CRIME AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION

CORRUPTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES,

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

By

KIIZA SMITH

Introduction:

This study delves into the pervasive issue of corruption in developing countries, unraveling
its causes, consequences, and proposing strategies for mitigation. The significance of
corruption in these nations lies in its detrimental impact on economic growth, development
efforts, and social equity. Trust erosion in government institutions, hindrance to foreign
investment, and diversion of resources away from vital public services highlight the urgency
of addressing corruption's multifaceted consequences.

The purpose of this paper is threefold: to comprehensively explore the causes and
consequences of corruption, serving as a resource for policymakers and organizations
engaged in combating corruption, and empowering citizens and civil society organizations.
This paper recognizes corruption not merely as a local woe but as a global concern,
emphasizing the interconnectedness of issues and the necessity for collective action. It aims
to foster a more informed, engaged, and proactive global community committed to addressing
corruption in developing countries.

The introductory section contextualizes corruption's significance, emphasizing its impact on

economic, political, and social realms. The subsequent chapters delve into nuanced
definitions of corruption, exploring perspectives from notable scholars. The assignment
unfolds as a comprehensive resource, analyzing the causes and consequences of corruption,
and providing insights for targeted strategies. Its relevance lies in its potential to contribute
meaningfully to the ongoing discourse on corruption, encouraging international collaboration
and empowering communities to stand against corruption.

1
Introduction:

Corruption, a persistent and pervasive challenge, has cast a long shadow over the trajectory of
development, especially in the context of developing countries. Its tendrils reach across
borders, leaving indelible imprints on economic, political, and social landscapes. This
introduction aims to navigate the multifaceted nature of corruption, exploring its significance
in developing countries, and delineating the purpose and relevance of this paper/assignment1.

Significance of Corruption in Developing Countries:

In developing countries, corruption assumes a role of paramount significance, acting as a

formidable impediment to progress on multiple fronts. It manifests as a silent antagonist,
slowing economic growth, hampering development initiatives, and casting a pall over poverty
alleviation efforts. The consequences of corruption are profound, as it erodes trust in
government institutions, discourages foreign investments, and diverts crucial resources away
from essential public services such as healthcare and education. This pervasive issue
contributes to the widening gap between socioeconomic classes, perpetuating social
inequalities2. Furthermore, corruption undermines the rule of law, creating a breeding ground
for impunity, and weakens the justice system, making it challenging to hold the perpetrators
accountable. As such, a comprehensive understanding of the significance of corruption in
developing countries is imperative for devising targeted and effective strategies to address
this deeply entrenched issue.

Purpose of this Assignment and its Relevance:

The purpose of this paper/assignment is threefold. Firstly, it seeks to provide a nuanced

exploration of the causes and consequences of corruption in developing countries. By
dissecting the intricate web of factors that contribute to corruption, this paper aims to offer
insights that can inform the development of strategies to mitigate its impact. Secondly, the
assignment aspires to serve as a comprehensive resource for policymakers, international
organizations, and non-governmental entities actively engaged in combating corruption. It
endeavors to bridge knowledge gaps and equip stakeholders with a nuanced understanding of
the challenges posed by corruption in developing nations. Thirdly, this assignment recognizes

1
Myint, H. (2000). "Corruption in Developing Countries." *Journal of Economic Studies, 27*(1), 6-25.
2
Klitgaard, R. (1988). "Controlling Corruption." University of California Press.

2
the power of knowledge in empowering citizens and civil society organizations. By
elucidating the detrimental effects of corruption on individuals' lives, it aims to inspire a
sense of agency, encouraging active participation in the fight against corruption at both local
and global levels3.

In terms of relevance, this paper addresses corruption not merely as a local woe but as a
global concern. The interconnectedness of issues related to corruption necessitates a
collective response. By exploring the causes and consequences, this assignment underscores
the urgency of international collaboration in the fight against corruption. It prompts a
revaluation of current approaches, emphasizing the need for holistic strategies that transcend
borders4. As such, this paper/assignment is positioned to contribute meaningfully to the
ongoing discourse on corruption in developing countries, fostering a more informed,
engaged, and proactive global community committed to effecting positive change.

Definition and Types of Corruption:

Definition of Corruption:

Corruption is the misuse of entrusted power for personal gain, and it comes in various forms,
undermining societal values, ethical standards, and the proper functioning of institutions. It
involves dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in positions of authority, often for private
benefit5.

Corruption is commonly defined as the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. This
pervasive issue has been rigorously examined by scholars, each offering distinctive insights
into its nature and consequences.

1. Robert Klitgaard's Formula6:

- According to economist and professor Robert Klitgaard, corruption can be expressed

through a formula: Corruption = Monopoly + discretion – accountability. This formulation
implies that corruption is more likely to occur in situations characterized by a monopoly of
power, high discretion in decision-making, and a lack of accountability.

3
Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). "Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform." Cambridge
University Press.
4
Eigen, P. (2000). "Corruption: Theoretical Elements of a Conceptual Framework." In M. Bassett & P. M. Scott
(Eds.), *Understanding Global Corruption for Comparative Criminal Justice* (pp. 3-38). University of Illinois
Press.
5
World Bank. (2011). "Curbing Corruption in Public Procurement." World Bank Group.
6
Klitgaard, R. (1988). "Controlling Corruption." University of California Press.

3
2. Susan Rose-Ackerman's Definition7:

- Susan Rose-Ackerman defines corruption as the abuse of public power for private gain.
Her exploration of corruption spans both economic and political contexts, emphasizing its
corrosive effects on institutional integrity.

3. Amartya Sen's Perspective:

- Amartya Sen views corruption as a violation of basic human rights, arguing that it can
lead to inequalities and hinder social and economic development. For Sen, corruption extends
beyond an economic or political problem, becoming a barrier to fundamental human rights.

4.Peter Eigen's View:

- Peter Eigen, the founder of Transparency International, identifies corruption as the central
issue in failed development efforts. He underscores the necessity for a collective global
response to combat corruption, emphasizing its critical role in shaping the success or failure
of development endeavors.

These diverse perspectives highlight the multi-dimensional nature of corruption,

encompassing economic, political, and human rights dimensions. The collective
understanding of corruption offered by these scholars contributes to a comprehensive view of
the challenges posed by corrupt practices on various societal fronts.

Various Forms of Corruption8:

1. Bribery:

- The offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting something of value (such as money or gifts)
to influence the actions of an official or other person in a position of power.

2. Embezzlement:

- The misappropriation or theft of funds entrusted to an individual, often within an

organization or government entity.

3. Nepotism:

7
Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). "Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform." Cambridge
University Press.
8
Mauro, P. (1995). "Corruption and Growth." *The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110*(3), 681-712.

4
 - Favoritism shown to family members or close friends, rather than appointing or promoting
individuals based on merit.

4. Extortion:

- The act of obtaining something, such as money or property, through force, threats, or
intimidation.

5. Fraud:

- Deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, often involving manipulation of

information or documents.

6. Kickbacks:

- Illicit payments made to individuals in exchange for favorable treatment or decisions,

often in business or government contracts.

7. Patronage:

- The distribution of favors or resources in exchange for political support or loyalty.

8. Cronyism:

- Unfair favoritism shown to friends or associates, especially in appointing them to

positions of authority.

Examples of Corruption in Developing Countries:

1. Bribery in Public Services:

- Public officials accepting bribes for services that citizens are entitled to, such as
healthcare or education.

2. Embezzlement of Public Funds:

- Diverting money allocated for public projects into private pockets, hindering
infrastructure development.

3. Nepotism in Government Appointments:

- Appointing family members or close associates to key government positions, bypassing

qualified individuals.

4. Extortion in Law Enforcement:

5
 - Police officers demanding bribes from citizens to avoid legal consequences or to expedite
processes.

5. Fraud in Public Contracts:

- Manipulating bidding processes to favor certain companies, leading to inflated costs for
public projects.

6. Kickbacks in Business Transactions:

- Requiring businesses to pay extra fees or kickbacks to secure contracts or licenses.

7. Patronage in Political Parties:

- Political leaders providing government jobs or benefits to supporters without considering

qualifications.

8. Cronyism in Natural Resource Allocation:

- Allocating valuable natural resources to companies owned by friends or associates, rather

than through fair and transparent processes.

Understanding these forms and examples of corruption is essential for developing effective
strategies to combat this pervasive issue. It requires a multi-faceted approach, including legal
reforms, transparency measures, and fostering a culture of accountability.

Causes of Corruption in Developing Countries9:

1. Socioeconomic Factors:

Corruption in developing countries is often fueled by a combination of socioeconomic factors

that create an environment conducive to corrupt practices.

- Poverty:

- High levels of poverty can lead individuals to engage in corrupt activities as a means of
survival or improvement of their economic condition. Public officials, for example, might
seek bribes to supplement their low salaries.

- Income Inequality:

9
Treisman, D. (2000). "The Causes of Corruption: A Cross-National Study." *Journal of Public Economics, 76*(3),
399-457.

6
 - Wide gaps between the rich and the poor can breed feelings of injustice, leading
individuals to resort to corruption as a way to level the playing field or secure essential
services.

- Lack of Access to Basic Services:

- Limited access to education, healthcare, and other essential services can create a
vulnerable population that may resort to bribery to meet their basic needs.

2. Weak Governance and Institutional Frameworks10:

Corruption often thrives in environments where governance structures and institutions are
weak, allowing for exploitative practices.

- Lack of Rule of Law:

- Inadequate enforcement of laws and regulations provides fertile ground for corruption.
When legal consequences for corrupt activities are weak or inconsistently applied, individuals
may feel less deterred.

- Political Instability:

- Frequent changes in leadership and political instability can disrupt the establishment of
strong institutions, creating opportunities for corrupt practices to flourish.

- Ineffective Anti-Corruption Measures:

- Weak oversight bodies and ineffective anti-corruption agencies contribute to the

persistence of corrupt practices, as there are insufficient checks and balances in place.

3. Lack of Transparency and Accountability:

Transparency and accountability are crucial elements in deterring corruption. When these are
lacking, corruption can thrive.

- Opaque Financial Systems:

- A lack of transparency in financial systems can facilitate money laundering and

embezzlement, making it easier for corrupt individuals to hide their ill-gotten gains.

- Secretive Decision-Making Processes:

10
Dabla-Norris, E., et al. (2019). "Digital Government Revisited: Harnessing Digital Technologies for Effective
Public Service Delivery." *International Monetary Fund.*

7
 - Decision-making processes that lack transparency provide opportunities for corruption.
When decisions are made behind closed doors, it becomes harder to track and prevent corrupt
activities.

- Impunity and Lack of Consequences:

- When individuals engaged in corrupt practices face little to no consequences, a culture of

impunity develops. This lack of accountability further encourages corrupt behavior.

In summary, the causes of corruption in developing countries are often deeply rooted in
socioeconomic factors, weak governance structures, and a lack of transparency and
accountability. Addressing these root causes requires a comprehensive approach, including
economic development, institutional strengthening, and the establishment of effective anti-
corruption measures.

Consequences of Corruption in Developing Countries:

1. Economic Implications: Hindered Growth and Investment

Corruption poses severe economic consequences in developing countries, hindering overall

growth and deterring foreign and domestic investment.

- Misallocation of Resources:

- Corrupt practices often result in the misallocation of public resources, diverting funds
intended for essential services and infrastructure projects. This misallocation hampers
economic development and perpetuates poverty.

- Deterrence to Foreign Investment:

- The perception of corruption deters foreign investors who fear unfair business practices,
bribery, and unpredictable regulatory environments. This reduced foreign direct investment
limits economic expansion and job creation.

- Reduced Public Revenue:

- Corruption diminishes public revenue through embezzlement and tax evasion, limiting
the government's ability to invest in education, healthcare, and other critical sectors necessary
for sustainable economic development.

2. Social Impact: Exacerbation of Inequality and Poverty

8
Corruption amplifies social inequalities and worsens poverty levels, disproportionately
affecting vulnerable populations.

- Unequal Access to Services:

- Corrupt practices can result in unequal access to basic services such as healthcare and
education. Wealthy individuals may exploit their connections to gain preferential treatment,
exacerbating social disparities.

- Impacts on Education:

- Corruption in education, such as bribery in the admissions process, undermines the

quality of education and restricts opportunities for disadvantaged individuals, perpetuating a
cycle of poverty.

- Healthcare Disparities:

- In healthcare, corruption can lead to the embezzlement of funds allocated for medical
services, limiting access to quality healthcare for those who cannot afford to pay bribes.

3. Political Consequences: Erosion of Trust and Stability11

Corruption erodes trust in public institutions and undermines political stability, leading to a
breakdown of democratic values.

- Erosion of Public Trust:

- Widespread corruption erodes public trust in government institutions, fostering a sense of

disillusionment among citizens. This lack of trust can lead to social unrest and hinder
collaborative efforts for societal progress.

- Destabilization of Political Systems:

- Corrupt practices contribute to the destabilization of political systems by fostering a

culture of cronyism and nepotism. This can lead to ineffective governance and political
instability.

- Undermining Rule of Law:

11
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). "Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for
Construct Development and Testing." *Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97*(2), 117-
134.

9
 - Corruption undermines the rule of law, as individuals engaged in corrupt practices often
go unpunished. This weakens the justice system, creating a sense of impunity and reducing
the effectiveness of legal institutions.

In conclusion, the consequences of corruption in developing countries are far-reaching,

affecting economic growth, social equity, and political stability. Addressing corruption
requires comprehensive measures that encompass legal reforms, transparency initiatives, and
efforts to strengthen democratic institutions. Such endeavors are essential for fostering
sustainable development and improving the overall well-being of the population.

Case Study: Examples of Corruption in Developing Countries

1. Nigeria:

- Fuel Subsidy Scandal:

- Nigeria has grappled with corruption in various sectors, including the infamous fuel
subsidy scandal. Government officials were accused of inflating the subsidy on imported fuel,
leading to the embezzlement of billions of dollars. This not only drained public funds but also
contributed to fuel shortages and economic instability.

- Bribery in Law Enforcement:

- Instances of bribery and corruption within law enforcement are widespread in Nigeria.
Citizens often face demands for bribes from police officers, leading to a lack of trust in the
legal system and hindering efforts to combat crime effectively.

2. India:

- Commonwealth Games Scandal:

- The Commonwealth Games held in Delhi in 2010 witnessed a massive corruption

scandal. Government officials were implicated in cases of embezzlement, mismanagement of
funds, and awarding contracts at inflated prices. This not only tarnished India's image but also
diverted resources from crucial development projects.

- Bribery in Public Services:

- Corruption is prevalent in public services such as healthcare and education. Patients may
be required to pay bribes to access medical treatment, while students may face demands for
bribes to secure admission to educational institutions.

10
3. Brazil:

- Operation Car Wash:

- Brazil faced one of the largest corruption scandals in its history known as Operation Car
Wash. This involved widespread corruption in the state-controlled oil company, Petrobras,
with allegations of kickbacks, money laundering, and bribery. The scandal had significant
economic and political repercussions.

- Corruption in Construction Contracts:

- Construction projects in Brazil have been marred by corruption, with inflated contracts
and kickbacks being commonplace. This not only results in substandard infrastructure but
also contributes to economic inefficiency and a lack of public trust.

4. Kenya:

- Goldenberg Scandal:

- The Goldenberg scandal in Kenya involved the fraudulent payment of export subsidies
for non-existent exports of gold and diamonds. This large-scale corruption case led to
substantial financial losses for the country and highlighted weaknesses in governance and
financial oversight.

- Corruption in Land Transactions:

- Land transactions in Kenya are often plagued by corruption, with reports of bribery in
land registration processes. This has significant implications for property rights, often leading
to land grabbing and disputes.

These case studies underscore the pervasive nature of corruption in developing countries,
impacting various sectors and hindering sustainable development. They highlight the need for
comprehensive anti-corruption measures, transparency initiatives, and strengthened
governance structures to address and mitigate the impact of corruption on these nations.

Anti-Corruption Measures and Solutions:12

1. Strengthening Legal Frameworks:

- Implementation of Robust Anti-Corruption Laws:

12
Lambsdorff, J. G. (2007). "The Institutional Economics of Corruption and Reform: Theory, Evidence, and
Policy." Cambridge University Press.

11
 - Developing and enforcing strict anti-corruption laws that encompass bribery,
embezzlement, and other corrupt practices. This includes establishing severe penalties for
offenders to act as a deterrent.

- Whistleblower Protection:

- Implementing measures to protect whistleblowers who expose corruption. Creating

secure channels for reporting corruption without fear of retaliation encourages individuals to
come forward with information.

2. Enhancing Transparency and Accountability:

- Open Government Initiatives:

- Promoting transparency through open government initiatives, making information about

public expenditures, contracts, and government decisions accessible to the public. This helps
in holding officials accountable for their actions.

- Financial Transparency:

- Implementing financial transparency measures, such as the publication of government

budgets and audits. This helps track public spending and reduces the opportunities for
embezzlement.

3. Strengthening Institutions:

- Independent Anti-Corruption Agencies:

- Establishing independent and well-funded anti-corruption agencies with the authority to

investigate and prosecute cases of corruption. Ensuring these agencies operate autonomously
enhances their effectiveness.

- Judicial Reforms:

- Implementing reforms to strengthen the judicial system, including the appointment of

competent and unbiased judges. This ensures fair and timely adjudication of corruption cases.

4. Promoting Ethical Leadership13:

- Leadership Training on Ethics:

13
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). "Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for
Construct Development and Testing." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117-134.

12
 - Providing leadership training that emphasizes ethical behavior and integrity. Leaders
who lead by example and adhere to high ethical standards can positively influence
organizational culture.

- Public Ethics Education:

- Implementing public education campaigns to instill ethical values and civic

responsibility. Educating the public about the detrimental effects of corruption helps create a
culture that rejects corrupt practices.

5. Utilizing Technology14:

- E-Government Platforms:

- Implementing e-government platforms for public services to reduce direct interactions

between citizens and officials. This minimizes opportunities for bribery and promotes
efficiency.

- Digital Financial Transactions:

- Encouraging the use of digital financial transactions to reduce cash-based transactions

that are more susceptible to corruption. This enhances transparency in financial dealings.

The literature on anti-corruption measures underscores the importance of legal frameworks,

transparency initiatives, and institutional strengthening. Case studies on successful initiatives,
such as the ICAC in Hong Kong and the CPIB in Singapore, provide insights into effective
strategies15

Successful Initiatives and Their Impacts:

1. Hong Kong Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC)16:

- Initiative:

- The ICAC is an independent anti-corruption body with wide-ranging powers to

investigate and combat corruption in Hong Kong.

- Impact:

14
Dabla-Norris, E., et al. (2019). "Digital Government Revisited: Harnessing Digital Technologies for Effective
Public Service Delivery." International Monetary Fund.
15
World Bank. (2011). "Curbing Corruption in Public Procurement." World Bank Group.
16
World Bank. (2011). "Curbing Corruption in Public Procurement." World Bank Group.

13
 - The ICAC has been successful in reducing corruption levels in Hong Kong. Its proactive
approach, public awareness campaigns, and emphasis on prevention have contributed to
building a culture of integrity.

2. Singapore's Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (CPIB):

- Initiative:

- The CPIB in Singapore is responsible for investigating and preventing corruption in both
the public and private sectors.

- Impact:

- Singapore's consistently low levels of corruption are attributed to the effective

functioning of the CPIB. The bureau's emphasis on prevention and education has contributed
to Singapore's reputation for clean governance.

3. Botswana's Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime (DCEC):

- Initiative:

- The DCEC in Botswana is an independent body tasked with investigating and preventing
corruption.

- Impact:

- Botswana's success in maintaining a relatively low level of corruption is attributed to the

DCEC's independence, effectiveness, and a strong commitment to combating corruption at all
levels.

These successful initiatives demonstrate that a combination of legal measures, institutional

strengthening, ethical leadership, and the use of technology can contribute to effective anti-
corruption efforts. Adapting these strategies to the specific context of developing countries is
crucial for achieving meaningful and sustainable results.

Conclusion:

Key Findings on the Causes and Consequences of Corruption:

1. Socioeconomic Factors as Root Causes:

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 - Poverty, income inequality, and limited access to basic services contribute to the
vulnerability of individuals to engage in corrupt practices17.

2. Weak Governance and Institutional Frameworks:

- Weak enforcement of laws, political instability, and ineffective anti-corruption measures

create an environment conducive to corrupt activities.

3. Lack of Transparency and Accountability:

- Opaque financial systems, secretive decision-making processes, and a culture of impunity

provide fertile ground for corruption to thrive.

4. Economic, Social, and Political Consequences:

- Corruption hampers economic growth, deters investment, exacerbates social inequalities,

and erodes trust in public institutions, leading to political instability.

Importance of Addressing Corruption for Sustainable Development:

1. Economic Growth and Poverty Alleviation:

- Addressing corruption is crucial for fostering economic growth by ensuring that resources
are allocated efficiently and public funds are used for development projects. This, in turn,
contributes to poverty alleviation.

2. Trust in Institutions and Social Stability:

- Combatting corruption is essential for rebuilding trust in public institutions. A transparent

and accountable government fosters social stability, reduces grievances, and enhances the
overall quality of governance.

3. Foreign Investment and Global Reputation:

- Developing countries with low levels of corruption attract more foreign direct investment,
as investors are more confident in stable and transparent business environments. A positive
global reputation contributes to economic prosperity.

4. Equality and Social Justice:

17
Johnson, S., Kaufmann, D., & Zoido-Lobatón, P. (1998). "Government Corruption and the Entry of
Multinationals." *National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6874.*

15
 - Anti-corruption efforts promote equality and social justice by ensuring that public services
are accessible to all, regardless of social or economic status. This contributes to building a
fair and inclusive society.

5. Efficient Use of Resources:

- Addressing corruption ensures that public resources are used efficiently and effectively.
This leads to improved public services, infrastructure development, and a better quality of life
for citizens.

6. Long-Term Sustainable Development:

- Sustainable development requires a foundation of integrity, transparency, and good

governance. By addressing corruption, countries pave the way for long-term sustainability in
economic, social, and environmental dimensions.

In conclusion, the fight against corruption is not just a moral imperative but a practical
necessity for achieving sustainable development in developing countries. Tackling corruption
at its roots, implementing comprehensive anti-corruption measures, and fostering a culture of
transparency and accountability are essential steps toward building resilient and prosperous
societies.

REFERENCES

1. Myint, H. (2000). "Corruption in Developing Countries." Journal of Economic

Studies, 27(1), 6-25.
2. Klitgaard, R. (1988). "Controlling Corruption." University of California Press.
3. Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). "Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and
Reform." Cambridge University Press.
4. Eigen, P. (2000). "Corruption: Theoretical Elements of a Conceptual Framework." In
M. Bassett & P. M. Scott (Eds.), Understanding Global Corruption for Comparative
Criminal Justice (pp. 3-38). University of Illinois Press.
5. World Bank. (2011). "Curbing Corruption in Public Procurement." World Bank
Group.
6. Mauro, P. (1995). "Corruption and Growth." The Quarterly Journal of Economics,
110(3), 681-712.
7. Treisman, D. (2000). "The Causes of Corruption: A Cross-National Study." Journal of
Public Economics, 76(3), 399-457.

16
8. Gray, C. W., & Kaufmann, D. (1998). "Corruption and Development." Finance &
Development, 35(1), 7-10.
9. Dabla-Norris, E., et al. (2019). "Digital Government Revisited: Harnessing Digital
Technologies for Effective Public Service Delivery." International Monetary Fund.
10. Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). "Ethical Leadership: A Social
Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing." Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117-134.
11. Lambsdorff, J. G. (2007). "The Institutional Economics of Corruption and Reform:
Theory, Evidence, and Policy." Cambridge University Press.
12. Johnson, S., Kaufmann, D., & Zoido-Lobatón, P. (1998). "Government Corruption
and the Entry of Multinationals." National Bureau of Economic Research Working
Paper No. 6874.
13. Alatas, Hussein S., 1999. Corruption and the Destiny of Asia (Singapore, Simon and
Schuster (Asia) Pte. Ltd.).
14. Gray, Cheryl W. and Daniel Kaufmann, 1998. “Corruption and development”, in
IMF/World Bank, Finance and Development, 35(1): 7.
15. Kiltgaard, Robert, 1998. “International cooperation cooperation against corruption”,
IMF/World Bank,
16. Finance and Development, 35(1): 3. Mauro, Paolo, 1998. “Corruption: causes,
consequences and agenda for further research”, IMF/World
17. Bank, Finance and Development, 35(1): 13. Vogl, Frank, 1998. “The supply side of
global bribery”, IMF/World Bank, Finance and Development,
18. 35(2): 31.
19. World Bank, 1998. World Development Report 1998 (New York, Oxford University
Press); table 1, pp. 190-191.

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