MJM-027

Theories, Models and Appeals

in Advertising

ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Journalism and New Media Studies

BLOCK

2
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Unit 6 : Camera - Types, Structure and 83
Functions
Unit 7 : Picture Composition 99
Unit 8 : Techniques of Photography 118
Unit 9 : Photo Editing 137

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 BLOCK INTRODUCTION :
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
This block has four units and it deals with different aspects of digital
photography. It talks about the structure, functioning and types of digital
still cameras. This block also focuses on the skill part of digital photography,
e.g., photographic composition, various photography techniques and photo
editing.
Unit 6: Camera: Types, Structure and Functions discusses the structure
and types of still cameras. It also describes the functioning of a digital still
camera. In this unit, you will find details of various accessories used with
still cameras.
Unit 7: Picture Composition describes how to structure a photograph.
It explains the importance of composition in photography. A photograph
is made up of different visual elements and these elements should be
organized by following certain rules. In this unit, various elements and rules
of composition are also discussed. The purpose of this unit is to improve
your photographic composition skills.
Unit 8: Techniques of Photography focuses on various controls and
elements of photography. It explains various important concepts of
photography such as exposure, depth of field, motion etc. In this unit, you
will learn about the role of aperture, shutter speed and ISO in photography.
This unit is aimed to improve your photography skills.
Unit 9: Photo Editing explains the entire process of photo editing. Photo
editing is an important activity of photography. This unit discusses the
evolution of photo editing. It describes the use of various features of a photo
editing software. In this unit, we shall also discuss ethical issues related to
photo editing in this digital era.
This is second block of the course. After reading it, you will go to the third
block (Audiovisual Production – I) which is focused on the different aspects
of audiovisual production.

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 Camera - Types, Structure and
UNIT 6 CAMERA - TYPES, STRUCTURE AND Functions
FUNCTIONS
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Learning Outcomes
6.2 What is a Camera?
6.3 Types of Digital Camera
6.3.1 Point and Shoot cameras
6.3.2 DSLR cameras
6.3.3 Mirrorless Cameras
6.4 Structure of a Camera
6.4.1 Lens
6.4.2 Body
6.5 Functions of a Camera
6.5.1 Functioning of DSLR Camera
6.5.2 How to Hold a Camera
6.5.3 Focus
6.5.4 Different Shooting Modes
6.5.5 White Balance
6.5.6 ISO
6.6 Camera Accessories
6.6.1 Tripod
6.6.2 Filters
6.6.3 Flash
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Key Words
6.9 Further Readings
6.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

6.0 INTRODUCTION
The word Photography has Greek roots, broken down to ‘Photo’ + ‘Graphe’,
which roughly means writing or drawing by light. Camera is nothing but
a tool that enables writing with the help of light. This unit will help you
to learn about the basic principles of photography. What exactly happens
inside a camera and how the image is formed ? We shall also cover various
types of digital cameras used for still photography while exploring the pros
and cons of each type. We will also learn about the functioning of a DSLR
camera, the working of its various controls and analyse how they affect the
image. In the end, we shall go through a number of camera accessories and
understand their use and purpose in still photography.
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 Digital Photography
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
●● describe the different types of still camera;
●● identify various parts of a still camera;
●● explain the working of a still camera; and
●● know the different accessories used with still cameras.

6.2 WHAT IS A CAMERA?

Photography seems like a pretty simple hobby to take up. Everyone has
become a photographer in recent times with smartphones equipped with
cameras of great megapixels. But photography dates back to times when
one photograph took hours to be exposed and one had to wait for days for
developing of a photograph. You may remember the times when cameras
were loaded with film rolls, which contained a total of 36 frames. These
36 frames were exposed very selectively, sent to the chemical labs for
processing and then after a week-long wait, the photographs arrived along
with the negatives. Compared to that, today one is able to click ten photos
of themselves even before exiting the house. And processing is far forgotten
as all the display and archival happens on social media instead of photo
albums.
The word camera originally is derived from the Greek word ‘Kamara’,
meaning a dark room. It is a shortened version of the ‘Camera Obscura’,
which was a light proof tent, allowing light to enter through an opening fitted
with a lens. The lens was used to collect and converge light to a point, just
like it happens in the case of a magnifying mirror. Artists sitting inside the
room used to trace the image created by light falling onto a flat surface. This
flat surface was later on replaced by materials coated with photosensitive
chemicals, that allowed certain chemical reactions to take place, triggered
by the light. The bases for these materials started with broad sheets of glass
to tiny 35 mm films, thus reducing the size and mobility of the cameras in
use as well.
Today, with the advent of digital technology, photography has also evolved
rapidly over the past three decades. A digital camera utilizes the same optical
principles as a film camera, aided with a small photosensitive chip that has
replaced the film. So while the chip converts the light energy into electric
signals, another chip, or memory card stores these signals in form of digital
data. This data can then be touched upon in our computers, mobile phones,
etc. and shared over the Internet across social media and also be printed and
pasted in photo albums like that of yesteryears. You may have taken a selfie,
uploaded it to your social media account and gathered feedback from your
peers on your photography skills. Digital cameras have made the process
of photography simpler. We shall discuss the working of a digital camera in
detail further in this unit.

6.3 TYPES OF DIGITAL CAMERA

There are many types of digital cameras available in the market. They may
be categorized differently based on their working.

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 6.3.1 Point and Shoot cameras Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions
The simplest type is a point and shoot camera. Its name aptly describes
its use. You point at the image to be clicked, and just click the button to
shoot it. While easy to use, it does not need the photographer to think about
any other controls other than putting what is to be photographed in front
of the camera. The camera does all the calculation and adjustment on its
own for capturing the image. It is good for people who do not have any
artistic or professional inclination towards learning photography. Due to
less knowledge and skills required to operate it, the major market share
today is occupied by these cameras. The camera of your smartphone also
lies in this category, but depending on the model and budget of the phone, it
may offer you certain customizations for the image.

Figure 1: Point and Shoot Camera

Point and shoot cameras are compact and light weight, easy to handle and
can capture video as well. These cameras have separate mechanisms and
lenses for capturing and viewing the image. The lens allows the light in
to capture the image while the viewfinder allows the light in for the eye to
view and compose the frame. Due to the difference in the position of the
two lenses, parallax error occurs while shooting. Parallax error occurs when
there is a difference between the conceptualized frame and the captured
frame due to the position of the two lenses.

Image source: No machine-readable author provided. Marb~commonswiki assumed

(based on copyright claims). / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)
Figure 2: Parallax error
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 Digital Photography 6.3.2 DSLR cameras
DSLR stands for Digital Single Lens Reflex cameras. They are named
so as they have single lens for viewing and capturing the image. DSLRs
have larger sensors than average point and shoot cameras, thus resulting in
better image quality. DSLRs also provide a lot of control over the image by
allowing to change lenses, altering aperture, shutter, ISO and many other
functions as well that we shall discuss later in the chapter.
These cameras have ruled the market for the longest time due to their
practicality of functioning and amount of control they offer to the
photographer over the image. Variations in models are also available
depending upon the use. Consumer end cameras would provide lesser
specifications, while prosumer end may provide an array of functions.
DSLRs also allow for video recording, but control may vary depending on
the budget and the model of the camera. Few higher end cameras also allow
for sound recording with the help of attachable devices. Stanley Ka Dabba
(2011) was the first film in India to be completely shot on DSLRs.

Figure 3: DSLR Camera

6.3.3 Mirrorless Cameras
DSLRs have a small reflex mirror housed inside the body of the camera
that functions to remove the parallax error as faced by the point and shoot
cameras. Further improving upon the design of the DSLRs, mirrorless
cameras work on a digital display system rather than an optical one. Simply
put, in the absence of the reflex mirror, the image sensor supplements the
viewfinder with the signal it is receiving. So the photographer is able to see
the image live on a small LCD screen at the back of the camera. All the
controls and functions can be accessed through this screen and there is no
need of using a viewfinder at all.
Compared to DSLRs, these cameras are smaller, lighter and quieter as
the mirror is removed, which moves when shutter is released. Unlike the
DSLR cameras these cameras also give a live feedback of depth of field and
exposure on the viewing screen. Slowly and steadily gaining the market
share, mirrorless cameras are replacing the DSLRs.
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 Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions

Image source: Yitech / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

Figure 4: Mirrorless Cameras
Check Your Progress 1
Note: 1) Use the space below for you answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this
unit.
1. What is parallax error?
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2. How is a DSLR camera different from a point and shoot camera?
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3. The film, Stanley Ka Dabba (2011) was completely shot on DSLR.
a. True
b. False
4. Mirrorless cameras are lighter than the DSLR cameras.
a. True
b. False
5. In which of the following does Parallax error occur ?
a. SLR
b. DSLR
c. Point and Shoot camera
d. None of the above
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 Digital Photography
6.4 STRUCTURE OF A CAMERA
You may remember that at the beginning of this chapter, it was discussed
that a camera is a light tight box, allowing the light to enter by measure,
in order to capture a framed image. Now we will dissect and discuss the
structure of a digital camera. A camera can be divided into two main parts:
lens and body. These two main parts are made up of many other subparts.
Now we shall discuss these parts in detail.

Photo: Poonam Gaur

Figure 5: Parts of camera: lens and body
6.4.1 Lens
A lens is a finely polished glass, curved on both sides, used to allow light
to enter the camera and focus the image on the sensor. A photography lens
is usually an assembly of lenses that are adjusted in order to achieve the
desired image. Better the lens of a camera, better the photographs being
captured. Now, we shall discuss different types of photographic lenses.
Types of Photographic Lenses
Photographic lenses are categorized on the basis of their focal lengths.
Focal length of a lens is the distance between its optical centre to the focal
point. In a camera, the sensor is placed at the focal point of the lens in order
to expose for the image. You may remember from your high school physics
that if the object is at infinity, the image will be created on the focal point.
Focal length affects the angle of view of a lens as well. Lesser the focal
length, more the angle of view. Lenses which are closer to the angle of view
of human eyes are called normal lenses. Their focal length is approximately
50-55 mm for 35 mm photography sensors. All perspectives, sizes and
distances are seen through these lenses as seen by human eyes. Lenses with
focal length lesser than this would have a greater angle of view, thus are
called wide angle lenses, for e.g., 24 mm, 30 mm lenses. Going too wide
starts distorting the image. One may see the edges distorting in photographs
taken by 16 mm or lower lenses. These lenses have smaller lens body. On
the other hand, telephoto lenses have a narrower field of vision and a longer
lens body. For 35 mm sensors, telephoto lenses begin from 75 mm and go
up to 250-300 mm. There are super telephoto lenses as well, with 1000 mm
focal length.
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 Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions

Image source:https://pixabay.com/photos/telephoto-lens-canon-photography-1279897/
Figure 6: Telephoto Zoom lens
Lenses with fixed focal length are called prime lenses, while lenses with
variable focal length are called zoom lenses. Zoom lenses allow for optical
magnification by narrowing down the angle of view, and thus provide
for greater flexibility for framing the image without the movement of the
photographer.
Other Parts of Photographic Lenses
When you carefully inspect the photographic lens, you will find many
different parts. These are - focusing ring, manual / auto focus switch, zoom
ring, aperture, image stabilization switch, and lens cap. Here we shall
discuss about these parts briefly.
● Focusing ring: You may have noticed the focussing ring on the
camera, which is the first ring on any camera lens. This ring is used to
focus the image in manual focus mode. In auto focus mode, the ring
gets locked.
● Manual / Auto focus switch: You can find this switch on the lens
which allows you to choose between manual focus and auto focus.
● Zoom ring: Zoom ring is the another ring found on camera lens. It help
to change the focal length of the lens and get the effects of zooming.
● Aperture: Aperture is the opening in the camera through which light
enters. It works like the pupil of the eye, contracting in more light and
enlarging in low light conditions. Similarly, greater the opening in the
camera, more light entering and falling onto the sensor and greater
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 Digital Photography chances of overexposing the image. On the other hand, smaller the
opening, lesser the light and thus chances of underexposing the image.
Thus, choosing the appropriate aperture is extremely important for
the photograph. We shall discuss about aperture in detail in Unit-8
(Techniques of Photography).
● Image stabilization switch: You can find this switch on many lenses.
This allows you to take advantage of the image stabilization feature
which helps in reducing the effects of camera shake and to get sharper
photos.
● Lens cap: This is a protective cover of the camera lens that protects
the lens from scratches and minor collisions.
6.4.2 Body
The body of the camera is designed in such a manner that no light, other than
the intended light, comes into it. It is also entirely black as to disallow any
sort of reflection within. In a DSLR camera, after the removal of the lens,
you can see the reflex mirror and the sensor when one presses the shutter
release button. The shutter is located in front of the sensor, which shifts
to expose the sensor to light to form the image. The body also contains a
lot of circuitry which enables the working of the camera. At the back, one
can see the LCD screen with a viewfinder mounted on the top. The LCD
screen helps in seeing the live view of the frame being captured and also
the other adjustments that can be manoeuvred within the camera. The body
of a DSLR camera consists of many other important parts. Now, we shall
discuss about them in detail.
Image Sensor: The light falls onto the sensor in the camera, which is
nothing but an electronic chip, which converts light energy into electric
energy. It is of the same size as that of a 35 mm film in full frame DSLR
cameras but many DSLR and mirrorless cameras are available with smaller
sensors too. The quality of a sensor is measured by how many pixels it has
and its size. A pixel is a picture element; a unit in the sensor which enables
conversion of light energy into electric energy. Greater the number of pixels
in a sensor, greater the data collected and converted into electric signals,
thus better the resolution of the photograph. Today the market of digital
cameras sees them being marketed on the basis of the number of their
pixels, or Megapixels. A megapixel is equivalent to 1 million pixels. Even
the smartphone cameras today are competing with DSLR with the help of
attachable lenses and better sensors. Mainly two types of camera sensors
are used – CCD (Charge-coupled Device) and CMOS(Complementary
Metal-oxide Semiconductor) . CMOS is cost-effective and now matches
the quality of the CCD. Nowadays CMOS sensor is getting more popularity.
Viewfinder: Viewfinder of a camera is on the top at the back. In DSLR
camera, it helps in viewing the image being focussed with the help of the
reflex mirror and pentaprism. You can also customize the viewfinder’s lens
according to the power of your eyesight. This is done by customizing the
dioptre settings, accessing through a dial on the viewfinder itself.
Shutter: While aperture controls the amount of the light entering, shutter
is the device which controls the time period it is allowed to fall onto the
sensor. Like an actual shutter, it opens and shuts for a defined time period
in order to let the exposure take place. Shutter speed is the time for which
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 the shutter is held open. Lesser the time taken, faster the shutter speed and Camera - Types, Structure and
conversely more the time taken, slower the shutter speed. Shutter plays very Functions
important role in photography. We shall discuss about it in detail in Unit-8
(Techniques of Photography).
Check Your Progress 2
Note: 1) Use the space below for you answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What is normal lens ?
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2. Discuss the difference between prime and zoom lens.
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3. Telephoto lenses have a narrower field of view.
a. True
b. False
4. Lenses with fixed focal length are called prime lenses.
a. True
b. False
5. CMOS stands for ___________.
a. Camera Magnet Operated Sensor
b. Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor
c. Camera Minor Optical Sensor
d. Complementary Magnetic Optical Semiconductor

6.5 FUNCTIONS OF A CAMERA

With a brief understanding of various parts of the camera, we may proceed
further to discuss how these parts work together in tandem for its smooth
functioning. In this section, we shall discuss the functioning of a still
camera, especially a DSLR camera. However, most of these functions are
similar between DSLR and mirrorless cameras.
6.5.1 Functioning of DSLR Camera
Here is a cross section of a DSLR camera given, to make you understand
and trace the path of light inside a camera.

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 Digital Photography

Image source: By en:User:Cburnett - Own work with Inkscape based on Image:Slr-

cross-section.png, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
php?curid=1588769
Figure 7: Cross Section of a DSLR
1- Camera lens, 2 – Reflex mirror, 3 - Focal-plane shutter, 4 - Image sensor,
5 – Matte focusing screen, 6 – Condenser lens, 7 - Pentaprism and 8 -
Viewfinder eyepiece
When you look through the viewfinder of an SLR, you are actually seeing a
reflection of the image created by the reflex mirror and the pentaprism housed
in the viewfinder. The mirror sends the light upwards and the pentaprism
reflects it within to rotate the image and sends it to the viewfinder to help
compose the image. When the shutter release button is pressed, the mirror
swiftly moves upwards, allowing the light to fall onto the sensor to create
the image. After the image is captured, the mirror falls back into the place
again. As the action of mirror is based on the pressing of a button, it is called
a reflex mirror.
While the DSLR is a marked improvement on the earlier point and shoot
cameras, following are the few disadvantages of a DSLR:
i. They are heavy and bulky to carry.
ii. The viewfinder goes blank when the photograph is being taken, thus
the photographer loses the control over the image.
iii. The movement of the reflex mirror may shake the camera.
iv. Time lag due to the movement of mirror.
These factors have been discounted in the mirrorless cameras, leading to
their rapidly gaining popularity in this market segment.
6.5.2 How to Hold a Camera
It is also necessary to know how to hold the camera during photography.
If we do not hold the camera correctly then there is a possibility of bad
photographs. The stability of the camera is most important in this case.
Camera shake may spoil the photograph specially in slow shutter speed.
So, we should hold the camera in such a way that it remains maximally
stable. In this process, it is necessary for the body to remain balanced and
stable. You should hold the camera by placing the body horizontally on
the left palm, to provide it stability and steadiness. Right hand is used to
hold the camera while the fingers and the thumb remain free to function the
buttons according to the need to capture the image. Hold it tight against the
forehead.
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 Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions

Figure 8: How to hold a camera

6.5.3 Focus
You may have noticed the focussing ring on the camera, which is the first
ring on any camera lens. It helps in moving the camera assembly so that
the image produced can be brought into sharp focus. While working in
manual focussing mode, one rotates the ring in order to focus in or out
of the subject as per the need. It also helps in highlighting one part of the
image by focussing it sharper than the rest. In autofocus mode, the ring gets
locked and the camera detects the object by using infrared wave mechanism
and shoots accordingly. Half pressing the shutter release button helps in
measuring and locking the focussing distance.
6.5.4 Different Shooting Modes
You will get different shooting modes in your camera. These modes can be
automatic, semi-automatic or complete manual. Here, we shall discuss few
important shooting modes.
Auto mode: In this mode, the camera sets everything automatically. You
cannot change aperture, shutter speed, or ISO. Most cameras provide some
pre-programmed settings, for example - portrait mode, landscape mode,
close-up mode, sports mode, etc. In these modes the camera automatically
sets all the features. In the beginning, you can use automatic pre-programmed
modes.
Aperture-Priority Mode: You may consider this mode as semi-automatic
where you have the freedom to set a few things and some other things will
be set automatically by the camera. In aperture priority mode, you have the
liberty to change the aperture and ISO and the camera will automatically
select the shutter speed to get the correct exposure. Different companies use
different icons for this mode, but ‘A’ and ‘Av’ are the most popular.
Shutter-Priority Mode: It is also a semi-automatic mode where you have
freedom to choose shutter speed and ISO and the camera will automatically
select the aperture accordingly. ‘S’ and ‘Tv’ are the most popular icons used
for this mode by different camera companies.
Manual Mode: It is a complete manual mode where you have the freedom
to set all the features of the camera according to your need. This mode gives
you complete control over the camera settings. You can set aperture, shutter
speed and ISO according to your requirement.
6.5.5 White Balance
White balance is basically the process of telling the camera what is white
in a given light. A white sheet of paper will remain white to you even if the
light conditions in your room change from sun light to tube light. This is
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 Digital Photography because your brain is always on auto white balance and identifies the white
colour. Why is white important? Because it is a mixture of all colours and
identifying it will help in truly identifying all the colours.
The camera is not as advanced as your brain. It needs to be specifically
told in each light condition what is the true white, in order to capture and
recreate all the colours truthfully. Have you noticed photographs which
have a green, blue or orange cast to them. That is all the colours appear to
be overpowered by a single colour and thus appear as various shades and
tones of it. That is due to incorrect white balance.
A DSLR has a list of pre-sets which helps the photographer choose what
lighting conditions he/she is shooting in, and thus define white for that
particular light. It ranges from incandescent, fluorescent, direct sunlight,
flash, cloudy and shade amongst others. Camera can also be put on auto
white balance which makes it one less thing to think about but white balance
does help in true reproduction of colours in any photograph.
6.5.6 ISO
In digital photography, ISO is related to the sensitivity of the image sensor to
light. You shall find the ISO button on the body of the camera, through which
the ISO setting can be changed. If you increase the ISO, the image sensor’s
sensitivity to light will increase. This is a useful feature in photography and
we will discuss it in detail in Unit-8 (Techniques of Photography).

6.6 CAMERA ACCESSORIES

Camera accessories make photography more effective and smooth. In
this section, we will discuss some important camera accessories useful in
photography.
6.6.1 Tripod
A tripod is an extendable three legged stand for mounting the camera. Its
primary function is to keep the camera steady and stable at a position. It is
required for long exposures and in case of multiple photographs required
from same position. A tripod has two basic parts, the head and the legs. The
legs are collapsible and extendable to the desired height and the head has a
pan and tilt head, helping in panning, tilting and rotating the camera after it
is steadily mounted.

Image source : https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-image.

php?image=170603&picture=tripod
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 Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions

Image source: No machine-readable author provided. Kapege.de assumed (based on

copyright claims). / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)
Figure 9: Tripod and Monopod
Another variation is monopod, which is a one legged stand. So while it
provides stability and steadiness, it needs to be held by the photographer all
the time.
6.6.2 Filters
Filters are pieces of glass attached to lenses to help filter light waves
entering into the lens. Filters also safeguard the lens from dust, sunlight and
scratches. Filters help in controlling the colour, contrast, tonality, glare of
the photograph along with creating a few special effects. For e.g., Neutral
Density filters help in cutting down the light, colour correction filters help
in changing the white balance, Star filters help in creating star effect in the
photograph, UV filters filter out UV rays from entering the camera and the
fog filters help creating a foggy effect in the photographs.

Image source: Ashley Pomeroy / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)

Figure 10: Types of Filters
6.6.3 Flash
Flash is a device which emits light for a brief instant. It is the most commonly
used artificial lighting equipment used for still photography. Many cameras
have an inbuilt flash. While shooting in flash mode, it goes on as soon as
the shutter release button is pressed to provide light for the photograph.
External flashes have to be synchronized with the camera, with the use of a
trigger cable or a wireless trigger.
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 Digital Photography

Image source: Redline / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)

Figure 11: External Flash
Check Your Progress 3
Note: 1) Use the space below for you answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this
unit.
1. Discuss the difference between manual focus and autofocus ?

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2. What is White Balance? How does it affect the image ?
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3. In DSLR camera, the viewfinder goes blank while the photograph is
being taken.
a. True
b. False
4. Monopod has three legs.
a. True
b. False
5. In photography, ISO is directly related to ___________.
a. Speed of shutter
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 b. Size of aperture Camera - Types, Structure and
Functions
c. Sensitivity of image sensor to light
d. Focal length of the lens

6.7 LET US SUM UP

To be a good photographer you must know your camera well. In this unit,
you were introduced to digital still cameras. We discussed the structure of
camera in detail. We discussed variations in designs of still cameras and
their working. We also learnt about the various functions one needs to
control while capturing a photograph and how each control would affect
the photograph. Finally, we talked about a few accessories that help in still
photography.

6.8 KEY WORDS

●● Lens: a light-bending optical device fitted in front of a camera to
focus light coming from subjects at various distances on to the image
sensor’s surface.
●● Viewfinder: a system or a window for aiming the camera that will
also allow image composition.
●● Aperture: a mechanical device that adjusts the size of the hole or a
diaphragm so more or less light can pass through it.
●● Shutter: a light-blocking gate that can be opened to let light reach the
image sensor for a predetermined and very precise time and then shut
to keep light away from the sensor.
●● Focussing ring: This is the adjustment that we use to bring the subject
into sharp focus. It is usually on the lens and has a scale that shows the
distance of the subject from the lens. By moving the ring clockwise
or anticlockwise we adjust the focus. Most new cameras also have an
automatic focussing mechanism and such cameras are also referred to
as autofocus cameras.
●● Pentaprism: A multi sided (five) glass prism housed on the roof
of an single-lens reflex camera so that the image that is seen in
the lens can be viewed through an optical viewfinder above the lens.
The light enters through the lens is reflected up by a reflex mirror to
the prism and across to the eye.

6.9 FURTHER READINGS

Langford Michael, Langford’s Basic Photography, Focal Press, London
Sharma O.P, Practical Photography, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi
Präkel, D., 2009. Basics Photography 07: Exposure. AVA Publishing.
DK, 2016. Beginner’s Photography Guide. Penguin Random House.

6.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Parallax error occurs when there is a difference between the
conceptualized or viewed frame and the captured frame due to the
position of the two lenses.
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 Digital Photography 2. The point and shoot camera is the simplest camera. Its name rightly
describes its use. You point at the image to be clicked, and just
click the button to shoot it. While easy to use, it does not need the
photographer to think about any controls other than putting what
is to be photographed in front of the camera. On the other hand,
DSLR cameras are more complex and provide a lot of controls to the
photographer. DSLR stands for Digital Single Lens Reflex cameras.
They are called so as they have single lens for viewing and capturing
the image. DSLRs have larger sensors than average point and shoot
cameras, thus resulting in better image quality. DSLRs also provide
a lot of control over the image by allowing to change lenses, altering
aperture, shutter, ISO and many other functions as well.
3. a. True
4. a. True
5. c. Point and Shoot camera
Check Your Progress 2
1. Lenses which are closer to the angle of view of human eyes are called
normal lenses. Their focal length is approximately 50-55 mm for 35
mm photography sensors. All perspectives, sizes and distances are
seen through these lenses as seen by human eyes.
2. Lenses with fixed focal length are called prime lenses, while lenses
with variable focal length are called zoom lenses. Zoom lenses allow
for an optical magnification by narrowing down the angle of view,
and thus provide for greater flexibility for framing the image without
the movement of the photographer.
3. a. True
4. a. True
5. b. Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor
Check Your Progress 3
1. In manual focussing mode, we rotate the focus ring in order to focus
in or out of the subject as per the need. It also helps in highlighting one
part of the image by focussing it sharper than the rest. In autofocus
mode, the ring gets locked and the camera detects the object by using
infrared wave mechanism and shoots accordingly. Half pressing the
shutter release button helps in measuring and locking the focussing
distance.
2. White balance is the process of referencing the colour white in the
given light for the camera. This helps in reproducing all the colours
truthfully as white colour is made up of all the colours. It also helps in
removing any colour cast from the image.
3. a. True
4. b. False
5. c. Sensitivity of image sensor to light

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 UNIT 7 PICTURE COMPOSITION
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Learning Outcomes
7.2 What is Picture Composition ?
7.3 Elements of Composition
7.3.1 Line
7.3.2 Shape
7.3.3 Form
7.3.4 Texture
7.3.5 Space
7.3.6 Colour
7.4 Rules of Composition
7.4.1 Content and Meaning
7.4.2 Emphasis
7.4.3 Rule of Thirds
7.4.4 Balance
7.4.5 Headroom and Lead room
7.4.6 Framing
7.4.7 Viewpoint
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Further Readings
7.7 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

7.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed the structure of photographic cameras,
their functioning and their different types. In photography, it is necessary
to know the camera because it is the tool through which photographs are
taken. Camera is important but content is the most important. Like every
medium, in photography also, we want to convey a certain message to our
receivers through photographs. Every photo taken has a purpose. It contains
a message that the photographer wants to convey to his/her audience. A
good photograph is one that effectively communicates the photographer’s
intended message to the viewers.
A photographer composes his/her photograph according to the message that
s/he wants to convey. Photograph is a visual medium and contains many
elements. A good composition can be made by using all these elements
properly. Hence, composition is a vital factor in photography. In this unit,
we shall discuss various aspects of picture composition. Various elements
and some key rules of composition will be discussed here in detail.

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 Digital Photography
7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
●● understand the importance of composition in photography;
●● explain the different elements of composition;
●● describe the key rules of composition; and
●● improve your photographic composition skills.

7.2 WHAT IS PICTURE COMPOSITION ?

What is the purpose of photography? Just like writing, painting and many
other forms of expression, photography is also an art form used to express
one’s feelings, emotions, stories and messages. Photographers use this
medium to express themselves. It is a tool of visual communication and has
its own visual language. A good photographer should be the master of visual
language. S/he must know the complete grammar of this language so that s/
he can use it to convey his/her message properly.
A photograph consists of several elements. It can have shapes, forms, space,
colours, textures, sense of movement and many more. A photographer uses
these elements creatively to tell his/her story effectively. In photography,
composition is structuring a photograph by using various visual elements to
convey the intended message effectively.
In simple words, a photographer has many visual elements to structure a
photograph, like - main subject/s, things of different shapes and sizes present
in the foreground and background, space, colour, texture, etc. A picture
is formed from these very elements. A photographer carefully arranges
or combines these visual elements within a frame in such a way that s/
he can get the best visual result and convey his/her message successfully.
The arrangement of these elements to create an effective photograph is
called composition. Changes in composition can also be done during post-
production, but this work is mainly done at the time of clicking photographs.
Before discussing composition further, we must clearly understand one
thing that photographs can be both - unstaged and staged. Unstaged
photographs are photographs whose visual elements were present in the
same arrangement in real life at the time the photograph was taken. On the
other hand in staged photographs, the photographer arranges various visual
elements by himself or herself so that s/he can take a good photograph.
Here, the photographer creates this arrangement for clicking photos only.
Now we shall discuss the different elements of composition.

7.3 ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION

As we discussed earlier, a photograph is formed by the combination of
different visual elements. Different visual elements create different types of
feelings, emotions and reactions in our minds and accordingly they are used
to create the desired effects. It is necessary to know these elements. If we get
to know these elements, we shall be able to use them better in composing our
photographs. Here, we shall discuss some important composition elements.
7.3.1 Line
We all know about line. It is one of the most fundamental elements of visual
arts. If you observe, you will find this world filled with different types of
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 lines. Different types of lines evoke different feelings in our mind and a Picture Composition
good photographer can use them effectively in his/her composition.
Lines are formed when boundaries emerge between different colours or
tones. The strength of a line depends on the contrast between colours or
tones. Lines can be explicit or implied. An implied line can be formed by
the arrangement of different objects or suggested by motion within the
frame. Lines can divide the frame or can connect different objects within
the frame. Strong lines can be used to draw attention to certain subjects in
a photograph. The general pattern of lines can create an interesting effect in
a picture. Well-spaced parallel lines have the most calm and stable effects
whereas multiple short lines angled in all directions evoke confusion,
excitement, and chaos. Photographs with long, angled converging lines
quickly attract our eyes to the point of convergence.
We all are familiar with different types of lines, for example – horizontal
lines, vertical lines, diagonal lines, curved lines, etc. These lines help
to create different types of psychological effects and we can use these
properties to compose effective photographs. Horizontal lines create a
sense of tranquility, relaxation and gravity. Vertical perpendicular lines
may show the feeling of grandeur. They can overpower adjacent horizontal
lines. Combination of vertical (perpendicular) and horizontal lines provides
the sense of stability and permanence. Diagonal lines indicate motion and
instability. As far as curved lines are concerned, they also create different
feelings. Soft and shallow curves carry pleasing and sensual qualities.
They bring softening effects in composition. But, deep curves, angular or
complicated lines create the sense of anger, stress and disorder.

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 1: Curve line
7.3.2 Shape
Shape is more complex than a line. It has two dimensions - length and
width. A shape is formed when a line or lines close off a certain area. Shapes
help to single out objects from their environment. If you observe, you will
find different types of shapes around you. In photographic composition,
the shapes may be real as well as implied. Sometimes a group of objects
or shapes makes different shapes by their arrangements. Some common
shapes are triangle, rectangle, square, circle, ellipse etc.
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 Digital Photography Like all visual elements, shapes also have psychological meanings. Different
shapes evoke different feelings. Therefore, we can use different shapes in
our composition to create the desired effect on the minds of our viewers.
Triangle is a dynamic and energetic shape. It conveys motion and direction,
but the position of triangle can change its meaning. An upright triangle
sitting on its base shows sense of balance and stability whereas a reverse
triangle suggests risk and sense of tension. Rectangle and square shapes
convey the feelings of stability, reliability, security and strength. Rectangle
is considered comparatively more interesting than square. Round shapes
like circle, oval and ellipses do not have angles so they create softness
and mildness in the composition. They indicate eternity, completeness and
mystery. Arrangement of objects in a circular shape also creates interest.
7.3.3 Form
Forms are three-dimensional shapes. Apart from length and width, they also
have depth. For example – square is a shape which has only two dimensions.
When a third dimension is added to a square, it will become a cube, a form.
So, forms are shapes with volume. Three-dimensional forms can be shown
in a two-dimensional photograph through tone gradation (shading). The
common forms are - cube, cuboid, cylinder, sphere, cone, pyramid, etc. Our
world is full of forms. If you observe properly, you will find many interesting
forms around you even in your vegetable box. Try to see it from different
point of views and many a time you can get very interesting photographs
from ordinary and familiar forms.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. What is composition in photography?

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Differentiate between staged and unstaged photography.

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Which of the following is not an element of composition ?
a. Line
b. ISO
c. Form
d. Shape

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 4. An upright triangle sitting on its base shows a sense of _____________. Picture Composition

a. Stability
b. Risk
c. Tension
d. Softness
5. Horizontal lines create the sense of __________.
a. Confusion
b. Chaos
c. Tranquility
d. Conflict
7.3.4 Texture
Texture is related to the quality of a surface. It suggests how we feel when we
touch an object. It can be smooth, rough, sticky, furry, grainy, hard, soft and
many more. There is a difference between the texture of the soft and tight
skin of a child and the wrinkled skin of an old person. Similarly, there is a
difference in the texture of the creamy surface of a cake and the texture of a
broken wall. Texture can be used for many purposes in photography. Many
times only capturing a texture can give you very interesting photographs.
If you observe carefully, you will find many interesting textures in nature.
In photography, textures can be used to create visual interest, to balance the
composition visually, and to create contrast in the picture.

Image Source: Photo by Rajesh Misra (License: CC0 Public Domain) https://www.
publicdomainpictures.net/pictures/280000/velka/rock-texture-1.jpg
Figure 2: Rock texture
7.3.5 Space
Space in a photographic composition can be classified into two types -
positive and negative space. Generally, positive space is an area that has
relatively higher visual weight in any composition, and the space around a
positive space can be called negative space. We can understand it with an
example. Just take an example of the following picture (figure no. -3). In
this picture, the space covered by the flower is positive space while the rest
of the background is negative space.
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 Digital Photography

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 3: Positive and negative space
Space can be used creatively to make an effective composition. The relative
proportion of positive and negative spaces may change the feeling of the
photograph. A tiny positive space with a lot of negative space may create a
sense of isolation or vastness. Think about a picture of a small island in a
vast sea. Here, the island will be considered as positive space and seawater
as negative space. If the size of the island is very small in the composition,
it shows the isolation of that island and immensity of the sea. But, if we
increase the size of the island in the frame, it will change the proportion
of positive and negative spaces and in turn the feel of the photograph may
change. Sufficient negative space also provides rest to the eyes and gives a
feeling of relaxation.
7.3.6 Colour
Colour is another important element for all visual arts including photography.
Colours play an important role in determining the emphasis and mood of a
composition. With the help of colours, you can decide the direction of eye
movement of the viewer in a picture. Changing tone value of the colour
creates the visual perception of distance. Colours also have psychological
meanings. The creative use of colours is an important tool for producing
an attractive composition and if you want to get command on this tool, you
should know the various properties of this element.
Properties of Colour
There are three main properties of colour- Hue, Value and Intensity.
Hue: Hue refers to the colour itself. It is the name of a colour, like – red,
blue, green, etc.
Value: Value refers to darkness or lightness of a colour. We can get darker
colours by adding black whereas lighter colours can be produced by adding
white. Tints and shades carry different values of a colour.
i. Tint : By mixing white in any colour, we can get different tints of that
particular colour. For example, take the red colour. Now, by mixing different
amounts of white with red, we can create different tints of the red. These
tints will be lighter than the original red.
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 ii. Shade: Shades are the opposite of tints. You can get different shades of Picture Composition
any Colour by mixing black to it. If we mix different amounts of black in
red, we shall get different shades of red. Shades are darker than the original
colour.
Intensity or Chroma: Intensity refers to the saturation or purity of the
colour. We can change the intensity of any colour by mixing it with grey or
its complementary colour (opposite to it on colour wheel).
Colour Models
There are two important colour models:
i. Additive Colour model
ii. Subtractive Colour model
i. Additive Colour model : In this colour model, Red, Green & Blue
(RGB) are the primary colours. If we combine the light beams of Red,
Green and Blue in equal parts, we get the White. Here, all the colours
are created by using the primary colours, RGB. In all cases where
we see emitted light, additive colour model is used. For example-
television monitors, computer monitors, phone screens, tablet screen,
etc.

By SharkD at English WikipediaLater versions were uploaded by Jacobolus at

en.wikipedia. - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., Public Domain, https://
commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2529435
Figure 4: Primary colours of additive colour model
When we add two primary colours of this model, we get secondary colours.
It is a noticeable fact that these secondary colours work as primary colours
in Subtractive Colour Model.
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
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 Digital Photography ii. Subtractive Colour model : In this colour model, Cyan, Magenta and
Yellow are the primary colours. When we mix these colours in equal
parts, we get the Black. This colour model is used in the cases where
we see the reflected light. For example – printed material, painting,
etc.

Image source: By SharkD - Own work, CC0, https://

commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=57505814
Figure 5: Primary colours of additive colour model
We can get secondary colours of this model by mixing the primary colours.
Secondary colours of this model work as primary colours of Additive colour
model.
Yellow + Magenta = Red
Yellow + Cyan = Green
Magenta + Cyan = Blue
Warm and Cool Colours
Colours can also be divided into two categories - warm and cool colours.
Yellow, orange and red are considered warm colors, while blue, green and
violet as cool colors. Warm colors are active, aggressive and create a feeling
of warmth while cool colors are considered receding and passive. They
evoke cool feelings and remind us of cool things like water, grass, etc.
Colour Wheel
It is a wheel on which colours are arranged in a circular manner. This wheel
helps us to understand the relationships and interaction between colours.
The first such wheel was created by the famous scientist Sir Isaac Newton
in 1666. He created the colour wheel to explain that the white light is a
combination of seven different colours. Thus his colour wheel had seven
colours. After that many versions of colour wheel have emerged. At present
the most popular colour wheel carries 12 colours.
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 Colour Schemes Picture Composition

Colour scheme refers to the combination of colours in a composition.

Different colours interact with each other and create different effects. So, a
combination of colours can be used to create the desired mood and effects in
a photograph. Various colour schemes can be created with the help of colour
wheel. Here we shall discuss a few important colour schemes.
i. Monochromatic Colour Scheme: This colour scheme is based on
single hue/colour. In this scheme, different tints, shades and tones of
the same colour are used. It gives an elegant and clean composition
which is soothing and pleasant to the eyes. Example -A picture of
a woman in a blue gown standing in a room and all the furniture,
curtains and things in that room are of blue colour (different shades,
tints and tones of blue).
ii. Complementary Colour Scheme: This scheme uses combination of the
complementary colours. The colours which are opposite to each other
on colour wheel are called complementary colours. The interaction
between complementary colours creates a great contrast, so these
colours are also called contrast colours. For example, in traditional
RBY colour wheel, Red and Green, Blue and Orange, Yellow and
Violet were considered as the complementary colours. But in modern
colour wheel, Red and Cyan, Green and Magenta, Blue and Yellow
are used as complementary colours. Contrast is the key feature of this
colour scheme which attracts the viewers’ attention. Example – the
photograph of a red flower with the green background of the leaves.

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 6: Complementary colour scheme
iii. Analogous Colour Scheme: In this colour scheme, we use a
combination of colours which are placed adjacent to each other on
colour wheel. This scheme creates calm and pleasant effects. You can
find many examples of this colour scheme in nature. Following image
(figure - 7) is an example of analogous colour scheme.
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 Digital Photography

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 7: Analogous colour scheme

iv. Triadic Colour Scheme: This colour scheme uses three colours evenly
placed on the colour wheel like – red-yellow-blue, orange-green-
violet, etc. Triadic scheme is vibrant but not very aggressive.
Activity 1
Try to compose two photographs, one with complementary colour scheme
and another with analogous colour scheme. Show them to any five persons
and record their feelings and views on both the photograph. Analyse the
recorded data and write it down to highlight the differences between
complementary colour scheme and analogous colour scheme.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. How is the Additive colour model different from the Subtractive
model ?

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Define positive and negative space.

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
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 3. Which of the following is not a primary colour in Additive colour Picture Composition
model ?
a. Red
b. Green
c. Yellow
d. Blue
4. Different tints of a colour can be created by mixing _________ with
that colour.
a. Black
b. White
c. Red
d. Blue
5. Which of the following is a warm colour ?
a. Blue
b. Red
c. Green
d. Violet

7.4 RULES OF COMPOSITION

The rules of composition generally apply to all types of visual arts and
photography is one of them. The main objective of these rules is to help
to compose such photographs which can convey the intended messages
effectively to the audience. In this section, we shall discuss some of the
important rules of photographic composition.
7.4.1 Content and Meaning
This is the most basic but very significant rule of composition. We should
compose a photograph in such a way that it can convey the intended meaning
successfully. Every photograph has two basic components – Content
and Visual Appearance. Content is related to the message or meaning a
photographer wants to convey through his/her picture. If a photograph
is visually very attractive but is not able to convey the message that the
photographer wants, then it cannot be called a good composition. Let us
understand it with a simple example.
Suppose you got the opportunity to speak as a guest speaker at a major
function of a prestigious institution. The photographer took a picture of the
occasion. The picture looks quite nice visually. The lighting is good, the
camera angle is also good and your personality also comes out strongly and
attractively in the picture. But it is not possible to know from the picture
where or in which programme you are speaking. Can the composition of
this picture be considered good? Certainly not, because the purpose of this
picture was to show that you were speaking in a big programme of a very
reputed institution, but the picture does not tell anything about the institution
or programme. While composing this picture, it was necessary to be kept
in mind that we should include something in the frame to show where the
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 Digital Photography person is speaking. It could have a background banner, an institution logo
on the podium or something else to establish where you are speaking. From
this simple example, we can understand that before pressing the shutter
button of the camera, we must think whether this composition will fully
convey the intended meaning of this photograph or not.
In photography, meaning can be created in different ways. The facial
expressions of the subject/s can create meaning. We can also create certain
meanings by arranging subjects/objects or composition elements in different
ways in the frame. For example, if we place two individuals together, one
very poor and malnourished and one rich and overweight, then it depicts the
sense of inequality in society.
7.4.2 Emphasis
A photograph has many elements and there is a conceptual hierarchy among
them. It means that for conveying the intended message effectively, different
elements have different levels of importance. Generally, there is one main
element on which we want to draw the attention of our viewers most. Other
elements of that picture supplement or support the main element. So, the
principle of emphasis says that the conceptual hierarchy should match
the visual hierarchy because the movement of our eyes follows the visual
hierarchy. We should keep the main element of the photograph at the point
of the strongest emphasis or the centre of interest.
Visual weight plays crucial role in creating emphasis in a composition.
The different elements of composition have different visual weight. For
example, darker colours have more visual weight than the lighter colours,
bigger shapes have more visual weight than smaller shapes, positive space
has more visual weight than negative space, etc. An area with the maximum
visual weight will be the area of the strongest emphasis or centre of interest
in a composition. Generally, we should not have more than one centre of
interest or point of emphasis in our composition. It may create confusion for
the viewer but many times we break this rule with certain purposes.
There are different guidelines or rules to create correct emphasis in
composition and these are based on human psychology. Rule of Thirds is
one of the most popular emphasis rules. We shall discuss this rule in coming
sub-section.
7.4.3 Rule of Thirds
Rule of Thirds is a very popular rule of photographic composition. First,
divide the whole frame into three equal vertical and horizontal sections
with the help of two equally spaced vertical and two horizontal lines. Now
the whole frame has nine equal parts and four intersection points. These
intersection points are points of interest. The following image (figure no. 8)
explains it.

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 Picture Composition

Figure 8
According to the Rule of Thirds, to get a good composition, you should
follow the guidelines given below.
●● While composing a picture, imaginarily divide your frame into
nine equal parts as described above. Many cameras have feature of
enabling Rule of Thirds grid overlay. You can use it. It will help you
to place your composition elements according to this rule.
●● You should place your main composition elements along these
dividing lines or intersection points.
●● If your composition has strong horizontal line, do not place it in the
middle of the frame. It will divide the frame into two equal parts
which will create less interesting visual appeal. Place this horizontal
line along any horizontal dividing lines of the grid of Rule of Thirds
(either 1/3rd or 2/3rd of the frame).
●● If your composition has strong vertical line, do not place it in the
middle of the frame. It will divide the frame into two equal parts
which will create less interesting visual appeal. Place this vertical line
along any vertical dividing lines of the grid of Rule of Thirds (either
1/3rd or 2/3rd of the frame).
Image no. 3, 6 and 7 follow the Rule of Thirds.
7.4.4 Balance
A photographic composition should be visually balanced. As a photographer,
you should distribute the visual weight across the frame in such a way that the
entire composition looks balanced and complete. You are familiar with the
term ‘Visual Weight’. We have discussed this term in the previous section. It
is the perceived weight of a visual element that provides the ability to attract
the viewer’s eye and attention. You can balance your composition in various
ways. Here, we will discuss few important types of balance.
Symmetrical Balance: In symmetric balance, we place equal visual
weights at equal distances on both sides of the balancing point or axis and
the balancing point lies in the middle of the frame. The following image
(figure no. 9) explains the symmetrical balance.

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 Digital Photography

Figure 9
Symmetrical balance looks quite formal so it is also called formal balance.
This type of balance is relatively less interesting but can sometimes give
excellent compositions. Following picture is an example of symmetrical
balance.

Photo by Devansh Goel / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qutb_Minar-_Symmetry.JPG
Figure 10: Symmetrical balance
Asymmetrical Balance: Obtaining asymmetrical balance in a photographic
composition is comparatively difficult but gives interesting and dynamic
compositions. Here, we do not place the same visual weight on both sides.
We try to balance visually heavy elements with lighter ones. The following
image (figure-11) shows the concept of asymmetrical balance.

Figure 11
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 You should try to balance your compositions asymmetrically. It will make Picture Composition
your photographs more interesting and energetic. You can also apply the
Rule of Thirds to achieve this balance. Figure 3,6 & 7 are the examples of
asymmetrical balance.
7.4.5 Headroom and Lead room
Headroom and lead room are two important factors in photographic
composition. In this sub-section we shall discuss about them.
Headroom: The distance between the subject’s top and top of the frame is
called headroom. You should keep proper headroom while composing any
subject. Too much headroom and no headroom, both should be avoided.
Both are not proper and do not look natural. Following pictures (figure no.
12) explain the rule of proper headroom in a photographic composition.

Photo by Amit Kumar

Figure 12: Headroom
Lead room: In good composition, we should leave proper space in the
direction in which the subject is moving or facing. This space is called lead
room or nose room or looking space. Psychologically viewers want to see
proper lead room in any composition. You can also apply the Rule of Thirds
to set proper lead room in your composition. Following pictures (figure no.
13) demonstrate the concept of proper lead room.

Photo by Amit Kumar

Figure 13: Lead room
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 Digital Photography 7.4.6 Framing:
Framing helps to highlight the framed subject in a photographic composition.
We can use different elements of our composition to create a frame within
the frame. For example, we can capture a bird through the natural frame of
tree branches. Curtains, tunnels, arches, windows, doors, the gap between
the rocks and many more can be used to create a frame within the frame.
Using this framing technique, we can add a sense of depth to our photograph
and also highlight the framed subject. Following image (figure no 14) is an
example of this types of framing.

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 14: Framing
7.4.7 Viewpoint
Viewpoint plays a very important role in photographic composition. It refers
to the position of the camera lens in relation to the captured subject/s. As a
photographer you should look at your subject from different angles and then
decide the right viewpoint to shoot. You can get very interesting pictures of
common things by changing your point of view. By changing the camera
angle, you can change the viewpoint and as a result, perspective will also
change. You can try to click pictures of the same subject from different
angles, such as - eye level, low angle, high angle, bird’s eye angle, worm’s
eye angle, etc. You will get different results every time. We will discuss all
these angles in detail in Unit 13. So, always try to see and shoot your subject
from different points of view, you will get interesting results.

7.5 LET US SUM UP

Composing a photograph is a creative work and we cannot restrict it to the
boundaries of certain rules. In creative fields, the best rule is ‘no rule’. You
can break the rules but before that, you must know and master the rules.
The same thing is applicable to photographic composition. The rules of
composition are based on human psychology and give good results. In this
unit, we discussed the main elements and fundamental rules of photographic
composition. If you want to be a good photographer, just pointing and
shooting is not enough. Your every click should be thoughtful.
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 Picture Composition
Activity 2
Compose four photographs using the Rule of Thirds.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. Explain Rule of Thirds.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. How is symmetrical balance different from asymmetrical balance ?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. What is visual weight ?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. If your composition has a strong horizontal line, you should place it
in the middle of the frame.
a. True
b. False
5. In Rule of Thirds, the whole frame has _______ equal parts and
______ intersection points.
a. 8, 4
b. 9, 4
c. 9, 3
d. 4, 4

7.6 FURTHER READINGS

Duchemin, D. (2015). The Visual Toolbox: 60 Lessons for Stronger
Photographs. Pearson Education.
Freeman, M. (2007). The photographer’s eye: composition and design for
better digital photos. CRC Press.
Langford, M., Fox, A., & Smith, R. S. (2013). Langfords basic photography:
the guide for serious photographers. Amsterdam: Focal Press/Elsevier.

7.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. A photographer has many visual elements to structure a photograph,
like - main subject/s, things of different shapes and sizes present in the
foreground and background, space, colour, texture, etc. A picture is
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 Digital Photography formed from these very elements. A photographer carefully arranges
or combines these visual elements within a frame in such a way
that s/he can get the best visual result and convey his/her message
successfully. The arrangement of these elements to create an effective
photograph is called composition.
2. Unstaged photographs are photographs whose visual elements were
present in the same arrangement in real life at the time the photograph
was taken. On the other hand, in staged photographs, the photographer
arranges various visual elements by himself or herself so that s/he
can take a good photograph. Here, the photographer creates this
arrangement for clicking photos only.
3. b. ISO
4. a. Stability
5. c. Tranquility
Check Your Progress 2
1. In Additive Colour model, Red, Green & Blue (RGB) are the primary
colours. If we combine the light beams of Red, Green and Blue in
equal parts, we get White. Here, all the colours are created by using
the primary colours, RGB. In all cases where we see emitted light,
additive colour model is used. For example - television monitors,
computer monitors, phone screens, tablet screen, etc. When we add
two primary colours of this model, we get secondary colours. It is a
noticeable fact that these secondary colours work as primary colours
in Subtractive Colour Model.
In Subtractive Colour model, Cyan, Magenta and Yellow are the
primary colours. When we mix these colours in equal parts, we get
the Black. This colour model is used in the cases where we see the
reflected light. For example – printed material, painting, etc. We
can get secondary colours of this model by mixing the primaries.
Secondary colours of this model work as primary colours of Additive
colour model.
2. Positive space is an area that has relatively higher visual weight in
any composition, and the space around a positive space can be called
negative space. Think about a picture of a small island in a vast sea.
Here island will be considered as positive space and seawater as
negative space.
3. c. Yellow
4. b. White
5. b. Red
Check Your Progress 3
1. Rule of Thirds is a very popular rule of photographic composition.
First, divide the whole frame into three equal vertical and horizontal
sections with the help of two equally spaced vertical and two horizontal
lines. Now the whole frame has nine equal parts and four intersection
points. These intersection points are points of interest. You should
place your main composition elements along these dividing lines or
intersection points.
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 2. In symmetric balance, we place equal visual weights at equal distances Picture Composition
on both sides of the balancing point or axis and the balancing point lies
in the middle of the frame. Symmetrical balance looks quite formal so
it is also called formal balance. This type of balance is relatively less
interesting but can sometimes give excellent compositions.
In asymmetrical balance, we do not place the same visual weight on
both sides. We try to balance visually heavy elements with lighter
ones. Achieving asymmetrical balance in a photographic composition
is comparatively difficult but gives interesting and dynamic
compositions.
3. It is the perceived weight of a visual element that provides the ability to
attract the viewer’s eye and attention. Visual weight plays crucial role
in photographic composition. The different elements of composition
have different visual weight. For example, darker colours have more
visual weight than the lighter colours, bigger shapes have more visual
weight than smaller shapes, positive space has more visual weight
than negative space, etc.
4. b. False
5. b. 9, 4

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 UNIT 8 TECHNIQUES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Learning Outcomes
8.2 Exposure
8.2.1 Exposure Triangle
8.3 Depth of Field
8.4 Aperture
8.4.1 Aperture and Exposure
8.4.2 Aperture and Depth of Field
8.5 Shutter Speed
8.5.1 Shutter Speed and Exposure
8.5.2 Shutter Speed and Motion
8.5.3 Creative Use of Shutter Speed
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Further Readings
8.8 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

8.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last two units, we discussed the different types of cameras, their
structure, functioning and composition. In this unit we shall discuss some
techniques of photography. Aperture, shutter speed and ISO play important
roles in photography. By using these, we can click different types of
photographs. Exposure and Depth of Field will also be discussed in detail in
this unit. Understanding the interrelations between aperture, shutter speed
and ISO and knowing their uses is important for good photography. We shall
see how the required results in photographs can be achieved from different
settings of aperture, shutter speed and ISO. Good photography mainly has
two requirements: creative thinking and knowledge of techniques. With the
combination of these two, we can do better in the art of photography.

8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
●● understand Exposure and Exposure Triangle;
●● describe Depth of Field in photography;
●● explain the role of aperture, shutter speed and ISO in photography;
and
●● improve your photography skills.

8.2 EXPOSURE
We know that in photography, reflected light from an object reaches a light
sensitive plate through the camera lens and forms an image of that object

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 there. Earlier photographic film was used as the light sensitive plate, but Techniques of Photography
now an image sensor is used instead. Therefore, in photography, the image
is recorded as light signals only. Digital cameras also record the image as
light signals first, then the image sensor converts those light signals into
electronic signals. Hence, it is clear that light is the base of photography.
Exposure is also related to light itself.
In simple words, the exposure is the amount of light that reaches the image
sensor through the camera lens while taking the picture. The longer the
image sensor of the camera is open for light to come in, the greater the
amount of light that will reach inside. Exposure also depends on many other
things which we will discuss later. This amount of light should always be
appropriate, i.e., neither more than required nor less than required. When
the amount of light in a photograph exceeds the requirement, we call it
overexposed and if the amount of light is less than the required, it is called
underexposed.
Now the question arises that how should the correct exposure be determined?
It is difficult to give one correct answer to this question. Although it can
be said that the right exposure is one that is very close to reality, but
sometimes photographers may use the exposure creatively as well. They
may deliberately keep the exposure different from the reality.
Most cameras have inbuilt light meters. When you point the camera towards
the subject, the light reflected from the subject comes inside through the
lens and the light meter measures its intensity. With the help of this light
meter you can find the exposure level on a scale. That is why it is also called
exposure meter. So before clicking, the photographer knows the level of the
exposure and can make necessary changes in it.
8.2.1 Exposure Triangle
After understanding the exposure, you will definitely want to know how
to control it. In photography, exposure is controlled by the following three
things or variables:
i. ISO
ii. Aperture
iii. Shutter speed
These three things together form the Exposure Triangle. We shall discuss
these three things in some detail now.

By Amit Kumar
Figure 1: Exposure triangle
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 Digital Photography i. ISO: ISO is an abbreviation for International Standard Organization.
In the context of photography, this is the unit of light sensitivity of
a photographic film or image sensor which is accepted all over the
world. First, we shall try to briefly understand light sensitivity. Light
sensitivity means sensitivity towards light. The thing which is more
light sensitive can give better output by getting relatively less amount
of light. ISO is denoted by numbers in photography. For example
100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 etc. As the ISO number increases, the light
sensitivity also increases. If in case – A, ISO is 100 and in case - B,
ISO is 200, then in case B the light sensitivity of the image sensor is
twice that of case A.
Now we shall try to understand the interrelationship between ISO and
exposure. How does ISO affect exposure? To know the answer of this
question, see the three pictures below.

By Amit Kumar
Figure 2: ISO = 100

By Amit Kumar
Figure 3: ISO = 400
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 Techniques of Photography

By Amit Kumar
Figure 4: ISO = 800
In the first photograph, ISO is 100, in the second it is 400 and in the third
800. All the three photographs have been taken in the same light condition
and the rest of the factors affecting the exposure (aperture and shutter speed)
have also been kept constant. We can clearly see that as the ISO increases,
the amount of light in the pictures also increases. So it is clear that if ISO is
increased then the exposure i.e. the amount of light in the picture will also
increase and if ISO is reduced then the exposure i.e. the amount of light in
the picture will also decrease.
After understanding the interrelationship between exposure and ISO,
now it is necessary to discuss the remaining two elements of the exposure
triangle. These are aperture and shutter speed. But we will discuss their
interrelationships with exposure later. In this unit, there are two separate
sections dedicated to aperture and shutter speed, where both of them are
discussed in detail. The interrelationships between these and exposure will
also be discussed in the same sections.
Activity 1
Put the camera in manual mode. Take four photographs of the same subject
with ISO 100, 200, 400 and 800. Keep the aperture and shutter speed
constant in all photographs. Compare all four pictures and write your
observations. This activity can also be done with smartphone cameras.
Many of these cameras have manual or pro mode. If manual or pro mode
is not available, then the help of camera apps may be taken.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. What is exposure in photography?

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
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 Digital Photography 2. What are the three elements of Exposure Triangle?

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. In which one of the following cases the image sensor has the highest
light sensitivity?
a. ISO - 100
b. ISO - 200
c. ISO - 400
d. ISO - 800
4. Which of the following is false?
a. If ISO is increased, exposure also increases.
b. While clicking photographs in low light condition, you can
increase ISO.
c. If ISO is increased, exposure decreases.
d. ISO is linked with light sensitivity of the image sensor.

8.3 DEPTH OF FIELD (DOF)

Depth of field (DOF) is an important feature in photography and it is
necessary for you to understand it. As the name of this term suggests, it talks
about the depth of the field. In simple words, depth of field is the depth of an
area of a photograph which is in focus. It means, the distance between the
​​ photograph which is in focus.
nearest and farthest points of the area of the
Now the question is what does it mean for an area of ​​the photograph to be
in focus? The area of ​​a photograph that is with reasonably sharp details is
called in focus. With the help of the pictures given below, we can easily
understand the depth of field.

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 5: Shallow depth of field
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 Techniques of Photography

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 6: Deep depth of field
The above pictures clearly show that the depth of field in figure no. 5 is
lesser than that of figure no. 6.
The following three factors mainly affect the depth of field:
i. Distance between subject and lens
ii. Focal Length of the lens
iii. Aperture
i. Distance between subject and lens and DOF: If everything else is
constant then the depth of field will increase as distance between subject
and camera lens increases. And following the same relationship, if the
distance between the subject and the lens is reduced, the depth of field
will also decrease.

Distance between subject and lens increases → Depth of field increases

Distance between subject and lens decreases → Depth of field decreases

ii. Focal length of the lens and DOF: The focal length of the camera lens
also affects the depth of field. If the focal length increases, the depth
of field will decrease and if the focal length of the lens decreases, the
depth of field will increase. For example: if the rest of the factors are
kept constant then the depth of field of the photograph taken with a
lens of 50 mm focal length will be greater than the photograph clicked
with a lens of 100mm.

Focal length increases → Depth of field decreases

Focal length decreases → Depth of field increases

iii. Aperture and DOF: Aperture is also one of the important factors
that affects depth of field. But how it affects the depth of field will be
discussed in the next section. The next section is completely focused
on aperture. Aperture and its role in photography will be discussed
in this section. The effect of aperture on depth of field will also be
discussed there in detail.
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 Digital Photography Check Your Progress 2
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. Explain the term ‘Depth of Field’.

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Name the factors which affect depth of field in photography.

..............................................................................................................
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3. How does focal length influence depth of field?

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................

8.4 APERTURE
Aperture is a hole or opening of the lens through which light enters the
camera. You can change its size. It can be increased or decreased. If you
increase its size then more amount of light will enter the camera and if it is
reduced then relatively less light rays will be able to enter the camera. The
entire amount of light falling on the outer surface of the lens does not cross
the lens and go inside the camera. The amount of light that will be able to
cross the lens is determined by the size of the aperture itself. The diagram
below shows the functioning of a digital camera and we can also get a little
clarity on the role of aperture from it.

By Amit Kumar
Figure 7: Functioning of a digital camera
The size of the aperture is denoted by f-numbers or f-stops. For example:
f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, etc. Here, we should always keep one thing in mind that if the
f-number is increasing, it means that the size of the aperture is decreasing.
For example: If you compare f /22 and f/8, the aperture size of f/22 will be
lesser than that of f/8. The diagram below illustrates this.
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 Techniques of Photography

By Amit Kumar
Figure 8: Aperture
From this diagram it is completely clear that when the f-number increases,
the size of the aperture decreases. Actually this f-number is based on the
following formula:
f-number = lens focal length ÷ effective aperture diameter
If we look at this formula carefully, we will find that f/2 means that we
have set the diameter of the aperture to half of the focal length of the lens.
Similarly, f /4 means that the diameter of the aperture is one fourth of the
focal length of the lens. This formula makes it clear why the size of the
aperture decreases as the f-number increases.
8.4.1 Aperture and Exposure
During the discussion on the exposure triangle, we saw that aperture also
affects the exposure. As we know, the aperture is the opening of the lens
through which light comes in, so it is clear that the larger this opening,
more will be the light that comes in. Now we can easily understand the
relation between aperture and exposure. If size of aperture increases, the
amount of light inside the camera will also increase and as a result exposure
will increase too. On the other hand, if size of aperture decreases, exposure
will also decrease. But here, we should not be confused with f-number
and aperture size. We have made it clear that the size of aperture increases
as f-number decreases. You will get complete clarity on the relationship
between aperture and exposure with the help of following pictures.

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 9: Aperture = f/16
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 Digital Photography

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 10: Aperture = f/11

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 11: Aperture = f/5.6
These three pictures make it clear that as the size of the aperture is increased
(f-number decreased), the exposure also gets increased. Therefore, it is clear
that the size of the aperture can be increased to increase the amount of
light in the photograph. Lenses of different focal lengths may have different
maximum and minimum apertures. In many zoom lenses, you can see that
changing the focal length changes the maximum aperture.
8.4.2 Aperture and Depth of Field
Aperture also affects the depth of field. The depth of field reduces when
the size of the aperture increases (the f-number decreases). Similarly, the
depth of field increases when the size of the aperture decreases (f-number
increases).

Aperture increases → Depth of field decreases

Aperture decreases → Depth of field increases

You can understand the relationship between the aperture and depth of field
more clearly with the help of pictures given below.
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 Techniques of Photography

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 12: Aperture = f/5.6

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 13: Aperture = f/16
You can see that in figure-12 the size of aperture is larger than the figure-13
and as a result the depth of field is lesser. These examples support the above
mentioned relationship between aperture and depth of field.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. What is aperture?

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
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 Digital Photography 2. Discuss the relationship between the size of aperture and f-numbers.

..............................................................................................................
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..............................................................................................................
3. How does aperture affect exposure?

..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4. In which of the following cases, the aperture size is maximum ?
a. f / 1.4
b. f / 2.8
c. f / 22
d. f / 5.6

8.5 SHUTTER SPEED

See the figure-7 carefully. This diagram explains the functioning of digital
cameras. In this, you can see that there is a part called shutter before the
image sensor. This shutter is like a curtain in front of the image sensor and
opens only when the shutter button of the camera is pressed. As soon as
the shutter button of the camera is pressed, this shutter opens for a certain
period of time and the rays of light coming through the lens’s aperture reach
the image sensor and form the image. Then this shutter closes and the light
rays stop reaching the image sensor. It means that the rays of light reach the
image sensor only for the time that the shutter remains open. This is called
Exposure Time.
After discussing the shutter, now we come to the shutter speed. The speed
with which the shutter opens and closes is known as the shutter speed. So,
if the shutter speed is high, the shutter will remain open for a shorter time
and the exposure time will be less. On the other hand, if the shutter speed
is slow, the shutter will remain open for longer time and the exposure time
will also be longer. Shutter speed is measured in second and fraction of a
second. For example : 4, 5, 1/10, 1/125, 1/4000, etc. If the shutter speed
is 4, it means shutter will be open for 4 seconds for exposure. 1/10 means
shutter will be open for 10th part of a second or 0.1 second and 1/4000
means shutter will be open only for 4000th part of one second.
8.5.1 Shutter Speed and Exposure
During the discussion on Exposure Triangle, we saw that shutter speed also
affects exposure. Shutter speed determines how long the shutter will remain
open, and as long as the shutter will remain open, the rays of light will reach
the image sensor. Therefore, it is clear that if shutter is open for a longer
time, the exposure will be more. And the shutter will remain open for a
longer time only when the shutter speed is slow. So if the shutter speed is
slow, the exposure will be high and if the shutter speed is fast, the exposure
will be less.

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 Techniques of Photography
Shutter speed increases → Exposure decreases
Shutter speed decreases → Exposure increases

The following pictures explain the relationship between shutter speed and
exposure.

By Amit Kumar
Figure 14: Shutter speed = 1/20 sec

By Amit Kumar
Figure 15: Shutter speed = 1/60 sec

By Amit Kumar
Figure 16: Shutter speed = 1/100 sec
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 Digital Photography Look at the above three pictures carefully. The shutter speed in figure- 14 is
the slowest (1/20). Here the shutter was open for twentieth part of a second.
The shutter speed in the second image (figure no. - 15) is higher and the
shutter speed in image- 16 is the highest (1/100). These pictures show that
as the shutter speed increased, the amount of light in the pictures decreased,
that is, the exposure decreased. Exposure in figure - 14 is quite high and due
to which details are lost. The shape of the flame of the lamp is not visible.
Increasing the shutter speed reduced the exposure slightly in figure -15 and
led to more details being seen. Increasing the shutter speed further reduced
the exposure in figure -16 and improved the details.
Relationship between shutter speed and aperture in the context of
exposure: In the exposure triangle, we discussed that aperture, shutter
speed and ISO all three elements affect the exposure. These three elements
can be controlled to get the right exposure. In the context of exposure, there
is a very simple relationship between shutter speed and aperture that can be
easily understood. If the size of the aperture is increased, the shutter speed
will also have to be increased. Suppose you have to achieve a particular
level of exposure and you have achieved it by a particular combination
of aperture, shutter speed and ISO. Now, if for some reason you have to
increase the size of aperture, then to maintain the previous level of exposure,
you will have to increase the shutter speed also.
8.5.2 Shutter Speed and Motion
Still photographs can not have motion, but feeling of motion can be created.
A picture of a moving object can be taken in such a way that it looks
completely still, and can also be taken in such a way that it can show the
effects of motion. This effect of motion is also called motion blur. Shutter
speed plays a major role in both these tasks. Slow shutter speed brings the
feeling of motion, on the other hand, fast shutter speed freezes the action.
If we want to click a picture of a moving object in which its movement is
completely frozen, we should use fast shutter speed. And if we want to take
a picture of a moving object with effect of motion, we have to use slow
shutter speed. Following pictures display the relation of shutter speed and
motion effects.

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 17: Shutter Speed = 1/50sec.
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 Techniques of Photography

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 18: Shutter Speed = 1/200sec.

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 19: Shutter Speed = 1/1000sec.
Here we can see that the shutter speed is the slowest in figure-17 so the
motion effect is the smoothest. As we continue to increase the shutter speed,
the action is freezing in next two pictures.
8.5.3 Creative Use of Shutter Speed
Creative use of shutter speed in photography can lead to many beautiful and
unique photographs. Here, it is necessary to understand that when we slow
down or speed up the shutter speed significantly, we also have to change
the settings of aperture and ISO to keep the exposure correct. Now we shall
discuss some creative experiments of shutter speed.
i. Freezing the action: Many a times such pictures of moving objects
are quite attractive in which their action is frozen at any given moment.
Since our eyes do not normally see these types of frozen actions, they
look attractive. We use faster shutter speed to freeze the action. This
technique is very popular in sports photography where we try to freeze
the actions of players, but it is also used creatively for other purposes.
Figure 20 & 21 are the examples of freezing action by using faster
shutter speed.
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 Digital Photography

Photo by Amit Kumar

Figure 20: shutter speed =1/1000s
In this picture, a red ball falls into a jar filled with water and because
of that the water bounces upwards. Here, the water surge is captured
by using fast shutter speed (1/1000s) which looks attractive.

Photo by Poonam Gaur

Figure 21: shutter speed =1/640s
In the picture above, the movement of the sketch pens was frozen
with the help of high shutter speed (1/640 Sec).
ii. Ghost Effect: Ghost effect is a creative use of slow shutter speed.
This effect can be created by the slow shutter speed and the motion
blur caused by it. The following picture is an example of ghost effect.
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 Techniques of Photography

Photo by Amit Kumar

Figure 22: Ghost effect, Shutter Speed = 4 Sec.
In this picture, shutter speed was 4 second. It means, the shutter was
open for 4 seconds. A shadowy character (girl) appears behind the
main subject of the picture and creates ghost effect. When the picture
was taken, the camera shutter was open for 4 seconds that resulted
four second long exposure. The girl seen behind was sitting hidden
behind the woman. In the same 4 seconds, the girl, acting as a ghost,
got up from behind the woman and came into the frame and sat down
again. In slow shutter speed, the girl was in motion, which caused
motion blur and created ghost like effect. The rest of the settings (ISO
and aperture) and acting were done according to the mood of the
picture. It is necessary to keep the camera completely steady while
taking a picture with a slow shutter speed, so a tripod should be used.
Light Painting or Drawing: Light painting is a photographic
iii. 
technique which is also called light drawing. Slow shutter speed
is used in this technique due to which the exposure time becomes
longer. We make a design in front of the camera with the help of
a light source such as a mobile torch. The shutter speed is kept so
slow that the shutter will remain open until the process of making
that design ends. Many beautiful photographs can be clicked through
this process. Since the shutter speed is very slow in light painting
and the exposure time is very long, it is necessary to keep the camera
completely stable. Therefore, tripod should be used in this process.
Aperture and ISO settings also have to be kept appropriate to keep
the exposure correct. Generally this process is done in very low light.
Figure 23 and 24 are examples of light painting or drawing.

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 Digital Photography

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 23: Light painting/drawing, Shutter Speed = 6 Sec.

By Poonam Gaur
Figure 24: Light painting/drawing, Shutter Speed = 8 Sec.
Both the pictures were taken with slow shutter speed of 6 second and 8
second respectively. Tripod was also used. These are just basic examples.
You can create many beautiful designs by using this technique.
Activity 2
Click two photographs. In the first, try to freeze any action, and in the
second, try to capture the light painting. Compare their shutter speeds and
write your observations.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: Use the space given below for your answers.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1. What is shutter speed?

..............................................................................................................
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2. How will you freeze any action in photography?

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 ............................................................................................................. Techniques of Photography

.............................................................................................................
3. What is light painting? Explain the role of shutter speed in it.

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4. Which of the following sentences is true ?
a. If shutter speed is increased, exposure increases.
b. If shutter speed is increased, exposure time decreases.
c. Slow shutter speed should be used to freeze the action.
d. Faster shutter speed helps to create motion blur.

8.6 LET US SUM UP

We know that effective photography requires both content and craft. No
one can become a good photographer without good content, but craft also
has its own importance. It helps us to present our content in better way.
This combination of content and craft plays crucial role in every medium.
If we talk about writing, then here too, both content and craft are necessary.
A good writer can be the one who has quality content and also excellent
writing skills (craft) through which s/he can present his/her content in an
effective way. Lack of either one will prevent you from becoming a good
writer. The same formula is also applicable in photography.
In this unit, we have discussed a part of the photographic craft. Aperture,
shutter speed and ISO are all important tools of photography. Here, we have
discussed uses of these three tools. We have tried to understand how these
tools affect exposure, depth of field and motion effects. With the help of
correct use of different photographic tools, you can present your content
more effectively.

8.7 FURTHER READINGS

Kelby, S. (2012). The digital photography book. Peachpit Press.  
Langford, M., Fox, A., & Smith, R. S. (2013). Langfords basic photography:
the guide for serious photographers. Amsterdam: Focal Press/Elsevier.
Peterson, B. (2016). Understanding exposure: how to shoot great
photographs with any camera. AmPhoto books.

8.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. In simple words, the exposure is the amount of light that reaches the
image sensor through the camera lens while taking the picture. The
longer the image sensor of the camera is open for light to come in, the
greater the amount of light will reach inside.
2. The three elements of Exposure Triangle are following :
i. ISO
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 Digital Photography ii. Aperture
iii. Shutter speed
3. d. ISO - 800
4. c. If ISO is increased, exposure decreases.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Depth of field is the depth of an area of a photograph which is in
focus. It means, the distance between the nearest and farthest points
of the area of the
​​ photograph which is in focus.
2. The following three factors mainly affect the depth of field:
i. Distance between subject and lens
ii. Focal Length of the lens
iii. Aperture
3. If the focal length increases, the depth of field will decrease and if the
focal length of the lens decreases, the depth of field will increase.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Aperture is a hole or opening of the lens through which light enters
the camera. You can change its size. It can be increased or decreased.
2. If the f-number is increasing, it means that the size of the aperture is
decreasing. For example: If you compare f /22 and f/8, the aperture
size of f/22 will be lesser than that of f/8.
3. If size of aperture increases, the amount of light inside the camera will
also increase and as a result exposure will increase too. On the other
hand, if size of aperture decreases, exposure will also decrease.
4. a. f / 1.4
Check Your Progress 4
1. The speed with which the shutter opens and closes is known as the
shutter speed. So if the shutter speed is high, the shutter will remain
open for a shorter time and the exposure time will be less. On the
other hand, if the shutter speed is slow, the shutter will remain open
for longer time and the exposure time will also be longer. Shutter
speed is measured in second and fraction of a second.
2. An action can be frozen with the help of faster shutter speed.
3. Light painting is a photographic technique which is also called light
drawing. Slow shutter speed is used in this technique due to which
the exposure time becomes longer. We make a design in front of the
camera with the help of a light source such as a mobile torch. The
shutter speed is kept so slow that the shutter will remain open until
the process of making that design ends.
4. b. If shutter speed is increased, exposure time decreases.

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 UNIT 9 PHOTO EDITING
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Learning Outcomes
9.2 What is Photo Editing?
9.3 History of Photo Editing
9.4 Digital Workflow
9.5 Basic Image Editing
9.5.1 Types of Graphics
9.5.2 Photo Editing Software
9.5.3 Editing Tools
9.5.4 Digital Image File Formats
9.6 Digital Art
9.7 Ethical Issues
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Key Words
9.10 Further Readings
9.11 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

9.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the what and how of Photo Editing. You will
be introduced to basic image editing techniques employed during the era
of film photography and will be taken through its evolution over the years,
till today, the era of digital photography. You will also read about various
features of a photo editing software and their uses in photo editing. You
will also be apprised of the process that is followed in order to edit digital
photographs. Lastly, we shall discuss the impact and the socio-psychological
repercussions arising due to photograph manipulation around the world in
the social media along with other ethical issues.

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
●● discuss the evolution of photo editing;
●● describe the use of various features of a photo editing software; and
●● ascertain the use and impact of photo editing in digital era.

9.2 WHAT IS PHOTO EDITING?

You may recall seeing images in newspapers with text on them. These could
be advertisements or simple posters or banners. It is understood that the text
has been added to the photograph digitally. This is a basic example of photo
editing. Simply put, when an image is changed, altered or even tweaked, it
is defined as photo editing. One may attribute photo editing to the digital
era, while the truth is that the film medium was also not untouched by ways

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 Digital Photography of photo editing. From changing the composition of chemical washes
to softening the photograph with use of filters, photo editing has been
used to make the photograph more suitable for whatever purpose it
was clicked.

9.3 HISTORY OF PHOTO EDITING

You may recall seeing old family portraits, of your grandparents.
They looked different from what your parents said about them. The
eyebrows looked darker, skin more porcelain like, and moustaches
more waxed. Ever wondered why? Earlier, before the advent of
computers, people used to edit the photographs by hand. While some
methods employed the exposure techniques like burning and dodging,
some photographs were pasted by exposing two negatives together,
or by double exposure. Paint, ink pens and air brushes were used on
some to paint or darken the hair, brows and eyes and clear the skin.
The airbrushing technique led to the software which is used today to
be named so as well. Paint was used to highlight or darken few areas
in the photograph. Few filters were used in front of the enlargers in
order to expose the negative differently.
Traditional prints could be altered while exposing, or by scratching the
negative manually. These were also called darkroom manipulations.
Some also included bleaching portions of the photograph to colouring
certain parts of the photograph by hand to resemble a painting. Earliest
examples include a composited photograph of Abraham Lincoln,
using his head from one portrait, and body of another famous person
from another portrait.

Image Source: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia

Commonshttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Manipulated_
portrait_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(1860%27s).jpg
Figure 1: Compositing Lincoln’s face over a photograph
A lot of world leaders used photography as propaganda, for e.g.
Russian leader Stalin frequently edited his political contemporaries
in and out of the photographs to suit the party inclinations. John
Heartfield manipulated photographs by using a technique called
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 photomontage. His manipulated photos worked to critically analyse the Photo Editing
Nazi propaganda with the help of media platforms.
Photo editing as we know today was made possible by Adobe Photoshop.
Photoshop was launched in 1987. Since then, it has become so popular that
the word ‘photoshop’ has started meaning photo editing in general. This
software is used till date by the professional photo editors as well. The first
open source image editing software General Image Manipulation Program or
GIMP was launched in 1995, making image editing accessible to everyone.
Today various software such as Darktable, Digikam and Photivo are
available as open source. These software enable editing in various formats
and also help in organizing and sharing the photographs over social media
as well. In 2011, the photo editing app Fotolr Photo editor was released on
the android app store, making photo editing possible even for the masses.
Today all smartphone cameras allow for Automatic Image Enhancement,
which removes the need for basic editing. It clears and brightens the skin
and darkens eyes and hair along with adding few more filters.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this
unit.
1. What were the tools used to edit photographs in the film era?

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Write a short note on Photoshop.

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9.4 DIGITAL WORKFLOW

Digital photography has made photo editing much simpler and accessible
to all today. Every photographer today has to now follow a digital workflow
in order to edit, display and archive the photographs. One may personalize
this workflow according to his/her own need. Here we shall discuss the
workflow step by step.
1. Capturing the photograph – you would have learnt about this step in
the previous chapters. Scanning hard copies of old photographs also
digitizes them and helps in taking them through further steps.
2. Transferring or Dumping the photographs – Digital technology
allows for formatting and using the same chip again and again for
photography. This makes losing the captured photographs very easy.
Thus you must transfer the photographs after each shoot onto a hard
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 Digital Photography disk, in a desktop or laptop. One may also create separate folders and
name the photographs accordingly. The entire series may be named
sequentially after that, like Cityscape1.jpg. Cityscape2.jpg, etc. This
makes indexing and finding photographs later easier.
3. Editing the photographs – we shall discuss this in detail in next section.
4. Displaying photographs – Nowadays you can share photos through
a pen drive, CDs and other memory cards. You may also share it
through mail or upload through social media platforms such as
Facebook and Instagram. You may also upload them on websites such
as Flickr and create an online gallery for oneself. Today you can also
change the privacy settings and control who can watch these photos
and who cannot. Photos can also be used in other media formats, like
using them in desktop publishing to be printed in some magazine, or
incorporated in a film or a video, or make a montage to be played on
any screen.
5. Archiving photographs – While social media archives these
photographs automatically, one may create another backup in a hard
disk for future storage. While photos shot on film used to yellow over
time, digital photographs stay the same over years.
Digital photography was initially shunned by film photographers but over
the course of time, it has gained acceptance. Similarly, photo editing was
also looked down upon by the eminent names of the field, but today not
only retouching is justified, but digital art is also rising as a new field of
expression and creativity.

9.5 BASIC IMAGE EDITING

Here, in this section, we shall discuss basic image editing including types
of graphics, photo editing software, editing tools, their uses and various file
formats of digital images.
9.5.1 Types of Graphics
Firstly let us discuss what are graphics. Graphics are images created or
converted digitally. There are primarily two types of graphics: Vector and
Raster Graphics.
Vector graphics : These are mathematical representations of the lines and
curves present in an image. These types of graphics are used to create logos
and other graphics that need to be independent of resolution. As a result,
they do not pixelate when enlarged. These type of images can be enlarged to
any proportion or size without getting pixelated or losing definition. Adobe
Illustrator is used for creating graphics of this type.
Raster Graphics: these are pixel based images which have a predefined
resolution. They are altered pixel-by-pixel in image editing software. They
need to be rendered finally before printing or exporting in any other formats.
They can pixelate when enlarged. Photographs are raster graphics.
9.5.2 Photo Editing Software
A photo editing software is a tool which can be used to manipulate, edit
and enhance images. With an interface to import photographs of various
formats, the software has an array of tools one may use to achieve the
desired result and to finally export the photograph in suitable format.
Image editing software can be bought and downloaded from the web. Open
source software are available free of cost, while software like Lightroom
or Photoshop cost money like other software. While all software function
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 to edit the image, their interface and window layout is different from each Photo Editing
other. More complex the software, greater the number of tools and functions
available in it.

Figure 2: User interface of GIMP

These software can be divided on the basis of the skill, expertise and the
controls provided. Most basic are the entry level software which are either
free of cost or are available for limited time period. Professional software
like the Adobe Photoshop and Lightroom offer a number of controls and
are used professionally. Few apps that are popular are Snapseed, Afterlight,
VSCO, etc. Today, even the word processing software have some photo-
editing tools available when using the function to insert images.
9.5.3 Editing Tools
While there are a wide variety of software, there are a few tools that remain
common to all of them, however simple or complex the software is. Here
are few basic tools : Move Tool, Rectangle Select Tool, Ellipse Select Tool,
Free Select Tool, Scissors Select Tool, Fuzzy Select Tool, Crop Tool, Bucket
Fill Tool, Paintbrush Tool, Pencil Tool, Airbrush Tool, Ink Tool, Eraser
Tool, Clone Tool, Healing Tool, Smudge Tool, Blur Tool, Text Tool, Colour
Picker Tool, Flip Tool, Scale Tool, etc.

Figure 3: GIMP Toolbar

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 Digital Photography At the first glance, the toolbar seems complicated with a variety of tools,
but on a closer look, many of these tools are inspired by the chemical lab
tools photographers are usually familiar with. Before starting to edit, one
should check the monitor or display settings of one’s device as well, or else
there will be discrepancies between what is seen on the screen and what is
printed out or shared and viewed on other screen. Few controls that are most
commonly altered are:
1. Brightness: Most basic image adjustment, this tool helps in increasing
the overall brightness of the image. While the underexposed photos
lose definition in the dark areas of the photograph and the overexposed
photos do not register anything in the lighter areas, this control does
not solve that problem, but enhances the average brightness of the
photo. Burn/dodge tool helps in doing the same thing, but to select
areas of the photograph.
2. Contrast adjustment: Contrast basically means the difference between
the two extremes of the colour spectrum. An image with a lot of sharp
white and black would be called a high contrast image and other with
a lot of shades of gradient grey would be called a low contrast image.
Image editing software can increase the intensity of all colours of the
image making it strikes the eye more and creates a high contrast while
low contrast image would have lesser difference in the values of the
colours making them soothing for the eyes.
3. Sharpness: while this control is commonly confused with the focus
control in the camera, it merely defines the edges of the elements in
the photograph. Too much sharpness hurts the eye.
4. Undo: This is the tool one uses the most while learning the ropes or
experimenting. The beauty of digital is that it allows you to reverse
a number of steps and redo them again to check the effect, without
spoiling the original photo.
5. Resizing: Increasing or decreasing size of an image to suit the
requirement. Increasing the size after a limit pixelates the image, that
is makes it look rugged. Resizing, if not done appropriately, makes
the subject look disproportionate. Resizing is done in order to make
the image suitable for various purposes.
6. Cropping: Cropping means cutting out or reframing an image. By
dragging the borders, cropping tool helps in eliminating elements
that are not required and recomposing the image. These two tools are
available even in the word processing documents, when dealing with
images.
7. Rotation: Image rotation helps in rotating the image by angle. It can
be used to make a horizontal frame vertical or correcting a photograph
in which the lines like the horizon or buildings seem tilted.
8. Noise Reduction: When pixels can be seen distinctly in an image
making it appear rugged, the picture is said to be noisy. Noise
reduction makes the image smoother by reducing the noise.
9. White Balancing: In photography, you may have learnt about white
balance and colour temperature. Getting the white balance right for
an image is necessary in order to capture all the colours truthfully, as
white light is made up of all the colours. At times it is not possible, or
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 mistakenly forgotten during the time of shooting. Post processing of Photo Editing
an image helps in getting the colours right in the image by adjusting
the colour temperature of light.
10. Colour Adjustment: This function works by selecting a particular
colour or hue in the image and adjusting its degree or even replacing
it entirely.
Apart from these, few more tools are offered in software. Selection tools
basically help in selecting a part of the image which needs to be worked
upon. Rectangle selection helps in selecting an area within the rectangular
frame, while free selection helps in choosing more fluid shapes. Move tool
helps in shifting the selected area to the desired place while alignment tool
makes sure that various selected elements are aligned with the required edge
of the frame. Flip tool helps in changing the orientation of the photograph.
Scale tool helps in increasing or decreasing the size of the selected portion
while perspective tool helps in creating depth in the image. Colour selection
tool helps in selecting the areas with common colour while bucket tool helps
in filling colour in the selected area. Text tool helps in adding text onto an
image. One can also change the size and the font style of the text as well.
Apart from these, some advanced techniques include:
1. Modifying chosen areas: one can choose a part of the image and
modify only that. One could also copy one particular element from
the frame and move it across, copy it and create a duplicate or just cut
it out of the frame entirely.
2. Eliminating the background: The subject is selected and extracted
from the image to be pasted on another background. Think about
product photography on most commercial websites which has subjects
on plain white background. Or better, think about your photo in your
living room, cut out and pasted on the swiss alps! Visual Effects in
films are nothing but a more elaborate form of photo editing.
3. Portrait corrections: It is also known as airbrushing. It is used to
correct the complexion, body dimensions, hair etc of the models.
Widely used in the fashion industry.
4. Gaussian blur: helps in creating a depth of field in the photograph.
While one can tell whether this was achieved optically in the camera or
digitally in the software, this is an easy replacement to focus attention
on the select area in the photograph. It can also help in creating the
blur that occurs in photography due to motion.
5. Lighting: This tool helps in adding some amount of light in post-
production, in order to hide or highlight certain aspects of the subject.
You can also correct the colour cast which may have happened due to
some light source during the time of the shoot.
6. Photo masking and layers: It is the process of hiding and revealing the
image layer by layer. It makes animation possible.
7. Special Effects: One may add anything to a photograph, ranging from
text to fog to even an alien space ship!
8. Photo Stitching: When two images are combined together to appear
like they were clicked like that.

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 Digital Photography 9. Correcting lens aberrations: At times photography lens can lead to
unwanted distortions in the image. For eg. wide angle lenses make
the image converge at the corners of the frame. Some software allow
correcting these aberrations in post-production.
10. Dust and Scratches filter: This filter is used to correct the fading that
may have happened over the course of time when old photographs are
digitized to work upon.
11. Clone stamp tool: Clone stamp tool allows you to duplicate part of an
image. This helps in covering patches or select areas in the photograph
12. Text: One can also add text onto the photograph to create a poster or
a greeting card.

Image Source: Photo by Kaushal Moradiya, https://www.pexels.com/

photo/adobe-photoshop-backlight-before-and-after-editing-2762759/
Figure 4: Changing background of a photograph
9.5.4 Digital Image File Formats
When you are done with editing the photograph to achieve the required
result, you need to save it in the required formats. Choosing to save the file
with the ‘Save As’ option leads you to various options of formats you can
choose from to save the image. There are broadly two types of image file
formats, lossy and lossless. Lossy formats compress the original image. It
may seem like a perfect copy, but when you enlarge it, it becomes pixelated
and loses details. Lossless formats save the file while compressing, but not
losing the image detail. Here are few popular formats used in digital photo
editing:
●● .psd is the format of the files saved in Photoshop.
●● .jpeg stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group. It is a lossy format
and is one of the most widely used format across the world. Most of
the cameras and phones save images in this format.
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 ●● .tiff stands for Tagged Image File Format. It is also a popular image Photo Editing
file format.
●● .png stands for Portable Network Graphics. It is an open source file
format. It is apt for online viewing applications like Web Browsers
●● EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) and PDF(Portable Document Format)
are used when photographs are to be printed set in some sort of
printing format.
●● .raw file is exactly how it is named, raw, meaning it has not been
worked upon at all. They need to be processed in order to be printed
or shared through an editor. RAW files are large in size.
●● .dng is short for Digital Negative Image File. It saves saving data in
uncompressed format, thus very large in size.
Today smartphones are eliminating the need for following the entire
digital workflow process and learning the tools of these software. With
Automatic Image Enhancement, one can automate the process of touching
up the photographs in post-production, albeit up to some extent. Automatic
Image Enhancement is a feature available in latest smartphones and digital
cameras which allow the images to be stored with automatic enhancement.
This practically means that one can choose to adjust sharpness or colours
or depth of field of an image automatically. You can also fix the red eye
automatically. So when you click an image, the said features are adjusted
automatically before storing the image. You cannot undo it later on. Most of
the smartphones today allow the option of skin whitening and darkening of
the brows or hair in the portrait mode.
Activity 1
Download and install any open source photo editing software like GIMP
or Photivo on your desktop or laptop. Import a photograph and try working
on it exploring various tools and their uses.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this
unit.
1. Describe any two basic photo editing tools.
..............................................................................................................
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2. Name some advanced photo editing techniques.
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 Digital Photography
9.6 DIGITAL ART
With the increasing popularity of photo editing software, there have emerged
a number of art forms that make use of their features. Many graphic artists
use these software for creating paintings/drawings, illustrations, cartoon
strips etc. Digital art could be completely computer generated, that is
starting from scratch just like a painting on Microsoft Paint or it could be
using existing images to build upon.
Digital art initially met with a lot of resistance from the artist community as
they believed that it destroyed the essence of art forms. Andy Warhol was
one of the famous artists who combined digital art along with his traditional
practices in 1980s. Today Photoshop is effectively used to create 2D and 3D
graphics. It also enables the users to create photorealistic environments, to
be used in video games, films and virtual reality.
Activity 2
Download and install MyPaint on your desktop or laptop. It is an open
source software used to create basic digital art. Try your hand at the
software. Import and manipulate an image using its array of tools.

9.7 ETHICAL ISSUES

Photo manipulation has been used since long to create desired narrative in
photographs as well. Our brains pick up visual cues present in a photograph
and react accordingly. So, it becomes important to understand if the
photograph has been manipulated at all, and to achieve what effect.
With the rise of magazines, tabloids and the paparazzi culture, photo
manipulation became the need of the hour for the press. Photographs of
famous celebrities morphed to appear slimmer, fairer and with people whom
they had never met in real life started appearing in various print publications.
This trend started off the debate about how much creative liberty is bad, and
to what extent can the photograph be manipulated to distort the reality.
Advertising also requires photographs to be manipulated in order to sell a
brand or product image. The whites are made whiter in the detergent ads and
the skin is made brighter and blemish free in the ads for cosmetics. Photos one
sees in advertising campaigns are heavily touched up. The fashion industry
is the worst under the lens as it thrives on images of beauty. It has been
often accused of promoting an unrealistic body image specially in younger
people. Manipulation of photographs of a celebrity’s skin complexion, hair,
body shape and other features is quite common. Many software are used to
remove blemishes and wrinkles from the skin, make it appear brighter, erase
stray hair and change the hair colour. Some software features can help add/
remove costumes, hair extensions, make up and even piercings. In times
like this, it is very difficult to tell if it is real, or fake and such images alter
the perception of a normal human body for adolescents and teenagers. So,
while the fashion industry states that it is catering to the beauty standards
already existing in the society, it remains a matter of concern if they are the
ones creating them or reinforcing them. Few magazines also came under the
radar for being racist when photographs of black celebrities are brightened
enough to be labelled as fair skinned.

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 With the advent of social media, the problem has increased manifold. Photo Editing
Everyone has access to a smartphone which has a camera app to click photos
with Automatic Image Enhancements with a click of a button. These photos
can then be uploaded on to the social media with use of any other filters, to
reach out to millions at one go. A lot of critical discussion and research is
available on how these images affect the body image perception in youth
and can lead to eating and mental disorders.
So while social media witnessed a rise in number of influencers, many
celebrities have refused to get their photos edited at all, due to all these socio
psychological issues arising. Few celebrities have uploaded their before and
after make-up and editing photos on social media to spread awareness about
the body image issues in young women.

9.8 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter, we first discussed the history of photo editing and the role
it played in the heyday of film photography. Then after understanding the
digital workflow we learnt about basics of image editing, including features
of a software and what they are utilized for. After that, we also discussed
how image editing software were used not only to modify already clicked
photographs, but also in order to create art from scratch as well. Lastly, we
went over few ethical questions that photo manipulation raises and how it
may affect an individual.

9.9 KEY WORDS

●● Canvas: the main workspace within Photoshop where photos,
graphics, and drawings are edited.
●● Cloning: copying an aspect of an image to another location in the
image or in a different image.
●● Cropping: cutting down the area of an image to repurpose it.
●● Filters: effects added to images to manipulate the look.
●● GIF (graphics interchange format): It is an image file format used
primarily for saving images on the web originally developed by
Compuserve.
●● JPEG (joint photographic experts group): It is an image compression
format which uses full range of 24-bit color, but still creates a small
file. These images are commonly used in both desktop publishing and
website design.
●● Layer: It is an area in Photoshop where you can add text, colors,
shapes and other elements.
●● Palettes: areas within the workspace of Photoshop which serve
functions such as the paths, swatches and layers palettes. Palettes are
generally along the right of the screen.
●● PNG (portable network graphic): an alternative image format to GIF.
PNG files are used for web based graphics.
●● Photoshop Document (.psd): file format that contains all of the
layers, paths, text and effects added to an image enabling the user to
go back into the project and do further editing in Photoshop.
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 Digital Photography ●● Raster Graphics: pixel driven pictures that have a set resolution. The
pictures are rendered on the screen one pixel at a time to reproduce
the image.
●● Vector Graphics: mathematical representations of the lines and curves
in an image. Vector graphics are resolution independent meaning that
they can be scaled to any size without losing their sharpness.

9.10 FURTHER READINGS

Kelby, S., & Kloskowski, M. (2013). The Photoshop Elements 12 Book for
Digital Photographers. Peachpit Press.
Photoshop, A. (2017). Adobe Photoshop. Red, 2(189), 168.
Team, A. C. (2009). Adobe Photoshop CS3 classroom in a book. Bookman
Editora.
Weinmann, E., & Lourekas, P. (2004). Visual QuickStart Guide: Photoshop
CS for Windows and Macintosh. Peachpit Press.

9.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Earlier, before the advent of computers, people used to edit the
photographs by hand. While some methods employed the exposure
techniques like burning and dodging, some photographs were pasted
by exposing two negatives together, or by double exposure. Paint, ink
pens and air brushes were used on some to paint or darken the hair,
brows and eyes and clear the skin. The airbrushing technique led to
the software which is used today to be named so as well. Paint was
used to highlight or darken few areas in the photograph. Few filters
were used in front of the enlargers in order to expose the negative
differently.
2. Photo editing as we know today was made possible by Adobe
photoshop. Photoshop was launched in 1987, since then, it has become
so popular that the word ‘photoshop’ has started meaning photo
editing in general. This software is used till date by the professional
photo editors as well.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Two basic photo editing tools are:
a) White Balancing: In photography, you may have learnt about
white balance and colour temperature. Getting the white
balance right for an image is necessary in order to make capture
all the colours truthfully, as white light is made up of all the
colours. At times it is not possible, or mistakenly forgotten
during the time of shooting. Post processing of an images helps
in getting the colours right in the image by adjusting the colour
temperature of light.
b) Contrast adjustment: Contrast basically means the difference
between the two extremes of the colour spectrum. An image
with a lot of sharp white and black would be called a high
contrast image and other with a lot of shades of gradient grey
would be called a low contrast image. Image editing software
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 can increase the intensity of all colours of the image making it Photo Editing
strike the eye more and create a high contrast while low contrast
image would have lesser difference in the values of the colours
making them soothing for the eyes.
2. Few advanced photo editing techniques are:
a) Eliminating the background: The subject is selected and
extracted from the image to be pasted on another background.
Think about product photography on most commercial websites
which has subjects on plain white background. Or better, think
about your photo in your living room, cut out and pasted on
the swiss alps! Visual Effects in films are nothing but a more
elaborate form of photo editing.
b) Portrait corrections: Also known as airbrushing. It is used
to correct the complexion, body dimensions, hair etc of the
models. Widely used in the fashion industry.
c) Lighting: This tool helps in adding some amount of light in
post-production, in order to hide or highlight certain aspects of
the subject.
d) Photo masking and layers: Process of hiding and revealing the
image layer by layer.
e) Special Effects: One may add anything to a photograph, ranging
from text to fog to even an alien space ship!
f) Photo Stitching: When two images are combined together to
appear like they were clicked like that.

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 Digital Photography

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