THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD UNIT 4 A WORLD OF REGIONS

LESSON 12 GLOBAL DIVIDES

At the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1. Identify perspective in global stratification;
2. Discuss the concept of global divides; and
3. Review some historical antecedents relating to the understanding of the
global divide.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Global divides global disparities, often due to stratification due to differing
economic influence but can also be in other aspects of globalization.

INTRODUCTION
Across history, there have been many manifestation of stratification in different
societies. Social stratification is essentially the phenomenon of segregating,
grouping, and ranking people based on differancences in class, race economic
status and other categories. In earlie civilization, we hear of nobilities and
commoners, the lord in the peasants, and many other statuses and positions
that embody hierarchy of power in a social system. Unfortunately, in the
contemporary world, these hierarchies remain to exist, albeit, in different
forms.

PERSPECTIVE IN GLOBAL STRATIFICATION

There are various theories which attempts to explain the dynamics and impacts
of stratification among people in the world, especially in the context of their
power to tap on resources and maximize these towards development and toward
having a better quality of life. One of the theoties attempting to explain that
ways of development is modernization theory. in a nushell, this theory suggests
that societies
undergo a similar process of evaluation from agricultural, industial, and
urbanized and modern that is motivated and catalyzed by internal
factors. It hints that more that external influences, internal processes within
states are responsible for social change. For instance, it opines that a well
functioning bureucracy that will ensure welfare among citizens is a necessar
infrastusture to achieve development. It also assumes that when these internal
sources of development - e.g., education, marketdriven economy, and political
infrastructure are present, anysociety will progress and poverty will be
resolved. The dependency theories suggest the countries are either “core” (I.e.,
developed) or “peripheral” (I.e., developing) such that resources tend
to flow from peripheries to the core. A related theory discussed in earlier
lessons is that of wallerstein(1975), speaking about a world system composed
of boundaries, stuctures, member groups, rules of legitimation, and coherence.
This world system is assumed to “comprises a single capitalist world-economy”

GLOBAL DIVIDE
In the conmenporary world, the buzz word used to pertain to these stratification
among nation us the term global divide. But, in the modern world, how did we
reach this point?

FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD WORLDS

After world war II, the united states and the soviet union< which were
wartime allies, entered a cold war- a state of political tension and rivalry, from
the mid 1940s to early 1990s. several contemporary works have reviewed this
event in the light of post-war events. This include the writings of gaddis(2005),
zubok(2007), westad(2017), among others. In a nutshell, the cold war came
forth due to political doubts among wartime allies. For instance, the united
states has always been wary6 dof the soviet union’s .communies leanings, and
it has stated its position to contains the latter’s expansion. The cold war yield
two chief political factions: the western bloc, comprised by the
industrial/capitalist US and the north atlantic alliance (NATO), which include
united kingdom, canada, france, italy and among others; and the eastern
bloc(albania, poland, bulgaria, romania, czechoslovakia, hungary, and
afganistan), led by the communist/socialist russian soviet federative socialist
republic. The western bloc has been referred to as first world countries, while
the eastern bloc has been referred to as second world countries.
THE BRANDT REPORT AND ITS CRITICISM

In the 1980s, a comprehensive analysis of global economy was reported by the

independent commition development issues. And the commision was led by
williy brandt, west german chancellor. This analysis was encapsulated in what
is popularly known as the brandt report. Briefly, this report categorized
countries in the northern hemisphere as comparatively smaller in population
and more economically affluent that countries in the southern hemisphere a
categorization that give birth to the brandt line an an imaginary line that
divides the world into the developed north and the developing south. The
bottom line of this report was the contention on mutually that for both the
northern and southern countries to thrive, global economy must be restructed,
for instance but transferring resources to southerneconomies, thus ending
poverty. In the early 2000s, in another report, the brandt equation, was
prepered by james bernard quiligan, descriving the new global economy as
facing “financial contagion”, and requiring “major international relief program
(quilligan, 2010, p. 3). Daniel sneider(1980), in a special report in EIR news
service inc., summarized the contentions of the brandt report (p. 27): - “one
world economic system” that govern even countries’ taxation of certain items -
“zero growth and malthusianism” which suggests that controlling
overpopulation will cure underdevelopment -”basic needs and appropriate
technology”:, focusing on labor that technology -”promotion of solar energy” -
“strengthen the IMF/World bank system”
THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD UNIT 4 A WORLD OF REGIONS
LESSON 13 GLOBAL SOUTH

➢ Abstract

“The Global South, therefore, continues to be imagined and re-imagined by

those who dominate it even as movements from below reshape these construction
through resistance.”

- Lisandro Claudio “Locating the Global South”

The Global South is a complex and dynamic region characterized by historical

and contemporary inequalities. The term "Global South" is a contested and
evolving concept, encompassing a diverse group of countries with varying levels
of economic development, political systems, and cultural traditions. Despite
these differences, the Global South shares a common history of colonialism,
imperialism, and underdevelopment. This highlights the key issues confronting
the Global South, including economic inequality, political instability,
environmental degradation, and dependence on the Global North. It also
discusses the region's potential and the role of emerging economies in reshaping
the global balance of power.

➢ Learning Objectives
➢ At the end of the lesson, the student should or be able to.
1. Discuss the ever-changing concept of the Global South.
2. Identify the countries which are commonly associated with the Global
South; and
3. Survey the political and economic condition in contemporary Latin
America.

➢ Definition of Terms

Global South - A term used to characterize the countries generally located in

the southern hemisphere. Often associated with the former colonies and
countries that have faced historical inequalities; like lower levels of economic
development, industrialization and higher degree of dependency on the Global
North.

Global North - A term often used to associate with former colonial powers
and countries with significant economic and technological resources that are
characterized by higher levels of economic activity, industrialization, and
political influence that generally consists of countries located in the northern
hemisphere.

Brandt Line - A term proposed by the former west german chancellor willy
brandt in the 1980s. It represents the economic and political divide between
developed and developing countries. While it was used as a general indicator to
the countries, it’s important to note that it’s an oversimplification and doesn’t
account for all the complexities and exceptions of each country.

Geopolitics - A study of how the geographical factors like location, climate,

and natural resources influence the politics and the international relations. It
examines how these factors shapes the nation's power, security, and foreign
policy.

➢ Introduction: The Global North and Global South

➢ Origin of the Global South and Global North.

The term Global South and North was popularized by the person named Carl
Oglesby an American writer, Academic, and Political Activist in 1969. He
used the term “Global South” to describe the countries that were subject to the
dominance of the “Global North” which emerged as a counterpart to the Global
South, to represent those developed countries that often hold a significant
political and economic power on the world stage.
It’s also important to note that while Carl Oglesby is credited with popularizing
the term Global South and North, the concept of divide between developed and
developing countries has been around for much longer. For example, the Brandt
Line, Proposed in the 1980s to visually represent the division in each
country.

➢ Defining Global North and Global South.

The Terms “Global North” and “Global South” are used to categorized
based on their economic status, political power, and development levels.
Generally, the Global North comprises the developed countries like North
America Region, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and parts of Asia, while the
Global South encompasses developing countries in Africa, Latin America, Asia,
and Oceania. In contrast to the Global North, nations in the Global South often
face challenges such as lower levels or industrialization, developing economies,
political instability, and lower standards of living. Many of these countries were
former colonies that are continuing to grapple with the legacies of colonialism.
On the other hand the Global North typically possesses high levels of
industrialization, advanced economic development, strong political systems, and
a high standard of living. They often hold significant influence on global politics
and economics.

It’s also important to note that these terms are generalizations, and many
countries exhibit characteristics of both the Global North and South.
Additionally, the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, making these
divisions less rigid over time.

➢ The Ever-Changing Concept of the Global South.

The concept of the Global South is far from static. Initially, it was a broad
categorization of countries experiencing underdevelopment and dependency on
the Global North. However, the world has evolved in many different ways, and
so has the definition and the composition of the Global South. What are the
several factors that can contribute to this dynamic concept? The concepts like
the Economical Growth, Geopolitical Shifts, Internal Diversification, and the
Criticism of the Term

For Example in the Economical Growth; The rise of emerging economies like
Brazil, India, and China has challenged the traditional Global North-South
Division and the other countries in the Global South like the Middle East,
North Africa, East Asia, Pacific, Latin America, Caribbean, South Asia, and
Sub-Saharan Africa has also shown improvement in the past couple of years.
Some of these countries, while experiencing challenges, have achieved a
significant economical growth, reducing their reliance on the Global North.

Also in the Geopolitical Shifts and Internal Diversification; The Global power
dynamics are constantly changing in the past couple of years challenged the
traditional Global North-South Division. Adding to that the decline of the
Western Hegemony and the rise of Multipolarity have impacted the Global
South’s position in the World Order. On the other hand the Global South is not
a homogenous region. Within this region, there are vast disparities in terms of
economic development, political stability, and cultural diversity. This internal
heterogeneity makes it increasingly difficult to apply a single label to all
countries in the South.

Also the term itself has been subjected to criticism for being too simplistic and
potentially perpetuating stereotypes. Some economists argued that it obscures
the complexities and diversities within the region.

As a result of these factors, the Global South is a complex and multifaceted

concept. While it remains a useful analytical tool to many economists, it is
essential to recognize its limitations and to avoid generalizations. A more
nuanced understanding of the region requires considering the specificities of
individual countries and their unique trajectories.
➢ Countries Commonly Associated with the Global
South.

The Global South is a broad categorization, and there’s no definitive list of

countries that belongs to it. However based on the general economic growth,
political system, and social indications. The following regions and countries
are often associated with the Global South: are the regions in the entire Africa,
most countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Nations in Asia except for
Japan, South Korean, Singapore, an the oil-rich Gulf States, Nations in
Oceania but the nations like Australia and New Zealand are generally
excluded, while the other nations in Pacific Island are included.

It’s also important to note the notable countries like Brazil, India, China,
South Africa, Nigeria, Mexico, Indonesia, Philippines, Argentina, and
Colombia. Those countries are essential to remember in the Global South.
Those Nations have experienced significant economical growth and
development, while the other countries are still continuing to experience
significant challenges.

➢ Political and Economic Condition in Contemporary

Latin America.

The Latin American countries' region presents a complex and diverse

pictures in terms of political and economical conditions. While there are periods
of progress and stability, the regions still continues to face significant
challenges especially in the Political Landscape and Economical Conditions.

The Democratization in Most Latin American countries have been transitioned

to democratic governance, though the quality of democracy in those nations still
varies significantly, because of the Inequality and Social Unrest in those
countries: Persistent social and economic inequality has been a fuel in social
unrest and protest in several countries .
Also the increasing Populist and Leftist Movements in the region has witnessed
a resurgence of of populist and leftist leaders, often promising to address
inequality and corruption. With this increasing movements had faced a Security
Challenges because of the Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, and Violence
remain a pressing issues in many Latin American Countries.

The Economical Conditions like the Economic Growth in the region has also
experienced a period of robust economic growth the good example to this is the
two major trades the “Alianza de Pacifico” and the “Mecosur” in 2016, but it
has also been affected by the economical crises and volatility that remains a
challenge in the Latin American Countries. Income inequality remains a
significant challenge, with a small wealthy elite and a large population living in
poverty.

The Dependency on Commodities in many Latin American economies has

always relied heavily on commodity exports, making them vulnerable to price
fluctuations in the global market. While there has been a progress in
Infrastructure, Development and Social Services in the region those areas has
still continues to face as a significant challenges in the Latin American
Countries.

Overall, Latin American countries are a region in contrast to some countries to

have made significant strides in economic and political development, while
others continue to face substantial challenges. The region's future will continue
to depend on its ability to address inequality, strengthen democratic
institutions, and diversify its economies.

➢ Summary Conclusion

The Global North and Global South are terms used to categorize countries
based on their economic development, political influence, and social conditions.
The Global North generally consists of developed countries, while the Global
South includes developing nations. However, these terms are oversimplifications
as the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, and many countries
exhibit characteristics of both.

The concept of the Global South is dynamic and evolving due to factors like
economic growth, geopolitical shifts, and internal diversity. While there's no
definitive list, regions like Africa, Latin America, and most of Asia are often
associated with it.

Latin America is a diverse region within the Global South. It has experienced
periods of progress and challenges in terms of democratization, economic
development, and social equality. The region faces issues like inequality,
corruption, and economic volatility.

In Conclusion, the Global South represents of a complex and heterogeneous

group of countries that continues to undergo various stages of development and
face distinct challenges like economic and political growth.
UNIT 4: LESSON 14 ASIAN REGIONALISM

Lesson Objectives:

1. Define Regionalism:

2. Identify factors influencing regionalism in Asia: and

3. Understand how Asian nations deal with Globalization and Regionalism.

Definition of Term

● Regionalism - strengthened collective identity in a conglomerate of nations

occupying a particular geographical area or aiming at shared goals; increase in
economic exchanges in a particular area.

Introduction

Amidst globalization, another phenomenon isbecoming more apparent:

regionalism. Tanaka and Inoguchi (1996), articulated that after the Cold War,
the relations between nations have been dynamic and unique as characterized
by the following:

First, Countries tend to rely on global platforms such as the United Nations in
resolving regional conflicts, thus paving the way for the emergence of
peacekeeping initiatives and regional trade alliances. Nations nowadays become
more aggregable, as indicated by less profound armed conflicts and wars among
nations. Conflicts between nations are still present (e.g. territorial disputes.)
These territorial disputes have implications on assertion of political powers in a
certain region. In the past, conflicts could have been resolved outright by bloody
wars, but in the contemporary world, nations are using diplomatic means to
mitigate the possibility of wars.

Second is the emergence of regional cooperation among countries to achieve

political and economic goals. Countries have become more open to collaborate
with other countries in terms of economic and human development.
Lastly, nations' commitment to their cultural identities. Huntington (1996)
argues that in the post-Cold War, there has been a shift from Western
countries to groups of nations with similar cultural identities. Nations are
becoming more committed to other nations with the cultural identity they
share. Hettne (1996) argued that regionalism has two faces: The old and the
new. Old Regionalism New Regionalism Bipolar such that it was produced in a
schism between opposing political alliances. Multipolar as it is open for
multilateral engagement and collaborations among countries. Imposed by the
superpowers. Spontaneous and sought voluntarily by constituents. Secures
economic security within alliances. Open in as much as it is multipolar. Specific
to economic and political objectives. Comprehensive and multidimensional
(political, cultural, economic, social). Focused only on nation-states. Involves
non-state actors.

Hettne also suggested that regioness as a concept has varying degrees.

● Region as a geographical unit - A regioncan be construed as a place, as a

physical environment. For example, we can determine Asia as a region based on
the land and water boundaries surrounding it.

● Region as a social system - A region can be construed as a conglomerate of

people occupying a particular space and possessing unique dynamics of
interaction. For instance, we can determine Asia as a region based on the group
of people occupying it and the shared ancestry, language, and culture these
people have.

● Region as organized cooperation - A region can be construed as a group

ofnations who agree to take part and form a formal organization. For instance,
Southeast Asia is a region within Asia, and it has been formalized through
memberships in the Association of SouthEast Asian Nations or ASEAN.

● Region as civil society - A region can be construed as a network of cultural

and social linkages among countries who voluntarily take part in a cooperation
among nations.

● Region as an acting subject - A region can be construed as a group of nations

concerned about peace, welfare, and prosperity of its people.

Asian Regionalism : There are many regions in the world where regionalism
can be observed. Asia is among these regions where regional cooperation is
emergent and becoming more influential. Asia is the largest and most populated
continent in the world. Geographically, it is separated from the European
continent by the Urals, from Africa by the Suez Canal, from North America by
the Bering Strait (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012). It comprises
distinct regions such as:

Coastal Regions: Some Countries Overview, Central Asia Kazakhstan,

Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan ; Important in the Silk Road
trade (Roman Empire and China)

East Asia China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South
Korea, Taiwan; Cradle of ancient civilizations - China, Japan, and Mongolia

South Asia Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan, India,Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the

Maldives, Nepal; High population density; cradle of Indian civilization

Southeast Asia Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,

Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor Leste, Vietnam Located in the
Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire; historically the goal destination of the European
expeditions that search for spice

Middle East Armenia,Azerbaijan,Bahrain,Cyprus,Georgia,Israel, Iran,Iraq,

Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Oman,Palestine,Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria,Turkey,
United Arab Emirates,Yemen; Many are arid desert regions but serve as
gateways to major bodies of water in the world.

Asia has been the cradle of several ancient civilizations, such as the Chinese
and Indian civilizations. It has also been the home of influential cultural,
philosophical, and religious movements. Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity,
Buddhism, Taoism, and other oriental philosophies and religions generally
originated from an Asian country and have proliferated around the globe. In the
contemporary world, Asia has become an economic force characterized by
reduced poverty and fast pace economic development (Asian Development
Bank, 2008). Dynamic of Asian Regionalism

In 2008, the Asian Development Bank identified some factors that are
influential in the growing integration at that time.

● Enhanced dialogue between citizens of various nations - This is facilitated by

growing tourism activities in the regions and the consistent multilateral
meetings among leaders of nation-states.

● Expanding intraregional trade and investments - This brings forth closer

financial markets and interdependent economies.

● Increased connectivity - This is facilitated by regional infrastructure projects

as well as collaboration in delivering public goods.

Benefits of Asian Integration

● It harnesses the strengths of diverse economies.

● It provides a platform for connecting financial markets (reduced capital,

shared risks).

● It makes the economy more resilient to global risks.

● It pools resources.

● It creates regional mechanisms for safety and security.

Challenges

● The need to establish compatible product standards.

● The need to establish guidelines that buffer financial contagion and ensure
compatible financial regulations.

● The need to coordinate macroeconomic policies.

● The need to manage cross-border environmental and social policies (e.g.. fair

treatment of migrant workers).

Amidst challenges and criticisms, cooperations in the Asian region remain to

exist, in principle, to serve the goals of its members. These cooperations are as
follows:
● APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation)

● EAS (East Asian Summit)

● APc (Asia Pacific community)

● EAC (East Asian Community)

● ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

● APT (ASEAN Plus Three)

SUMMARY

In a globalized world, where open and multilateral affairs are seemingly

possible, nations are feeling the need to be more connected to nations with
similar goals and identities. The question as to whether regionalism and
globalization are compatible with one another remains to be answered. The
answer will continue to unfold as regional cooperations continue to emerge and
deal with issues within their shared geopolitical and socio economic spheres.
LESSON 15

LESSON OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. revisit the history of the ASEAN;

2. explain ASEAN Integration; and

3. discuss the ASEAN Economic and Socio-Cultural Blueprint.

Introduction

"The fragmented economies of Southeast Asia," he said, "(with) each country

pursuing its own limited objectives and dissipating its meager resources in the
overlapping or even conflicting endeavors of sister states carry the seeds of
weakness in their incapacity for growth and their self-perpetuating dependence
on the advanced, industrial nations. ASEAN, therefore, could marshal the still
untapped potentials of this rich region through more substantial united action."
-Narciso Ramon, previous Philippine Secretary of Foreign Affairs and one of
the five founding fathers of ASEAN When discussing about Asian regionalism,
one cannot veer away from Discussing the evolution and dynamics of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). In the early 1960s, there
was already an emerging organization among Philippines, Thailand, and the
Republic of Malaya in what was called the Association of Southeast Asia
(ASA). It was established in July 31, 1961 by Thanat Khoman (Thailand),
Felixberto Serrano (Philippines), and Tunku Abdul Raman (Malaya). While the
articulated goal of this regionalism process was In 1963, another confederation
was formed, convened by then President Diosdado Macapagal. This was
referred to as MAPHILINDO (Great Malayan Confederation), involving
Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia, which aimed to unite "nations of Malay
origins." This did not last very long and was terminated by Indonesia-Malaysia
Konfrontasi-the former's policy arguing against the formation of the Federation
of Malaysia (Weatherbee et al., 2005).

Four years after, representatives from Indonesia and Singapore, with those
from three ASA member states, engaged in informal discussions in a coastal
resort in Bang Saen, where they formulated the idea of a Southeast Asian
cooperation. Thus, in August 8, 1967, these foreign ministers sat down in
Bangkok, Thailand and signed the ASEAN Declaration. Also referred to as the
Founding Fathers of ASEAN, the five ministers present were Adam Malik
(Indonesia), Narciso R. Ramos (Philippines), Tun Abdul Razak (Malaysia), S.
Rajaratnam (Singapore), and Thanat Khoman (Thailand). The ASEAN Was
ASEAN a necessary trajectory to take among Southeast Asian nations?
Thanat Khoman (1992), one of the founding fathers, articulated why SEA
needed an organization for cooperation. First, the cooperation will repel new
colonial powers from stepping in after old colonizers withdrew. Second, it is
strategic to work with neighbors, with shared interest and identity, than with
allies from distant lands (e.g., SEATO). Third, harnessing the strengths of
member states will provide an advantage in dealing with bigger powers in
potential conflicts. Most importantly, cooperation and integration enable
achievement of goals which could be not accomplished alone. S. Rajaratnam
(1992) profoundly describe what sets ASEAN apart from its Asian
counterparts. He said: To compare ASEAN with the so-called Little Dragons of
Asia is to compare unrelated political species. The Little Dragons are lone
wolves hunting separately. They lack collective strength or awareness. With
them it is a case of each wolf for itself. In the case of ASEAN, as integration
proceeds, its strength will be the cohesiveness of over 300 million people with
far greater resources than any of the lone baby dragons. The Little Dragons of
Asia he was referring here were the economies of Hong Kong, Singapore,
South Korea, and Taiwan, which, at that time, was experiencing fast-paced
industrialization and economic growth.

PRINCIPLE OF ASEAN

The principles of the ASEAN are enshrined in the ASEAN Declaration

(1967), also referred to as Bangkok Declaration. The opening section of the
Declaration provided a situationer of SEA's geopolitical and economic affairs at
that time:
•Existence of shared problems and interests
•Need for unity and cooperation
•Shared aspirations and ideals ("peace, progress, and prosperity")
•Shared responsibility for "economic and social responsibility"
•Presence of foreign bases as temporary and with "concurrence from countries
concerned"
The following section contains the declarations, as follows:

•Establishment of ASEAN
•An articulation of the aims and purpose of ASEAN
•A list of strategies and mechanisms to enable the achievement of the goals
•A statement of openness for membership
•Anarticulation of ASEAN as a collective representation of member states
August 8, 1967 (Bangkok) Founding principles, aims and goals, and general
mechanism.

ASEAN Declaration November 27, 1971 (Kuala Lumpur) Zone of Peace,

Freedom and Neutrality Declaration Articulation of intention to ensure freedom
from any external inference and to widen platform for cooperation. February
24, 1976 (Bali) Declaration of ASEAN Concord Adoption of a program of
action for ASEAN cooperation; emphasis on the elimination of poverty and
related social ills as well as the intensification of member state support in times
of natural calamities. February 24, 1976 (Bali) Treaty of Amity and
Cooperation in Southeast Asia A peace treaty to ensure peaceful conflict
resolution, non-interference, non-violence, and mutual respect and cooperation.
December 15, 1987 (Manila) Manila Declaration Reaffirms commitment to
previous declarations and accord. July 22, 1992 (Manila) ASEAN Declaration
on the South China Sea Calls for a peaceful approach in solving issues on the
South China Sea, with reference to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia (1976) and for exploration on possible cooperation in ensuring
safety in the area July 22, 1992 (Manila) Calls for a moratorium on availment,
development, and use of nuclear weapon in the SEA and provides a set of
protocols for monitoring compliance Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear-
Weapon-Free Zone (Bangkok Treaty) December 15, 1997 (Kuala Lumpur)
ASEAN Vision 2020 Reaffirmation of commitment to Bangkok Declaration
(1967) and re-articulation of the aspirations of the Kuala Lumpur Declaration
(1971); a call for "Partnership in Dynamics Development" and forging "A
Community of Caring Societies" November 5, 2001 (Bandar Seri Begawan)
Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism Condemnation of terrorist
attacks, expression of sympathy to families and victims of terrorism, rejection
of linking terrorism to religion or race, and commitment to counter any terrorist
acts October 7-8, 2003 (Bali) Declaration of ASEAN Concord ll (Bali Concord)
Establishing an ASEAN Community with three pillars: "political and security
cooperation, economic cooperation, and socio-cultural cooperation" ASEAN
Convention on Counter Terrorism (ACCT) Recalls the "Declaration on Joint
Action to Counter Terrorism" (2001); defines criminal acts of terrorism based
on existing policy instruments Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the
Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015 Re-articulation of
commitment to ASEAN Vision 2020 and the Declaration of ASEAN Concord
II (2003) Declaration of the ASEAN Economic Blueprint Adoption of the
ASEAN Economic Blueprint ASEAN Socio-Cultural Blueprint 2025 Joint
Declaration of the ASEAN DefenceM inisters on Promoting Defence
Cooperation for a Dynamic ASEAN Community Commitment to the ASEAN
motto: "One Vision, One Identity and One Caring and Sharing Community"
January 13, 2007 (Cebu) January 13, 2007 (Cebu) November 20, 2007
(Singapore) November 22, 2015 (Kuala Lumpur) May 25, 2016 (Vientiane)

The ASEAN +3 Cooperation

In 1997, a summit was held in Malaysia among member states of the ASEAN
and three other countries-China, Japan, and South Korea-as a necessary
dialogue due to the financial turmoil at that time (Yang Yi, 2017). This led to a
formalized cooperation- ASEAN +3-through a joint statement issues in 1999
during the 3rd

ASEAN +3 summit held in Manila.

In nutshell, the commitments in this cooperation focus on issues on energy,
transport, and technology. ASEAN Integration in simpler terms, we can look at
integration as a pathway toward unificatio in various spheres-political,
economic, and social. Some theorists suggest that integration is made possible
by certain conditions such as increased level of social interaction (Deutsch,
1953) and shared ideological patterns amidst a diverse society experiencing
fast-paced economic growth (Haas, 1964).

In the case of the ASEAN, we can arguably trace back integration to its
establishment in the 1960s although more formally in the conceptualization of
the ASEAN Vision 2020 in 1997. In this meeting, leaders reaffirmed their
commitment to Bangkok Declaration (1967) and re-articulated the aspirations
of the Kuala Lumpur Declaration (1971). It is also where they called for a
more consolidated effort to forge an ASEAN Community. A milestone in the
journey toward ASEAN integration was the development andadoption of the
ASEAN Economic Blueprint (ASEAN Secretariat, 2008) to advance the vision
of an ASEAN Economic Community (AEC).
The AEC has the following characteristics (ASEAN Economic Blueprint,
2008, p. 5-26):

•Single market and production (free flow of goods, services, investment,

capital, and skilled labor; prioritizing food, agriculture, and forestry as
integration sectors)
•Competitive economic region (introduction of fair competition policy, consumer
protection, intellectual property rights, infrastructure development, taxation,
and e-commerce)
•Equitable economic outcomes (developing small and medium enterprises,
Initiative for ASEAN integration)
•Integration into the global economy (maintaining ASEAN
centrality,participation in global supply networks)

ASEAN integration has become a buzzword in recent years, propelling

conversations among experts in various disciplines, and perhaps, eliciting
questions among the general public. What really is integration and what is
ASEAN integration?

There have been various opinions before the AEC was launched (Hunt, 2014).
Some thought that this will result to higher competition within the labor
market and will pose some challenge in ensuring the labor force is ready for
this competition. Others believe there is a need to ensure that local products are
of high quality as these will compete not only with local counterparts but also
counterparts from nearby SEA nations.
UNIT V (Lesson 16)

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Culture Way of life manifested in tangible objects and intangible ideas we

uphold Media Cultures Cultures that emerge due to the proliferation of mass
media; the intersection between media and culture.

INTRODUCTION

One of the fuels, consequences, and manifestations of globalization is the flow of

culture from one geographical area to another. Culture, In simpler terms, refers
to humans’ way of life– how we present ourselves, what are the choices we
make and how, how we relate with one another, how we pursue our aspirations
(Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, & Carr, 2017). Culture are articulated in
Symbols or illustrations that convey meanings. It is also manifested in
Language or a system of symbols that enable members of a society to
communicate with one another. It is observed in our Values (what we deem
good, desirable, and important), Beliefs (what we deem true), and Practices
(how we do things). Most importantly it is enshrined in our Norms (rules, roles,
and expectations that we have and others have relative to our membership in a
society)

SOCIAL PROCESSES

Cultural Socialization The process by which individuals learn and adopt the
values, norms, customs, and behaviors of their culture, often influenced by
family, education, and social interactions.

CULTURAL EXCHANGE

The sharing of cultural elements (such as traditions, art, language, and cuisine
) between different groups or societies, often leading to mutual understanding
and enrichment.

ACCULTURATION

The process of adopting certain cultural traits or social patterns of another

group while retaining one's own cultural identity.
ACCOMMODATION

A process where individuals or groups adjust to each other's cultural practices,

often leading to a coexistence that respects differences without fully merging.

ASSIMILATION

The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits of another
group, often resulting in the loss of their original cultural identity.

GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE

Cultural flow Refer to the movement and exchange of cultural ideas, practices,
and symbols across different societies, often facilitated by globalization,
technology, and migration. A term often used to refer to the dynamics of
culture in the age of globalization. (Ritzer & Dean, 2015)

CULTURAL DIFFERENTIALISM

Cultures are inherently and strongly unique from one another and are not
significantly affected by input from another cultures in the process of
globalization

CULTURAL HYBRIDIZATION

This concept refers to the blending of different cultural elements to create new,
hybrid forms. It acknowledges that cultures are not static but evolve through
interaction, resulting in new cultural expressions.

CULTURAL CONVERGENCE

The process where different cultures become more similar through interaction,
exchange, and shared experiences.

CONCEPT OF SCAPES

ETHNOSCAPES

The flow of people—immigrants, refugees, tourists—across borders, influencing

cultural dynamics and identities.
TECHNOSCAPES

The movement of technology and technological innovations, which can shape

economies and cultures through communication and information exchange.

FINANCESCAPES

The global flow of capital and financial resources, affecting economies and
livelihoods worldwide.

MEDIASCAPES

The distribution and impact of media, including news, film, and advertising,
which shapes perceptions of culture and identity.

IDEOSCAPES

The flow of ideas and ideologies, including political and social movements, that
influence cultural values and practices.

MEDIA CULTURES

Lule (2014) contended that unlike globalization which is quite complex to

define, media is quite straightforward. “A means of conveying something”, “A
channel of communication” The intersection between globalization and media
can be captured with the following:

1. Oral

2. Script

3. Printing press

4. Electronic media

5. Digital media
MEDIA AND THE FILIPINO

Filipinos are the world’s top user of social media, spending a little more than 10
hours online daily as well as of internet use in front of a computer, spending a
little more than five hours daily. (Arcangel, 2017)

ISSUES IN MEDIA CULTURE

1. ACCESS - Who has access to media?

2. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION - What media contents are made
available for consumption.
3. INCLUSION AND PARTICIPATION - How are people represented in the
media?
4. CULTURAL INTEGRITY - How does the media culture shape the inherent
culture in the local sphere?
LESSON 17 : GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. RELIGION - A unified system of beliefs and practice related to faith, the

sacred, higher moral values.
2. SECULARIZATION - Diminishing role of religion in the society.
3.GLOCALIZATION OF RELIGIONS - Intermingling of universal and local
religious beliefs.

INTRODUCTION

"No doubt, when all we do is consider the formulas literally, these religious
beliefs and practices appear disconcerting, and our inclination might be to write
them off to some sort of inborn aberration. But we must know how to reach
beneath the symbol to grasp the reality it represents and that gives the symbol,
its true meaning. The most bizarre or barbarous rites and the strongest myths
translate to some human need and some aspect of life, whether social or
individual." - Emilé Durkheim, " The Elementary For of Religious Life"

[Durkheim emphasizes the importance of understanding the purpose and

meanings of religious beliefs and practices,rather than looking at it with certain
perspective. Though some rituals or beliefs may appear to be irrational, and
may seem odd to others, these are deeply rooted from human needs and
experiences whether by their social or individual life.] There are more than 7
billion people in the world today, and almost 84 percent of these people
(approximately 5.8 billion) identify themselves as part of a religious group,
reveals a 2010 study by Pew Research Center (2012). The same study
revealed that majority of these people are either Christians, Muslims, of
Hindus, respectively. A huge minority expressed that they are unaffiliated, a
little more than 16 percent.

DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION

In the new translation of Emilé Durkheim’s élémentaires de la vie religieuse: Le

Systeme (1912) (Commonly referred to as Formes), Karen Field (1995)
totémique iterated the sociologist’s definition of religion: “a unified system of
beliefs and practices relative to sacred things—that is to say, things set apart
and forbidden; beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community called a Church all those who adhere to them” (p. 34). [Religion is
a system in which it binds the people together into a singe moral community
called "Church", based on their shared beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things. It's purpose is to create a sense of belonging and unity of people.] Three
Essential Elements, According to Field:

1. Religion is an "Observable Phenomena" - It can be studied objectively; and it

has an impact to people's lives and societies.

2. Religion as an organized and ordered system. - Religion are often governed

by rules and regulations.(i.e. how people worships, how they practice their
faith, and the way they interact with one another).

3. Sacredness of religious entities is collectively constructed in a social process

towards a united "Moral Community". - Religious entities such as Gods and
Goddesses are not naturally given but was constructed to maintain the unity
and moral of a community.

On the other hand, Kenneth Pargament, defined religion as “a process, a search

for significance in ways related to the sacred”, distinguishing it from spirituality
which is, “a search for the sacred”. For Pargament, spirituality is religion's
“most critical function” (Pargament, 1997, p. 31). en Australie Les Formes
[Religion is the people's search of meaning and significance in their lives, while
Spirituality is the search of people for their purpose in life or things that make
life worth living, such as love, compassion, etc. Pargament defined spritiuality
as religion's most critical function as it is the main reason why people commit
to their religions. It is to seek the sacred and divine, and to search for the
meaning and purpose in their lives.]

Notwithstanding these scholarly constructions of what religion is, people tend

to have their own private and personal views of what is religion—much more
like a subjective meaning they associate with religion. Some affiliate with a
religion because of affiliation motivation (to have positive social interaction with
people; Van Capellen et al., 2017). Religion serves as an indicator of so,
proximity and, thus, provides a platform for social connection. Others affiliate
with a religion as a form of coping with stressful situations—what Pargament
(1997) would refer to as religious coping. Religion, here, provides some form of
psychological shield that enables people to battle against the undesirable
outcomes of their life's challenges. There are also those who relate with religion
as a spiritual experience—an outcome of the experience of the mystical and the
divine and a celebration of their spirituality (Rankin, 2009). And, yet again
some look at it as a mechanism promoting self-control and moral behavior,
(Association of Psychological Sciences, 2011). [The personal experiences and
needs shape how people tend to relate to religion. Refelcting a variety of
meanings of religion.]

RELIGION IN THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION SECULARIZATION

Victor Roudometof (2014), addressed the question in his essay, Religion and
Globalization. He defined secularization as the hypothesized demise of religion
and its values in societies, manifested, for instance, in the separation of church
and state. Secularization is the enforcement of secularism- a philosophical view
oriented toward the need for a secular life beyond one's religious life. [A way to
protect religious freedom and to prevent the government from becoming
involved in religious matters]. Stark (1999) has discussed so comprehensively
why the Secularization hypothesis—suggesting that the demise of religion will
happen alongside the rise of modernization—does not hold fast as a sound
sociological hypothesis, citing evidence that across centuries there have not
been a stark change in people's religious beliefs and commitments. [The rise of
modernization and new religious movements does not automatically lead to
secularization as there have not been a vast changes in people's religious beliefs
and practices over the centuries].

According to Roudometof (2014), there have been two distinct perspective

related to secularization in the modern times: (1) the notion of post-secularity
(Habermas, 2008; Habermas & Ratzinger, 2006) or the return of religious
consciousness in the public sphere; and (2) religious modernity, where
secularization is an active process emerging from social action. [The notion of
post-secularity-state of society wherer religion is no longer private but a part of
public sphere where it can be debated or openly discussed. Religious modernity,
a way in which religoon has adapted to meet the changing needs and values of
society]. of globalization is cultural diversity.

RELIGIOUS PLURALISM AND TOLERANCE

As people let ideas flow in and out of geographical spaces, we bring in and out,
as well, our beliefs, values, and traditions. We heard from old religions the
Jewish’s experience of exile or diaspora—when they were sent out from the
Land of Israel, and scattered toward different parts of the world. Today, the
same journey is taken by people. The age of diaspora in the contemporary times
happen for various reasons. And as people move in and out of territories, they
also carry with them their religious affiliation and its correspondent
philosophies and practices. t is therefore common, in a globalized world, to have
smaller groups of people within communities, whose culture are quite different
from the rest.

CULTURAL PLURALISM

- A phenomenon when a small group of shared identity maintains their cultural

practices as long as it aligns with the larger society’s norms.

RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

- Allowing others to abide by their own religious practices and beliefs, such as
consenting the establishment of places of worships. Religious tolerance is
quintessential in fostering peace in the community (Firdaus, 2018). In a study
among university students, it was found that adolescents tend to be more
tolerant when they realize how religious tolerance is part of their religious
beliefs and when they are allowed to appreciate the entire spectrum of their
religious tradition than “be religious exclusively with a legal-style ideology”
(Firdaus, 2018, p. 1). [Suggests that adolescents tend to be tolerant when they
recognize religious tolerance is a part of their values and beliefs, where they are
allowed to appreciate the diversity of their religious traditions].

An interesting case in understanding the concept of religious pluralism in the

age of globalization is that of the Baha'i Faith —a small religion with
approximately 7 million followers around the globe (Grim, 2012, in Fozdar,
2015) Baha'i upholds principles of equality and social justice, peace and unity,
world citizenship, and cultural pluralism, among others (Fozdar, 2015). In the
age of globalization, however, what is interesting is that Baha’i apparently
evolved into a religion which is taking the route of homogenization— i.e., using
Ruhi books as a central source of doctrine—to systematically and efficiently
pass on its belief systems in a global community (Fozdar, 2015). The Baha’i
case then engages us to reflect: where does globalization really bring us? Will it
sustain diversity or will it necessitate homogeneity?

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

A critical issue on religion, which emerges in the contemporary world, is the

debate on religious fundamentalism. Altemeyer and Hunsberger (1992) defined
religious fundamentalism as: The belief that there is one set of religious
teachings that clearly contains the fundamental, basic, intrinsic, essential,
inerrant truth about humanity and deity; that this essential truth is
fundamentally opposed by the forces of evil which must be vigorously fought;
that this truth must be followed today according to the fundamental,
unchangeable practices of the past; and that those who believe and follow these
fundamental teachings have a special relationship with the deity. (p. 118)

[Emphasizes a strict adherence to set of practices and beliefs that are believed
to unchanging. It also suggests that there is one way to follow religion which is
opposed to other beliefs, and that those who follow the teachings have a special
relationship with dieties.]

Some studies have established that it relates to cognitive and affective processes
that influence behavior (Kossowska et al., 2018). Other studies, on the other
hand, have shown that it is linked to some form of conflict and hostility toward
people of different belief systems (Koopmans, 2014). Yimaz (2006) opined that
religious fundamentalism manifests in two ways: nonviolent intolerance
(“extreme identification with a particular religion”, p. 3) and violent intolerance
(“direct use of physical violence in pursuing subjectively-defined religious
missions”, p. 4). This proposition suggests that not all forms of religious
fundamentalism Causes some form of physical harm, but either forms imply
some sort of “exaggerated in-group centrality and discrimination of
out-groups” (p.3), which are manifestations of intolerance. In his Foreign
Affairs article The Clash of Civilizations?, which culminated into a book The
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Samuel Huntington
(1993, 1996), hypothesized that in the post-Cold War world, the Next
“fundamental source of conflict” is cultural, instead of economic and political.
He Suggested that the divide in humanity is mainly cultural as seen from
diverse civilizations, each with own worldviews and value systems. He further
suggests that these cultural affiliations will trigger discord ang thus lead to
inter- civilizational conflicts. There are diverse views about this hypothesis,
some adhering to it as potentially true, others suggesting that it is plainly a
fundamental attribution error (Brooks, 2011).

The global issue on the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in recent years
have fuele the debate on religious fundamentalism. There are thinkers which
believe that the rise of ISIS cannot be explained fully without viewing it from
the lens of religious ideology; there are others who believe that ISIS does not
truly represent the Islamic traditions (see Cotte, 2016 and Hamid, 2015 for a
discussion on the different views on this issue). If at all there is an insight we
can derive from this debate, it is how "religion matters in social and political
life" (Cotteee, 2016, citing Hamid, 2015).

GLOCALIZATION OF RELIGIONS

Another phenomenon that matters in all religion js thematized alongside local

particularity” (Beyer, 2007, cited by Roudometof, 2013, p. 229). This is linked
with deterritorialization—the flow of religious traditions in areas where these
traditions are unfamiliar or unpopular, paving way for the emergence of
transnational religions—i.e., “religion ‘going global” (Roudometof, 2015).
Historically, we can glean that major religions in the world originate from
particular geographical spaces and has territorial attachments. For instance,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Judaism can be traced back to the Middle
East, while Buddhism and Taoism from oriental Asia. These religions have
proliferated around the world as cultural exchanges between the East and the
West took place during the age of expeditions and colonialism. Nowadays,
arguably, nearly the same trends can be observed, only faster. Territorial
attachments of religions become less and less profound as they found place in
multiple spaces around the globe. In the age of globalization, Roudometof
(2013, 2014) suggested four forms of glocalization: (1) vernacularization, (2)
indigenization, (3) nationalization, and (4) transnationalization. Each form can
be described as follows: Forms DESCRIPTION

Vernacularization * Linking "religious univeersalism with vernacular language"

* Sacred practices remain to be tied to a particular sacred language * i.e.
Arabic to Islam

Indigenization * Linking "religious universalism with local particularism" *

Religious practices are blended with indigenous practices * i.e. African
traditional fomrs meet Christianity

Nationalization * Linking "universal religion and local , national Particularism"

* Emergence of local religions tied with universal religions * i.e. Church of
England

Transnationalization * Absorption of a universal religion into one's own

culture; naturalization of Religion * Allegiane to global religious community *
i.e. White Anglo-Saxon Protestant among Americans
SUMMARY:

In this lesson, we defined what is religion in various definitions. Religion as a

unified system, as a search for meaning of life, a way of affiliating with others,
and a mechanism to promote self- control and moral. Secondly, we discussed
the religion in the age of globaslization, where we tackled about the
secularization-a state where the church and state are separating. The Religious
pluralism and tolerance where cultural pluralism- is when a small group of
shared identity maintains their cultural practices as long as it aligns with the
larger society’s norms, and religious tolerance-allowing others to abide by their
own religious practices and beliefs, such as consenting the establishment of
places of worships, are discussed. Next, we tackled Religious Fundamentalism
and the Glocalization of religions- where the universal religions blends with the
local particularity.
LESSON 18 GLOBALIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY

Definition of Terms

Technology - a technique, a process, or a material good emerging from the use

of science in addressing human problems
Technology diffusion - flow of technologies across Borders

INTRODUCTION

If there is something so profound in our experience of the modern world, that is

the seemingly indispensable role of technology in our daily lives. Technology, as
we have been taught in our science subjects as that which refers to the
application of science, is something that comes forth from using the systematic
body of knowledge we possess to respond to pressing issues and problems that
we face. Wahab, Rose, and Osman (2012) have surveyed literatures on the
matter and found that there are quite a number of definitions and
characteristics of technology. Some of these definitions are as follows (Wahab,
Rose, & Osman, 2012, p. 62): possessing a physical and an informational
component (Kumar et al. 1999), configuration/system (Sahal, 1981), and
knowledge (Dunning 1994). Hence, the authors concluded that technology, in
essence, is either a technique or a way of doing things. Historically, we can
glean that technological advancement has trodden a long, winding, and often
turbulent road-a process commonly referred to as the industrial revolution (IR)
-wherein humanity has found a way to maximize the available resources that
they can tap toward the advancement of their aspirations individually and
collectively. Priescaru (2016), as cited by Xu, David, and Kim (2018),
summarized the industrial revolution and divided the eras into four. People in
the first IR used coal as their primary source of energy and created the steam
engine. Those in the second IR discovered oil and electricity and designed the
internal combustion engine. Computers and robots are the main achievements
of the third IR, where nuclear energy and natural gas were found as potential
source of energy. And, nowadays, we are in the era of the fourth IR where the
goal is to maximize the use of green energies, amidst the proliferation of the
Internet.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution

Klaus Schwab has used the term "Fourth Industrial Revolution" to refer to the
era when people navigate between their online and offline selves (Xu, David,
Kim, 2018). In this era of industrialization, people can expect the following:
emergence of creator-entrepreneurs (technology allows us to create more and to
produce our ideas) artificial intelligence (AI) fusion (integration of disciplines)
robotics (more daring inventions that are geared toward making our lives more
efficient) Internet (remote and real-time interconnectedness) All these are
presumed to make our lives easier and more convenient. But then again, we can
also anticipate challenges (Xu, David, Kim, 2018, p. 93) such as: changes in
the job market, in terms of competencies required from people and in terms of
preference for machines than people in tasks that are performable by robots;
changes in the nature of threats and vulnerability (cyber security issues) as we
become more reliant to digital technologies; changes in the way we do things;
and unanticipated impacts to basic services and sectors (education, health, and
environment).

Technological Diffusion and Globalization

In the age of globalization, technology also flows in and out across borders.
This process can be referred to as technology diffusion. It is essential to look at
technology diffusion because, the inflow and outflow of technology is
simultaneous to economic, political, and cultural flows. Technologies are goods
that are bought and sold in the market. Think about the cars that you see on
the streets, which are mostly produced in China, USA, Japan, and India
(International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers; OICA', 2018).
Think about the raw materials from other territories which are required to
produce particular technologies, and thus are imported/exported (e.g., minor
metals are being imported to China in large quantities to produce steel; OECD,
2011). Some technologies in the market also have political undertones.
Between 2014 to 2018, for example, US, Russia, France, Germany, and China
were found to be the top five arms exporters in the world, while Saudi Arabia
was among the topmost importers, based on a report by Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) (Deutsche Well, 2019). Many
may be oblivious to the link between technology and the economy and politics.
This issue may even be beyond the immediate sphere of concern of the ordinary
citizen. However, we easily recognize the cultural value of technology,
especially in the context of those technologies we use in our daily lives. Digital
technologies such as smartphones, laptops, and other computing device are very
well within our reach. Remarkably, people have different responses when
exposed to these new technologies. According to the diffusion of innovation
(DOI) theory (Rogers, 1962), some would try new technologies even if these
are still crudely developed, e.g., some beta-users of newly developed apps or
users of 1st generation technologies (innovators). Others would adopt earlier
than the average user but would need some systematic support to be able to
navigate using a new technology (early adopters). But then, there are those few
who are skeptical and would rather use tried and tested methods and tools
(laggards). The Diffusion of Innovation

Innovators – 2.5%

Early Adopters – 13.5%

Early Majority – 34%

Late Majority – 34%

Laggards – 16%

Nowadays, we also hear the term digital natives which refer to people who have
been accustomed to digital technologies. There are also those referred to as
digital immigrants, people who were not born into the digital world but are
coping and adopting new technologies.

Technological Trends in the Age of Globalization

The following are just some observable technological trends in the age of
globalization. While some of these trends have been scrutinized in scholarly
works, many are potential subject of inquiry. Information and Communication
The emergence of the Internet of Things (IOT) makes human-computer
interaction speedier and more reliable, making it possible to manage very
important services such as transportation, healthcare, and security. We see
nowadays, for instance, that we can already watch over our home even when we
are far away from it through security cameras that are linked via the Internet.
A doctor from another country can provide professional advice or, in some
cases, can even conduct medical procedures to a service user in another place
(telemedicine). Even interviews, meetings, and educational activities can be
done via Skype, Zoom, and other teleconferencing technologies. Because of
technology, we are already capable of doing synchronous (real-time)
communication even amidst distance. At the same time, when the one we need
to talk to is not available, it is possible for us to engage into asynchronous
communication such as when we leave messages through emails and
messengers that our friends and families can respond to later on.

Transportation

Transportation technologies have become more prevalent , with more people

being able to avail of their own private vehicles. Some countries were also able
to establish reliable and efficient public transportation system.

Aviation
Aviation technology has also become more dependable in recent years, allowing
more and more people to travel long distances at a cheaper rate than in the
past. There are four major developments in aviation technology, according to
Martin (2018): (a) digital twin, which is a digital and virtual replica of the
physical aircraft engine which enables efficient monitoring of the aircraft; (b)
use of artificial intelligence (AI) for predictive maintenance, i.e., predicting
possible issues that may arise in the aircraft; (c) use of mobile computing in
aviation; and (d) use of drones in aircraft maintenance procedures.
Architecture, Energy, and the Environment There is a movement toward green
architecture as an impact of the recent clamor to address ecological breakdown.
People are beginning to realize that our environment is at the tipping point and
if we do not do something about it, everything that we do haphazardly to our
environment may boomerang. Alongside the movement toward
environment-friendly infrastructures is the preference for green energy or
renewable sources such as wind, hydropower, geothermal heat etc. With the
pressing issue on the environment, there emerges also new currencies such as
for instance the carbon credits-the allowable amount of carbon emission that a
country can have, which can actually be used in the carbon trade. Commerce
New business models have also emerged in recent years. Entrepreneurs bring in
their businesses into the electronic world, thus, the birth of e-commerce. Online
platforms such as Lazada, Amazon, and Shopee are made available where you
can buy and sell products. Even businesses with physical stores are putting up
online platforms to extend their reach. Social network media such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram are used as marketing and advertising tools. Banks
have also put up electronic platforms where clients can hold transactions (i.e.,
bills payment, money transfer) without having to appear physically in a
physical banking infrastructure. In travel and transportation services, there are
platforms where clients can book tickets, manage their bookings, and even
cancel and perform other transactions related to their trip. Business processes
in a territory can also be done overseas through business process outsourcing
(BPOs), facilitated by reliable Internet connectivity and dependence
communication technologies. Space Science Since the first wave of space
explorations in the 1960s, much has changed in our space technologies, as
nation-states invest in research and development on this issue. National
Aeronautics and Space dministration (NASA, 2018), the US agency
responsible for space explorations, revealed that, in succeeding years, there will
be attempts and efforts to: (a) know the possibility of life in Mars, (b) get closer
to the Sun, (c) explore Jupiter's moon, (d) send humans deeper into space, and
(e) test and develop more advanced space navigation instruments. Even the
Philippines is aligning with the technological trajectory toward space
exploration with the launching of Diwata-1 in 2016 and Diwata-2 in 2018, two
micro-satellites with the aim of supporting earth observation missions that will
be useful in climate and disaster risk management (PHL Microsat, n. d.).
According to PHL Microsat, this program is a foundation to Philippines' vision
to create its own space agency.

AI, Robots, and Nanotechnology Most importantly, the contemporary world

has also witnessed how technology nowadays can afford to simulate some of
human capacities through the use of computer and machines-i.e., artificial
intelligence. When Sophia-bot, an almost humanoid robot, came to the fore, it
has triggered discussion as to what would be the direction of humanity in the
era of Al (see Urbi & Sigalos, 2018). What used to be found only in the
figment of our imaginations, as reflected in movies, are now becoming more real
and possible. As we are able to manipulate particles at the atomic-molecular
levels (nanotechnology), we are also able to create very minute particles that
may influence and alter substances found in living cells (e.g., use of
nanoparticles in delivering drugs).

SUMMARY

Humanity is the creator of technology. As humans realize that there are

problems and obstacles to their aspirations for a better life, technologies will
continue to emerge. In the age of globalization, where new needs and concerns
are being recognized and realized, it is expected that new technologies will also
come to the fore. Facilitated by the flows of goods and services which is
characteristic of globalization, technology diffusion is a probable occurrence. In
this lesson, we have discussed various technological developments and reflected
on the implications of these advancements in the age of globalization. In the
end, humans, as we are, capable of rational thinking, should continually reflect:
are these technologies we bring forth into the world going to help us really
achieve the kind of future we desire? We should also ask: As we enjoy the
affordances of technology, how can we remain faithful to basic and fundamental
concepts such as Goodness
LESSON 27 GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain the different aspects of food security;
2. identify the food insecurity issues faced by households, communities, and
countries;
3. describe the different social, political, economic, and environmental
conditions that affect food security; and
4. propose actions for communities, civil society actors, and governments to
achieve food security.

Definition of Terms
Food security- the condition of which everyone is able to access sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food anytime
Undernourishment – is – is the condition by which a person only has access, on
a regular basis, to food that are insufficient in providing the required energy for
a normal, healthy, and active life, provided his or her own dietary and energy
requirements

INTRODUCTION
There is more than sufficient food produced globally to meet the food needs of
all people on the planet (Action Against Hunger, n.d.). Despite this, an
estimated 124 million people experience acute hunger today, approximately 40
million higher than the numbers from two years ago. In addition to that,
stunted children are approximately 151 million and wasted children are
estimated to be 51 million worldwide (Grebmer et al., 2018). Furthermore,
small-scale farmers, fishers, and rural workers produce approximately 70
percent of food globally but are among the most vulnerable sector to food
insecurity (Action Against Hunger, n.d.). These data reflecting the world status
on hunger show the urgency of ensuring global food security. Food security is
projected to remain a worldwide issue for the coming decades (Rosegrant &
Cline, 2019). Food security occurs when every person, every time, is able to
physically and economically access sufficient, safe, and nutritious food,
depending on their dietary needs and food preferences toward an active and
healthy lifestyle (World Food Summit, 1996).

The concept of food security emerged during the mid-70s (FAO, n.d.) It
recognizes the global issue of chronic food insecurity. Food Insecurity is the
phenomenon “when people do not have adequate physical, social, or economic
access to food” (FAO). Food security brings into public policy the food-related
problem of famine, hunger, and food crises. Nations and global institutions
make various commitments to achieve the eradication of hunger and food
insecurity. Despite actions to address these issues, global food security remains
to be a major concern. The concept of food security gained prominence in the
1970s. First, hunger was seen as a lack of food supply. The focus of
government programs to make food available was boosting of agricultural
production and maintaining price stability of food (food availability). However,
in 1981, Amartya Sen argued that hunger or starvation is not only about the
supply of food but people’s lack of access to food despite the availability of food.
This resulted in broadening the concept of food security to include access to
food (food accessibility), which are located in the wider concerns of poverty and
Development. In 1986, World Bank introduced that food insecurity can be a
permanent or temporary phenomenon, giving rise to the ideas of chronic and
transitory hunger. Chronic food insecurity recognizes the perennial problem of
food insecurity, while transitory food insecurity talks about the momentary
shortage of food. This pushes policy to recognize that sufficient food must be
accessible at all times (food stability). Finally, food security was extended to
include issues of food quality. It ensures the utilization of food that meets
people’s nutritional balance, traditions, and preferences (food utilization).
Hence, the important aspects of food security are availability, access,
utilization, and stability (Napoli, 2011). Measurement for Food Security and
Food Insecurity To understand the phenomenon of food security and food
insecurity, various measures and indices have been developed. These measures
and indices become the bases for actions to eradicate food insecurity and
demand accountability from governments. Measures and indices can encompass
analyzes of causes and/or effects, either qualitative or quantitative and may be
done in several levels-from household levels to national levels (Masset, 2010).
Some indicators are expressed in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, examples of indices
used for food insecurity are the Global Hunger Index and the Hunger Reduction
Commitment Index.

Prevalence of Undernourishment (POU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and

Severe Food Insecurity in the Population of the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) PoU measures hunger on several levels, in the regional and
global levels, by gathering data on food availability, consumption, and energy
requirements. Some factors being measured are the daily per capita food
consumption, human energy requirements, and agricultural production. On the
other hand, the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the
Population collects data through interviews regarding people’s experiences of
difficulty in accessing food. Global Hunger Index is published by Concern
International and Welthungerhilfe. It looks into indicators such as the share of
the population related to: Undernourishment referring to insufficient caloric
intake; Child wasting referring children with low weight in relation to their
height; child stunting referring to children under the age of five that have a low
weight in relation to their age; and Child mortality or under-five mortality
rates. These indicators are given standardized scores to come up with the
Global Hunger Index (GHI) score of each country. The GHI can monitor the
state of hunger in the national and global levels to inform policy and actions
where they are needed (Grebmer et al., 2018).
Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI)
Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI) initiated by the Institute of
Development Studies looks into three themes that measure governments’
political commitment in attaining food security: governments’ policies and
programs; legal frameworks; and public expenditures (Lintelo et al., 2011).
Some of the indicators being measured in HRCI are: Institutional coordination
– whether there is a coordinating body to address stehunger and malnutrition
and the successes of this coordinating body; Government intention and
action-about priority actions of the government on hunger and malnutrition;
Analytical rigor – about the generation of scientific evidence on hunger and
malnutrition as the basis for public policy; and Learning and adaptation –
about the governments’ effort to innovate with policy approaches to eradicate
hunger and malnutrition (Lintelo et al., 2011).

Some Factors Affecting Food Security

Food security is a multidimensional issue. Ensuring the availability,
accessibility, utilization, and stability of food are linked to several social,
political, economic, cultural, and environmental processes and factors. Some of
these factors are food supply, food prices, income, and sudden changes in the
context. Food Supply As mentioned, early concepts and policies on food
security focused on agricultural production to ensure the availability of food.
Food security involves sustainably supplying the energy and protein needs and
healthy diet of the people. It Is concerned not only with quantity but also the
quality of food that promote the well-being of people (Martindale, 2015).
Before food comes to people’s tables, it goes through a complex process of
production, manufacturing, and distribution where different functions and
operations must be carried out (Martindale, 2015). Food supply is also
connected with conditions in agricultural production, This involves issues of
rural farmers. The conditions of rural poor farmers should be a focus of the
discussion of food security because rural farmers, usually small-scale producers,
have an important role in producing food in developing countries (Schanbacher,
2010). In the Philippines, farmers and fishers remain to be the poorest sectors
in 2015, with 34.3 percent and 34.0 percent poverty incidence respectively
(PSA, 2017). Local rural producers must be sufficiently supported by
government programs and reforms to continue to supply sufficient food to the
population. Food Prices Changes in national and global economic policies and
process may lead to increases in oil and food prices. In the Philippines, inflation
hit 4.5 percent in April 2018, leading to a drastic rise in food prices. Figure 1
shows that by 2019, inflation slows down to 3 percent but food prices are still
higher than 2018 prices (IBON, 2019). High prices of food can compromise
the food security of citizens.

People’s Income
Another problem associated with food security is the lack of people’s access to
food because of poverty (Naylor, 2014). Despite the availability of food, people
without economic access to buy food may not meet their food needs. The
minimum wage in Metro Manila amounting to Php512 is barely sufficient to
meet food and other needs (IBON Foundation). The most Income-poor Filipinos
are also vulnerable to food price increases. Changes and Shocks in Social and
Natural Environments Variability and shocks in the social and natural
environment may affect food availability, accessibility, and stability. For
instance, climate change may affect the timing and length of growing and
harvesting seasons, amount of water supply, and degradation of resources such
as erosion (FAO, 2012). In the Philippines, farmers may experience lower
yields due to the scarcity of rainfall during El Niño phenomena. This will result
in decrease in food supply and income poverty for farmers leading to transitory
food insecurity. Conflict also results in poverty and hunger. UN reports that
more than half of the 815 undernourished people come from countries in
conflict (Action Against Hunger).

Globalization and Food Security

Food security that is linked to the complex process of food production,
consumption, and distribution intersects with issues of trading, reforms in
agriculture, as well as rural development (Schanbacher, 2010). Economic
globalization involves foreign trading of food. This encompasses the creation of
a global food supply chain or the process involving the production,
manufacturing, consumption, and disposal happening across different national
borders. Some issues in the supply chain include contamination and the lack of
a mechanism to trace where food comes from. Cultural globalization also
creates changes in people’s taste, preference, and consumption of food. For
instance, transnational fast food corporations have operated in different
countries. Some of the biggest fast food chains are McDonald’s, Burger King,
Starbucks, KFC, Pizza Hut, and Subway. Economic globalization can also
tremendously impact food security. In the Philippines, agricultural food
production weakens because of the decrease in government spending for
agriculture, as a consequence of the structural adjustment program imposed by
the IMF and World Bank. In 1982, 7.5 percent of total government
expenditure went to agriculture, then spending decreased to 3.3 percent in
1988. Trade liberalization in the Philippines marked by the joining of the
Philippines in the World Trade Organization required the country to eliminate
quota for agricultural imports allowing the entry of cheap imported agricultural
products that discouraged local farmers. The Philippines also became
dependent on rice imports despite the country’s ability to become rice
self-sufficient (Bello, 2008).

Commitments to Achieve Food Security

Recognizing the urgency and severity of world food security problems, world
leaders have made global commitments to address food insecurity. In 1996, the
World Food Summit was convened by the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) in Rome where UN member states committed to eradicate hunger and
reduce undernourished people all over the world. The UN members in this
summit pledged to commit to a plan of action (Napoli, 2011). It is a continuous
effort to eliminate hunger in all countries, with a short-term goal of decreasing
the number of undernourished individuals to half (1996 World Food Summit).
This commitment was later reaffirmed during the UN Millennium Summit in
2000 that resulted in the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) (Napoli, 2011). The first goal of the MDGs is to eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger. This goal has three targets;
1. To significantly decrease the number of people with daily income below
$1.25;
2. To attain full, constructive, and decent employment for all; and
3. To significantly decrease the number of people suffering from hunger.
In 2015, UN member states adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Agenda.
This encompasses the 17 Sustainable Development Goals that will guide
governments, private sector, and civil society to address the global issues of
poverty, inequalities, and climate change. Sustainable Development Goal
number 2 is to achieve zero hunger (Kaci, 2017). These commitments push
governments to take all necessary actions to combat hunger and poverty
through different policies and programs including boosting agricultural
productivity, making agriculture resilient to climate change, increasing
investment in
agriculture, and correcting trade processes.
Aside from this, organizations and movements critical of too much market-
driven food production system espouses the idea of food sovereignty as an
approach to achieving food security. Food sovereignty focuses on promoting the
well-being of small-scale farmers and producers, landless farmers, and rural
farm workers instead of prioritizing large-scale, corporate, and liberalized
agriculture and food production (Schanbacher, 2010). Food security is not only
about producing food the fastest and cheapest way at the expense of displacing
the livelihood and well-being of poor farmers.

SUMMARY
Stour Global and national data show alarmingly high levels of hunger and food
insecurity. This places food security as one of the top issues tackled by
international organizations. The issue of food security is not a simple
phenomenon. Security of food can be achieved not only with abundant food
supply but through eradication of barriers to people’s access to food, ensuring
stable food production and access, and providing dietary needs for people’s
well-being. There are several means of measuring food insecurity. The Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) uses the Prevalence of Undernourishment
(POU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the
Population that looks into data such as human energy requirement, per capita
food consumption, and difficulties in accessing food. The Global Hunger Index
of Concern International and Welthungerhilfe analyzes undernourishment, child
wasting, child stunting, and child mortality. The FAO, Concern International,
and Welthungerhilfe use measurements about the status of hunger and food
insecurity. On the other hand, the Hunger Reduction Commitment Index
(HRCI) by the Institute of Development Studies use indicators to measure the
commitments and actions of governments to eradicate hunger and food
insecurity.