Feminism

Introduction:
In 1888, Kate Cuningham, the editor of The Woman's Chronicle in Little Rock, Arkansas, wrote
that women are the best suited to understand and work for the needs of other women. She
highlighted women’s progress in fields like medicine, literature, and reform movements as proof
of this. Over a hundred years later, in 2005, Hillary Clinton, former First Lady, U.S. Senator, and
Secretary of State, said at a United Nations conference that women’s rights should not be seen
as separate from human rights. This shows that, despite the progress made, there is still a long
way to go for gender equality. So, the question remains: are women and men equal today? The
answer, according to feminist studies, is "No."
Feminist literary criticism is a major development in literary studies that advocates for equal
rights for women in all areas of life—socially, politically, economically, and more. Emerging in
the 1960s, feminist criticism is part of a larger field of feminist studies. It focuses on
understanding how society, which is often controlled by men, affects literature and culture.
Annette Kolodny, a feminist critic, wrote in 1980 that feminist literary criticism is united by its
focus on the ways male-dominated power structures are present in literature, and how these
affect women as characters, readers, and writers.
One key concept in feminist criticism is phallocentrism, the belief that men hold the main
power in culture and literature. This belief shapes how we view society and is often passed
down through literature. Toril Moi, a leading feminist theorist, says feminist criticism is a
political act that works against patriarchy (male dominance) and sexism. Its goal is to challenge
the male-centered view of the world found in literature and culture. Judith Fetterley, another
feminist critic, agrees with Moi, and adds that feminist criticism isn’t just about interpreting
literature but about changing how we think and relate to what we read. A key part of feminist
criticism is becoming a "resisting reader"—refusing to accept the male-dominated ideas in
literature.
This "male mind" is present in many classic works of Western literature, which were mostly
written by men. A historical look at the views of these male writers shows how patriarchal ideas
were deeply embedded in the Western literary canon, supporting the feminist belief that male-
dominated ideas are widespread in literature.

Important quotes:
Do not let a woman with a sexy rump deceive you with wheedling and coaxing words; she is
after your barn. The man who trusts a woman trusts a deceiver.
Hesiod, poet, eighth century BCE
Plato thanks the gods for two blessings: that he had not been born a slave and that he had not
been born a woman.
Plato (c.427-c.347 BCE)
Silence gives the proper grace to women.
Sophocles (497-406 BCE)
The male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules and the other is ruled.
Woman "is matter, waiting to be formed by the active male principle Man consequently plays a
major part in reproduction; the woman is merely the passive incubator of his seed."
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
Woman is really an "imperfect man.... an incidental being... a botched male."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Although a woman is a "beautiful handiwork of god," she does "not equal the glory and dignity
of the male."
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Frailty, thy name is woman.
Hamlet by Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Most women have no character at all.
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
Literature cannot be the business of a woman's life, and it ought not to be. The more she is
engaged in her proper duties, the less leisure will she have for it, even any recreation.
Robert Southey, Poet Laureate (1774-1843)
Woman is a slave whom we must be clever enough to set upon a throne.
Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850)
Jane Austen's novels are "vulgar in tone, sterile in artistic invention... without genius, twit or
knowledge of the world. Never was life so pinched and narrow."
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
Women writers are a "dammed mob of scribbling women" who only write anything worth
reading if the devil is in them.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
The woman author does not exist. She is a contradiction in terms. The role of the woman in
letters is the same as in manufacturing; she is of use when genius is no longer required.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865)
Woman is natural, that is, abominable.
Charles-Pierre Baudelaire (1821-1867)
Jane Austen is entirely impossible to read. It seems a great pity that they allowed her to die a
natural death.
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
The very idea of womanhood is a storm of hair... with a greedy little mouth some- where behind
the mirage of beauty.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Feminism is a political mistake. Feminism is a mistake made by women's intellect, a mistake
which her instinct will recognize.
Valentine de Saint-Point (1875-1953)
Educating a woman is like pouring honey over a fine Swiss watch. It stops working.

Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. (1922-2007)

Feminist literary criticism challenges such patriarchal statements with their accompanying male-
dominated, philosophical assumptions and such gender-biased criticism. Asserting that
literature should be free from biases of race, class, or gender, feminist criticism provides a
variety of theoretical frame works and approaches to interpretation that values each member of
society.

Historical Development
Ancient Greece and Gender Inequality

In ancient Greece, men were seen as superior to women. Men believed that women distracted them
from finding truth, and that they were inferior in many ways. This idea of male superiority continued for
centuries.

Charles Darwin and Gender Ideas

In 1871, Charles Darwin argued that women were less advanced than men and belonged to a lower
stage of civilization. He believed that men were better than women in terms of physical strength,
intelligence, and creativity.
Christine de Pizan and Feminist Writing

In the 14th century, Christine de Pizan challenged these ideas. In her work "L'Epistre au Dieu d'amours,"
she criticized a male writer, Jean de Meun, for his negative portrayal of women. In another work, "Le
Livre de la Cité des Dames," Pizan argued that men and women were created equal by God.

Aphra Behn and Women’s Voices in Literature

In the 17th century, Aphra Behn became one of the first professional female writers in England. She
wrote plays, poems, and novels that explored women's feelings, desires, and sexual experiences, both
with men and women. Her works, like The Amorous Prince and Oroonoko, helped pave the way for
future writers and offered a new perspective on women’s roles in literature. Virginia Woolf later praised
Behn for helping women earn the right to express themselves.

Mary Wollstonecraft and Women's Rights

In the late 1700s, Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, advocating for
women’s equality. She argued that women should define who they are and should not accept the belief
that men are superior. She was influenced by the French Revolution and believed both men and women
should have a voice in society.

Progressive Era and the Fight for Equality

In the early 1900s, women gained the right to vote and became more active in social issues. Although
they made progress, women still had to fight for equality in areas like education, politics, and literature.

Virgina Woolf
In 1929, Virginia Woolf expanded on Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas, laying the foundation for
modern feminist criticism with her book A Room of One’s Own. Woolf argued that men have
always treated women as inferior and have controlled important areas like politics, economics,
society, and literature.
Woolf’s Idea of "Shakespeare's Sister"
Woolf imagined a sister of Shakespeare who was as talented as him but could never become a
famous writer because she was a woman. Being female stopped her from getting an education
or finding a good job. She could not afford a private space to write and think, which Woolf calls
"a room of her own. "Without this space and freedom, Shakespeare's sister’s talents went
unrecognized, and she died without anyone knowing her true genius.
Woolf’s Argument: Women’s Talents Are Stifled
Woolf believed that the reason Shakespeare's sister’s talents were lost is because society views
women as intellectually inferior to men. She argued that women must reject these limiting
ideas about themselves and create their own identity, separate from the societal expectations
of what it means to be a woman.
The Need for a Female Discourse
To define themselves, women must challenge the false beliefs about their abilities and create a
new way of speaking and thinking that reflects their own experiences and perspectives. If
women can do this, Woolf believed that Shakespeare's sister’s genius could live on in modern
women, even those doing everyday tasks like housework or caring for children.
Delays in Feminist Progress
However, important global events like the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in
the 1940s shifted the world’s focus away from feminist ideas, delaying their progress.

Simone de Beauvoir
After World War II and "The Second Sex": In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir, a French writer,
published a book called The Second Sex. This book became a foundational work of feminism in
the 20th century.
Patriarchy and the Role of Men: Beauvoir argues that societies, especially in France and
Western countries, are controlled by men. She believes that men define what it means to be
human, and women are seen as "the Other"—they are defined by men and are not considered
fully equal.
Women as "the Other": Beauvoir explains that because women are not men, they are treated
as the "Other," meaning they are defined only in relation to men. Women are seen as less
important and are left out of major social roles, such as in the church, government, and
education.
The Need for Change: Beauvoir argues that women must break free from this system and define
themselves. To be truly significant, women must stop allowing men to control how they are
seen.
What is a Woman? Women must ask themselves, “What is a woman?” but their answer should
not be “mankind,” because that would mean they are still defined by men. Beauvoir rejects this
because it suggests that men are the standard for humanity, and women are just an offshoot of
that.
Rejecting Male Control: Beauvoir insists that women must see themselves as independent and
not as an extension of men. She believes that men control the main ideas and roles in society,
but women must challenge this and create their own ideas of what it means to be a woman.
Defining Oneself: Finally, Beauvoir says that women must create their own definitions of
womanhood and reject being labelled as the "Other." Women need to reject the idea that men
are the norm and that they are just the opposite or lesser version of men.
In short, Simone de Beauvoir calls for women to define themselves, not let men control their
identity, and reject being seen as the "Other" in society.

Kate Millett
In the 1960s, there was a rise in political activism and social concerns, which helped feminist
ideas find new voices. Authors like Mary Ellmann and Kate Millett became important in
discussing women's rights and gender issues.
In 1970, Kate Millett published Sexual Politics, which marked the beginning of a new wave of
feminism. Millett was one of the first to argue that gender is not something you're born with,
but something that society creates. In other words, your sex is determined at birth, but society
teaches you how to act based on your gender.
Millett explained that boys are expected to be strong, assertive, and in control, while girls are
expected to be quiet, humble, and passive. These expectations are taught through media like
TV, movies, songs, and books.
Millett called this process "sexual politics," which means the way power and control are used to
enforce these gender roles. In society, men hold most of the power, which leads to the
subordination of women. Millett believed that women need to challenge and break down the
power structures controlled by men. If women do this, they will be able to create their own
social rules and define what it means to be a woman. By doing so, they can shape their own
discussions, create feminist theories, and redefine how women are represented in literature.

Feminism n 1960, 70, 80s

In 1963, two important works brought attention to feminist issues:

American Women – This was a report by the President's Commission on the Status of Women,
created by President John F. Kennedy. It showed the big inequalities between men and women
in areas like work, education, and society.
The Feminine Mystique – Written by Betty Friedan, this book raised important questions about
the roles of women. Friedan argued that women should be able to ask themselves, "Who am I,
and what do I want in life?" without feeling guilty. She highlighted that women should not be
limited to just being wives and mothers.
By 1966, Friedan became the president of the National Organization for Women (NOW), which
focused on getting equal rights for women, including equal opportunities in education and
work, the right to choose abortion, and other social, political, and personal reforms.
During the 1960s and 1970s, feminist scholars started looking at traditional literature and found
many examples of male dominance and prejudice. They realized that many female characters in
classic literature were stereotypes, like sex-obsessed women or helpless characters. While many
male writers like Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, and Nathaniel Hawthorne were widely accepted,
few female writers were given the same recognition. Women writers, when included, were
often seen as "minor" or "local colour" writers.
Feminist critics of this time said that male authors assumed their readers were mostly men, and
female readers were trained to read literature as if they were men. This led to the idea of a
"female ideal reader" who would notice and reject the male biases in the canon of literature.
During the 1970s, feminist critics helped highlight and rediscover works by female writers that
had been overlooked. For example:
Kate Chopin's "The Awakening" was recognized as an important feminist text.
Doris Lessing's "The Golden Notebook" and Monique Wittig's "Les Guérillères" were important
works in England and France.
More people, including university students and general readers, began paying attention to
works by women. Feminists also worked to define and explain a “female literary history” and
aesthetic, studying how women write and how their writing is different from men’s.
In the 1970s, the Feminist Press was established (in 1972), and journals like Signs, Women's
Studies Quarterly, and Feminist Studies began to publish feminist works. Some important books
from this time include:
The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters (1975)
The Authority of Experience: Essays in Feminist Criticism (1977)
The Resisting Reader: A Feminist Approach to American Fiction (1978)
Women’s Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America, 1820-1870 (1978)
Shakespeare’s Sisters: Feminist Essays on Women Poets (1979)
The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-century Literary
Imagination (1979)
These works helped shape and direct feminist theory and criticism, giving a platform for
feminist discussions. This movement led to the re-evaluation of literature and the important
role of women in literature and society.

Elaine Showalter:
Elaine Showalter is an important feminist critic who studied women's writing in the 1970s and
beyond. In her book A Literature of Their Own (1977), she talks about three periods of female
writing:
The Feminine Phase (1840-1880): During this time, women like Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot,
and George Sand accepted the roles society gave them. They wrote under male names so their
works would be taken seriously, just like male writers.
The Feminist Phase (1880-1920): In this phase, female writers began to show the mistreatment
of women by men. They focused on the struggles and unfair treatment women faced.
The Female Phase (1920-present): Female writers in this phase rejected both the old social
roles (from the feminine phase) and the position of women as secondary characters (from the
feminist phase). Now, women are developing their own understanding of their experiences and
writing from that perspective.
Showalter believes that female writers were kept out of the literary canon (the list of great
works) because male professors decided who belonged in it. Writers like Susan Warner, Emma
D. E. N. Southworth, and Mary E. Wilkins Freeman were popular but were not included in the
canon. Showalter argues that this exclusion needs to stop. In her essay "Toward a Feminist
Poetics" (1997), Showalter introduces gyno criticism, which is a way of studying women's
literature by creating a framework based on female experiences instead of adapting male
theories. Gyno criticism helps uncover the wrong ideas about women in traditional literature.
Showalter suggests four ways to analyse women's writing, which build on each other:
1.Biological Model: This looks at how the female body influences a text. It explores how
women’s physical experiences affect their writing, often creating a more personal and intimate
tone.
2.Linguistic Model: This model studies how women and men use language differently. It
suggests that women write in a way that is unique to their gender, creating a "female
discourse."
3.Psychoanalytic Model: This model examines the female mind and how it affects the way
women write. It highlights the fluid, flexible nature of female writing compared to the more
structured approach of male writing.
4.Cultural Model: This model focuses on how society shapes women’s views, actions, and goals.
It studies how culture influences women’s writing.

Geographical strains of Feminism:

In the 1960s, 70s, and 80s, feminist criticism in writing was not dominated by just one theory
because feminist theory focuses on the personal and allows for many different ways of
analyzing texts. Feminist criticism also varied depending on where it was being practiced, with
major feminist voices emerging from three regions: America, Britain, and France. These regions
had different focuses, but they are no longer seen as strict boundaries for feminist theory.
However, they remain important in the history of feminism. According to Showalter, American
feminism was focused on texts, particularly the lack of works by female authors in the literary
canon; British feminism focused on the oppression of women, influenced by Marxism; and
French feminism was based on psychoanalysis, focusing on repression. All three aimed to
change the way women were treated, aiming to stop women from being seen as "the Other."
American Feminism:
For American feminists, one major goal was to restore and include works by women in
literature. Kolodny, a feminist scholar, argued that history is often told as a fiction controlled by
men. She believed women should reclaim their history, or "her-story," and tell their own stories.
In her works, Kolodny showed that early American colonists often saw the land as female to
ease their fears, but female colonists saw it more as a home. Kolodny also later highlighted how
women in American universities still face discrimination. Gilbert and Gubar, authors of The
Madwoman in the Attic, argued that male authors have long defined women in literature,
creating an "anxiety of authorship" for women who feared writing would isolate or harm them.
They suggested that women should create their own unique literary style or "woman's
sentence," which would free them from male control. They also criticized two major stereotypes
of women in literature: the "angel in the house" (a woman who exists only to please her
husband and children) and the "madwoman in the attic" (a woman who is punished for
rejecting traditional roles). Both of these images were created by men and don't reflect real
women, according to Gilbert and Gubar.
British Feminism:
British feminism, influenced by Marxist theory, focused on how women are oppressed in society
and in literature. British feminists believed that literature was part of the material world and
could affect how women were treated in real life. They argued that patriarchal society,
particularly in the West, keeps women economically dependent and subordinates them. British
feminists aimed to challenge this oppression, not just analyze it, seeking to change society by
changing how women are portrayed in literature.
French Feminism:
French feminism also focused on women's oppression, but it was heavily influenced by
psychoanalysis, particularly the ideas of Freud and Lacan. Freud believed that women were
incomplete men who desired the male phallus, but Lacan's ideas were more nuanced. Lacan
argued that language, not biological differences, shapes our identities. He believed that both
men and women are affected by a system of language that gives power to men and keeps
women subordinate. Lacanian feminism sees language as a tool that can change society, and
women can use it to challenge their subordination.
French feminists like Julia Kristeva and Hélène Cixous used Lacan’s ideas in their work. Kristeva
talked about the "chora," a fluid, pre-language state that both men and women experience in
early life, and how language separates them from this fluidity. She explored how motherhood
affects women and their relationships. Cixous, in her essay The Laugh of the Medusa, argued
that traditional male and female language should be erased, and women should create a new
form of writing called écriture féminine (feminine writing). This type of writing would be more
fluid and generous, transforming cultural and social structures by challenging the male-
dominated language system.
In short, American, British, and French feminist theories each focused on different aspects of
women’s oppression and repression, whether through reclaiming history, challenging social
roles, or altering language and writing systems.

Present day feminist criticism

Contemporary feminist criticism is not based on a single ideology. Instead, there are many
different approaches, which often overlap with other kinds of literary criticism like
psychoanalysis, Marxism, and deconstruction. Some scholars divide feminist criticism into four
main groups:
1. Anglo-American Feminisms: This includes thinkers like Virginia Woolf, Judith Fetterley,
Annette Kolodny, Elaine Showalter, Sandra Gilbert, and Susan Gubar. They focus on
issues like how women have been excluded from literature and how female writers can
reclaim their voices.
2. Poststructuralist Feminisms: This group includes theorists like Luce Irigaray, Hélène
Cixous, Julia Kristeva, and Gayatri Spivak. They focus on how language and culture shape
our understanding of gender, often drawing on ideas from psychoanalysis and
postmodern philosophy.
3. Materialist Feminisms: Thinkers like Juliet Mitchell, Rosalind Coward, and Donna
Haraway belong to this category. They focus on how women's material conditions (such
as economic and social roles) shape their experiences, arguing for changes in how
women are treated in society and the economy.
4. Postmodern Feminisms: Emerging in the 1990s, this group includes scholars like Judith
Butler, Gloria Anzaldúa, and Mary Daly. They focus on how gender and identity are not
fixed but are instead fluid and socially constructed.
Some critics break feminist criticism into even more subcategories. These include:
 Amazon Feminism: This focuses on strong, physically active women, like female athletes,
and challenges the idea that women are physically weak. It argues that gender should
not be a factor when discussing jobs or roles.
 Cultural Feminism: Sometimes called radical feminism, this approach argues that men
and women have inherent differences, with women being "kinder and gentler." It
 celebrates these qualities and suggests they are superior to men’s ways of thinking and
behaving.
 Ecofeminism: This theory argues that early societies were matriarchal and that the shift
to patriarchy has harmed women, children, and nature. Ecofeminists believe that a
matriarchal society would care for the environment, natural resources, and animals
while treating women and children with respect.
 Material Feminism: Focused on improving women’s material conditions, material
feminism looks at how women can be freed from traditional domestic tasks like cooking,
cleaning, and taking care of the household. Dolores Hayden's book The Grand Domestic
Revolution (1981) explores these ideas.
 Separatist Feminism: This approach advocates for women to separate from men, either
completely or partially, to find personal growth and individuality. Not all separatists are
lesbians, but some may be. The idea is that women need to separate themselves from
male influence to discover their true selves.
 Postcolonial Feminism: Also known as third-world feminism, this approach shares ideas
with postcolonialism. It argues that women in colonized countries, like colonized
subjects, are defined by the "male gaze" and are stereotyped. Postcolonial feminists also
reject defining women solely by their sex.
Despite all these different subcategories, feminist critics agree on one main goal: they are on a
journey of self-discovery. By understanding themselves as individuals first, they believe they can
better understand society and the world, and fully participate in all parts of culture, including
the arts.

Assumptions:
 Feminist theory and practice can seem complicated and divided because it includes many
different opinions and approaches. However, it is unified by a core belief: that all people, both
women and men, should have equal rights in society, politics, and the economy. Feminists, who
are mostly women but also some men, are on a journey of self-discovery. They ask questions like
who they are, how they got to where they are, and where they are going. This process can be
political, as it aims to change both individuals and the world they live in.

 Feminists believe that society needs to recognize and value all people
equally, regardless of gender or culture. Feminist criticism focuses on
understanding women’s place in society, especially in a world that is
mostly dominated by men. In many cultures, men are seen as the
standard, and women are defined in relation to them as "the Other" —
the opposite of men. Men are often considered the "important" gender,
while women are seen as less significant.
  Western society has often treated women as inferior, and many
feminist critics want to change this view. They believe women should
not be seen as lesser or incomplete compared to men. They also
challenge the common negative stereotypes of women, such as being
seen as angels, housewives, or "bad" women. Feminists want women
to define themselves and take control of their own roles and identities.
 To achieve this, feminist critics argue that women need to challenge
the traditional literature and ideas that have shaped these negative
views. They believe women should reexamine existing texts, create
their own theories about what it means to be a woman, and assert
their own power and autonomy in all areas of life. By doing this, they
can gain the ability to respond to any text, their own writing, and their
social, political, and economic positions with confidence.

Methodology
Feminist theory and criticism have many different approaches to analyzing
texts. One approach focuses on showing how women have been stereotyped
in literature. Feminists argue that women shouldn’t be limited to just being
seen as angels, demons, saints, or whores, or as either silly housewives or
strange old women. These extreme views of women need to be constantly
challenged.
Other feminist critics work to rediscover books written by women that were
overlooked in traditional literature. Some feminist critics look at famous
works by male authors but read them from a female perspective. This
approach creates a new way of understanding literature based on women’s
experiences, instead of following the traditional male-centered ways of
reading and writing.
Some feminist critics, like Elaine Showalter, have a method called
gynocriticism, which helps feminists analyze texts from a female viewpoint.
Other critics, like Luce Irigaray, use philosophy and psychology to criticize
patriarchy and how it gives power to men while limiting women. Critics like
Julia Kristeva and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak use ideas from linguistics,
Marxism, deconstruction, and postcolonial studies to challenge patriarchal
ideas and offer new alternatives.
Some feminist critics, like Monique Wittig and Hélène Cixous, suggest
creating a completely new way of speaking and writing that isn’t centered
around men. Wittig, for example, wants to change the language by removing
gendered words, something she calls the “lesbianization of language.”
Cixous believes in creating a new type of female writing, called l'écriture
féminine, that challenges the male-centered way of thinking and makes
space for both genders.
For postcolonial feminists and women of color, it's important to create new
ways of thinking to challenge dominant ideas. To truly understand and use all
these different feminist approaches, it’s important to learn about each
method, but that’s too much to cover in this text.

Questions for analysis

Whatever method of feminist criticisms we choose to apply to a text, we can
begin such textual analysis by asking the following questions as they relate
to Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "Young Goodman Brown." Be pre- pared
to discuss your answers in class.
Is the author male or female?
Is the text narrated by a male or female?
What types of roles do women have in the text?
Are the female characters the protagonists or secondary and minor
characters?
Do any stereotypical characterizations of women appear?
What are the attitudes toward women held by the male characters?
What is the author's attitude toward women in society?
How does the author's culture influence her or his attitude?
Is feminine imagery used? If so, what is the significance of such imagery?
Do the female characters speak differently than do the male characters?
Compare the frequency of speech for the male characters to that of the
female characters.
By applying any or all of these questions to a text, we can begin our journey
in feminist criticism and simultaneously help ourselves to better understand
ourselves as individuals and the world in which we live.

Critiques and responses

At the beginning of this chapter are a variety of quotations pronounced by
males concerning females; now let us listen to the voices of females:
You have to make more noise than anybody else, you have to make yourself
more obtrusive than anybody else, you have to fill all the papers more than
anybody else, in fact you have to be there all the time and see that they do
not snow you under, if you are really going to get your reform realized.
(Emmeline Pankhurst, British
suffragist (1858-1925))
Feminism, like Boston, is a state of mind. It is the state of mind of women
who realize that their whole position in the social order is antiquated, as a
woman cooking over an open fire with heavy iron pots would know that her
entire housekeeping was out of date.
Feminism never harmed anybody unless it was some feminists. The danger is
that the study and contemplation of "ourselves" may become so absorbing
that it builds by slow degrees a high wall that shuts out the great world of
thought.

(Rheta Childe
Dorr, journalist (1866-1948))

Feminism is the radical notion that women are people.

Cheris
Kramarae and Paula Treichler
I myself have never been able to find out precisely what feminism is: I only
know that people call me a feminist whenever I express sentiments that
differentiate me from a doormat.

Rebecca West (1913)

Feminism is an entire world view or gestalt, not just a laundry list of women's
issues.
Charlotte
Bunch, editor, author (1944-)
It is important to remember that feminism is no longer a group of
organizations or leaders. It is the expectations that parents have for their
daughters, and their sons too. It is the way we talk about and treat one
another. It is who makes the money and who makes the compromises and
who makes the dinner. It is a state of mind. It is the way of life we live now.
 Anna Quindlen,
journalist, novelist (1945-)
Feminism is a political term and it must be recognized as such it is political in
women's terms. What are these terms? Essentially it means making
connections: between personal power and economic power, between
domestic oppression and labour exploitation, between plants and chemicals,
feelings and theories; it means making connections between our inside
worlds and the outside world.
Anica Vesel Mander (1945-)
and Anne K. Rush (1945-)
Feminism is a commitment to eradicating the ideology of domination that
permeates Western culture on various levels-sex, race, and class, to name a
few and a commitment to reorganizing US society, so that the self-
development of people can take precedence over per imperialism, economic
expansion, and material desires.
bell
hooks, Ain't I a Woman (1983)
Feminism asks the world to recognize at long last that women aren't
decorative or- naments, worthy vessels of a special-interest group. They are
half (in fact, now more than half of the national population, and just as
deserving of rights and opportunities, just as capable of participating in the
world's events, as the other half. Feminism's agenda is basic: It asks that
women not be forced to choose between public justice and private
happiness. It asks that women be free to define them- selves instead of
having their identity defined for them, time and again, by their culture and
their men.

Susan Faludi, Backlash (1991)

Feminism is an ongoing project, a process, undertaken on a daily basis by

mil- lions of women of all ages, classes, ethnic and racial backgrounds, and
sexual preferences. Feminism is constantly being reinvented, and reinvented
through determination and compromise, so that women try, as best they
can, to have love and support as well as power and autonomy.
Susan Douglas,
Where the Girls Are (1994)
The connections between and among women are the most feared, the most
problematic, and the most potentially transforming force on the planet.

Adrienne Rich, poet (1929-)

Conclusion:
Disturbingly, for many people, Adrienne Rich's words encapsulate the
essence of feminist criticism: it is feared, it is problematic, and it has the
ability and the transformative power to reshape our world. A branch of
feminist studies grounded in feminist theory and scholarship, feminist
criticism is a heterogeneous grouping of scholars, writers, linguists,
philosophers, scientists, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists,
educators, and peoples from all professions and walks of life who believe that
both women and men are equal. As a social movement, feminist criticism
highlights the various ways women, in particular, have been oppressed,
suppressed, and repressed. It asks new questions of old texts. It develops
and uncovers a female tradition in writing. It analyses women writers and
their works from female perspectives. It attempts to redefine literary
concepts and the dominant discourse-language itself in terms of gender. It
disavows the privileged position of males in a predominantly patriarchal
society. It questions basic assumptions about gender, gender difference, and
sexuality. And it demands that we become resisting readers to the
established male hierarchies upon Which our culture and our literature have
been shaped.
Critics of feminist criticism often view it as a collection of theorists and
critics who cannot decide what they really believe. Its critics assert that one
group of feminist criticism defines "female" and "male" one way, while an-
other develops conflicting and sometimes contradictory definitions. Even
within feminist criticism itself, the various subcategories criticize each other.
Post colonist feminists, for example, harshly critique Western forms of
criticism. Psychoanalytic feminist critics often view their cultures and society
differently from materialistic or Marxist critics. Because of such differences,
critics avow that the multiple voices of feminist criticism(s) cannot sustain a
unified ideology.
Feminist criticism's conservative critics advocate that the goal of feminist
criticism is to destroy traditional values and gender roles. Males and females,
argue these critics, are naturally and biologically different. From these critics'
point of view, feminist criticism is rooted in error and has become, for them,
the enemy. Some even blame their own lack of success in business or any
other area in the public arena on the rise of feminism and maintain that the
chief aim of feminists is "to look for stuff to get mad about." And many of
these critics argue that it is now males who are the oppressed.
Whether such criticism is real or imagined, present-day feminist critics
believe that discrimination against women still exists not only in America but
worldwide-discrimination in the workplace, in the home, in the church, in
government, and in society as a whole. Issues such as the glass ceiling.
human trafficking, slavery, and prostitution continue to plague society. To
such injustices, feminist critics will continue to add their voices of protest.