Life Sketch of Aristotle

●​ Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, on the Aegean Sea’s coast. His father, Nicomachus, was a
court physician, and Aristotle's early interest in medicine and biology was encouraged.
●​ At 17, Aristotle joined Plato’s Academy in Athens, where he studied and taught for 20 years. After
Plato’s death in 348 BC, Aristotle left the Academy due to succession issues and anti-Macedonian
sentiment in Athens.
●​ Aristotle’s travels to Asia Minor sparked his interest in natural sciences. In 343 BC, he became the
tutor to Alexander the Great, who later became king. After Alexander’s rise to power, Aristotle
returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum, around 335 BC. The Lyceum
functioned as a research center, where Aristotle taught and conducted studies without formal
examinations or fees.
●​ He gathered a large collection of biological specimens and conducted extensive research, including
studying 158 constitutions. Aristotle also built one of the earliest libraries and developed principles
of library classification.
●​ Aristotle’s relationship with Alexander soured when one of his friends was executed. After
Alexander’s death in 323 BC and the subsequent revolt in Athens against Macedonian rule, Aristotle
fled Athens to avoid potential persecution.
●​ He spent his final year in Chalcis, Euboea, and died in 322 BC at 62 due to chronic indigestion
exacerbated by overwork.
●​ Unlike his predecessors, Aristotle was the first to create a comprehensive catalog of human
knowledge, making him an early encyclopedist. His work, though not flawless, was incredibly
detailed and influential.
●​ In philosophy, Aristotle’s work laid the groundwork for many areas of thought. While Plato, his
mentor, was an idealist, Aristotle was a realist, focusing on practical observations and the nature of
human behavior. His writings in Politics are crucial for understanding political science, as he
systematically analyzed and classified existing political systems. This comparative method is still
used today.
●​ Aristotle saw political science as the most important discipline because it deals with how humans
live together in societies. He preferred a mixed form of government where all citizens have a role,
avoiding the concentration of power in the hands of a few.
●​ Aristotle's passion for knowledge drove him throughout his life. He believed that true happiness
comes from intellectual activity and that everyday experiences have their own logic and meaning.
His commitment to discovering and understanding the truth remains a significant part of his legacy.

#Aristotle's Corpus:

●​ He wrote extensively, with nearly 150 works covering a wide range of subjects. Although only about
20% of his writings have survived, these include lecture notes from his time at the Lyceum.
●​ Aristotle's works spanned numerous fields, including politics, ethics, biology, astronomy, and more.
His major contributions include Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, and Eudemian Ethics. Unlike Plato,
who focused mainly on philosophy, Aristotle's work covered both the natural sciences and political
theory. He is often considered the first political scientist, as he systematically observed and
classified political institutions and behaviors.
●​ His Politics explored the nature and origins of the state, citizenship, law, and constitutions, offering
both a speculative and practical guide to achieving individual happiness through the ideal city-state.
His Ethics focused on the nature of human happiness and the soul, with the Politics tying these
individual concepts to the broader society.
●​ Aristotle’s style was scientific and concise, contrasting with Plato’s more literary
approach.Throughout his life, Aristotle’s work evolved through three main phases: his early
adherence to Plato’s ideas, his break from Platonic philosophy during his travels, and his later focus
on organizing research during his second stay in Athens.
 CRITIQUE OF PLATO

●​ Aristotle was deeply influenced by Plato, especially regarding the hierarchy of human nature,
justice, and the inevitability of social classes.
●​ Despite this influence, Aristotle developed his ideas independently. He disagreed with Plato on
several crucial aspects, such as the ideal political regime, ethics, and the causes of political
revolutions.
●​ Aristotle’s ability to disagree with Plato highlights the intellectual freedom Plato encouraged,
allowing his students to think critically and independently.

1. Ideal Regime

●​ Plato: Plato's vision of the ideal state, as described in The Republic, is a highly structured society
governed by philosopher-rulers. These rulers, because of their superior knowledge and wisdom, are
best suited to govern. Plato's regime is hierarchical, with a rigid class structure where everyone has
a specific role—rulers, warriors, and producers.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle, in contrast, takes a more pragmatic approach in Politics. He believes in a more
balanced and realistic government structure that preserves the best elements of existing institutions.
Aristotle emphasizes a mixed regime, combining elements of democracy and oligarchy, and he
advocates for the rule of law over the rule of a single ruler or class.

2. Theory of Forms

●​ Plato: Central to Plato's philosophy is the Theory of Forms, which posits that there are perfect,
immutable ideas or forms that exist independently of the physical world. The material world is
merely a shadow or imitation of these perfect forms. For instance, a physical chair is just an
imperfect copy of the ideal "Form of a Chair."
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle rejects the separation of forms from the material world. He argues that forms do
not exist independently but are inherent in the objects themselves. For Aristotle, every physical
object is a combination of matter (the substance) and form (its structure or essence). This more
empirical approach grounds Aristotle's philosophy in the observable world.

3. Unity vs. Harmony in the State

●​ Plato: Plato advocates for a state where unity is paramount, with citizens, particularly the ruling
class, sharing everything in common, including property and even family relationships. This unity,
Plato believes, eliminates conflicts of interest and promotes the collective good.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle argues that such enforced unity would lead to excessive control and stifle
individual expression. He believes that a state should not strive for absolute unity but rather
harmony, where different parts of society can coexist with their distinct identities and roles. Aristotle
sees value in diversity within a state, as it fosters a more dynamic and resilient society.

4. Community of Wives and Property

●​ Plato: In The Republic, Plato proposes that the ruling class (the Guardians) should live communally,
sharing wives and property to prevent personal attachments and conflicts over wealth or power. This
communal living is meant to ensure that rulers are entirely devoted to the state.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle critiques this idea, arguing that it would undermine personal responsibility and
weaken the natural bonds of family. He believes that private property and family ties are essential
for social stability and individual development. Aristotle sees the family as a fundamental unit of
society that fosters virtues and social cohesion.
5. Role of the Family

●​ Plato: Plato views the family with suspicion in the context of his ideal state, fearing that familial ties
could lead to divisions and weaken the loyalty of citizens to the state. By minimizing the role of the
family, Plato aims to create a more unified and homogeneous ruling class.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle, on the other hand, sees the family as a natural institution that plays a crucial
role in the moral and social development of individuals. He believes that the family is the foundation
of society, where virtues are cultivated and where individuals learn their roles within the larger
community.

6. Political Participation

●​ Plato: In Plato's ideal state, political participation is limited to the philosopher-rulers and the
Guardian class. The lower classes are excluded from governance, as Plato believes they lack the
necessary wisdom and knowledge to contribute meaningfully to political decisions.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle criticizes this exclusionary approach, arguing that political participation should be
more inclusive to ensure stability and prevent resentment among the populace. While he
acknowledges that not everyone is fit to rule, he advocates for a broader participation in political life,
particularly in his concept of a mixed regime.

7. Knowledge and Ethics

●​ Plato: Plato believes that knowledge, particularly the knowledge of the Forms, is the key to
understanding and practicing ethics. For Plato, ethical knowledge is universal and absolute, derived
from the contemplation of the ideal Forms, particularly the Form of the Good.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle, however, takes a more practical approach. He argues that ethics is not a
theoretical science but a practical one, concerned with action and the cultivation of virtues. Aristotle
believes that ethical knowledge is context-dependent and must consider the complexities of human
life. Unlike Plato, who seeks universal principles, Aristotle emphasizes the role of practical wisdom
(phronesis) in navigating ethical decisions.

8. Philosopher Ruler

●​ Plato: Plato's ideal state is governed by philosopher-rulers, who possess the highest knowledge
and are uniquely qualified to rule because of their understanding of the Forms. These rulers are
seen as the embodiment of reason and wisdom, capable of leading the state toward the ultimate
Good.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle is skeptical of Plato's philosopher-king model. He argues that placing absolute
power in the hands of a single ruler, even a philosopher, could lead to tyranny. Aristotle advocates
for a more balanced distribution of power, where rulers are subject to laws and institutions that
prevent the concentration of power in one individual or group.

9. Private Property

●​ Plato: Plato proposes the abolition of private property for the ruling class, arguing that it would
prevent conflicts of interest and promote unity. In his ideal state, the Guardians do not own property;
instead, they share everything in common.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle strongly disagrees with this notion. He believes that private property is essential
for personal responsibility, economic stability, and the cultivation of virtues like generosity. Aristotle
argues that ownership of property allows individuals to express their character and provides a basis
for social relations and community life.
10. Merit and Reward

●​ Plato: Plato's ideal state focuses on the collective good, with little emphasis on rewarding individual
merit within the ruling structure. The Guardians are chosen based on their natural aptitude for
philosophy and governance, and they are expected to serve without personal gain.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle, however, emphasizes the importance of recognizing and rewarding individual
merit. He believes that meritocracy is crucial for justice and social stability. For Aristotle, individuals
should be rewarded based on their contributions to society, particularly in relation to property
ownership and public service.

11. Democracy

●​ Plato: Plato is highly critical of democracy, which he views as a flawed system where the ignorant
masses have too much influence over political decisions. He associates democracy with chaos,
instability, and the eventual rise of tyranny.
●​ Aristotle: While Aristotle also expresses concerns about democracy, he is more accepting of it as a
practical form of government under certain conditions. He sees democracy as a viable option when
it is balanced with elements of oligarchy and governed by the rule of law. Aristotle’s view of
democracy is more moderate, recognizing its strengths and weaknesses.

12. Law and Governance

●​ Plato: Plato emphasizes the importance of governance by wise philosopher-kings, who govern
based on their superior knowledge and understanding of the Good. For Plato, these rulers are
above the law, as their wisdom allows them to act in the best interest of the state without being
constrained by written laws.
●​ Aristotle: Aristotle, in contrast, believes in the sovereignty of law. He argues that laws should
govern the state, not individuals. Aristotle sees the rule of law as a safeguard against tyranny and
corruption, ensuring that rulers act in accordance with established principles rather than personal
whims.
 CONCEPTION OF HUMAN NATURE AND STATE

The State as the Pinnacle of Social Organization

●​ Aristotle saw the state (polis) as the highest form of human association. It wasn’t just a political
structure but the ultimate environment for achieving a good life. He believed that individuals could
only reach their full potential and find true fulfillment within the state. The state provides the
necessary framework for meeting basic needs and allows individuals to develop their unique human
qualities.

State vs. Individual

●​ According to Aristotle, the state is more fundamental than the individual. It exists to help people
achieve their full humanity. A person who doesn’t need the state is either not fully human or not
living a complete life. The state is seen as a natural institution, reflecting human sociability and need
for communal life.

Education and Its Role

●​ Aristotle agreed with Plato that education is vital for political unity but critiqued Plato’s approach.
Aristotle believed education should be tailored to the roles people will play in society. He argued that
education is not just about learning skills but about fostering a way of life and enabling diverse
social functions. Education helps individuals develop virtues and supports a well-ordered society.

Nature of Human Beings and Society

●​ Humans are inherently social beings, distinguished by their ability to reason and make moral
choices. This sociability means people naturally seek to live in a community. Unlike animals that live
together in limited ways, humans form complex societies (states) to achieve a shared good.

The Role of the Polis

●​ Aristotle explained that the state evolves from smaller associations. It starts with the household,
grows into a village, and eventually forms a polis. The polis represents the highest level of
self-sufficiency and is essential for living a fully realized human life.

Citizenship and Participation

●​ In Aristotle’s view, being a citizen means actively participating in the governance and
decision-making processes of the state. Citizens share in both ruling and being ruled, which is
necessary for achieving a good and just life.

State as a Natural Institution

●​ Aristotle believed that the state is a natural entity that exists to fulfill human needs and desires. It is
not merely a human invention but a natural extension of human nature, aimed at providing the
highest good.

Conclusion

●​ Overall View: For Aristotle, the state is integral to achieving a good life, fulfilling human nature, and
allowing individuals to develop their virtues. It provides the framework within which people can live a
complete and meaningful life.
 Nature of Happiness (Eudaimonia)

Happiness as the Ultimate Good: Aristotle saw happiness (or eudaimonia) as the ultimate goal of life. For
him, happiness isn’t just about having positive feelings or temporary pleasure. Instead, it’s about living a
fulfilling and meaningful life by performing one’s functions well.

Happiness and Human Function:Aristotle believed that happiness comes from doing activities well. It
means engaging in activities that align with one’s virtues and skills, and these activities should be done for
their own sake. For example, practicing a skill or engaging in meaningful work contributes to happiness if
it’s done excellently.

The Nature of Happiness: Happiness isn’t just a mental state; it’s reflected in the quality of one’s life. It
involves living according to one’s virtues and abilities, which means living a well-rounded and effective life.

Virtues and the Golden Mean: Aristotle introduced the idea of the "Golden Mean," which is about finding a
moderate, balanced approach to life. For instance, courage is a virtue that lies between the extremes of
recklessness and cowardice. By avoiding extremes and practicing moderation, one develops virtuous
character traits.

Intellectual vs. Ethical Virtue

●​ Types of Virtues: Aristotle made a distinction between two kinds of virtues:

○​ Intellectual Virtues: These are related to knowledge and reasoning, such as wisdom and
practical judgment.
○​ Ethical Virtues: These involve character and actions, such as courage, generosity, and
honesty. They are developed through practice and habit rather than just theoretical
knowledge.

Contemplation and Action: Aristotle thought that the highest form of happiness is found in a life devoted
to contemplation—deep thinking and understanding fundamental truths. However, he acknowledged that
not everyone can dedicate themselves entirely to contemplation. For most people, a balanced life involving
ethical actions and social involvement is necessary.

Role of External Goods: External goods such as health, wealth, and friendships are important for
achieving happiness because they support the practice of virtues. For instance, you need resources to be
generous, and you need friends to experience and cultivate meaningful relationships. These external goods
help to complement and enhance one's virtues.

Education and Social Life: Aristotle believed that education is key to developing virtues and good
citizenship. It helps individuals learn what is right and how to contribute positively to society. Good
education shapes one’s character and prepares one to live a virtuous life.

Ideal Person: The ideal person, according to Aristotle, embodies virtues like balance, dignity, and purpose.
This person doesn’t seek excessive praise or get involved in trivial matters. Instead, they live a composed
and purposeful life, balancing intellectual and ethical pursuits.

Summary: Aristotle’s idea of happiness is about living a life of virtue and excellence. It’s achieved by
practicing moderation (the Golden Mean), engaging in meaningful activities, and having the support of
external goods. Education and a balanced life are crucial for achieving true happiness. The ideal person
integrates intellectual and ethical virtues in a well-ordered life.
 The Household(slaves,women & property) in Aristotle's Philosophy

Importance: Aristotle considered the household vital because it fulfills essential functions like
self-preservation, procreation, and economic needs. It also plays a key role in teaching young people to
become good citizens by instilling civic and moral virtues.

Structure and Roles:

●​ Head of the Household: The father or head of the household is central. He manages his family,
property, and slaves, and links the household to the broader community (polis).
●​ Relationships:
○​ Husband-Wife: The head exercises authority over his wife.
○​ Parent-Child: The head guides and trains his children to prepare them for future roles in
society.
○​ Master-Slave: The head also manages slaves, who assist in household tasks.

Training and Organization: Aristotle believed that the organization and training within the household are
crucial. He thought that how well a household is managed impacts the overall health and function of the
polis. Therefore, the governance of the household and the upbringing of its members (women and children)
are important for the good of the entire community.

●​ The head of the household act as a link between political community and his household.

Aristotle on Slavery

●​ Role of Slavery: Aristotle defended slavery as a universal institution, believing it was beneficial for
both the master and the slave. Unlike Plato, who criticized slavery, Aristotle saw it as a necessary
part of society.
●​ Types of Slaves: Aristotle made a distinction between:
○​ Natural Slaves: Those he believed lacked the reasoning ability to govern themselves and
thus were suited to be slaves.
○​ Conventional Slaves: Those who became slaves through circumstances like war but were
not naturally suited to be slaves.
●​ Function and Justification:
○​ For the Master: Slavery freed the master from menial tasks, allowing more time for
intellectual and civic duties.
○​ For the Slave: Aristotle thought that slaves benefited from their master's guidance, which
was meant to help them develop some moral and intellectual virtues.
●​ Human Treatment: Aristotle argued that slaves should be treated humanely and could even be
freed as a reward for good service. He believed slavery could eventually become obsolete with
technological advancements.
●​ Criticisms and Legacy: Aristotle’s views were seen as reactionary by later standards. He thought
that while some people were naturally suited to be slaves, the institution should not be based merely
on power but on perceived natural abilities and virtues.

Overall, Aristotle justified slavery through a belief in inherent differences in people's abilities and virtues, but
he also acknowledged the potential for change and improvement in the institution.
 Aristotle's Views on Women and Family

1. Aristotle's Defense of the Family:

●​ Aristotle saw the family as foundational for human life and personal development. He believed that
families create emotional bonds and provide a space where individuals can nurture their talents. For
Aristotle, the family was not just a private unit but a crucial institution for fostering happiness and
personal growth.
●​ Aristotle argued that humans are naturally inclined to form pair bonds. He considered the family
more fundamental than the state (polis) because it precedes it in human development and is
essential for procreation and nurturing. The division of labor within families—men and women taking
on different roles—helps both parties contribute to the common good.

2. Critique of Other Philosophers:

●​ Aristotle opposed the idea of abolishing the family, as proposed by Plato. He believed that the family
plays a vital role in teaching moral virtues and providing stability, which would be undermined if the
family were eliminated. The family, according to Aristotle, is essential for nurturing moral values and
social cohesion.
●​ He critiqued the Spartan model of society where women had more freedom than in other Greek
states. Aristotle argued that this lack of control led to social discord and moral issues, as Spartan
women were not bound by traditional norms and laws, which, according to him, led to instability.

3. Views on Gender Roles:

●​ Aristotle viewed women primarily in terms of their roles within the household. He believed that
women were suited for domestic tasks, such as managing the home and raising children, rather
than participating in public life. This view was rooted in his belief that women’s capabilities were
naturally limited compared to men’s.
●​ Aristotle’s perspective on gender roles was hierarchical. He considered men to be superior and
more active, while women were seen as passive and primarily focused on reproductive and
domestic responsibilities. This hierarchical view was based on his belief in a natural order where
men were more rational and virtuous than women.

4. Marriage and Reproduction:

●​ Aristotle suggested that there should be a significant age difference between marriage partners to
ensure the health of offspring. He believed that men should marry later in life, around 37, and
women earlier, around 18, to optimize reproductive health and ensure that one partner is still active
when the other is less capable. This view highlights his focus on optimizing the conditions for
reproduction.

5. Role of Women in Society:

●​ Aristotle saw women’s primary role as managing the household and supporting their husbands. He
believed that while women were free individuals, their freedom was limited to the private sphere of
the home. Women’s contributions were seen as crucial for the stability and well-being of the family,
though they were not deemed suitable for public or political roles.
●​ Aristotle argued that women should be excluded from political life because they lacked the
necessary leisure and resources to participate effectively. He believed that political engagement
required a certain level of leisure time and economic independence, which women, in his view, did
not possess.
6. Comparison with Other Thinkers:

●​ Plato envisioned gender equality by proposing the abolition of traditional family structures. In
contrast, Aristotle defended the family as essential for moral and social stability. He believed that the
family was necessary for nurturing virtues and ensuring societal cohesion, rejecting Plato’s idea of
communal living that disregarded family bonds.
●​ Later thinkers, such as Rousseau, continued to debate gender roles, often echoing Aristotle’s
stereotypes. However, early liberals like Mary Wollstonecraft and J.S. Mill challenged Aristotle’s
views by advocating for women’s rights and equality. They argued that women should have equal
opportunities in education, employment, and public life, moving beyond Aristotle’s restrictive views.

7. Legacy:

●​ Aristotle’s defense of the family and views on gender roles have influenced many subsequent
thinkers and debates. His ideas contributed to ongoing discussions about gender equality and the
role of the family in society. While his views on women and family were influential, they were also
critiqued and challenged by later philosophers and reformers who sought to promote greater
equality and inclusivity in societal roles.
 Aristotle and Plato on Property and Wealth

1. Importance of Economic Activity: Plato and Aristotle both saw economic activity as essential for
understanding political systems. However, they believed that economic pursuits should be secondary to
political goals. The ultimate aim of politics is to ensure a good and fulfilling life for citizens, while economic
activities are concerned with specific goods and resources needed to achieve this.

2. Aristotle’s Views on Wealth:Aristotle differentiated between two types of wealth acquisition:

○​ Natural Acquisition: This includes activities like hunting, farming, and herding, which are
directly related to fulfilling basic needs. These activities are considered natural because they
are limited by nature and serve essential purposes.
○​ Unnatural Acquisition: This includes activities like retail trade, which Aristotle viewed as
excessive and morally questionable. Retail trade can lead to endless accumulation of
wealth, which he saw as detrimental to the good life.

3. Critique of Retail Trade:

●​ Aristotle criticized retail trade and small-scale business practices because they often fostered greed
and were focused on profit rather than the common good. He believed that the pursuit of wealth
should not override the pursuit of a meaningful and virtuous life.
●​ He preferred ownership of land over engaging in trade and commerce, as land provided a stable
and sufficient means for subsistence and was less likely to lead to the moral corruption he
associated with retail trade.

4. Wealth and Happiness:

●​ Aristotle recognized that material goods are necessary for a good life, but they are not the ultimate
goal. True happiness comes from the well-being of the soul and living a virtuous life, which is more
important than material wealth.
●​ Aristotle distinguished between:
○​ Use-Value: The value of goods based on their practical use and how they meet the
producer's needs, like farming or shoemaking.
○​ Exchange-Value: The value of goods in terms of their ability to be exchanged in the market.
As societies became more complex, products were often created for exchange rather than
direct use, introducing this additional value.

5. Economic Basis of Political Institutions:

●​ Aristotle was among the first to link the distribution of wealth to political stability. He believed that
extreme inequality in wealth could lead to social unrest and revolutions.
●​ While Aristotle supported the concept of private property, he also emphasized the importance of fair
distribution of wealth. He thought a moderate and well-distributed property ownership was beneficial
for maintaining a stable and prosperous state.

6. Historical and Modern Perspectives:

●​ From Aristotle's time to the late 18th century, there was a general consensus that moderate property
ownership was ideal for societal stability. Extreme wealth inequality was often seen as a threat to
social order.
●​ Although Aristotle’s ideas influenced many, later thinkers and movements, like the Levellers, began
to question and challenge some of his assumptions, particularly regarding wealth distribution and
social equity.
[NOTE:In Aristotle's philosophy, virtue refers to moral excellence and the quality of
character that enables a person to live a good and flourishing life. Virtues are traits or
habits that guide a person to act in accordance with reason, leading to ethical behavior.
Aristotle categorizes virtues into two types:

1. Moral Virtues

●​ Moral virtues are habits or dispositions to act in a morally good way. They involve
the proper regulation of desires and emotions. Examples include courage,
temperance (self-control), and justice.
●​ These virtues are developed through practice and habituation. For instance, by
repeatedly acting courageously in challenging situations, a person cultivates the
virtue of courage.

2. Intellectual Virtues

●​ Intellectual virtues are related to the mind and reasoning. They include wisdom,
understanding, and practical wisdom (phronesis).
●​ Unlike moral virtues, intellectual virtues are developed primarily through teaching
and learning. They guide a person in making sound judgments and decisions.

Virtue in the Context of Justice

In the context of Aristotle's discussion on justice:

●​ Virtue is the highest criterion for determining merit, especially in the distribution of
honors and responsibilities within a state.
●​ In an ideal state, those who are most virtuous—those who consistently act according
to reason and uphold moral excellence—are considered the most deserving of
leadership and rewards.
●​ Aristotle believes that a virtuous person contributes the most to the common good,
as their actions are guided by moral principles that benefit the entire community.

Virtue as the Aim of Life

Aristotle argues that the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve eudaimonia (often
translated as "happiness" or "flourishing"), and virtue is the means to achieve this. A
virtuous life is one that fulfills human potential and aligns with reason, leading to true
happiness and fulfillment.

In summary, virtue in Aristotle's philosophy is the excellence of character and intellect that
enables individuals to live good lives, make morally sound decisions, and contribute
positively to society.]
 ARISTOTLE ON JUSTICE

1. Justice as a Virtue

Aristotle considers justice to be the most complete virtue because it encapsulates the way all other virtues
interact within society. Unlike virtues that may benefit only the individual (like courage or wisdom), justice is
always directed towards others. It’s the practice of fairness in all relationships—whether between
individuals, between the state and individuals, or within the state as a whole.

●​ Universal Justice: This refers to the idea that justice should apply universally across all aspects of
life, meaning laws and moral principles should guide how people treat one another in every
situation.

2. Types of Justice

Aristotle breaks down justice into two main types: distributive and rectificatory.

a. Distributive Justice

Distributive justice is about how benefits and burdens (like wealth, honors, and responsibilities) are
distributed among members of society.

●​ Merit-Based Distribution:
○​ In oligarchies, where power is concentrated among the wealthy, merit is often measured by
wealth.
○​ In aristocracies, where a select few rule, merit is determined by virtue—qualities like
wisdom, courage, and justice.
○​ In an ideal state, merit is purely about virtue. The most virtuous people—those who live
according to reason and moral excellence—deserve the most honors and responsibilities.
●​ Social Contributions: Aristotle argues that those who contribute the most to the common good
should receive the highest rewards. In practical terms, this often means that the virtuous elite (an
aristocracy) are seen as the most deserving because they uphold the moral standards and values
that sustain society.
●​ Virtue and Freedom:
○​ Virtue: Aristotle believes that virtue, or moral excellence, is the most important qualification
for leadership. Virtue involves living according to reason and making morally sound
decisions.
○​ Freedom: Aristotle links freedom to justice, defining it as being born free (not a slave) and
being independent. He sees freedom as a prerequisite for participating in political life and
ruling others. This type of freedom ensures that a person is not beholden to others and can
act justly without being influenced by outside pressures.

b. Rectificatory (or Remedial) Justice

This form of justice comes into play when something has gone wrong, such as in cases of theft, fraud, or
breach of contract.

●​ Equality in Treatment: In rectificatory justice, the focus is on restoring balance. For example, if
someone has been wronged or harmed, the judge’s role is to correct that wrong by ensuring fair
compensation or punishment. This type of justice doesn’t consider the social status or virtue of the
individuals involved—everyone is treated equally under the law.
3. Balancing Equality and Inequality

Aristotle recognizes that people are not all the same—some are more virtuous, skilled, or wealthy than
others. He tries to balance the idea of equality with the reality of these differences.

●​ Proportionate Equality:
○​ Instead of giving everyone the same rewards regardless of their contribution (numerical
equality), Aristotle advocates for proportionate equality. This means that people should
receive rewards, responsibilities, and honors in proportion to what they deserve. For
example, someone who contributes significantly to society (like a virtuous leader) should
receive more honors than someone who does less.
●​ Inequality:
○​ Aristotle acknowledges that treating everyone the same (pure equality) can actually be
unjust. For instance, it would be unfair to give the same reward to both a virtuous leader and
a corrupt individual. Inequality, in this sense, is about recognizing that different people have
different capacities, achievements, and roles in society, and justice requires acknowledging
these differences.

4. Application in Society

Aristotle’s ideas on justice aren’t just theoretical—they’re meant to be applied in the real world, balancing
different societal needs.

●​ Integration of Doctrines: Aristotle lived in a time where different groups had competing views on
justice. Democrats believed in numerical equality (everyone counts equally), while oligarchs
believed that those who were superior in one aspect (like wealth) were superior overall and should
have more power. Aristotle tries to reconcile these views by suggesting a system where each group
(the many, the wealthy, and the virtuous) has a role in governance, proportional to their contributions
and merits.
●​ Social Justice:
○​ Proportionate Equality: Aristotle’s approach to distributive justice tries to ensure that
everyone gets what they deserve based on their contributions and merit. This is more fair
than simply giving everyone the same regardless of their abilities or efforts.
○​ Special Privilege: Aristotle justifies some level of inequality (special privileges) by arguing
that it’s fair for those who contribute more to the common good to receive more in return.
This contrasts with the oligarchic view that wealth or noble birth alone justifies greater
rewards.

In summary, Aristotle's concept of justice is about finding a balance between equality and merit. Justice is
central to the well-being of the state, and it involves ensuring that rewards, responsibilities, and rights are
distributed in a way that reflects each person's contributions and merits, rather than treating everyone
exactly the same. This approach allows for a more nuanced and fair distribution of resources and honors in
society.
 Aristotle's Views on Rule of Law and Constitution

●​ Rule of Law vs. Personal Authority:Aristotle firmly believed that laws, when properly established,
should be the ultimate authority in governing society. He argued that personal rule, where a single
person makes decisions, should only be considered if it’s challenging to create laws. Essentially, a
government based on a constitution is more stable and just than one led by an individual because
laws are impartial and apply to everyone equally.
●​ Why Rule of Law is Superior:Aristotle emphasized that laws are less arbitrary because they don’t
depend on the whims of a single person. He stated, "the rule of law is preferable to that of a single
citizen," meaning that even if a wise person leads, they should still be subject to the law rather than
acting above it. This ensures fairness and consistency in governance.
●​ Free Political Relationships:In Aristotle’s ideal political system, both rulers and citizens have
defined legal rights and responsibilities. This means that citizens don’t blindly follow rulers; instead,
they retain their judgment and autonomy. The law provides a framework that gives dignity to both
rulers and citizens, ensuring that authority is exercised fairly and morally.
●​ Constitutional Rule and ConsentA ruler in a constitutional system governs with the consent of the
governed, unlike a dictator who rules through force. This type of governance respects the freedom
and equality of all citizens, as it is based on mutual agreement rather than domination. This mutual
respect creates a political relationship where both rulers and citizens are seen as equals in a moral
sense.
●​ Distinction Between Political and Household Authority:Aristotle criticized Plato for not
distinguishing between political authority (the state) and household authority (the family). He argued
that political authority is based on equality, where all citizens are equal participants in governance.
In contrast, household authority, such as that of a husband over his wife and children, is different
because it’s based on natural inequalities, like a child not being an adult or women being viewed as
inferior.
●​ Constitution as the Identity of the State:For Aristotle, a constitution is not just a set of laws but
the very identity of a political community. It determines how the government is structured, how
power is distributed, and what the community’s goals are. Changing the constitution changes the
very nature of the state, similar to how changing the theme of a performance changes the play, even
if the actors remain the same.
●​ Constitutional Elements:Aristotle identified three essential elements of a constitution:
1.​ Deliberative: Responsible for making major decisions, including foreign policy, laws, and the
election of officials.
2.​ Magisterial: Involves the officials who carry out the decisions made by the deliberative body.
3.​ Judicial: Ensures that laws are applied fairly and justly.
●​ Types of Government:Aristotle classified governments based on who holds power and whether
they govern in the common interest:
➢​ Monarchy: Rule by one for the common good.
➢​ Aristocracy: Rule by a few for the common good.
➢​ Polity: Rule by the many for the common good.
➢​ Tyranny: Rule by one for personal gain.
➢​ Oligarchy: Rule by a few for personal gain.
➢​ Democracy: Rule by the many, often with a focus on the interests of the poor.
●​ Good vs. Perverted Governments:Aristotle believed that the best forms of government aim for the
common good, while perverted forms serve only the rulers’ interests. He acknowledged that
monarchy could be the best form if a virtuous ruler could be found, but he was skeptical about
finding such a ruler in practice. Therefore, he supported constitutional governments where laws,
rather than individuals, hold ultimate power.
●​ Importance of the Middle Class:Aristotle noted that a stable government often depends on a
strong middle class. He saw the middle class as a balancing force that can prevent the extremes of
wealth and poverty from causing social unrest.
●​ Practical Wisdom in Governance:While Aristotle recognized the value of ideal political theories,
he emphasized the importance of understanding what is practical and achievable in real-world
governance. He believed that political systems should balance moral ideals with the realities of
human nature and social conditions.
●​ Moral Purpose of the State:Aristotle viewed the state as a moral institution, with the purpose of
helping citizens develop their moral virtues. He believed that a good state is one that promotes the
best possible life for its citizens, which involves cultivating both their moral and intellectual virtues.
●​ Conclusion:Aristotle's political philosophy highlights the importance of a constitutionally governed
state where laws, not individuals, hold ultimate authority. He emphasized that a just and stable
government is one that serves the common good, respects the equality of its citizens, and is guided
by both moral principles and practical wisdom. This approach ensures that political power is
exercised fairly, promoting a society where citizens can lead fulfilling and virtuous lives.
 ARISTOTLE POLITY

1. Polity vs. Democracy and Oligarchy

Democracy:

●​ In Aristotle’s time, democracy was understood as the rule of the majority. This majority was typically
made up of free-born citizens who were often poor. In a democracy, the common people have
significant power, and political decisions are made based on the majority’s will.
●​ Although the government is controlled by the majority, it does not exclude wealthy or noble
individuals from participating in politics. This inclusivity allows for a broader representation of the
population, but it also risks mob rule, where decisions might be driven by immediate needs or
passions rather than long-term considerations.

Oligarchy:

●​ Oligarchy, on the other hand, is the rule of a few—specifically, the wealthy and noble-born minority.
This system often restricts who can vote or hold office, typically favoring those with property, wealth,
or social status.
●​ Oligarchies often impose qualifications, such as property ownership or wealth, for political
participation. This leads to a concentration of power in the hands of a few, which can result in
policies that favor the rich while neglecting the needs of the broader population.

Polity:

●​ Aristotle’s concept of polity is a blend of democracy and oligarchy. He envisioned it as a “moderate

democracy” or “constitutional government,” which seeks a middle ground between the extremes of
both systems.
●​ In a polity, power is shared more evenly. The government is structured to prevent the dominance of
either the poor majority (as in democracy) or the wealthy minority (as in oligarchy). This balanced
approach helps to create a more stable and just society.

2. Importance of the Middle Class

●​ Aristotle believed that the middle class plays a crucial role in maintaining political stability. The rich,
due to their wealth and privileges, often become arrogant and resist discipline. They might pursue
their interests at the expense of the common good. The poor, on the other hand, might lack the
resources, education, or motivation to participate effectively in governance. They might become
resentful or disengaged.
●​ The middle class, situated between the rich and the poor, embodies the golden mean—a key
concept in Aristotle’s philosophy. They are not so wealthy as to be disconnected from the struggles
of ordinary citizens, nor so poor as to be overwhelmed by their circumstances. This makes them
more likely to support reasonable and moderate policies that contribute to the overall good of
society.
●​ A large and engaged middle class can act as a stabilizing force, preventing the excesses of both the
rich and the poor. By participating in governance, they ensure that neither extreme dominates,
leading to more balanced and sustainable policies.
3. Equality and Consensus

●​ Aristotle valued the idea of equality in governance, but not in the modern sense of absolute equality.
For him, equality meant a balance where no single class dominates the others. In a polity, the
middle class ensures that both the interests of the rich and the poor are considered, creating a more
equitable distribution of power.
●​ This form of equality is achieved through moderation, where no one group has too much power. The
middle class, being in the middle, naturally promotes this balance, which is crucial for maintaining
social harmony.
●​ Consensus:Consensus in Aristotle’s polity means that different groups in society agree on the
fundamental principles of governance. The middle class is key to achieving this consensus because
they are more likely to understand and appreciate the perspectives of both the rich and the poor.
●​ The middle class, according to Aristotle, is more civil and reasonable. They are capable of both
ruling and being ruled, meaning they can govern effectively while also respecting the laws and
decisions of others. This dual ability helps to smooth the rough edges in society, fostering
cooperation and reducing conflict.

4. Balanced Approach:

●​ Aristotle’s polity is characterized by a balanced, cautious approach to governance. Unlike more

idealistic or radical systems, it does not aim for perfection but for practicality. This makes it more
adaptable and enduring in the real world, where extremes often lead to instability and conflict.
●​ Aristotle drew inspiration from historical models, particularly the government of Athens in 411 BC,
when democracy was temporarily replaced by a more mixed form of government. This period
showed the potential benefits of a balanced approach, where power is shared and no single group
dominates.
●​ In polity, Aristotle sought to combine the best aspects of various social elements—freedom, wealth,
culture, noble birth, and numerical strength (majority rule). This combination ensures that the
government is neither too elitist nor too populist, promoting a more just and stable society.

5.Popper’s Critique:

●​ Mixed State: Philosopher Karl Popper viewed Aristotle’s best state as a compromise between
different political ideals. According to Popper, Aristotle’s polity blends elements of a romantic
Platonic aristocracy, a balanced feudalism, and some democratic ideas. However, Popper believed
that the feudal aspects, such as the emphasis on noble birth and the exclusion of certain groups,
were more dominant in Aristotle’s vision.
●​ Exclusion of Certain Groups: One of the main criticisms of Aristotle’s polity is its exclusion of
certain groups, such as slaves and manual laborers, from citizenship. Like Plato, Aristotle believed
that the ruling class should not engage in manual labor or money-making activities. He argued that
these activities would distract them from their primary duty—governing the state. As a result, he
justified the right of a leisured, wealthy class to rule, while others were excluded from political
participation.

In summary, Aristotle’s concept of polity is a practical and balanced approach to governance that seeks to
combine the best aspects of democracy and oligarchy. By empowering a strong middle class, it aims to
create a stable and just society where power is shared and no single group dominates. However, his
exclusion of certain groups from citizenship reflects the limitations of his vision and has been a point of
criticism.
 Aristotle's Concept of Citizenship

1. Central Theme in Political Analysis: Aristotle placed citizenship at the heart of his political theory
because he believed that a government should be based on laws and equality, unlike Plato, who focused
more on the idea of rule by philosophers. Aristotle saw political authority as something shared among
equals, not just a select group. Since humans are naturally social and political beings, it was only natural for
people to seek political roles in society.

2. Definition of Citizenship: For Aristotle, a state is made up of its citizens. However, not everyone living
in the state is a citizen. Residents like aliens (foreigners) and slaves shared the same living space but
weren't considered citizens. Citizenship wasn't about where you lived or simply having certain legal rights,
like suing someone. A true citizen, in Aristotle's view, was someone who had the right to participate in
political decisions and hold public office, exercising these rights effectively within the laws of the state.

3. Who Qualifies as a Citizen: Aristotle believed that citizenship was for those who could contribute to the
polis (city-state) by being part of its decision-making processes. He excluded the young (who were
immature), the elderly (who were too weak), women (whom he believed lacked the necessary deliberative
abilities), and the working class (who he thought lacked the leisure and capability for political duties).
Citizenship, according to Aristotle, was also a privilege that could be inherited, much like Plato's view.

4. Ideal Size of a Citizen Body: Aristotle argued that the citizen body should be compact and tightly-knit,
where everyone knew each other well enough to settle disputes and choose leaders effectively. He
criticized Plato's idea that a citizen body of 5000 was ideal, as it would be too large and spread out, making
effective governance difficult. In a smaller, more intimate community, the quality of citizenship would be
higher because people would be more engaged and aware of each other's abilities.

5. Characteristics of a Good Citizen: A good citizen, according to Aristotle, is someone who lives in
harmony with the constitution of the state and has enough free time to fulfill their civic duties. Aristotle also
emphasized the importance of diversity within the citizen body, as differing interests, when balanced, lead
to good governance. A good citizen would possess moral virtue, which would enable them to contribute
selflessly to the community, leading to a cooperative and stable civic life.

6. Citizenship as a Privileged Bond: Aristotle saw citizenship as a special bond among those who
actively participated in public life. It was not a right that could be claimed by just anyone, but a status that
was jealously guarded by those who held it. Citizenship came with responsibilities that had to be taken on
with pride, not just rights to be demanded.

7. Education for Citizenship: Both Plato and Aristotle believed that proper education was key to good
citizenship and was a solution to the corruption and instability of their times. They criticized the casual
approach of the Athenian state towards educating its citizens and advocated for state-controlled education.
Plato focused on training rulers in self-sacrifice and the ruled in obedience, while Aristotle believed that
education should be tailored to the type of government, ensuring that citizens were well-prepared to fulfill
their roles effectively.

By breaking down Aristotle's views on citizenship, we see that he emphasized the importance of active
participation, moral virtue, and a well-educated citizenry in maintaining a stable and just political community.
 Aristotle's Views on Revolution

1. Stability vs. Change: Aristotle was deeply concerned with how to maintain stability in a state. Unlike
Plato, who viewed change as inherently negative, Aristotle believed that change was natural and could
even lead to improvement. For Aristotle, change wasn't something to fear; it was a movement towards a
better state of being, much like how an embryo grows into an adult.

2. The Nature of Change: Aristotle thought that everything in the world has a purpose or potential within it,
guiding its development. For example, an acorn has the potential to become an oak tree, and its growth is
driven by this inner purpose. Similarly, societies evolve towards better forms of governance, and this
evolution is driven by their inherent potential, not just by external forces.

3. Causes of Revolution: Aristotle identified three broad categories of causes for revolutions:

●​ Psychological Factors: People's feelings and desires, such as the desire for equality in an
oligarchy (rule by the few) or for greater power in a democracy (rule by the many), can lead to
instability.
●​ Objectives: Goals like profit, honor, or revenge can drive revolutionary movements. For example, if
a group feels they're not receiving their fair share of wealth or recognition, they might push for
change.
●​ Occasions: Specific events or circumstances, such as insults, fear, or a significant imbalance in
power, can spark revolutionary actions.

4. How Constitutions Change: Aristotle observed that revolutions could either completely change a state's
constitution or simply shift the balance of power within the existing system. For example, an oligarchy could
become more or less oligarchic, or a democracy could become more or less democratic. Revolutions could
also target specific institutions or individuals without altering the overall form of government.

5. Causes and Remedies in Different Forms of Government:

●​ Democracy: Instability often arises from demagogues (leaders who appeal to people's emotions
rather than reason) who incite the poor against the rich. The remedy is to ensure that the poor have
a stake in the government, such as the right to vote, to reduce their dissatisfaction.
●​ Oligarchy: In oligarchies, oppression of the masses and infighting among the elite lead to instability.
To prevent this, rulers should ensure that the masses have some level of participation and that the
ruling elite maintain good relations with each other.
●​ Aristocracy: Instability occurs when the ruling class becomes too exclusive or unjust. Aristocracies
should maintain a balance between the interests of the rich and the poor, ensuring fairness and
preventing any group from feeling excluded or unfairly treated.
●​ Monarchy: Monarchies are prone to sedition due to fear, contempt, and the desire for fame. To
prevent revolution, monarchs should foster obedience to the law, avoid listening to corrupt advisors,
and promote a sense of loyalty among their subjects.

6. Practical Measures to Prevent Revolutions: Aristotle offered several practical remedies to maintain
stability:

●​ Balance of Power: A stable government needs to balance oligarchic and democratic elements. No
one group should dominate or feel excluded.
●​ Education and Propaganda: Governments should educate citizens about the importance of laws
and the constitution, promoting respect for the legal system and the value of justice.
●​ Fair Distribution of Honours and Offices: Honors and political offices should be distributed
gradually and fairly to prevent any one person or group from becoming too powerful too quickly.
 ●​ Spy Systems and Public Works: In tyrannies, stability can be maintained by dividing classes,
employing spies to monitor dissent, and engaging in public works to keep the population busy and
content.

7. Qualities of Good Leaders: For Aristotle, leaders should possess three key qualities to maintain
stability:

●​ Loyalty to the Constitution: Leaders must be committed to upholding the established constitution
and laws.
●​ Administrative Ability: Leaders should be capable administrators, able to manage the state's
affairs effectively.
●​ Integrity and Justice: Leaders should be morally upright and just, ensuring that their decisions are
fair and in line with the common good.

Aristotle believed that by adhering to these principles and balancing the different elements of society, a
state could prevent unnecessary revolutions and maintain long-term stability.
 Conclusion

●​ Aristotle is rightly regarded as a foundational figure in political science because he defined the core
elements of politics, such as the rule of law, constitutionalism, moderation, proportional equality, and
the causes and remedies for revolution. He believed that a stable and balanced political system,
particularly one led by a strong middle class, was the most practical and enduring.
●​ In his work Politics, Aristotle explored these concepts in depth, not as a single book, but as a
collection of essays and lecture notes. His approach was empirical and based on observation,
contrasting with Plato's more abstract metaphysical ideas. Aristotle's method involved gathering
data from observations and common opinions, leading to theories that emerged from analyzing
different perspectives.
●​ Aristotle believed that change was a natural and necessary process, moving towards a
predetermined end. He viewed the world as composed of systems that could be understood and
explained through their structure and function. Unlike Plato, who saw change as a decline from an
ideal, Aristotle saw it as a progression toward a purpose.
●​ He argued that the best state was one that achieved its true nature, with individuals finding
happiness and the state achieving self-sufficiency. Aristotle believed that ethics and politics were
closely linked, with ethics focusing on the virtues of a good individual and politics on creating
institutions that allowed people to realize their potential.
●​ Aristotle favored a mixed constitution, where elements of oligarchy and democracy were balanced
to create stability. He also defended the rule of law as essential for maintaining order and justice.
His ideas on political structure, such as the importance of the middle class, have influenced many
thinkers throughout history, including figures like Smith, Cicero, Aquinas, and Machiavelli.
●​ Although Aristotle's ideas were criticized and even attacked by later thinkers, his influence persisted.
His concepts of proportional equality, the rule of law, and the role of the middle class in politics have
shaped political thought for centuries. Despite his defense of practices like slavery and the
subordination of women, which reflect the limitations of his time, Aristotle's work remains a
cornerstone of Western political philosophy.
●​ Aristotle's legacy endures not because he belonged to any particular school of thought, but because
of the depth and breadth of his insights. He laid the groundwork for political science, and his ideas
continue to be a reference point for discussions on governance, ethics, and society. For these
reasons, Aristotle is honored as "the master to those who know," a pioneer whose contributions to
political science are still revered today.