthodox Christianity at the advent of Islam: The Coptic Orthodox and the Greek
Orthodox. They were two feuding Churches. The dispute between them was doctrinal and it was
as a result of terminology. It was really a cover-up for the political struggle between Egypt and
the imperial center of Constantinople. Since Church and State were so interlined in the Byzantine
Empire, Egyptian nationalism would naturally express its opposition in the form of religious or
theological differences.

The early inhabitants of Palestine were the Canaanites when the Jews under Joshua conquered
the land after the Exodus, the Canaanites were not expelled but gradually assimilated. However,
ethnically the Canaanites were the majority. During the Apostolic age of Christianity large
numbers of Jews became Christians. At the time of the Jewish revolt against the Roman rule in
70 A.D. Jews had to flee to the desert, but later many came back and the Church grew. The
second Jewish revolt of 132 A.D. brought about the destruction of the temple and another
temporary expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem. The Romans did not undertake a mass deportation
of the Jews from the Holy land; the Diaspora of Jews throughout the Mediterranean world began
centuries before as they took advantage of economic opportunities, for example in Tunisia,
Morocco, Spain, Rome. The reason why Jews became a small minority in the Holy land can be
attributed to conversion as Eusebius (d. 340) says, “many thousands of the circumcision (Jews)
came to believe in Christ”.

The Church in Palestine became predominantly a Greek Speaking Church as shown by the lists
of the early Bishops of Jerusalem, for two reasons:

(1) Most Jewish or Aramaic speaking Christian Communities merged with the Judaeo-Christians
who insisted on the Mosaic Law along with the acceptance of Christ, as is narrated in the Acts of
the Apostles. The Judaeco-Christians were refuted theologically by St. Paul, and were politically
outbalanced by the numerical superiority of the Gentile Christians.

(2) The Roman authorities were more tolerant of Greek speaking Christians at a time when the
Jews were considered seditious rebels.

The difference between the Greek speaking Christians and the Jewish Christians communities is
reflected in their names “In Antioch the followers of Jesus were first called Christians” (Acts

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11:26). This became the common name in the Greek and Roman World. The older name retained
by the Jewish Christians was “Nazarenes”, from the Aramaic word Nasraya derived from Jesus
town of Nazareth (Aramaic: Nasrath); of Acts 24:5; 22:8; Jn. 19:19.

It must be noted here that Judaeo-Christianity did not disappear as a result of Paul’s
condemnation. The continued existence of Judaeo-Christianity is attested by references to
various forms of it by Church fathers such as Justin (d. 165), Irenaeus (d. 380), and Jerome
(d.419).

Judaeco-Christianity is hardly known, because it flourished on the margins of society, in remote

desert settlements and among the nomads in the land beneath the Fertile Crescent (e.g. in
present-day Jordan). The principal source about the Judaeo-Christian is the Pseudo-Clementine
writings. It seems to have spread even into Arabian Peninsula, at least in a folkloric form, that is,
people heard some Biblical stories and knew of some Christian customs without really
understanding the faith. The importance of Judaeo-Christianity is that it was the form of
Christianity most closely known by the Arabs at the time of Mohammed.

They hardly knew of Greek Christianity, whether in its orthodox or heretical forms. Evidence for
this can be found in many parallels between Judaeo-Christianity and the form of “Christianity”
adopted by the Quran as can be seen in the following points:

1. Epiphanius describes Judaeo-Christian as “neither Christians nor Jews nor Greek

(pagans), but something in between”. The Quran gave it the meaning of “a primitive
monotheist” as in the case of Abraham Q3:67.
2. The Quranic Word for Christians is nasara, deriving from the Aramaic word Nasraya
indicating Arab contact with the Aramaic and probably Judaeco-Christian world, rather
than Greek Christianity.
3. The Judaeco-Christian, like the Samaritans, accepted no prophets between Aaron and
Christ. Though they sometimes referred to Isaiah, Jeremiah etc., they did not consider
them inspired. These prophets are likewise unknown in the Quran. The Judaeco-
Christians, however, probably accepted David, as did the Quran.
4. The Judaeco-Christian accepted as inspired scripture only the Torah (in part) and the
Gospel according to Mathew in a revised Hebrew Translation. They also recognized the
Psalms. Besides, they had, according to some, a heavenly book delivered by Jesus to their

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 alleged founder Elxai. Similarly, the Quran recognizes only the Torah, the Psalms and
one Gospel revealed to Jesus.
5. In the books of the Old Testament that they accepted, they rejected some passages as
false which contained anthropomorphic description of God or tales of immoral deeds of
the Patriarchs. This was their answer to Marcion, who rejected the Old Testament in its
entirely. Likewise, the Quran considers the Bible corrupt and tampered with.
6. As for the nature of Jesus, Judaeco-Christians did not say Jesus was divine, but some
admitted that he pre-existed as an angelic creature and had the titles “the great king” and
“son of God”. Irenaeus says they denied Jesus’ virgin birth from Mary but later Jerome
says they admitted this, Origen says they were divided on this question. According to the
pseudo- Clementines, they held he was a son of God by adoption at his baptism, that he
was the Prophet foretold by Moses (Deut 18:15-22) who fulfilled and reformed the Law,
eliminating sacrifice altogether, not even proposing the atoning sacrifice of his own
death.
Similarly, the Quran says that Jesus is not divine but was born of the virgin Mary, that he
was not a saviour, that he did not die on the cross, and that he reformed the Mosaic Law.
7. The Holy Spirit was an angelic creature and, because ruh (spirit) in both Hebrew and
Arabic is a feminine (as well as masculine) noun, they said he was the sister of Jesus.
According to Epiphanius, the Holy Spirit was identified with Jesus. In the Quran the Holy
Spirit appears at one point (Q 16:102) to be a creature of God (identified in Muslim
tradition with Gabriel); elsewhere he is identified with Jesus (Q 4:171).
8. Judaeco-Christians, like Jews prayed facing Jerusalem. This also was the first qibla
(direction to face at prayer) of the Muslims although direct Jewish contact could also
explain this practice.
9. The Judaeco-Christians were devoted to daily ablutions to obtain cure from illnesses,
deliverance from demon-possession, and forgiveness of sin. Islamic ablutions bear some
resemblance to this practice although this practice and all the resemblances indicated
above only point to an environmental inspiration in which Judaeco-Christianity was a
chief factor, Islam transformed all these elements and gave them a new meaning
consistent with the overall Islamic message.

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In Conclusion, Monasticism was another feature of Christianity in the deserts border of Arabia.
Both Orthodox and other Christians took up life in the desert as hermits or in small communities,
dedicated to prayer and fasting in order to overcome the power of the devil. The people of the
Middle East complained widely of possession or infestation by devils, as is seen in the Gospels.
The deliverance they received through early Christian preachers was one of the major reasons for
their conversion to Christianity. The dwellings of the monks also served as places of hospitality
for traveler s through the desert. Muhammad himself visited such monks on his trips to Syria.

3.0 THE BIRTH OF MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET OF ISLAM

3.1 Family Tree

Muhammad grandfather’s name was Abu Muttalib, he had five children namely Abdullah, Al-
Abass, Abu Talib, Hamza, Abu Lahab who had influence on Muhammad. His father’s name is
Abdullah and Amina was his mother. His father Abdullah belongs to the Hashimite family of the
Quraysh tribe. His grandfather Abu Muttalib held the high office of the custodian of the Kaaba,
which makes the Hashimites to be custodian of the Kaaba in Mecca. It was into the Hashmite
family that Muhammad was born.

For Muslims, Muhammad was a messenger of God the last and greatest prophet who brought to
perfection the universal religion that will last until the end time. In Muslim belief, Muhammad
was in one way a nobody, since Islam is said to be founded by God and Muhammad was his
mortal spokesman. On the other hand, according to Muslims, Muhammad was the greatest
person in history, because no one could perform a greater role than to usher into the world God’s
definite guidance, the Quran. And so Muslims believe that no specimen of humanity could ever
be as perfect and good as Muhammad. Consequently, he is taken as the exemplar for all
mankind, and all his words and actions are considered sunna, that is, a model for all to follow.

3.2 Muhammad’s Early Childhood

Muhammad was born in the “year of the Elephant”, when the Ethiopian governor of Yemen used
an elephant in an unsuccessful bid to capture Mecca (Q 105). That was around 570 A.D.

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One Legend tries to show that Muhammad is the light, which God created in the beginning of the
world, which was put into Adam and passed on to Muhammad’s father Abdallah:

“Abdallah came into the house of another wife he had besides Amina, and he was stained
with the clay he had been working in. He asked her to have sex, but she put him off because
he was dirty. So he left her and bathed, washing away the clay that was on him. Then he went
out intending to go to Amina. As he passed the other wife she invited him to come to her. He
refused, since he wanted Amina. He went into her, has intercourse, and she conceived
Muhammad. When he passed the other wife again he asked if she still wanted him. She said,
“No. When you just passed me there was a shining white spot between your eyes and I invited
you, but you refused me and went to Amina instead, and she has taken it away.”

Muhammad’s father died before Amina gave birth to Muhammad. After the death of Abdullah,
the responsibility for Amina and her child then fell on Muhammad’s grandfather Abu Muttalib.
According to upper-class custom, Abu Muttalib then looked for Bedouin women to nurse the
child in the reputedly healthy climate of the desert. The woman Halima, legend has it, was poor
and had a hard time nursing her own baby, but she said, “when I put him (Muhammad) at my
bosom, my breasts supplied him with all the milk he wanted to drink. His brother did likewise”.

After two years Muhammad was returned to his mother, and not long afterwards another
legendary incident occurred as Muhammad is reported to have narrated:

While I was with my brother behind our tents shepherding our lambs, two men came to us
dressed in white with a basin filled with snow. They took hold ofme, opened my chest, took out
my heart and opened it up. They took of it a black drop and threw it away, then they washed
my heart and chest with the snow until they were entirely clean. Then one of them said to the
other, “weigh him against 10 of his people.” He did so and I outweighed them. So he said,
“That is enough. By God if you weighed him against his entire people he would outweigh
them.” This incident is interpretation of Quran 94:1-3: “Did we not open your breast for you, and
lift from you the burden which was weighing on your back?”

Muhammad’s mother Amina died when he was six years old, and two years later his grandfather
Abu Muttalib. Responsibility for the Orphan then passed to his father’s brother Abu-Talib.

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Muhammad is said to have accompanied his uncle Abu-Talib on a trading trip to Syria. It was
during one of the trips that a legend said Muhammad met with a monk named Bahira who
identified him as a person of great destiny. At that time Muhammad was a boy traveling with his
uncle Abu Talib learning the act of trading.

3.3 Muhammad as a Youth/Adult

As a Youth, Muhammad is said to have experienced divine intervention as illustrated by a

narrated report:

I was with some Quraysh boys carrying stones that we use in our games. We each had put out
wrappers around our neck and carried the stones on top of that. I was going back and forth
with them when suddenly someone invisible struck me with a painful blow and said, “Tie your
wrapper around you” I did so myself alone wearing a wrapper around my waist and stones on
my shoulder.

Still another legend shows how God protected Muhammad from sinful action, as he himself tells:

I never gave a thought to what the pagan era used to do but twice, because God prevented me
from following my desires. Afterwards I never thought of evil when God honored me with
apostleship. Once I said to a young Quraysh boy who was shepherding with me on the hills of
Mecca, ‘Please look after my animals for me while I go and spend the night in Mecca as
young men do.” He agreed and I went off with that intention, and when I came to the first
house in Mecca I heard the sound of tambourines and flutes and asked what this was. I was
told that a marriage had just taken place. I sat down to look at them when God struck my ear
and I fell asleep until the sun waked me up. I came to my friend who asked me what I did. I
said “Nothing” and told him the story. Asked him another night to watch my animals and
exactly the same thing occurred. Afterwards I never thought of evil until God honored me
with his apostleship.

As a young man Muhammad had the good fortune to be hired as a trading agent of Khadija, a
wealthy Mecca Woman who was twice a widow. In this job he traveled more times to Syria.
There, legend has it again that he met a Christian monk who acclaimed him a prophet.

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Later in Muhammad’s life of preaching some monks were sympathetic, and Quran 5:82-83
equivalently concludes that they accepted Islam:

As you will find the people friendliest to the believers are those who say, “we are Christians”.
This is because among them are clergy and monks who are not proud. When they hear what
was sent down to the Apostle to you see their eyes overflow with tears because of the truth they
recognize in his message.

Here it may be concluded that Muhammad was strongly impressed by the life of Christian monks
and clergy, but the information he absorbed about Christian teaching and the New Testament
was very meager, if we judge from what appears in the Quran. Most of the Christians he met,
including the monks were probably not well educated. Besides, Muhammad was likely not
interested in studying Christianity as such, since that would make him appear as a client of the
Byzantines. He wanted only those ideas that might prove relevant and helpful for his own life
and for remedying the defects of the traditional religion of Mecca.

3.4 His marriage and family life

Muhammad’s travel broadened his experience and no doubt set him thinking about many things,
but his own personal future was also a concern. When Khadijah made a proposal of marriage to
him two problems were solved: He would have a family, and with the help of her money he
would have a business. At this time Muhammad was 25 years, and Khadija was 40 years old.

She was attracted to Muhammad because he served her as a honest and successful agent.
Tradition has it that “when he returned to Mecca and brought Khadija her property she sold it for
about double her investment” she must also have been impressed by his spiritual qualities, as a
legend has her listening to the report of Muhammad’s traveling companion Maysara;

“At noon while he was riding in the intense heat I saw two angels shading Muhammad from
the sun’s ray.”

As Khadija’s husband, Muhammad had a secure economic future and an honorable position in
Mecca society, although he was excluded from the inner circle of high financiers who controlled
the political life of Mecca. The couple had two sons: al-Qasim and Abdallah and four daughters:
Zaynab, Ruqaya, Umm-Kulthun and Fatima. The sons died young, while the daughters lived to

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maturity. Yet of these only Fatima gave Muhammad grandchildren and a lasting line of
descendants.

The only other event reported in this period of adulthood is Muhammad’s participation at the age
35 in the rebuilding of the ka’ ba. Legendary detail tells how Muhammad settled the rivalry of
the various tribes for the honor of replacing the Black Stone. He had it put on a cloth, and a
representative of each tribe held one edge of the cloth and together they lifted the stone into
position.

As for the rest of Muhammad’s life before the age 40, there are many legendary stories about
Jews and Arabs who predicted the coming of a prophet or were searching for the true religion.
Even the Bible (John 15:26) is quoted as predicting the coming of Muhammad, who is asserted
to be the “Paraclete”.

3.5 His call at the Cave of Hira (610 AD)

The accounts of the first revelation, as reported by the Hadith of al- Bukhari and the Quran
(Q56:4-10) avoids legendary and miraculous events and shows the human weakness of the
prophet. This indicates a sound historical basis, whether it is interpreted simply as a religion
mystical experience, or also as a revelation from God Himself. Certainly from this moment the
life of Muhammad underwent a radical change, which affected not only His personal affairs but
also the social life of the entire town of Mecca and eventually the history of the world.

About the date of the first revelation ‘Sura of the clot” Q 96:1-5, we can accept that, according to
the Quran 10:16, Muhammad received it as a matured man, which is considered 40 years of age
Q 46: 15. The event of the revelation took place in the cave of Hira (a mountain near Mecca
where he used to spend time in prayer and meditation) around 610 AD. Tradition fixed the exact
day of the first revelation as having taken place on the 27th of the month of Ramadan, during the
night that was afterwards known as “The night of Power” (Laylatul-Qadr).

Muhammad communicated his experience in secret to his wife Khadija she comforted him in his
doubt and distress, and gave him the assurance that what happened was the explicit will of God.

Muslim traditions say that she sent him (Muhammad) to her Christian relation Waraqah Bin
Nawfal, who seems to have seen a link between this revelation and that of the Jewish and

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Christian traditions. He also approached other intimate members of his family such as his uncle
Abu Talib and his cousins Ali and Zayd.

Only gradually did he begin to address his call (da’wa) to the entire Mecca Community. The first
revelation was shortly followed by a second one, which came to Muhammad when he was
shivering and has been covered by a mantle at home. The command was “O thou enveloped in
thy cloak, Arise and Warn! Thy Lord Magnify…” (Q 74:1-3).

3.6 His early Preaching (Major Emphasis- al-Tawhid)

Muhammad began his mission quietly he preached the oneness of God (al-Tawhid). He stressed
that Allah is all-powerful. He is the creator of the Universe, and the Master of the Day of
Judgment. On the day of judgment, the faithful and righteous will be rewarded paradise, while
the unbelievers and the idolaters will end up in hell, as abode of great torture and suffering.

In all, Muhammad’s teaching he made it very clear that he was not super human or an incarnate
of God, but only a human being and a messenger of Allah. The Quran testified to Muhammad’s
human nature:

“Say: for myself I have no power to benefit nor power to hurt, save that which Allah willeth…
I am but a Warner, and a bearer of good tidings unto folk who believe” (Q 7: 188).

In the first three years, Muhammad had only converted a few Meccans. Important names among
them are: Khadija his wife, Ali his young cousin, Abu Bakr, Uthman and Talha; all his friends.

Because of his stern preaching on Mount Safa; and his warning that all those who could not
submit to God would be judged, (“Nay but they deny (the coming of) the Hour, and for those
who deny (the coming of) the Hour. We have prepared a flame”) Muhammad followers
increased to about 40 men, most of them young and generally from influential families of Mecca.
They carried on their religious activities discretely, but not like a secret society which could not
be observed.

“At this time”, says Ibn-said,” the unbelieving Quraysh did not criticize what he said. When he
passed by them as they sat in groups, they would point to him and say, “There is the youth of the
clain of Abu- Muttalib who speaks of things from heaven.”

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There are five main themes Muhammad emphasized according to the Quran before the
opposition and persecution:

1. God’s power and goodness, shown particularly in the creation of man, but also in
creating and providing for the rest of nature (Q 96:1-5; 90:4, 8-10; 80:17-22; 87:1-3;
55;88:17-20). These passages assume the existence of God, since the Arabs always believed in a
supreme deity, and this belief was reinforced by Jewish and Christian influence. Yet since the
Arabs tended to think of Allah as limited in power, the first among a pantheon of other deities,
Muhammad’s preaching emphasized the greatness of God. At this stage there is no mention of
the unity of God. That is a point, which claimed special attention later in the context of
controversy with the Meccans.

2. Man’s return to God for judgment (Q 96:8;78; 80:22;84:1-12). These passages teach that
man will rise on the last day and face judgment, and then proceed to his reward or punishment.
At this stage, however fear of condemnation is not prominent, and there are none of the vivid
descriptions of hell that came in later Quranic passages.

3. Man’s responses to God in gratitude and worship (Q 80:16ff;106; 87:14ff;96: ff). These
passages describe gratitude through its opposite, ingratitude. The word used for an ungrateful
person Kafir, a term which later came to mean an unbeliever. Condemned also are presumption,
meaning total self-confident with no regard for God’s restrictions, and pride in wealth, with no
sense of dependence on God’s power. Positively, gratitude is expressed in worship, particularly
in the performance of salat with all its bodily demonstrations of subservience to God.

4. Man’s response to God in generosity to men (Q 93:9-11; 104:1-3; 92; 5-11; 68: 17-33;
53:34ff; 100:6-11;89:18-21; 51:17-19;70:17ff). Only the first reference given here is definitely
from the period before the opposition arose to Muhammad; yet the others are from the early
Meccan period and reflect what the earliest message must have been. These texts sharply attack
hoarding wealth and having no concern for those in need. They do not mention property rights,
inheritance or other rules for social living, which are the concern of later suras, but they do
constitute an attack on the life style of the Mecca elite, and show that Muhammad had a concern
for social problems right from the beginning.

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5. Muhammad’s role in Islam (Q 74: 2;87). These texts tell Muhammad to “warn” and to
“remind” people particularly about the greatness of God and of the certainty of his judgment on
the last day. At this time the message was confined to simple and obvious statement about
religion, which anyone could recognize as true. Much Muhammad’s task was simply to convey
this message, nothing more.

3.7 His Persecution

Muhammad was at first secret about his preaching but he later did it openly. According to Ibn-
Ishaq, the beginning of public preaching coincides with the beginning of opposition to
Muhammad. Ibn-sa’d give the following reason for the Meccans’ change of attitude:

“This (peace) lasted until God (in the Quran) spoke shamefully of the idols they worshiped
other than himself and mentioned the perdition of their fathers who died in unbelief. At that
they came to hate the Messenger of God and to be hostile to him”

The first opposition to Muhammad, however, seems to have had little to do with worship of
traditional divinities. Ibn-Ishaq gives no Quranic verse to illustrate condemnation of such
worship at this time. Those most hostile to Muhammad were, like Abu-Jahl young men with
political ambitions. They saw Muhammad growing in popularity and were fully aware of the
revolutionary social implications of his teachings and movement; if his movement was not
nipped in the bud it might one day sweep all contenders away and leave Muhammad master of
Mecca. We must realize that the development of Mecca as the hub of international trade, from
Syria in the Byzantine empire through Yemen to the far East, called for a new political leader
who could unify Arabia and secure the trade route.

Ibn-Ishaq relates the following incident when Muhammad and his companions were outside
praying:

“A band of polytheists came upon them as they were doing salat and criticized them, attacking
what they were doing, and even fought them. Sa’d Ibn-abi-Waqq- as then struck one of the
polytheists with a camel’s jawbone and wounded him. That was the first bloodshed in Islam.”

Although Muhammad had made no direct attack on the traditional religion, his preaching about
the power of God and his demands upon men were clearly divergent, at least in emphasis, from

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traditional beliefs and practices. It is true that the traditional religion, inseparable from clan life
and social structure, was shaken once people settled in cities, mixing with people of other tribes
and participating in international trade and cultural exchange. Nevertheless, it could still
command a nostalgic loyalty. With some reason, then, the Meccans could complain to Abu-
Talib:

“Abu-Talib, your brother’s son has insulted our gods, insulted our religion, called our way of
life stupid, and said our ancestors were in error. Either you must stop him yourself or let us at
him, since you are opposed to him just as we are, and we will rid you of him.”

The hostility against Muhammad continued with open persecution. While the opposition was
going on, Muhammad sent some of his followers away to the Negus in Ethiopia. He saw that this
Christian country would readily welcome his persecuted followers. The total number of adult
males is given as eighty-three, and it included was the future third caliph ‘Uthman Ibn-Affay
who went with his wife Ruqayya, a daughter of Muhammad. There was a very impressive report
of the excellent hospitality the emigrants received from the Negus, King of Ethiopia (615 AD).

Ibn-Ishaq gives a probably imaginary or embellished story of how the King (emperor)
interrogated the Muslims about their faith and equivalently became a Muslim, declaring “that
there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his servant and messenger, and that Jesus, son of
Mary is his servant and messenger, his spirit and his word which he planted in Mary” These
words are a quotation of Quran 4:171, which even Muslims say dates from the Medina period,
much later than the time of this conversation.

During the trying time of Muhammad in Mecca his wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died
thus Muhammad referred to that year as year of sorrow 619AD.

3.8 His Migration (Hijra) 622AD

Muhammad’s preaching challenged the traditionist Mecccans thus they began to grow in hatred
for him. By 621 AD, He was asked to live Mecca. He left by 622 AD for Yathrib (Medina). The
first group of the immigrants of Medina started the migration (Hijra) in summer 622 AD.

By the end of summer of the same year almost all the Muslims had left Mecca for Medina and
had received hospitality there. By middle of September that year Muhammad and two other

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followers with their families set out to Medina. They were warmly received on their arrival to
Medina.

In Medina, Muhammad was the leader of the emigrants (Muhajirun), the Ansar among whom
there are hypocrites (Munafiqun), the Medinan and the Jewish tribes formed the 10 thousand
inhabitants of Medina. Three major wars were fought with the Meccans before Muhammad
could enter into an agreement with them by 628 AD. The wars are Badr 624, Uhud 625 and al-
khandaq (Trench) 627. They won the first war decisively, lost the second war to the Meccans and
both experienced loses in the third war. Muhammad then entered into an agreement with the
Meccans not to allow any further war with them for 10 years. By 630 AD Muhammad took the
Meccan by surprise fought a Jihad against them thereby establishing his control over Mecca. He
gave his farewell

address early in 632, by June 632 Muhammad died and he was buried in the room of his
preferred wife, Aisha.

4.0 ISLAMIC CULTURE AND PRACTICES

4.1 The Qur’an- The Primary Source of Islam

The Quran is believed to be the message of Allah (God) revealed to Muhammad through
Archangel Jibril (Gabriel) over a period of time during his lifetime (i.e. 22-23 years).

It is the primary source of law in Islam. Muhammad received the revelation from Allah in three
modes identified in the Quran (Q 42:51);

 al-wahy (inspiration)
 al-Ruyah (Kashf (dream/vision)
 al-Rasul (sending of a messenger)

Al-Quran is the proper name of the book revealed to Muhammad in Arabic through the
Archangel Gabriel, during his twenty-two years and seven months of prophetic mission both at
Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula.

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It is the eternal word of God according to Muslims belief in meaning, content and language and a
universal message of final divine guidance to mankind for all times.

Al-Quran was delivered to the Prophet in Arabic words and was collected in the same language.
It is the collection of the hard core of all the revealed scriptures of the past.

From the first revelation to the last one, the Quran continued to be revealed piece meal. As at the
death of the prophet there was no written collection of revelation of the Quran in a final form.
This was so because the revelations expanded throughout the lifetime of Muhammad from his
call to prophet-hood, to his death, with new ones-being added to earlier ones.

4.2 Collection and Compilation of the Quran

There was no compilation of the Quran in the form we have it today during the life of the
prophet. After his death, many wars were fought and the companions of the prophet who
memorized the Quran started to lose their lives in the battle field hence the fear that there might
come a time when the memorizers would all have died and the chapters of the Quran forgotten.

Umar, the second caliph, encouraged Abubakr, his predecessor to compile one. He did, but it was
not a standard one. During the reigns of Umar, however, nothing was done to the sub- standard
copy of AbuBakr.

During the reign of Uthman bin Affan (3 rd Caliph), there emerged different version of the Quran
in Kufa, Basra, Hims and Syria. The problem that occurred was that if that situation was allowed
to continue, the Quran that was supposed to build the community together because of its
uniqueness might turn around to split it because of its versions. The Caliph therefore appointed a
commission charged with the ability of collecting the extant versions under the leadership of
Zayd bin Thabit, who was the head of the prophet’s private secretaries.

The Qur’an was therefore compiled and kept in the version that exists today.

4.3 Form of the Quran

The Quran contains 114 Surahs (chapters) 6,616 ayat (verses), 77,934 words and 333671 letters.
The title of every Surah is derived from a distinctive word in the chapter e.g. Surat ul-Baqarah
(chapter two the cow) where the word cow is mentioned in verses 67-73. In other chapters, the
title might be a world taken at the beginning or at the end. The Surahs have varying lengths,

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some very short, some very long. Each is made up of a certain number of verses called Ayat. The
shortest chapter has three verses while the longest has 287 verses. For the purpose of recitation
and discussion during the month of Ramadan, the Quran is divided into thirty equal portions
called Juzu correspondent to the number of days in the month of Ramadan. The Quran is
arranged mechanically rather than chronologically following the order of revelation. Though
Iqrah as the first verses to be revealed now form verses 1-5 of chapter 96 in mechanical
arrangement.

4.4 Al-Hadith

Hadith in Sharia means the sayings, deeds and silent approvals of the prophet Muhammad.
Sunnah is the concrete implementation of divine will. It is a practice distinct from any
documentation. It is an action of a direct method for the performance of certain actions. The
practice without any verbal pronouncement from a prophet is regarded as a valid sure of law.

A Hadith can be divided into two main parts, al-matn the text, and al- isnad the chains of
transmitters. The matn includes the sayings or deeds of the prophet and the Isnad contain the
names of the transmitters in Chronological order.

Critical analysis of the Hadith as a literature gave birth to the ilm al-Hadith the science of Hadith
which include over one hundred branches. The Hadith literature serves the purpose of the
commentary on the Quran. It is not merely an historical account of the earliest Muslim tradition,
but it is the perfect portrait of implementation of the Quranic teachings.

The Quran emphatically commands to the believers to follow the life of the prophet, which is the
model for them in all aspects of their life (Q33:21). In the obedience of the prophet; Gods’
obedience and love is confined (Q 14,11;3:13) collection of the Hadith.

The collection of the Hadith was carried on as an individual endeavor from the beginning for a
long time. It was only those who had interest that undertook the collection of the Hadith. Later
on many of those who committed the Hadith to memory were dying and there was a fear that if
nothing serious was done about the matter, the knowledge of the Hadith might disappear. It is
reported that the Umayyad Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz gave an order to the great traditionalist
called Abubakr bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Hazm of Medina to write down all the

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tradition he could collect especially from Amrab bin Abdul Rahman. She was then the best
custodian of high-class traditions.

This caliph also requested scholars in many parts of Arabia to collect as many Hadith as they
could and write them into books. Many collectors of Hadith emerged in various provinces. There
was need for more formal books and when these were compiled, a system of criticism was
developed and applied to each of the collections.

Six of these books of Hadith were later accepted. They are called the six canonical Books of
Hadith; Sahih of al-Bukhari ((d. 870) Sahih of al-Muslim (d. 875) Jami of Tirmidhi (d. 892)
Sunan of Abu Dawud (d. 888) Sunan of Ibn Majah (d. 886) Sunan of Al-Nasai (d. 916).

Most modern scholars accept many Hadiths as going back to Muhammad substantially though
not in the exact words. They regard Hadiths as products of Muhammad’s companions and their
successors detailing what Muhammad would have said or done in new circumstances. Other
Hadiths they reject on ground of their deviating from the Quran. A few other modern Muslims
reject Hadith altogether, such as Gaddafi of Libya.

4.5 Sharia (Islamic Law)

Sharia refers to “religious” law held to reflect the “Divine Will” for human individual and human
society. It is believed to be the wisdom and insight of the creator into the reality of human nature
and of the world as a whole. Sharia reflects God’s knowledge about human beings in particular
and is designed in specific as well as in principle for the realities of human life.

There is however, room for diversity within the Sharia and fourteen centuries of Islamic culture.
It shows its ability to adapt to different historical, geographical, social and political
circumstances. The authoritative codes of law were given their basic structure early in Islamic
history. A school of law is called a Madhab (pl Madhahib) and there are four in Sunni Islam. A
Sunni Muslim may follow any one of them and all four are equally authoritative:

1. Hanafi (Abu Hanifa d.767). This law school is well practiced in India, Pakistan; Afghanistan,
and Turkey.

2. Maliki (Ibn Malik d.788) mostly practiced in West Africa.

3 Shafii (al-Shaffii d. 854) mostly practiced in North Africa, Egypt, Malaysia,

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Indonesia

4 Hanbali (Ibn Hanbal d. 855) mostly practiced in Saudi Arabia and in the Arab

Gulf.

4.6 The Sources of the Sharia

The sources of the Sharia are usually figured to be four:

a. The Quran, which forms the primary source.

b. The Hadith, Sunah of the Prophet Muhammad that forms the second primary

source.

96

c. Ijma, the consensus of the community, especially those who have studied the law.

d. Qiyas, the application of reason or analogy, the consensus of the jurist.

All schools of law accept the first two. The last two received various emphasis and
interpretations in the different law schools. Hanbalis, in principle limit the Muslim to the first
two primary sources.

The Shia provided yet another school of Law called Jafariya after Imam Jafar al- sadiq. The
differences between the law schools are often very minor and the majority of the religious laws
are remarkably similar in all of the law schools. An example of the type of difference is in some
schools where a woman can write into her marriage contract that, if her husband takes a second
wife, that is automatic ground for a divorce; but in other law schools this is not allowed.

5.0 PILLARS OF ISLAM

The Muslims’ belief in the oneness of God motivates them to observe their duties to Allah as
prescribed in the five pillars which shall be considered in sequence.

1. Al-Iman (faith)

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The ultimate purpose of belief in Islam is to help the believer in performing his social obligations
in the “presence” of Allah to love Allah and His entire creation for the sake of Allah and in this
way his love for humanity is based on clear intentions. Basically, Iman is used in two different
ways in the Quran:

First, a mere confession with the tongue that one believes in the oneness of God and the
prophethood of Muhammand Q 2:62.

The other use of the word Imam implies the condition in which confession with the tongue is
accompanied an assent of the heart and carrying into action of what is believed.

The Hadith also speak about the meaning of Imam in the two different Quranic usage. It holds
Imam in combination of faith and the translation of such faith in action.

Under Imam comes the profession of faith Shahadah which is required to be recited openly as a
matter of conscience and not necessarily of action.

“I bear witness that there is no god except Allah. He is absolute. He has no associate. And I
also bear witness that Muhammad is His messenger”.

The articles of faith include:

1. Belief in Allah and His attributes

2. Belief in Revealed Books

3. Belief in angles

4. Belief in Prophets

5. Belief in the last day.

6. Belief in Qadar (Fate)

2. Al-Salat (Liturgical Prayer)

Salat is the first fundamental duty enjoined by Prophet Muhammad, consequently on all
Muslims. Iman, having taken the first place of the five pillars of Islam and representing a

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metaphysical pillar, Salat is given the greatest prominence in the Holy Quran together with Zakat
(obligatory alms). It however takes precedence over Zakat. The values of Salat include spiritual
development, keeping away from evil, realisation of Human existence, closeness to Allah and
attainment of moral height, unification of Humanity, Equality and love.

Prayer is regulated in Islam. All Muslims regardless of their mother tongue, are expected to say
the Salat the same way all over the world. All Muslims are expected to gather together, stand up
reverently, bow down, prostrate and sit down in unison before their creator as one.

Types of Prayers

a. The five obligatory prayers during day and night. They are: a-Subh, al-Zuhr, al Asr;

al-maghrib and al-Isha

b. Friday congregational prayers and

c. ‘Idd prayers. (festival prayer, adha, fitri and asshurra).

To perform the Salat a Muslim must be pure in body, dress and environment. Salat unifies the
whole of humanity. There is no priesthood required in the act of Salat in Islam. Prayer is always
led by an Imam designated either for the neighborhood mosque or the community mosque. The
entire surface of the earth is said to be a mosque (masjid).

3. Zakat (Obligatory almsgiving)

Al-Zakat is the spending of whatever has been given to man by God. That is setting aside of a
determined part 2 1/2% or 1/40 of one’s wealth and transferring ownership of it to those whom
God has decided to have them. This is an obligatory act of benevolence for every Muslim who is
free, has reached the age of puberty, of sound mind, possesses a specific amount of wealth
(called Nisab) and free from debts.

Zakat should be extracted from possession in money (gold silver) camels, cattle, sheep farm
produce, commercial gain etc.

The beneficiaries of the Zakat can be categorized under eight headings (Q9:60) namely: the poor,
the destitute, the agents (those who administer the sharing), for those whose hearts are to be

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brought together, slaves, debtors (in the Muslim Community), for use in God’s way (Islamic
Propagation) and travelers.

The Quran and Hadith clearly make a distinction between Zakat and Sadaqa. Zakat is the
obligatory payment of a fixed proportion of wealth annually while Sadaqa is the giving out of
any of one’s wealth at any time. Every Muslim no matter his financial or social position in the
society can observe Sadaqa.

Zakat in Arabic also means purity. Therefore, only good things should be given out in Zakat and
Sadaqa.

4. Al Sawn (Fasting)

Fasting takes place during the month of Ramadan (Q2:183-185, 187). Fasting in Islam is
complete abstinence from food, drink, smoking and some otherwise legitimate actions during the
hours of day light (dawn) till sun set. It is compulsory for all Muslims, man and woman, for
twenty-nine of thirty days in the month of Ramadan (Q 12: 185) depending on the Lunar
calendar. One has to abstain from speaking certain words when fasting.

Moral value and Advantage of fasting

a. It strengthens the stomach, since it rests throughout the day from taking in food and drink, for
the space of a whole month.

b. It makes the rich learn by experience how much pain is caused by hunger and thirst. So they
will be kind to the poor and the destitute and will have compassion on them.

c. It makes one accustomed to be patient in bearing adversity, for the one who is fasting comes to
desist from food and drink throughout the days.

d. It instills into the souls of those who are fasting fidelity and a sense of shame. For the one who
is fasting knows that there is no one keeping watch over him except God, so he is ashamed to
commit sins since he knows that God is well-informed about him.

Legitimate Excuses for breaking fast

a. Fear of falling ill or of sickness increasing especially when this is foretold by a skilled
physician.

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B. Traveling, if it is for a distance of more roughly 84 kilometers.

c. While nursing in the womb or at the breast.

d. When fasting would be impossible on account of old age.

Whoever has one of these legitimate excuses can breakfast but is under obligation to compensate
for what has been omitted, except for the fourth case when the obligation is to feed a destitute
person for each day (omitted).

This is an easing of the obligation and mercy on the path of God towards his servants, because
He does not burden them with what they cannot bear. He is kind and compassionate towards his
servant. Other penalty for breaking fast for no just reason is punishable by fasting for sixty
consecutive days. For each of the days missed.

5. al-Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca)

The pilgrimage was made a precept for Muslims, once in lifetime, for every Muslim who is free,
subject to the obligations of law (Mukallaf), in good health, able easily to procure provisions and
amount for the journey, able to prove maintenance for his dependents during his pilgrimage
journey, and on condition that the roads are safe.

Quran 3:96 says “And pilgrimage to the House (of Allah) is incumbent upon men the sake of
Allah, upon everyone who is able to undertake the journey to it”

From the above verse of the Quran, it is obvious that Hajj is unlike the other functions expected
to be performed by a Muslim. All other functions in the five pillars are compulsory for Muslims
but the performance of Hajj is an obligatory duty on those who can undertake the journey the
rich and the healthy.

All rites performed at Mecca around Kaaba, at Mina and Arafat are the revival of the concept of
Abraham worship of one God and these are accomplished international gathering of thousands of
believers in one God in an absolute equality, discipline, brotherhood and uniformity.

It is a practical demonstration of al-tawhid by going round the centre of al-tawhid and submitting
completely to God’s law and will establishing a direct link with whatever exits in the mighty
universe.

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6.0 JESUS IN ISLAM

6.1 Reading from the Bible

The story of Jesus starts in the Bible with his birth, which is recorded in two gospels only. In
Matthew 1: 18-25 and Luke 1: 31-35, it is recorded that angel Gabriel was sent by God to the
virgin Mary, to inform her of the favor bestowed upon her to be the mother of a miraculous son,
whose name shall be Jesus. However, while Matthew 2:2 (see also Mark 15:2) calls this child
King of the Jews, Luke 2:11-12 goes further to call him “a savior, who is Christ the Lord” (see
also John 4:42).

Jesus, the Christ, is born of a woman, but without the intervention of a man, which makes his
birth to be considered miraculous: he is the word of God made flesh; “Be! and it is”.
Consequently, his father can only be God, the author of life. Matthew 3:17 quotes God as having
said, referring to Jesus, “This is my beloved son in whom I am well pleased” (see also Matthew
17:5), to the hearing of the crowd gathered at the Jordan sea to be baptized by John the Baptist,
even though Jesus himself warns his followers that the Father who sent him has born witness to
him: “His voice you have never heard, his form you have never seen…” (John 5:37), thus
distinguishing himself totally from God.

In Matthew 8:28, two demoniacs call Jesus “son of God”. It may be interesting to point out here
that not even once does Jesus call himself “son of God” in the Bible, except in Matthew 27:43
where he is reported as having said “I am the son of God”. But, this is a quotation from those
who want to crucify him. Could he have decided to keep silent from mankind such a crucial
information? Being, not the son of man, but the son of God? And for what reason would he have
hidden such information?

In the contrary, each time Jesus refers to himself, he calls himself “son of man”, and this appears
about eighty times in the Bible.

What actually is Jesus’ assignment on earth? The first instance where Jesus identifies himself as
a prophet occurs in Matthew 5:11-12, when he warns his disciples about the persecution they
will face because of him, “for so men persecuted the prophets before you”. In Matthew 10:40-41,
he also identifies himself as a messenger and prophet when he tells his disciples, who are about
to go out to preach his gospel, that he who receives them receives him, and he who receives him

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receives the person (God) who sent him. In Matthew 21:11, it is reported that the crowd, on
hearing Jesus speak, say: This is the prophet Jesus from Nazareth of Galilee.

6.2 Reading from the Quran

The Quran is held by Muslims as the last message or testament sent to mankind by Allah, which
implies that other messages or testaments were sent before it (see Surah 2:136). We would also
want to remind here that this last message was revealed to prophet Muhammad (SAW) by angel
Gabriel. It may be interesting to observe that Jesus‟ name is mentioned in the Quran more often
than that of prophet Muhammad; that there is no reference to prophet Muhammad‟s mother in
the Quran, while there is a full chapter or Surah on Maryam, the mother of Jesus (Surah
Maryam- 19).

Jesus’ story starts in the Quran with the announcement of his birth to the virgin Mary by angel
Gabriel. “How can I have a son when no man has touched me, nor am I unchaste”, she replied
(Surah 19:20). Angel Gabriel answers her thus:

…So will it be, your Lord said: „That is easy for me. And we wish to appoint him as a sign for
mankind and a mercy from Us, and it is a matter already decreed.

Thus, the miraculous birth of Jesus poses no doubt: he is the word of God made flesh. “…Allah
creates what he wills. When He has decreed something, He says to it only: “Be! - and it is”
(Surah 3:47). His mission on earth is clearly stated in Surah 3, verse 49: he will be a messenger
to the children of Israel, and he will confirm what is in the Torah that was revealed before him.

According to the Bible, Jesus performed his first miracle during a feast when there was shortage
of wine. He asked his disciples to fill drums with water which he transformed into wine. He was
about thirty-three years old. The Quran does not mention this incident. However, Jesus‟ first
miracle is recorded in the Quran when he was less than a day old (less than twenty-four hours),
just some few hours after his birth. His mother was instructed by angel Gabriel to keep quiet
when her people question her about the child (Jesus), for, the angel was aware that she would be
accused of being unchaste. So after giving birth, she wrapped the child and came to her people.
The Quran reads thus, in Surah 19:

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…They said: “O sister of Harun! Your father was not a man who used to commit adultery, nor
your mother an unchaste woman” (verse 28). Then she pointed at him (the baby). They say:
“How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle?” (verse 29). He (Isa- Jesus) said: “Verily I
am a slave of Allah, He has given me the Scripture and made me a prophet (verse 30). And He
has made me blessed wheresoever I be, and has enjoined on me salat (prayer), and zakat (tide) as
long as I live” (verse 31).

Jesus in this quotation is just a new born baby, and this revelation was sent down to mankind
through prophet Muhammad, who never met Jesus, who was not from Jesus’ lineage or family,
but who just believed him because the revelation came from God Almighty. In essence, prophet
Muhammad believed and enjoined on Muslims to believe that Jesus performed such a miracle
when he was less than twenty-four hours old, just because Allah said so through angel Gabriel.
Any Muslim who nurtures even an atom of doubt about such a truth casts himself automatically
out of Islam.

Jesus says in John 5:30 that he can on his own do nothing, but that he speaks and acts according
to his father’s instructions. As a follow up to this, the Quran says that he will speak to people in
the cradle (3:46); that Allah will teach him the Scripture, knowledge, the Torah and the Gospel
(3:48); that he will be a messenger to his people (Israel), confirming what was sent before him
(3:50), as supported by Matthew 5:17. Among his early miracles was, when still a child, the
power bestowed on him by Allah to design out of clay a figure like that of a bird, to breathe into
it and it becomes a living bird by Allah‟s permission. This other truth was also revealed to
prophet Muhammad, the Bible does not account for it, and no Muslim can have any doubt about
it.

The Quran enjoins on Muslims to believe in Allah, in the Quran, in Abraham and the message he
was sent with; in Ismael and Isaac, Jacob and his offspring; in Moses and his message; in Jesus
and his message, and in all that was given to prophets from their Lord (2:136). Most importantly,
it is counted as sin in Islam to make any distinction among prophets as to who is more or less
important, for they all come from the same Lord at an appointed time in human history. Ulfat
Aziz-Us-Samad (2001) supports that A Muslim must believe in the founders of all great
religions.

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Thus, Jesus is portrayed as a prophet and a messenger of Allah sent on earth for a particular
assignment, at a particular time, to a particular community and with a particular message. In
Surah 4:71, Allah calls upon the people of the book (Christians) not to exaggerate in their
religion by saying “Three” (i.e. Trinity); that Allah is unique and that “The Messiah Isa (Jesus),
son of Maryam, was no more than a messenger of Allah, and His word which He bestowed on
Maryam, and a Spirit created by Him”. Moreover, Surah 5:46, 75, 78, 112, 114; Surah 33:7;
42:13; 57:27 and 61:6 confirm Jesus‟ status as a messenger and prophet of Allah. But what is the
relationship between Jesus and Allah in terms of sonship, in the Quran?

Allah says in Surah 2:116 that He does not need a child for himself, because He is the owner of
mankind and everything visible and invisible. “Verily, the likeness of Isa (Jesus) before Allah is
the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust, then said to him: „Be!‟- and he was”(Surah
3:59). As such, Jesus has no share in divinity, which is the sole prerogative of Allah: He has
neither a wife nor a son (Surah 3:62-62). In Surah 9:30, Allah goes further to curse those who
attribute a son to Him, and those who take their rabbis and their monks as their lords besides
Him. Surah 19:89 qualifies as “a terrible evil thing” the believe that Allah has begotten a son.
According to Aisha Lemu (2001), “To attribute a child to God would be to deny God’s
perfection. It implies that He lacked or needed something” (3). Surah 23:91 reads thus:

No son did Allah beget, nor is there any ilah (god) along with Him…Glorified is Allah above all
that they attribute to Him.

Thus, from the Islamic perspective, Jesus has no link to divinity. He is a messenger like others
who came before him and like the one (Muhammad) who came after him. Allah calls unbelievers
those who contend that the Messiah (Jesus), son of Mary, is God (Surah 5:17) while he (Jesus)
has enjoined on his people to worship Allah, his lord and their lord (Surah 5:72-73). In the verses
116 and 117 of the same Surah (5), Allah reminds mankind of the day He will question Jesus
about the attributes of divinity which his mother and him were given by their people. Here is
Jesus‟ answer:

Glory be to You (verse 116) …Never did I say to them aught except what You did command me
to say: „Worship Allah, my lord and your Lord‟ (verse 117).

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In Surah 6:85, Jesus is held to be a righteous servant of Allah, along with Zaccharia, John, Elijah.
While announcing the advent of Jesus, angel Gabriel calls him “a righteous son” (Surah 19:19).
He is “a sign to mankind and a mercy” from Allah (Surah 19:21), for he brings glad tidings to his
people. Many non-Muslims may be surprised to learn that prophet Muhammad announces the
second coming of Jesus as one of the major signs of the end of time. The Quran states:

And he (Isa-Jesus) son of Mary, shall be a known sign for the Hour… (43:61.

7.0 ISLAMIC PRACTICES

7.1 Worship

Much of Muslim life is centered on worship. The daily struggle of Greater Jihad could be said to
inform all aspects of Muslim life, however, it is also stressed that there are set times for prayer
which turn the thoughts of a Muslim from the secular world to the sacred one and that after
prayer there is a return to daily life and work. This is also seen in the observance of Friday
prayers, Salat-ul-Jumu’ah, all work stops for the prayers but after the service is over, daily life
returns.

For the Muslim the whole of the earth is a Mosque and therefore Muslims are permitted to pray
at any clean place. There is usually a Minbar for the Imam to stand and deliver his sermon. Most
Mosques will also have a Mihrab, which signifies the direction of Makkah to which Muslims
pray. Muslims will often make effort to pray in Jumu’ah (congregation). It is traditional for
majority of Mosques also to have large quantities of tasbihs available, usually hanging off the
wall so that when Muslims are reciting certain litanies these help to count and also focus the
mind. Muslim men and women would be expected to cover their whole bodies including their
heads when praying. Imams would often wear a turban and hold the staff as a symbol of
Prophetic authority and practice.

The five daily prayers (Salah) mean that Muslims pray as a community, it is a great leveler as all
stand side by side in rows, focused towards Makkah and as one body. The Prophet defined
perfection of faith (Ihsan) as to ‘worship God as if you see Him, if you see Him not, know that

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He sees you’, so it is a means of focusing the whole of one’s being towards and in the presence
of God.

7.2 The Journey of Life

Birth: When a Muslim child is born the adhan (call to prayer) is whispered in its right ear and
the ‘iqamah (command to rise and worship) in the left. This means that the first words the baby
hears are: ‘Allahu Akbar’. The words are usually said by the oldest male present but can be said
by a Muslim woman.

Aqiqa: Seven days after birth is the Aqiqa ceremony where the father announces the name of the
child to friends and relatives. The parents or the grandparents choose the name. The baby is
being welcomed into the ummah. Prayers are recited asking for Allah’s blessing and for the
child’s future health, prosperity and spiritual growth. The baby’s head is wiped with olive oil
then washed or shaved. The equivalent weight of the shaven hair, in gold or silver, is then given
to the poor. Some Muslims offer a sacrifice after the Aqiqa ceremony. A sheep or goat is offered
for a girl and two animals for a boy. The khitan, or circumcision, may be performed at the aqiqa
ceremony or at twenty-one days or even later. It can be done any time up to the tenth birthday.

Bismillah: The Bismillah ceremony is the beginning of the religious education of the child. It
takes place when the child is four years old: sometimes when the child is exactly four years, four
months and four days. The child must be able to recite ‘Bismillah-ir-Rahman-ir-Rahim’ (In the
name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful).

By the age of seven the child will be able to take part in the five daily prayers and, by the age of
ten, to fast, though usually not for the whole month of Ramadan. By the time a child is twelve
Muslims are usually considered old enough to be responsible for their own religious activities.

Marriage: Marriages in the Muslim community are often arranged but they can only take place
with the consent of both parties. All Muslims are expected to marry. Men may have up to four
wives but each must be treated equally. A Muslim man may marry a Jew or a Christian but a
Muslim woman may only marry a Muslim man. Divorce is regarded as a last resort.

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A Muslim marriage usually takes place in the home or the mosque and the couple give their
consent before at least two witnesses. There are readings from the Qur’an and the imam and the
guests pray for the couple.

The Aqd Nikah (contract of marriage) is spoken and written. The bride and groom sign three
copies to ensure that they have both agreed to the marriage.

The groom gives mahr (a sum of money, property or other valuable gift) to the bride and this
remains her property for life. Often a walimah or nuptial feast follows the ceremony.

Sometimes the bride does not attend the ceremony. She may remain at home while the
bridegroom goes to the mosque and she appoints an agent and two witnesses to represent her part
of the contract.

Death: The funeral rites for Muslims are not in the Qur’an but in law books. Rituals vary
according to the customs of the country. Muslims are buried and not cremated as they want the
bodies to be intact for the resurrection of the dead from their graves at the Day of Judgement.
When Muslims are dying, they say the words attributed to Muhammad (pbuh) (‘Allah, help me
through the hardship and agony of death’). They also try to repeat the Shahadah (declaration of
faith): ‘There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah’.

Relatives recite verses from the Qur’an to call on the barakah (grace) of Allah and they repeat
loudly, ‘la-ilaha-illallah’, ‘there is no god but Allah’ so that Satan will have no opportunity to
confuse the dying person with doubts.

The dead body is placed on a stretcher with the head in the direction of the Qiblah. Ghusl a ritual
washing is done by relatives of the same sex as the deceased. The corpse is washed three times,
perfumed with scents such as camphor, wrapped in a shroud, a single piece of unsewn cloth, and
placed in a coffin.

Laws in many countries require coffins but in some Muslim countries the body is placed straight
into the ground, protected by planks or with a coffin inverted over it and then covered with earth.
Salah is then performed in the house of the dead Muslim or in the mosque.

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The funeral takes place as soon as possible, usually the next day, but certainly within three days.
At the graveside in the cemetery, funeral prayers Salat-ul-Janaza (which is salah with no
prostrations), and al-Fatihah (Surah 1) are said.

When the corpse is lowered into the ground, the body is committed to the earth with the words,
‘In the name of Allah, (we bury) according to the Way of the Prophet of Allah’ and the ‘From
the (earth) did We create you, and into it shall We return you, and from it shall We bring you out
once again.'(Surah 20:55).

Seven days after the burial, relatives try to visit the grave as a mark of respect.

Generally, mourning does not last more than three days.

Shi’ah Muslims have different traditions including rawdahs (memorial gatherings) on the fortieth
day of mourning.

It is traditional for the grave to be raised a little above the level of the ground, simply to stop
people from walking on it or sitting on it.

7.3 Symbols of Islamic Faith

There are very few symbols in Islam; however, some are significant such as the color green,
some numbers etc.

Although the star and crescent typically seen on mosque domes and some flags have come to be
associated with Islam, they do not originate from Islam.

Some objects used widely by Muslims such as the rosary beads (masbahah), prayer hats and
prayer mats have also gained prominence although some Islamic scholars argue that the objects
themselves do not have any religious symbolism.

A Muslim might wear

certain passages from the Qur’an in his or her necklace, men might wear a prayer hat and rings
with stones, some might carry the masbahah all the time and some will hang it on their car
mirrors, as well as Qur’anic passages and other supplications.

The double-pointed sword of the Prophet which he gave to his cousin and son-in-law Imam ‘Ali
symbolises the loyalty and devotion of his followers who came to be known as Shi’ah ‘Ali (the
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followers of ‘Äli). Some Shi’ah wear the two-pointed sword as a symbol of their loyalty to the
Imam.

The turbah is used by Shi’ah Muslims to place their foreheads upon when they pray. The
turbah’s significance is that it represents the martyrdom of the 3rd Imam al-Husayn, the
grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). It also represents the cycle of life; the two
prostrations on the earth symbolise being created from earth and the return to earth after death.

According to most Muslims, the colour green is significant as the prophet used to wear a green
turban and it has been used ever since on flags for example to represent Islam.

According to some Muslims, some numbers have religious symbolism. For example, 786 equates
with ‘In the Name of God’ (Bismillahi).

7.4 Symbolic Actions

Islam encompasses every aspect of a person’s life; for example, the recitation of the adhan and
iqamah in the baby’s right and left ear right after birth symbolizes that the baby is born Muslim
and will recognize the call.

All Islamic rituals have symbolic meanings. Every action performed during the liturgical prayer
or during the pilgrimage (hajj) for instance has spiritual meanings such as the stoning of the three
pillars during hajj which symbolizes the rejection of the temptations of the devil.

Muslims do not need a building in order to worship Allah. They can pray in any clean place, but
the Qur’an recommends praying with others:

‘And be steadfast in prayer; practise regular charity; and bow down your heads with those who
bow down (in worship)’ (Surah 2:43).

The Muslim place of worship is a mosque or a masjid (place of prostration). Muhammad built
the first mosque in 622 CE in al-Madinah. In Muslim countries, the Mu’adhin calls the believers
to prayer five times a day from the minaret where he stands facing the Ka’bah in Makkah. Inside
the prayer hall he repeats the call with slightly different words just before prayer begins.

The first prostration during the daily prayers symbolizes being created from dust and the second
the return to dust after death. This is to remind the human being to remain humble as everything

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will perish except God who alone can have pride. Lifting hands in prayers is a sign of asking for
something you need and which only God who is needless can give.

8.0 ISLAMIC UMMA

Islam begins at home with the children being taught Islamic values and way of life from a very
young age. This way of life extends into the community with the family attending congregational
prayers, ‘Idd celebrations and other social events. Pilgrimage to Makkah, as well as shrines of
Imams and saints, further establishes even a greater sense of belonging.

Family is crucial in Islam (birth rituals, teaching children to pray and recite Qur’an and Islamic
morals). It is forbidden to break ties (silah al-rahm) with family (unless one is asked to disbelief)
for which one will earn grave punishment. The Qur’an stresses on showing kindness towards the
parents especially in their old age (Surahs 17:23, 29:8).

For most Muslims to be part of a family unit and a community offers them a sense of identity
and security. They are usually a Muslim’s first port of call for support and strength especially in
times of need and act as a reminder to carry out one’s religious duties hence making one stronger
emotionally and spiritually. The importance of family and community has its roots in the Qur’an.
Muslims are instructed to keep close family ties and to treat their parents with nothing other than
kindness:

Thy Lord hath decreed that ye worship none but Him, and that ye be kind to parents. Whether
one or both of them attain old age in thy life, say not to them a word of contempt, nor repel
them, but address them in terms of honour. (Surah 17:23).

Ramadan is a month in which family and community ties are strengthened: families endeavour to
break the fast together; people often fund an iftar (breaking of the fast) for the whole community
at the mosque; in the Sunni school, some Muslims will attend the mosque’s tarawith prayers
every night; all this culminates in the ‘id prayer in which the whole community usually attends at
the end of the month.

The home and the mosque are the main places where a Muslim family practises its faith. At
home, the whole family can pray together in congregation, recite supplications together, children

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are taught the Qur’an. Many Muslim families will have Qur’anic passages in their homes. A
Muslim should care for the elderly and visit the sick. Islam is present in every aspect of our
everyday life and hence one can be constantly God conscious. There are supplications or praises
for almost anything a person can do: waking up in the morning, before one leaves the house,
before and after eating, entering or coming out of the restroom.

A very important concept in Islam is ummah (community). It encourages Muslims to support and
help each other especially in times of need such as after the loss of a loved one. Also Imam ‘Ali
says in a famous tradition: ‘A person is either your brother in religion or your brother in
humanity.’

It is highly recommended that a person lives near a Muslim community as it can serve as a
support for the person and a reminder of one’s duties to God. Islam in its totality is based on
unity. First, unity (tawhid) is recognising that God is One. But unity extends to every other
aspect of the religion for example the Islamic rituals such as hajj which is probably the greatest
symbol of unity where people of all ages, colour and status perform the same act at the same
time in the same way submitting themselves completely to the One God. Hence for Muslims,
belonging and being a unit is part of their faith.

And hold fast, all together, by the rope which Allah (stretches out for you), and be not divided
among yourselves […] (Surah 3:103)

Muslims are described in the Qur’an as brothers. This brotherhood which is not based on blood
relations unites them spiritually. The Believers are but a single Brotherhood: So make peace and
reconciliation between your two (contending) brothers; and fear Allah, that ye may receive
Mercy (Surah 49:10).

Hence, both the family and the community have since the beginning of Islam been important
elements of a Muslim’s life. Most Muslim communities hold a congregation for the daily prayers
at the mosque. The Friday prayer (salah al-Jumu’ah) including the two sermons (khutbah) plays
a very important role in Muslim communities; usually the mosque is full for the Friday prayers
so it is a great opportunity to educate those attending about Islamic issues as well as to raise
issues affecting the local and global community. The Islamic festivals (‘idd) are celebrated with
the family as well as the community. The ‘idd prayers are held at the mosque and some

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communities organise a whole day of activities for the whole family. Weddings and funerals are
important times for the community to come together. In weddings, there may be Qur’an
recitation, supplications, poems and Islamic songs (nashid, sing.). In funerals, everyone joins the
prayer of the deceased. As the first night in the grave is known to be the most difficult night for
the deceased, the members of the Shi’ah community usually recite individually after the evening
prayer a special prayer called salah al-wahshah which is performed the night of the burial as it is
known to reduce the suffering in the grave. ‘Sunday schools’ are run now in most communities
to teach children about their faith and to have a sense of belonging.

Many Muslims nowadays live in multi-ethnic multi-faith communities. For these Muslims, to
belong to a community is vital as it helps stay strong in their faith and to keep an Islamic way of
life. This becomes even more important as in today’s climate as Islam has been in the spotlight
for different reasons. Some Muslims might feel a sense of insecurity as they may be directly or
indirectly affected by some extremists’ actions in the name of Islam. Therefore, belonging to a
community offers them security and comfort.

One of the most powerful experiences of what it means to belong to the Islamic faith tradition is
the annual Hajj. Muslims gather from every corner of the world, with every ethnic group, every
nationality, every language represented, one truly experiences the depth and breadth of what it
means to belong to the Ummah of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). It is a point at which one is
touched by Tawhid at its deepest level – not just the Oneness of God but the witnessing of
Oneness of humanity too. The stories of Hajj are brought back home by the Hajji, a memory, a
reminder, to the community of his journey in the footsteps of the Prophet and his great ancestors
– Adam, Abraham, Ishmael and Hagar. It is an affirmation of Islamic beliefs, history, and the
realization and fulfilment of the primordial covenant of Alastu bi Rabbikum (Q. 7:172) and the
link between the local and global community of Muslims.

9.0 MUSLIM DIVERSITY

Muhammad defined Islam as constituting three dimensions; Islam, Iman, Ihsan. Traditionally:

 Islam is reflected by the Madhahibs (religious schools) – Shafi’i, Hanafi, Maliki and
Hanbali.

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  Iman is dialectical theology and the major schools are Ashari and Maturidi.
 Ihsan is Tawasuf or Sufism, containing numerous Sufi tariqas (orders), the main ones
being Naqshbandi, Qadari, Chishti and Shadhili.

There is a difference of opinion between the two main sects in Islam (Sunni and Shi’ah) as
regards the succession of Muhammad.

The Sunni hold the companions (ashab) of Muhammad in high regard and consider the first four
as the rightly guided Successors-Caliphs (Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali).

The Shi’ah Muslims believe that the first legitimate successor is Imam ‘Ali, as they believe he
was chosen by God as opposed to being elected by the people.

‘Aishah, daughter of Abu Bakr and one of the wives of Muhammad is the one who shaped Sunni
Islam. She is held in very high esteem by Sunnis.

Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad and wife of Imam ‘Ali (the cousin and son-in-law of
Muhammad, shaped Shi’ah Islam. Imam Hussein, the third Shi’ah Imam is considered,
particularly by Shi’ah Muslims, as the saviour of Islam who sacrificed his life for the faith along
with some of his family members and companions.

In Shi’ah Islam the major group is Jafari or twelvers, named after Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (d.765).
They follow the twelve Imams, all descendants of Imam Ali (d. 661) and Fatima (d. 633). Other
groups dispute the right of succession and therefore two other main groups emerged – the Zaydis
or Fivers, named after Imam Zayd ibn Ali (d. 740) and the Isma’ilis or Seveners, named after
Imam Muhammad ibn Isma’il.

A number of reform movements have emerged since then. In the next chapter therefore, we are
going to carefully look at the Islamic Sects (Different Streams of Islam): Sunnis, Suffis, Shi’ites,
Wahhabis and the Kharijites.

10.0 ISLAMIC SECTS (DIFFERENT STREAMS OF ISLAM): SUNNIS, SUFFIS,

SHI’ITES, WAHHABIS AND THE KHARIJITES

10.1 Sunni and Shia Islam

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The division between Sunni and Shia Islam is one of the most significant and enduring schisms
in the history of the Islamic world. This split originated from a complex mix of political, social,
and theological factors in the early years of Islam, following the death of the Prophet
Muhammad in 632 CE. The resulting divisions have shaped the political and religious landscape
of the Muslim world for over a millennium.

10.1.1 The Death of the Prophet Muhammad and the Succession Crisis

The origins of the Sunni-Shia split can be traced back to the immediate aftermath of the death of
the Prophet Muhammad, who left no explicit instructions regarding his succession. As the leader
of the nascent Muslim community, Muhammad was both a spiritual guide and a political ruler,
and his death created an urgent need for a new leader to guide the community.

The first major point of contention arose over who should succeed Muhammad as the leader, or
caliph, of the Muslim community. A group of Muhammad's closest companions gathered at
Saqifah, a meeting place in Medina, to discuss the issue. After considerable debate, Abu Bakr,
one of Muhammad's closest companions and father-in-law, was chosen as the first caliph. Abu
Bakr was a respected figure known for his piety and close association with the Prophet, and his
election was supported by many of the Prophet's companions.

However, not everyone in the Muslim community agreed with this decision. A faction believed
that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor. Ali had
been a loyal supporter of Muhammad from the earliest days of Islam and was married to the
Prophet's daughter, Fatimah. His supporters argued that Muhammad had indicated, on several
occasions, his preference for Ali to lead the community, particularly at the Event of Ghadir
Khumm, where Muhammad is reported to have said, "For whoever I am his Mawla, Ali is his
Mawla." The term "Mawla" has been interpreted variously as "leader," "protector," or "friend,"
leading to differing opinions on its significance.

Despite these claims, Abu Bakr's appointment as caliph was accepted by the majority of the
Muslim community, marking the beginning of the Sunni tradition. Sunni Muslims believed that
the caliphate should be determined by consensus (shura) and the merits of the individual, rather
than by lineage alone. This principle would guide the selection of the next three caliphs—Umar
ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and finally, Ali ibn Abi Talib.

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10.1.2 The First Fitna and the Rise of Shia Islam

The seeds of the Sunni-Shia divide were sown during the caliphates of the third and fourth
caliphs, Uthman and Ali. Uthman's caliphate (644–656 CE) was marked by widespread
discontent due to allegations of nepotism, corruption, and mismanagement. These tensions
culminated in Uthman's assassination by disgruntled rebels in 656 CE, an event that led to a
significant crisis in the Muslim community.

Following Uthman's death, Ali was finally chosen as the fourth caliph. However, his caliphate
was immediately challenged by a faction led by Aisha, the Prophet's widow, and Mu'awiyah ibn
Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman. The resulting conflict, known as the
First Fitna (656–661 CE), was the first civil war in Islamic history and marked a turning point in
the Sunni-Shia split.

The Battle of Camel in 656 CE, where Ali's forces fought against those led by Aisha, and the
Battle of Siffin in 657 CE, against Mu'awiyah's forces, were key events in this conflict. The latter
battle ended in arbitration, which many of Ali's supporters saw as a betrayal, leading to further
divisions. The group that opposed Ali's decision to accept arbitration eventually formed the
Kharijites, a radical sect that rejected both Sunni and Shia claims.

Ali's caliphate ended in 661 CE when he was assassinated by a Kharijite. His death marked the
end of the Rashidun (Rightly Guided) Caliphate and the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate
under Mu'awiyah, who established a hereditary monarchy. Ali's supporters, however, continued
to view him as the rightful leader, and they maintained that the leadership of the Muslim
community should remain within the Prophet's family, specifically through Ali and his
descendants. This belief is the cornerstone of Shia Islam.

10.1.3 The Martyrdom of Husayn and the Consolidation of Shia Identity

The most defining moment in the solidification of Shia identity occurred in 680 CE with the
martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the son of Ali and the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, at the
Battle of Karbala. Husayn had refused to pledge allegiance to Yazid, the son of Mu'awiyah and
the second Umayyad caliph, who many in the Muslim community viewed as an illegitimate ruler
due to his perceived impiety and the Umayyads' controversial rule.

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Husayn, along with a small group of his family members and supporters, was besieged and
brutally killed by Yazid's forces in Karbala, in present-day Iraq. This event is commemorated
every year during the month of Muharram, particularly on the day of Ashura, as a day of
mourning and reflection for Shia Muslims. The martyrdom of Husayn became a symbol of
resistance against tyranny and injustice, and it further galvanized the Shia community around the
belief in the righteousness of the Prophet's family, or Ahl al-Bayt.

The tragedy of Karbala deepened the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, as the Shia began
to emphasize the spiritual and moral authority of the Imams—descendants of Ali and Fatimah—
whom they believed were divinely appointed to lead the Muslim community. The Sunni
majority, on the other hand, continued to uphold the legitimacy of the caliphs who were chosen
by consensus or political power, even if they were not from the Prophet's family.

10.1.4 Theological Differences and the Development of Sunni and Shia Islam

As the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam developed over time, they articulated distinct
theological and legal doctrines, though both share the same core beliefs in the oneness of God,
the prophethood of Muhammad, and the importance of the Quran and Hadith.

Sunni Islam: Sunni Muslims, who make up the majority of the Muslim population, believe in
the primacy of the community in determining leadership and religious authority. The Sunni
tradition emphasizes the importance of the consensus of the community (ijma) and the
application of reason (qiyas) in interpreting Islamic law. Sunni jurisprudence developed through
four main schools of thought: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali, each offering slightly
different approaches to legal and theological questions.

Shia Islam: Shia Muslims, who constitute a significant minority, especially in countries like
Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, believe that leadership of the Muslim community should have remained
within the Prophet's family, specifically through the line of Ali. The Shia tradition holds that the
Imams—beginning with Ali and continuing through his descendants—possess divine knowledge
and are infallible guides for the community. The largest Shia branch is the Twelvers (Ithna
Ashariyyah), who believe in a line of twelve Imams, the last of whom, Imam Mahdi, is believed

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to be in occultation and will return as the savior of humanity. Other Shia branches include the
Ismailis and the Zaidis, each with its own interpretations of leadership and succession.

Different Approaches to Authority and Rituals: Sunnis generally emphasize the authority of
the Quran and Hadith as interpreted by scholars and the community, whereas Shias place a
strong emphasis on the authority of the Imams and their interpretation of Islamic teachings.
Additionally, certain rituals and practices, such as the commemoration of Ashura, the veneration
of saints, and the role of religious scholars (such as the Ayatollahs in Shia Islam), are more
pronounced in Shia communities.

10.2 Sufism

Sufi Islam, often referred to simply as Sufism, represents the mystical dimension of Islam,
focusing on the inward search for God and the cultivation of the soul. Rooted in the broader
Islamic tradition, Sufism emphasizes personal experience of the Divine, transcending the
formalism of ritual and doctrine to embrace a more intimate, spiritual connection with God. Over
the centuries, Sufism has developed into a rich and diverse tradition, influencing Islamic thought,
art, literature, and culture.

Sufism emerged in the early centuries of Islam, with its roots traceable to the life and teachings
of the Prophet Muhammad, who is considered the quintessential model of spiritual conduct by
Sufis. The term "Sufi" is believed to derive from the Arabic word "suf," meaning wool,
referencing the simple woolen garments worn by early Muslim ascetics who renounced worldly
comforts in their quest for spiritual purity.

During the first few centuries of Islam, particularly after the rapid expansion of the Islamic
empire, there was growing concern among certain devout Muslims that the community was
becoming too absorbed in worldly affairs, losing sight of the spiritual essence of Islam. In
response, a number of early mystics, such as Hasan al-Basri (642–728 CE) and Rabia al-
Adawiyya (713–801 CE), began advocating for a return to the inner life of piety, humility, and
devotion to God. These early figures laid the groundwork for what would later be recognized as
Sufism, emphasizing the love of God, asceticism, and the importance of sincere devotion over
outward rituals.

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By the 9th and 10th centuries, Sufism had begun to coalesce into a more defined spiritual path,
with the development of Sufi orders (known as tariqas) and the articulation of key mystical
concepts. One of the most influential early Sufi theorists was Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE),
whose works helped reconcile Sufism with orthodox Islamic theology, ensuring its place within
mainstream Islamic thought. Al-Ghazali's synthesis of Islamic law, theology, and mysticism
provided a framework for understanding the spiritual journey, influencing generations of
Muslims.

At the heart of Sufi Islam is the belief that the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve a direct
and personal experience of God. This experience, often described in terms of love, union, or
annihilation in the Divine, is considered the highest form of knowledge and the true purpose of
existence. To attain this state, Sufis engage in a variety of spiritual practices designed to purify
the heart, detach from worldly distractions, and draw closer to God.

Tawhid (Unity of God): Sufis emphasize the concept of tawhid, the oneness and unity of God,
not only as a theological doctrine but as an experiential reality. For Sufis, realizing tawhid means
recognizing the Divine presence in all aspects of life and transcending the illusion of separation
between the self and the Divine.

Ihsan (Spiritual Excellence): The Quranic concept of ihsan—worshipping God as though one
sees Him—is central to Sufi practice. This involves cultivating a constant awareness of God's
presence, leading to a life of moral integrity, compassion, and devotion.

Dhikr (Remembrance of God): A key practice in Sufism is dhikr, the continuous remembrance
of God through the repetition of His names, phrases, or prayers. Dhikr can be performed silently
or aloud, individually or in groups, and is often accompanied by rhythmic movements or music.
It serves to focus the mind and heart on God, facilitating spiritual awakening.

Muraqaba (Meditation): Muraqaba is a meditative practice in which the Sufi contemplates the
Divine presence, seeking to quiet the mind and open the heart to direct experience of God.
Through muraqaba, Sufis aim to cultivate inner stillness and awareness of the Divine within
themselves.

Sama (Listening): In many Sufi traditions, music and poetry play a significant role in spiritual
practice. Sama refers to the practice of listening to spiritual music, poetry, or recitations, often

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accompanied by dance (such as the whirling of the Mevlevi order). Sama is seen as a means of
transcending the ego and experiencing the Divine through the arts.

Fana and Baqa: The concepts of fana (annihilation) and baqa (subsistence) describe the stages
of spiritual realization in Sufism. Fana refers to the annihilation of the self in the presence of
God, where the individual's ego and sense of separateness are dissolved. Baqa represents the
state of enduring in God, where the individual, having transcended the ego, continues to live in
the world with a deep sense of Divine presence.

Sufism spread rapidly throughout the Islamic world from the 12th century onward, becoming a
major force in Islamic spirituality and culture. The establishment of Sufi orders (tariqas) played a
crucial role in this expansion. These orders were often centered around charismatic leaders, or
shaykhs, who guided their followers (known as murids) along the spiritual path. The tariqas
provided not only spiritual guidance but also social and communal support, contributing to the
spread of Islam in regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent,
and Southeast Asia.

One of the most prominent Sufi orders is the Qadiriyya, founded by Abdul Qadir al-Jilani (1077–
1166 CE) in Baghdad. Known for its emphasis on piety, charity, and service to humanity, the
Qadiriyya became widespread, influencing Islamic practice in many parts of the world.

Another influential order is the Chishti order, which played a key role in the spread of Islam in
the Indian subcontinent. The Chishti order, known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and
inclusivity, attracted large numbers of followers and became deeply intertwined with the cultural
and spiritual life of the region.

Sufi literature, particularly poetry, has also had a profound impact on Islamic culture. Poets such
as Rumi (1207–1273 CE), Hafez (1325–1389 CE), and Ibn Arabi (1165–1240 CE) expressed the
mystical dimensions of Islam in verses that continue to resonate with both Muslims and non-
Muslims alike. Their works explore themes of Divine love, the inner journey, and the paradoxes
of spiritual life, offering a rich tapestry of mystical insight.

10.3 Wahhabism

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Wahhabism, a conservative and puritanical movement within Islam, has played a significant role
in shaping the religious, social, and political landscape of the Arabian Peninsula and the broader
Islamic world. Originating in the 18th century, Wahhabism was founded by the theologian
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and has since become closely associated with the ruling family
of Saudi Arabia, the Al Saud.

The Arabian Peninsula in the 18th century was a region marked by tribal rivalries, political
fragmentation, and a perceived decline in religious observance. The Islamic world at the time
was dominated by large empires such as the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the
Mughal Empire, all of which were seen by some as having strayed from the original teachings of
Islam, incorporating various local customs, practices, and interpretations that were viewed by
purists as innovations (bid’ah).

It was within this context that Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), born in the region
of Najd in central Arabia, began his religious mission. Abd al-Wahhab was deeply influenced by
the teachings of earlier Islamic scholars, particularly those of the medieval theologian Ibn
Taymiyyah (1263–1328), who had advocated for a return to what he viewed as the pure, original
form of Islam practiced by the Prophet Muhammad and his companions.

Abd al-Wahhab believed that many of the practices and beliefs prevalent in his time, such as the
veneration of saints, the use of amulets, and the construction of shrines, were corruptions of true
Islam. He saw these practices as forms of shirk (associating partners with God), which is strictly
prohibited in Islam. Determined to reform the Muslim community, Abd al-Wahhab began
preaching a message of strict monotheism, calling for the elimination of all practices that he
considered innovations or deviations from the Quran and the Sunnah (the practices of the
Prophet).

One of the most significant developments in the spread of Wahhabism was the alliance formed
between Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud (d. 1765), the leader of a
powerful local tribe in the region of Diriyah. This alliance, forged around 1744, was based on a
mutual interest in establishing a political and religious order rooted in the principles of
Wahhabism. Ibn Saud provided military and political support to Abd al-Wahhab’s mission, while
Abd al-Wahhab offered religious legitimacy to Ibn Saud’s leadership.

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This partnership marked the beginning of a new political-religious entity, which would later
evolve into the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The combination of religious fervor and
military strength allowed the Wahhabi movement to expand rapidly across the Arabian
Peninsula. The followers of Wahhabism, known as Muwahhidun (those who profess the oneness
of God), launched a series of military campaigns aimed at spreading their interpretation of Islam
and purging the region of practices they deemed un-Islamic.

Throughout the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Wahhabi-Saudi alliance succeeded in
establishing control over large parts of the Arabian Peninsula, including the holy cities of Mecca
and Medina. This expansion brought the Wahhabis into conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which
viewed the movement as a challenge to its authority. The Ottomans, with the help of their
Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali, eventually defeated the Wahhabi forces in 1818, temporarily
curtailing their influence. However, the Wahhabi-Saudi alliance would re-emerge later in the
19th century, culminating in the establishment of the modern Saudi state in the early 20th
century.

10.3.1 Core Beliefs and Tenets of Wahhabism

Wahhabism is characterized by its strict interpretation of Islamic theology, particularly its

emphasis on Tawhid (the oneness of God) and the rejection of any practices that might be seen
as compromising this principle. Some of the key tenets of Wahhabism include:

Puritanical Monotheism: Wahhabism places a strong emphasis on Tawhid, rejecting any

practices that are seen as polytheistic or idolatrous. This includes the veneration of saints,
pilgrimages to tombs or shrines, and the use of intermediaries in prayer. Wahhabis believe that
such practices detract from the direct relationship between the individual and God.

Rejection of Bid’ah (Innovations): Wahhabism is opposed to any religious practices or beliefs

that were not part of the original teachings of Islam as practiced by the Prophet Muhammad and
his companions. This includes certain Sufi practices, the celebration of the Prophet’s birthday
(Mawlid), and other customs that developed over time in various parts of the Islamic world.

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Literal Interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah: Wahhabism advocates for a literalist
approach to interpreting the Quran and the Hadith (the sayings and actions of the Prophet). This
often results in a rigid and conservative application of Islamic law (Sharia), with a strong
emphasis on the outward observance of religious duties.

Religious and Moral Vigilance: Wahhabism encourages its followers to be vigilant in

maintaining religious purity and to actively combat practices that are seen as contrary to true
Islam. This has historically led to the destruction of tombs, shrines, and other religious sites
associated with practices deemed un-Islamic.

10.3.2 The Establishment of Saudi Arabia and the Global Spread of Wahhabism

The 20th century saw the formal establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under the
leadership of Abdulaziz ibn Saud (Ibn Saud), who unified the Arabian Peninsula through a
combination of military conquest and tribal alliances. The new Saudi state adopted Wahhabism
as its official religious ideology, and the ulama (religious scholars) who adhered to Wahhabi
teachings were granted significant influence over the state’s religious and legal institutions.

The discovery of vast oil reserves in Saudi Arabia in the 1930s transformed the kingdom into one
of the wealthiest nations in the world, providing it with the resources to promote Wahhabism on
a global scale. The Saudi government used its wealth to fund the construction of mosques,
religious schools (madrasas), and Islamic centers around the world, disseminating Wahhabi
teachings far beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

This global spread of Wahhabism has had a profound impact on Islamic communities in various
regions, particularly in countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and parts of Africa and Southeast
Asia. Wahhabi-inspired movements have often been associated with a more conservative, strict,
and sometimes militant interpretation of Islam, contributing to the rise of various Islamist groups
and ideologies.

10.4 The Kharijites

The early years of Islam were marked by significant political and theological developments that
shaped the trajectory of the Muslim world. Among the most influential and controversial groups
that emerged during this formative period were the Kharijites. Originating in the 7th century CE,

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the Kharijites played a pivotal role in early Islamic politics and theology, leaving a legacy that
continues to be studied and debated by scholars today.

The Kharijite movement traces its roots to the first Islamic civil war, known as the First Fitna
(656–661 CE), which arose from disputes over leadership and governance following the death of
the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan. The conflict primarily pitted Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth
caliph and cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, against Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the
governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman who sought to avenge his death.

The decisive moment leading to the emergence of the Kharijites occurred during the Battle of
Siffin in 657 CE. As the battle reached a stalemate, Mu'awiyah's forces called for arbitration by
raising copies of the Quran on their spears, appealing to divine judgment to resolve the conflict.
Ali agreed to arbitration, a decision that displeased a faction within his own army who believed
that human arbitration in matters already decided by God was unacceptable. This dissenting
group seceded from Ali's camp, forming what became known as the Kharijites, derived from the
Arabic word "khawarij," meaning "those who go out" or "secede."

The Kharijites developed a distinct set of theological and political beliefs characterized by strict
adherence to their interpretation of Islamic principles and an uncompromising stance on justice
and morality. Central to Kharijite doctrine were the following tenets:

Absolute Equality and Meritocracy: The Kharijites believed that the most pious and righteous
individual should lead the Muslim community, regardless of lineage or ethnicity. They rejected
the notion of privileged status based on tribal or familial connections, asserting that leadership
should be determined solely by one's adherence to Islamic principles.

Strict Moral Rigorism: They advocated for a puritanical approach to Islamic law and morality,
emphasizing strict compliance with religious duties and ethical conduct. Any deviation from
their stringent interpretation was considered a grave sin.

Doctrine of Takfir: The Kharijites were known for declaring other Muslims who committed
major sins or deviated from their beliefs as apostates (kafir). This excommunication extended to
justifying violence against those they deemed unfaithful, including assassination and rebellion
against perceived unjust rulers.

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Rejection of Arbitration in Divine Matters: Stemming from their origin, the Kharijites
opposed human arbitration in matters they believed were already decreed by God, insisting that
judgment belongs solely to the divine.

Following their secession, the Kharijites became actively involved in armed rebellion against
established authorities, leading to several significant conflicts:

Battle of Nahrawan (658 CE): Shortly after their formation, the Kharijites posed a substantial
threat to Ali's caliphate by engaging in violent acts against both Muslims and non-Muslims who
did not conform to their beliefs. In response, Ali led his forces against them in the Battle of
Nahrawan, resulting in a decisive victory for Ali and heavy casualties among the Kharijites.
However, this did not eliminate the movement, which continued to persist and reorganize.

Assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib (661 CE): In retaliation and as part of their broader
campaign against leaders they viewed as illegitimate, a Kharijite named Abdul Rahman ibn
Muljam assassinated Ali while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa. This act had profound
implications, leading to the end of the Rashidun Caliphate and the rise of the Umayyad Dynasty
under Mu'awiyah.

Continued Rebellions during the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: Throughout the
subsequent Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258 CE) periods, various Kharijite
factions staged numerous revolts across the Islamic empire, particularly in regions like Iraq,
Arabia, North Africa, and Persia. These uprisings were often brutally suppressed but underscored
ongoing tensions over issues of justice, governance, and religious authority.

10.4.1 Legacy and Impact of the Kharijites

The Kharijite movement's legacy is multifaceted, influencing Islamic thought, politics, and
jurisprudence in various ways:

Theological Contributions: The debates and conflicts involving the Kharijites prompted deeper
theological discussions on issues such as faith, sin, governance, and justice within the Islamic
tradition. Their strict interpretations challenged other scholars and schools of thought to
articulate more nuanced positions on these matters.

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Political Implications: The Kharijites' insistence on moral integrity and accountability in
leadership set early precedents for political dissent and opposition in Islamic history. Their
actions highlighted the tensions between religious ideals and political realities, contributing to
ongoing discourse on legitimate governance and the role of the community in holding leaders
accountable.

Influence on Subsequent Movements: Elements of Kharijite ideology, particularly regarding

takfir and militant activism, have been echoed in various extremist movements throughout
Islamic history. Contemporary analyses often draw parallels between historical Kharijites and
modern extremist groups, although such comparisons are subject to debate and require careful
contextual consideration.

Cultural and Social Impact: In regions where Ibadi Islam persists, such as Oman, the Kharijite
legacy has contributed to unique cultural and social practices that reflect their emphasis on
community cohesion, justice, and piety. These communities have often played important roles in
regional trade, politics, and cultural exchange.

11.0 CHRISTIAN MISSION IN THE CONTEXT OF ISLAM: AREAS OF CHRISTIAN-

MUSLIM RELATIONS IN THE COMMUNITY/ CHRISTIAN-MUSLIM DIALOGUE

The relationship between Christianity and Islam, two of the world's largest and most influential
religions, is multifaceted, marked by periods of conflict, cooperation, and mutual respect. This is
because Christianity and Islam are missionary religions. Christian missions have historically
played a significant role in the spread of Christianity across the globe. In the context of Islam,
Christian missions have often been a source of both tension and dialogue, as they have navigated
complex religious, cultural, and political landscapes.

Christian missions have a long history of engagement with Islamic societies, dating back to the
early centuries of Islam. The expansion of Islam across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts
of Europe during the early Islamic conquests brought Muslims into contact with established
Christian communities. While these encounters were sometimes marked by conflict, there were
also significant periods of coexistence and intellectual exchange, particularly during the Golden
Age of Islam.

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During the colonial era, Christian missionary activity increased significantly, especially in Africa
and Asia, where European powers often used missions as a tool of cultural and religious
influence. In predominantly Muslim regions, Christian missionaries faced significant challenges,
including resistance from local populations and the complexities of navigating Islamic law,
which often restricted proselytizing activities. Despite these challenges, Christian missions
persisted, establishing schools, hospitals, and social services, which sometimes led to
conversions, but more often to the provision of services that benefited both Christian and Muslim
communities.

11.1 Christian-Muslim Relations in the Community: Tensions and Cooperation

Christian-Muslim relations within communities have varied widely depending on the historical,
cultural, and political context. In some regions, Christian missions have been viewed with
suspicion and hostility, particularly when they are perceived as instruments of Western
imperialism or as a threat to Islamic identity. This has led to tensions, social fragmentation, and
sometimes outright conflict between Christian and Muslim communities.

One significant area of tension has been the issue of religious conversion. In many Muslim-
majority countries, converting from Islam to another religion, including Christianity, is seen as
apostasy, which can have severe social and legal consequences. Christian missions that actively
seek converts in these regions often face accusations of undermining social cohesion and
violating religious norms. This has sometimes resulted in legal restrictions on missionary
activities, as well as social ostracism or violence against converts.

However, Christian missions have also contributed to positive Christian-Muslim relations by

providing essential services such as education, healthcare, and humanitarian aid. In many cases,
these services have been offered to all members of the community, regardless of religious
affiliation, which has fostered goodwill and cooperation between Christians and Muslims. For
example, Christian hospitals and schools in Muslim-majority countries have often been respected
institutions that serve the entire community, helping to build bridges of understanding and
mutual respect.

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In regions where Christians and Muslims have lived together for centuries, there are numerous
examples of peaceful coexistence and cooperation. In such contexts, Christian missions have
often adapted their approaches to be more sensitive to local Islamic traditions and practices,
emphasizing common values and shared concerns, such as poverty alleviation, education, and
social justice. This has allowed for the development of a more nuanced and respectful
relationship between Christian and Muslim communities, despite the underlying religious
differences.

11.2 Christian-Muslim Dialogue: Opportunities and Challenges

Christian-Muslim dialogue is a vital aspect of the relationship between the two religions,
especially in the context of Christian missions. Dialogue offers an opportunity for both
Christians and Muslims to engage with each other's beliefs, practices, and values in a way that
promotes mutual understanding and respect. Over the past few decades, there has been a growing
recognition of the importance of interfaith dialogue as a means of reducing tensions, preventing
conflict, and fostering peaceful coexistence.

One of the key opportunities for Christian-Muslim dialogue lies in the shared values and
common ground between the two faiths. Both Christianity and Islam emphasize the importance
of monotheism, moral and ethical living, charity, and the pursuit of justice. These shared values
provide a strong foundation for dialogue, enabling Christians and Muslims to work together on
issues of mutual concern, such as poverty, social justice, environmental stewardship, and
peacebuilding.

Organizations such as the Programme for Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa (PROCMURA)

have been at the forefront of promoting Christian-Muslim Relations. These efforts have included
joint statements on issues of common concern, conferences, and educational initiatives aimed at
improving relations between the two communities.

However, there are also significant challenges to Christian-Muslim dialogue, particularly when it
comes to theological differences and historical grievances. The exclusivist claims of both
religions—Christianity's belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Islam's rejection of this concept—
pose fundamental theological barriers that can be difficult to reconcile. Additionally, historical

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conflicts, such as the Crusades, Jihad and colonialism, have left lasting scars that continue to
influence perceptions and attitudes on both sides.

11.3 The Role of Religious Leaders and Institutions

Religious leaders and institutions play a crucial role in shaping Christian-Muslim relations and
promoting dialogue. Leaders who are committed to interfaith understanding can help to bridge
the gap between the two communities by emphasizing the common values and goals that unite
them. For example, the efforts of Pope Francis in promoting Christian-Muslim dialogue have
been widely recognized, particularly his visits to Muslim-majority countries and his emphasis on
peace, coexistence, and mutual respect.

Islamic leaders and scholars have also been instrumental in fostering dialogue. Figures such as
the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, have engaged in high-profile meetings
with Christian leaders and have participated in joint declarations that emphasize the importance
of interfaith harmony. These efforts are crucial in setting a positive tone for Christian-Muslim
relations at the grassroots level, where the impact of religious teachings and leadership is most
keenly felt.

Educational institutions also play a vital role in promoting understanding and reducing
misconceptions. Universities, seminaries, and madrasas that offer courses on comparative
religion, interfaith studies, and conflict resolution contribute to the development of a new
generation of religious leaders and scholars who are equipped to engage in meaningful dialogue.
These institutions can help to dismantle stereotypes and promote a more nuanced understanding
of both Christianity and Islam.

Another challenge is the diversity within both Christianity and Islam. Both religions encompass a
wide range of beliefs, practices, and interpretations, which can complicate dialogue efforts. In
Islam, the Sunni-Shia divide, as well as the varying interpretations of Sharia, can lead to
differing perspectives on Christian-Muslim relations. Similarly, within Christianity, the diversity
of denominations and theological perspectives means that there is no single Christian voice in
dialogue with Muslims.

12.0 DAW’AH (ISLAMIC MISSION/EVANGELISM)

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Daw’ah, an Arabic term meaning "invitation" refers to the act of inviting others to Islam. It is a
core component of the Islamic faith, where Muslims are encouraged to spread the teachings of
Islam to both Muslims and non-Muslims. Rooted in the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the teachings
and practices of the Prophet Muhammad), Daw’ah is not merely an act of evangelism but is a
holistic approach to spreading the message of Islam with wisdom, patience, and compassion.

The concept of Daw’ah is deeply embedded in the Qur'an. Verses such as Surah An-Nahl
(16:125) emphasize inviting others to the way of Allah with wisdom and good instruction. The
Qur'an positions Daw’ah as an essential duty for Muslims, stressing the importance of conveying
the message of Islam to all humanity. The Prophet Muhammad himself is considered the prime
example of this practice, as his life was dedicated to spreading the message of Islam. His
methods, characterized by compassion, patience, and understanding, are seen as the ideal model
for Muslims to emulate.

The primary objective of Daw’ah is to spread the message of Islam, guiding individuals toward
the truth of monotheism (Tawhid), the worship of Allah alone, and adherence to the teachings
revealed in the Quran and exemplified by the Prophet Muhammad. It is not only about
converting non-Muslims but also about strengthening the faith of Muslims and encouraging them
to live according to Islamic principles.

Daw’ah serves multiple purposes, including:

Propagation of Islam: Introducing non-Muslims to the core beliefs and practices of Islam,
clarifying misconceptions, and inviting them to embrace the faith.

Education and Reminders: Educating Muslims about their religion, reminding them of their
duties, and encouraging spiritual growth and adherence to Islamic values.

Building a Just Society: Promoting ethical behavior, social justice, and moral values within
society, based on Islamic teachings.

Strengthening the Muslim Community: Fostering unity and solidarity among Muslims,
encouraging mutual support, and addressing challenges facing the community.

12.1 Methodologies of Daw’ah

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Personal Interaction: One of the commonly used methods of Daw’ah among Muslims is
through personal interaction, where Muslims engage in dialogue with non-Muslims or fellow
Muslims, sharing the message of Islam in a sincere and respectful manner. This approach allows
for direct communication, addressing specific questions and concerns.

Public Preaching: Public preaching, whether through sermons (khutbahs), lectures, or public
speaking events, has been a traditional method of Daw’ah. It allows for the dissemination of
Islamic teachings to larger audiences and is often employed during religious gatherings, Friday
prayers, and Islamic conferences.

Printed and Digital Media: In the modern era, Daw’ah has expanded to include the use of
printed materials such as books, pamphlets, and brochures, as well as digital media like websites,
social media platforms, and online videos. These tools enable the message of Islam to reach a
global audience, breaking down geographical barriers.

Social and Charitable Work: Engaging in social and charitable work is another form of
Daw’ah, where Muslims demonstrate the values of Islam through their actions. By helping those
in need, promoting social justice, and contributing to the welfare of society, Muslims can attract
others to the faith by embodying its principles.

Interfaith Dialogue: Interfaith dialogue is a method of Daw’ah that involves engaging in

constructive conversations with people of other faiths. This approach fosters mutual
understanding, dispels misconceptions, and promotes peaceful coexistence, while also providing
an opportunity to share Islamic teachings.

12.0 WITNESSING TO MUSLIMS IN PRACTICE: PRAYERS, OUR ATTITUDE, OUR

APPROACH

Christian witness to Muslims is a complex and nuanced endeavor that requires a deep
understanding of both faiths, cultural sensitivity, and a commitment to embodying the love and
teachings of Christ. The practice of witnessing to Muslims involves not just the sharing of the
Gospel message but also the manner in which this message is conveyed—through prayer,
attitude, and approach.

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Prayer is the foundation of Christian witness, particularly when engaging with Muslims. It serves
as the spiritual preparation that undergirds all efforts to share the Gospel, reflecting a reliance on
the Holy Spirit for guidance, wisdom, and the softening of hearts. In witnessing to Muslims,
prayer takes on several dimensions:

Intercessory Prayer: Christians are called to intercede on behalf of Muslims, praying for their
well-being, their openness to the Gospel, and their spiritual journey. Intercessory prayer
acknowledges that the work of conversion is ultimately God’s, not the result of human effort
alone. It is an expression of love and concern for the spiritual welfare of Muslims, asking God to
reveal His truth to them.

Personal Prayer: Personal prayer is essential for the Christian witness, as it nurtures a deep,
personal relationship with God, from which all witness flows. Praying for wisdom, patience, and
a loving heart prepares the Christian to engage in conversations with Muslims in a manner that
reflects the character of Christ.

Praying for Opportunities: Christians are encouraged to pray for opportunities to share the
Gospel with Muslims. These opportunities may arise in everyday interactions, in moments of
need, or in deep conversations about faith. By praying for these opportunities, Christians remain
vigilant and responsive to the leading of the Holy Spirit.

Prayer for Unity: Given the historical and theological differences between Christianity and
Islam, prayer for unity and understanding is vital. It asks God to bridge the divides, fostering
mutual respect and peaceful dialogue, even when disagreements arise.

12.1 Attitude in Christian Witness to Muslims

The attitude with which Christians approach Muslims is as important as the message they seek to
share. A Christ-like attitude is characterized by love, humility, and respect—qualities that are
crucial in building trust and meaningful relationships.

Love and Compassion: Jesus taught His followers to love their neighbors as themselves (Mark
12:31), and this command extends to Muslims. A loving and compassionate attitude
demonstrates the genuine concern Christians have for the spiritual and temporal well-being of

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Muslims. This love is unconditional, not contingent on acceptance of the Gospel, and it reflects
the love of Christ, who reached out to all people.

Humility: Humility is essential in Christian witness, especially when engaging with Muslims
who may have strong convictions about their own faith. Recognizing that Christians do not have
all the answers and are also on a spiritual journey fosters a mutual respect that can open doors for
honest and open dialogue. Humility also means acknowledging the mistakes Christians have
made in history in relation to Muslims, fostering an environment of reconciliation.

Respect for Beliefs: Respecting the beliefs of Muslims, even when they differ significantly from
Christian teachings, is critical. This respect does not mean compromising the Christian message
but rather presenting it in a way that honors the dignity and sincerity of the Muslim’s faith. It
involves listening carefully, avoiding confrontational or dismissive language, and recognizing
the shared values between the two faiths.

Patience and Perseverance: Witnessing to Muslims often requires patience and perseverance,
as understanding and acceptance of the Gospel may take time. The process involves building
relationships, engaging in multiple conversations, and being willing to walk alongside Muslims
on their spiritual journey without pressuring them for immediate results.

12.2 Approach to Christian Witness to Muslims

The approach to witnessing to Muslims should be strategic, sensitive, and grounded in the
understanding of Islamic beliefs and culture. The following elements are key to an effective
approach:

Relational Approach: Building genuine relationships is at the heart of effective witness to

Muslims. Relationships based on trust, mutual respect, and shared experiences create a context in
which meaningful conversations about faith can take place. This approach prioritizes the person
over the agenda, focusing on friendship and understanding rather than just conversion.

Cultural Sensitivity: Understanding the cultural context in which Muslims live is crucial for
effective witness. This includes being aware of cultural norms, values, and practices, and
avoiding behaviors that may be perceived as disrespectful or offensive. For instance,

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understanding the importance of modesty, hospitality, and family in Islamic culture can help
Christians engage more effectively with Muslims.

Shared Common Ground: Identifying and building on common ground can facilitate dialogue
and understanding. Islam and Christianity share several beliefs, such as the belief in one God, the
importance of prayer, and the value of moral living. Starting conversations on these shared
beliefs can pave the way for deeper discussions about the differences and the unique message of
the Gospel.

Biblical and Theological Knowledge: Christians witnessing to Muslims should be well-versed

in both the Bible and basic Islamic teachings. This knowledge enables them to address questions
and objections with clarity and confidence, presenting the Christian faith in a way that resonates
with Muslims’ religious understanding. It also helps in correcting misconceptions Muslims may
have about Christianity.

Testimony and Personal Experience: Sharing personal testimonies of faith can be a powerful
tool in witnessing to Muslims. Personal stories of how Christ has impacted one’s life provide a
tangible and relatable expression of the Christian faith. These testimonies, when shared
authentically, can touch hearts and open up new avenues for dialogue.

Gentle Apologetics: While engaging in theological discussions, Christians may need to gently
defend their faith through apologetics. This defense should be conducted with gentleness and
respect (1 Peter 3:15), focusing on explaining the hope that Christians have in Christ rather than
attacking the beliefs of Muslims.

13.0 ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM IN AFRICA

Islamic fundamentalism in Africa has manifested in various forms, with some groups seeking to
impose strict interpretations of Sharia law through both political and violent means. This
phenomenon has had significant repercussions for African societies, particularly in regions
where Christian and Muslim communities intersect. Fundamentalist groups like Boko Haram and
Al-Shabaab have become prominent symbols of this struggle, causing profound impacts on local
populations and shaping perceptions among Christians and other non-Muslims.

13.1 Islamic Fundamentalist Groups in Africa

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Boko Haram

Boko Haram, founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria, is one of the most notorious Islamic
fundamentalist groups in Africa. The group's name, which translates to "Western education is
forbidden," reflects its opposition to Western influence and secularism. Boko Haram's agenda is
to establish an Islamic state governed by a strict interpretation of Sharia law.

Activities and Impact: Boko Haram's activities have included bombings, kidnappings, and
armed assaults. The group's most infamous act was the 2014 kidnapping of 276 schoolgirls in
Chibok, which drew international condemnation. Boko Haram’s violence has led to thousands of
deaths and the displacement of millions of people within Nigeria and neighboring countries.

Regional Implications: Boko Haram's insurgency has destabilized the Lake Chad Basin area,
affecting countries like Cameroon, Chad, and Niger. The group’s cross-border activities have led
to a regional humanitarian crisis, exacerbating existing tensions and creating a volatile
environment for both Muslim and Christian communities.

Al-Shabaab

Al-Shabaab, an Islamist militant group based in Somalia, emerged in the mid-2000s as a radical
offshoot of the Islamic Courts Union. The group seeks to establish an Islamic state in Somalia
and is known for its strict enforcement of Sharia law and its violent tactics.

Activities and Impact: Al-Shabaab has conducted numerous attacks in Somalia and neighboring
countries, including Kenya and Uganda. The group's tactics include bombings, assassinations,
and large-scale assaults on civilian and military targets.

Regional Implications: Al-Shabaab's influence extends beyond Somalia, affecting the Horn of
Africa region. The group has led to severe humanitarian crises, displacement of people, and
ongoing conflict in Somalia. Its attacks on Kenya have also intensified intercommunal tensions
and contributed to a sense of insecurity.

13.2 Christian Perceptions and Responses

The rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Africa has had a profound impact on Christian
communities, shaping their perceptions and responses in various ways:

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 1. Fear and Vulnerability: Christian communities in regions affected by Boko Haram and
Al-Shabaab often experience fear and vulnerability. The violence perpetrated by these
groups has targeted churches, Christian leaders, and individuals, leading to significant
loss of life and property. For instance, Boko Haram has attacked churches and Christian
villages, while Al-Shabaab has targeted Christian churches and organizations in Somalia
and Kenya.

Impact on Daily Life: In areas where these groups operate, Christians may face restrictions on
their religious practices, including the destruction of churches and forced conversions. The
pervasive fear of violence affects daily life, making it difficult for Christians to openly practice
their faith.

2. Community Solidarity and Resilience: In response to the threats posed by Islamic

fundamentalist groups, Christian communities have often shown remarkable solidarity
and resilience. Churches and Christian organizations in affected areas engage in various
forms of support for victims, including providing shelter, medical aid, and counseling.

Humanitarian Efforts: Many Christian organizations are involved in humanitarian efforts to

assist displaced individuals and communities affected by the violence. These efforts include
providing education, economic support, and psychological care to those impacted by the
conflicts.

Interfaith Dialogue: In some areas, Christians and Muslims have engaged in interfaith dialogue
and cooperation to address common challenges and promote peace. Such initiatives aim to build
bridges between communities and reduce the impact of fundamentalist violence.

3. Perceptions of Islam: The actions of groups like Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab have
influenced Christian perceptions of Islam, often leading to increased mistrust and
stereotyping of Muslims. The association of Islam with extremism, driven by the violent
actions of these groups, can lead to broader generalizations and increased interreligious
tension.

Challenges of Stereotyping: It is crucial to recognize that the actions of fundamentalist groups

do not represent the beliefs of the majority of Muslims. Many Muslims in Africa are also victims
of these groups and work towards peaceful coexistence with Christians.

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Efforts to Overcome Mistrust: Some Christian leaders and organizations actively work to
overcome mistrust and promote understanding between religious communities. These efforts
include joint peacebuilding initiatives, educational programs, and community outreach.

13.4 Government and International Responses

The response to Islamic fundamentalism in Africa has involved both national governments and
international actors. Governments in affected countries have implemented various strategies,
including military interventions, counterterrorism measures, and security enhancements.
However, these responses are often complicated by the political and socio-economic challenges
within the region.

Military and Security Measures: Governments in Nigeria, Somalia, and other affected
countries have engaged in military operations to combat Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab. Regional
collaborations, such as the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) in the Lake Chad Basin, aim
to address cross-border threats.

International Support: The international community has provided support through

humanitarian aid, counterterrorism assistance, and diplomatic efforts to address the root causes
of extremism. Organizations like the United Nations and various non-governmental
organizations play a crucial role in providing relief and supporting peacebuilding initiatives.

Course Work

1. Term Paper (Individual): "In what ways do Da’wah and Christian Evangelism share
common principles and strategies for engaging individuals in a religiously pluralistic
environment, and how can Christians effectively witness to the Gospel of Christ while
respecting diverse religious beliefs and fostering interfaith dialogue?"
2. Group Assignment: This assignment should be done in groups.

Group 1: “Critically analyze the importance of studying Islam as an evangelist. How does this
knowledge enhance your effectiveness in engaging with Muslim communities?"

Group 2: "In what ways do the lives of Muhammad the founder of Islam and Jesus Christ show
similarities and differences in their historical, religious, and ethical contexts? Critically analyze

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their respective roles, teachings, and impact on their followers, examining aspects such as their
birth, ministry, teachings, leadership, and legacy."

THE END

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