Lecture 5-7

Lecture 5 - Global Environment

Comprehensive and Profound Notes on GPE and the Environment

1. Introduction: The Nexus of Global Political Economy (GPE) and Environment

• Significance:

◦ GPE explores the dynamic relationships between economic globalization and political
frameworks. When integrated with environmental concerns, it examines how human
systems impact natural systems and vice versa.
◦ Environmental degradation is not just an ecological issue but also an economic and
political one, requiring international cooperation due to the transboundary nature of
ecological problems.
• Key Themes in GPE and Environment:

◦ Sustainable Development: Balancing economic growth, environmental preservation,

and social equity.
◦ Climate Change: Global warming as the most critical challenge of the 21st century.
◦ Resource Inequalities: Exploitation of resources disproportionately benefits the Global
North while imposing severe costs on the Global South.

2. Historical Development of Environmental Governance

• Early Efforts:

◦ Early agreements (e.g., Fur Seal Treaty, 1911) targeted localized issues like wildlife
conservation.
◦ These lacked a systemic understanding of the environment's connection to global
economic processes.
• Major Milestones:

◦ Stockholm Conference (1972):

▪ Established the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

▪ Introduced the idea that environmental degradation is intrinsically linked to
development.
◦ Rio Earth Summit (1992):

▪ Agenda 21 formalized the concept of sustainable development as an action

plan for the 21st century.
▪ Introduced the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
◦ Kyoto Protocol (1997):

▪ First binding agreement for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

▪ Criticized for exempting key emitters like China and India and for reliance on
mechanisms like carbon trading, which shifted the burden to developing nations.
◦ Paris Agreement (2015):

▪ Shifted from top-down targets to Nationally Determined Contributions

(NDCs), emphasizing flexibility.
▪ Critiques include the absence of enforcement mechanisms and insufficient
funding commitments for the Global South.

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3. Theoretical Frameworks in GPE and Environment

Understanding the complex relationship between GPE and environmental issues requires multiple
theoretical lenses:
1. Realism:

◦ Core Ideas: States act in their self-interest; environmental issues are secondary to
national power.
◦ Application: Realist theories explain failures in global agreements, like the U.S.
withdrawal from the Paris Agreement under Trump, prioritizing economic
competitiveness over climate action.
2. Liberalism:

◦ Core Ideas: Cooperation arises from shared interests and interdependencies. Institutions
like the UNFCCCand NGOs are critical actors.
◦ Strengths: Explains successes like the Montreal Protocol (1987), which effectively
addressed ozone depletion through multilateral cooperation.
◦ Critiques: Often overlooks the unequal power dynamics that marginalize developing
nations.
3. Critical/Marxist Theories:

◦ Core Ideas: Capitalism inherently drives environmental degradation through

exploitation of both labor and nature.
◦ Critique of Global Governance: Argues that frameworks like the Paris Agreement
perpetuate neo-colonial structures, forcing the Global South to shoulder
disproportionate responsibilities without addressing historical injustices.
4. Environmental Paradigms:

◦ Technocentrism: Emphasizes technological solutions like renewable energy, carbon

capture, and market mechanisms (e.g., carbon trading).
◦ Ecocentrism: Advocates for a systemic transformation, prioritizing ecosystems over
human-centered growth, calling for degrowth as a necessary step.

4. Key Environmental Issues in GPE

1. Climate Change:

• Core Dynamics:

◦ Human-induced emissions have raised global temperatures by approximately 1.1°C

above pre-industrial levels.
◦ Effects include rising sea levels, extreme weather, biodiversity loss, and the
displacement of millions.
• International Responses:

◦ Kyoto Protocol (1997): Set reduction targets but failed to account for the differential
responsibilities of developing nations.
◦ Paris Agreement (2015): Promised to limit warming to 1.5°C, but commitments are
non-binding, and most nations lag in their targets.
• Challenges:

◦ Wealthier nations have failed to meet their financial commitments (e.g., the $100 billion
annual pledge for climate adaptation in developing nations).
2. Sustainable Development:

• Definition:
◦ Popularized by the Brundtland Report (1987): "Development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs."
• Critiques:
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 ◦ Often co-opted by corporations for greenwashing.
◦ Fails to reconcile the Global North's economic growth imperatives with the Global
South’s development needs.
3. Transnational Land Acquisitions ("Land Grabs"):

• Definition: Foreign investors acquiring large tracts of land in developing nations for agriculture,
biofuels, or speculation.
• Consequences:
◦ Displacement of indigenous communities and small farmers.
◦ Degradation of ecosystems through monoculture and overexploitation.

5. Blind Spots and Gaps in GPE-Environmental Analysis

• Climate Change in GPE Scholarship:

◦ Historically marginalized in GPE discussions, despite its significant economic

implications.
◦ Theories struggle to address the urgency and complexity of shifts in global climate
politics.
• Contradictions in GPE:

◦ Net-Zero Emissions vs. Economic Growth: Achieving net-zero emissions requires

abandoning fossil fuels, which challenges the capitalist growth model.
◦ Civilizational Collapse: Without action, environmental degradation risks large-scale
societal breakdown.

6. Globalization and Environmental Challenges

• Core Dynamics:

◦ Anthropocene Epoch: Human activity is now the dominant force shaping Earth's
systems.
◦ Globalization's Role:
▪ Intensifies resource extraction and waste.
▪ Links ecological crises to economic systems, such as the overconsumption of
resources by wealthy nations at the expense of poorer ones.
• Biophysical-Social System Interactions:

◦ Socio-Ecological Systems: Biophysical constraints (e.g., resource limits) are

increasingly coupled with social and economic processes (e.g., globalization).

7. Frameworks for Action

1. Transformative Governance:

◦ Move beyond neoliberal frameworks that prioritize markets and voluntary compliance.
◦ Incorporate distributive justice principles to address historical inequalities.
2. Degrowth Movement:

◦ Shift away from GDP as a measure of success.

◦ Focus on local economies, sustainable consumption, and reduced resource use.
3. Resilience and Adaptation:

◦ Develop frameworks to enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities and

ecosystems.
◦ Promote sustainable agricultural practices and renewable energy transitions.

8. Conclusion

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 • Core Argument:
◦ Environmental degradation is both a consequence of and a challenge to the current
global political economy. Addressing it requires systemic changes that align ecological
sustainability with equitable economic frameworks.
• Future Directions:
◦ GPE must evolve from a system of growth-oriented capitalism to one that prioritizes
ecological and social resilience.
◦ International cooperation, while critical, must be underpinned by fairness,
accountability, and structural reform.

Mapping Worldviews on GPE and Global Environmental Change

1. Market Liberals:

◦ Focus: Neoclassical economics and global market integration.

◦ Core Beliefs:
▪ Trade liberalization and specialization improve resource allocation.
▪ Economic growth is essential for sustainable development.
▪ Science and technology (e.g., market-based tools like pollution permits) can
address environmental challenges.
◦ Criticism: Overemphasis on markets, neglects structural inequalities and ecological
limits.
2. Institutionalists:

◦ Focus: The role of political science, international organizations, and cooperation.

◦ Core Beliefs:
▪ Strong institutions and norms are needed to safeguard global resources.
▪ Global cooperation is critical for solving environmental challenges.
▪ Sustainable development principles must be embedded in global systems.
◦ Criticism: Relies on institutional strength, which is uneven globally.

Mapping Worldviews on Environment: From IPE to GPE

1. Bioenvironmentalists:

◦ Focus: Earth's carrying capacity and ecological limits.

◦ Core Ideas:
▪ Human activities and consumption are central to environmental stress.
▪ Population growth and economic expansion exacerbate resource exhaustion.
▪ Globalization promotes activities harmful to ecosystems and climate.
◦ Criticism: May underplay socio-political aspects in favor of ecological determinism.
2. Social Greens:

◦ Focus: Radical critiques of inequality in resource access.

◦ Core Ideas:
▪ Emphasize the unequal resource distribution and environmental harm caused by
overconsumption in wealthy nations.
▪ Globalization exacerbates inequality, marginalizing vulnerable communities.
▪ Advocates for localization, small-scale economies, and indigenous knowledge
systems.
◦ Criticism: Solutions may lack scalability in a globalized economy.

Theoretical Perspectives and Approaches in GPE and Environment

Climate Change:
1. Economic Nationalism/Realism:

◦ States prioritize national interests and struggle to cooperate.

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 ◦ Explains failures in cooperation but not successes.
2. Liberalism:

◦ Cooperation stems from shared interdependencies.

◦ Example: International agreements like the Montreal Protocol.
3. Marxism:

◦ Environmental governance reflects Northern/capitalist dominance.

◦ Southern states are marginalized in international frameworks.
Environmental Degradation:
1. Economic Nationalism:

◦ States will act if sustainable development serves their interests.

2. Liberalism:

◦ Market failures (e.g., lack of property rights) drive degradation.

◦ Solutions include privatization and capital investment.
3. Critical Perspectives:

◦ Capitalism's exploitative nature is a root cause of environmental harm.

Anthropocentric vs. Ecocentric Approaches:

• Anthropocentric: Focuses on human-centric solutions, linking sustainability to human

development.
• Ecocentric: Stresses moral, ethical, and cultural shifts, emphasizing non-human actors and
ecosystems.

Lecture 6 - Critical Theories

1. Introduction to Critical Theories in GPE

Critical theories challenge mainstream International Political Economy (IPE) approaches by focusing on
power relations, social forces, and the constructed nature of global systems. They reject the
neutrality and universality of traditional frameworks, emphasizing historical context, social struggles,
and normative transformations. Key contributions include:

• Moving beyond state-centric and economistic analyses.

• Recognizing the intersection of material forces, ideational influences, and institutional norms.
• Centering marginalized perspectives (e.g., gender, Global South, labor struggles) in global
political economy (GPE) studies.

2. Social Constructivism in GPE

Social constructivism emphasizes the role of norms, ideas, and shared meanings in shaping global
systems. It critiques rationalist frameworks for treating states, markets, and institutions as fixed entities.

Core Principles:

1. Mutual Constitution of Agents and Structures:

◦ Agents (e.g., states, individuals) and structures (e.g., institutions, norms) shape each
other.
◦ For example, the norms of sovereignty are upheld through state practices, which
simultaneously define and reinforce these norms.
2. Intersubjectivity and Discourse:

◦ Social reality is constructed through shared understandings, language, and practices.

◦ Example: The global acceptance of free trade norms reflects not inherent economic
efficiency but a constructed consensus.
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 3. Dynamic Nature of Norms:

◦ Norms evolve through contestation, adoption, and reinforcement.

◦ Example: The shift from state sovereignty to global environmental responsibility
reflects a normative transformation driven by activism and diplomacy.
Strengths:

• Explains the role of ideas in shaping global policies (e.g., human rights, climate agreements).
• Offers a nuanced understanding of power as ideational and institutional.
Limitations:

• Overemphasizes norms while neglecting material conditions and economic constraints.

• Provides limited tools to predict when and how structural changes occur.

3. Gender and GPE

Gender is a socially constructed category central to understanding global political and economic
systems. Traditional GPE frameworks marginalize gender, treating it as irrelevant or secondary.

Key Insights:

1. Gendered Division of Labor:

◦ Male-coded productive work (e.g., paid, market-based labor).

◦ Female-coded reproductive labor (e.g., unpaid caregiving and domestic work).
◦ Example: Global capitalism relies on women’s unpaid labor to sustain workers and
economies, yet this labor remains invisible in economic models.
2. Feminist Critique of Mainstream Economics:

◦ Challenges concepts like profit maximization and homo economicus, which ignore
social and reproductive labor.
◦ Calls for integrating unpaid labor into GDP measurements and development policies.
3. Globalization’s Gendered Impacts:

◦ Informalization of labor markets disproportionately affects women.

◦ Example: Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) in developing countries forced
women into low-paid, precarious jobs while increasing their unpaid domestic burdens.
Globalization and Gender Inequality:

• Feminization of Labor:
◦ Growth of female participation in low-wage, flexible jobs.
◦ Example: Export Processing Zones (EPZs) employ women in exploitative conditions
due to gendered stereotypes of docility and low bargaining power.
• Double Burden:
◦ Women experience a dual squeeze of unpaid reproductive work and poorly paid
productive work.
Implications:

• Gender justice is inseparable from economic justice.

• Feminist economists advocate for rethinking economic development to include social
reproduction and gender equality.

4. Resistance and Social Movements

Social movements (SMs) disrupt hegemonic structures and challenge the global political economy by
advancing alternative norms and practices.

Core Ideas:

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 1. Micropolitics of Resistance (Foucault):

◦ Power operates through subtle, everyday practices; resistance emerges in the same
spaces.
◦ Example: Local protests against extractive industries challenge global capitalist logics.
2. Hegemony and Ideology (Gramsci):

◦ Dominance is maintained not only through coercion but through consent (e.g., cultural
and ideological leadership).
◦ SMs contest hegemonic ideas, such as neoliberalism, by mobilizing counter-hegemonic
values.
3. Intersection of Material and Symbolic Struggles (Fanon):

◦ Resistance in the Global South often intertwines demands for material resources with
cultural emancipation (e.g., anti-colonial movements).
Contributions of Social Movements:

• Challenge Eurocentric and elitist assumptions in GPE.

• Operate as agents of normative transformation (e.g., global environmental justice
movements).
• Highlight the interdependence of local struggles and global governance structures.

5. Neo-Gramscian Perspectives

Neo-Gramscian approaches analyze global power dynamics by integrating historical materialism,

social forces, and hegemonic processes.

Key Concepts:

1. Hegemony:

◦ Consent-based dominance achieved through values, norms, and institutions.

◦ Example: International organizations (e.g., IMF, WTO) stabilize capitalist hegemony by
aligning global economic rules with elite interests.
2. Historical Structures (Robert Cox):

◦ Global orders are shaped by the interaction of material capabilities, ideas, and
institutions.
◦ These structures evolve through crises, contradictions, and resistance.
3. Dialectics of Change:

◦ Social forces (e.g., labor movements, subaltern groups) contest hegemonic orders,
creating potential for transformation.
◦ Example: Global labor struggles have historically reshaped production systems and state
policies.
Applications in GPE:

• Critiques globalization as a project driven by transnational capitalist elites.

• Emphasizes the role of subaltern forces in contesting exploitation and inequality.

6. Poststructuralist and Non-Rationalist Approaches

Poststructuralist and non-rationalist theories deconstruct the assumptions of traditional IPE,

emphasizing the discursive and constructed nature of global systems.

Core Principles:

1. Discourse and Power (Foucault):

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 ◦ Economic practices (e.g., financial markets) are not objective realities but discursively
constructed systems of power.
◦ Example: Financial models like GDP naturalize neoliberal policies while excluding
social and environmental costs.
2. Knowledge as a Construct (De Goede):

◦ Economic concepts (e.g., value, profit) are shaped by ideologies and historical
contingencies, not inherent truths.
◦ Example: Stock valuations during the dot-com bubble reflected speculative discourses
rather than objective market logic.
3. Dynamic Evolution (Amin and Palan):

◦ Global systems evolve through non-linear processes, shaped by disruptions,

contradictions, and local innovations.
Strengths:

• Highlights the interplay of ideas, identities, and power in shaping global governance.
• Offers tools to critique dominant economic paradigms.
Limitations:

• Abstract and difficult to apply empirically.

• Lacks concrete proposals for systemic change.

7. Comparative Table of Theories

Theory Core Ideas Strengths Weaknesses

Social Norms and ideas shape international Explains normative
Overemphasis on
Construc structures; reality is socially shifts (e.g., climate
norms; lacks material
tivism constructed. norms). analysis.
Gender Gendered labor and social Marginalized in
Exposes gender biases
Perspecti reproduction sustain global mainstream GPE
in GPE frameworks.
ves economies. research.
Neo- Hegemony operates through consent;
Explains the Complex and
Gramscia integrates material, ideational, and
dynamics of global challenging to
n institutional forces. power and resistance. operationalize.
Poststruc Economic realities are discursively
Critiques naturalized Often abstract and hard
turalist constructed; power shapes knowledge.
assumptions in IPE. to apply.
Highlights local
Resistanc Social movements foster normative Lacks systemic analysis
agency in global
e/SMs change and contest hegemony. of structural forces.
systems.
Risks
Non- Accounts for
Emphasizes fluid, dynamic processes overgeneralization; less
Rationali complexity and
and the constructed nature of power. focus on material
st historical evolution.
constraints.

8. Conclusion

Critical theories enrich GPE by challenging dominant paradigms, exposing inequalities, and
emphasizing the role of marginalized voices and social forces. By integrating diverse perspectives, these
approaches provide tools for understanding the complex, contested, and dynamic nature of global
political and economic systems.

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Lecture 7 - Global Challenges

Globalization and Global Political Economy (GPE)

1. Theoretical Foundations

• Amsterdam IPE Framework:

◦ Focus: Challenges traditional state-centric and liberal economic models.
◦ Key Contribution: Analyzes how historical and class dynamics influence transnational
economic relations.
◦ Importance: Highlights the global economy's interconnected nature and its impact on
social hierarchies, emphasizing the role of class and capital over purely national or
institutional factors.

2. Conceptualizing Global Governance

• Definition:
◦ Global governance refers to the mechanisms through which global issues (e.g., trade,
environment, finance) are addressed without a central authority akin to a world
government.
◦ Core Components:
▪ Multilateral Institutions: UN, WTO, IMF coordinate policy at a global level.
▪ Informal Arrangements: G7, G20 offer ad hoc solutions to crises but lack
enforceability.
▪ Non-State Actors: Corporations and NGOs influence policy through lobbying
and advocacy.
• Perspectives:
◦ Normative View:
▪ Advocates for governance as a progressive and necessary response to
globalization.
▪ Example: Climate change governance mechanisms like the Paris Agreement.
◦ Critical View:
▪ Argues that governance often reinforces the dominance of Western states and
corporations, perpetuating inequality.
▪ Example: IMF’s Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), which enforce
neoliberal policies favoring creditors over debtors.

3. Historical Evolution of Global Governance

• Post-WWII Bretton Woods System:

◦ Established the Liberal International Economic Order (LIEO) to stabilize post-war
economies.
◦ Institutions:
▪ IMF: Managed exchange rates and offered short-term financial assistance.
▪ World Bank: Initially focused on reconstruction; later, development financing.
◦ Characteristics:
▪ Anchored by U.S. hegemony and the dollar as the global reserve currency.
▪ Emphasized trade liberalization and capital mobility.
• Cold War Era:
◦ Governance was fragmented along ideological lines:
▪ Western Bloc: Advocated for market liberalism.
▪ Eastern Bloc: Adopted state-controlled socialist models.
• Post-Cold War Era:
◦ Marked by the rise of globalization and expanded governance:
▪ WTO (1995): Regulated global trade.
▪ Environmental agreements: Kyoto Protocol (1997), Paris Agreement (2015).
▪ Regional Blocs: EU, ASEAN fostered economic integration.

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4. Key Actors in Global Governance

• States:
◦ Strong States:
▪ E.g., U.S., China leverage power to shape rules (e.g., China’s Belt and Road
Initiative).
◦ Weak States:
▪ Often marginalized, with limited ability to influence global policies.
▪ Example: African states in WTO negotiations often struggle to protect local
industries.
• Corporations:
◦ Multinational corporations (MNCs) influence regulations, particularly in tech and trade.
◦ Example: Big Tech companies shape data governance; oil companies lobby against strict
climate policies.
• Civil Society:
◦ NGOs, advocacy groups, and social movements challenge state and corporate
dominance.
◦ Example: Greenpeace campaigns highlight failures in addressing environmental
degradation.
• Emerging Powers (BRICS):
◦ Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa offer alternatives to Western governance
models.
◦ Example: BRICS Development Bank provides less conditional infrastructure financing
compared to IMF/World Bank loans.

5. Contemporary Challenges in Global Governance

• Crisis of the Liberal Order:

◦ Internal Challenges:
▪ Rise of nationalism and protectionism (e.g., Brexit, Trump’s policies).
▪ Growing inequality and populist backlash.
◦ External Challenges:
▪ China and other emerging powers propose alternatives, such as the Belt and
Road Initiative, shifting the global governance dynamic.
• Sustainability:
◦ Climate agreements often lack enforcement mechanisms, leading to ineffective
outcomes.
◦ Example: Despite U.S. and China’s commitments to Paris Agreement goals, domestic
policies often conflict with international targets.
• Global Inequality:
◦ North-South Divide: Developing nations demand reform in global institutions like the
UN Security Council, where representation is skewed in favor of developed nations.
◦ Within-Country Inequality: Globalization often benefits elites while exacerbating
income disparities among lower-income populations.
• Legitimacy Crisis:
◦ Institutions like the IMF and WTO face criticism for prioritizing developed nations'
interests.
◦ Example: The failure of the Doha Round revealed the WTO's inability to reconcile
developed and developing countries’ trade interests.

6. Institutional Responses and Reforms

• IMF and World Bank:

◦ Structural Adjustment Programs:
▪ Enforced fiscal austerity and market liberalization in exchange for loans.
▪ Criticized for worsening poverty and inequality.
◦ Recent Reforms:
▪ Greater focus on sustainability and flexible lending.
• WTO and Trade Governance:

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 ◦ The Doha Round aimed to address trade inequities but failed due to disagreements over
subsidies and intellectual property.
◦ Regional trade agreements (e.g., CPTPP, RCEP) emerged as alternatives.
• G20 and Financial Stability:
◦ The G20 gained importance post-2008 crisis as a platform for major economies.
◦ Basel III reforms improved banking regulations but failed to address systemic risks fully.

7. Major Historical Events

• 2008 Financial Crisis:

◦ Causes:
▪ Excessive risk-taking by financial institutions.
▪ Reliance on complex derivatives and subprime loans.
▪ Over-leveraged global financial flows.
◦ Consequences:
▪ Lehman Brothers’ collapse led to a global liquidity crisis.
▪ Governments enacted stimulus measures (e.g., U.S. $700 billion TARP
program).
• Environmental and Commodity Shocks:
◦ Rising oil prices (up to $132/barrel in 2008) strained production costs globally.
◦ Food price volatility led to increased poverty and social unrest in developing nations.

8. China’s Role in Global Governance

• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI):

◦ Launched to enhance connectivity and trade through infrastructure investment.
◦ Criticisms include accusations of debt-trap diplomacy.
• Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB):
◦ Established as an alternative to Western-dominated institutions.
◦ Significant Chinese funding challenges IMF/World Bank dominance.

9. Future of Global Governance

• Revitalizing Multilateralism:
◦ Strengthening global frameworks like the Paris Agreement with enforceable targets.
• Regionalization:
◦ Increasing prominence of economic blocs such as the EU in setting policy standards.
• Multipolar Governance:
◦ Emerging powers like China and India advocate decentralized governance, though
collaboration remains challenging due to ideological differences.

10. Lessons Learned

• 2000s to 2010s:
◦ Optimism for improved governance post-1990s crises gave way to persistent systemic
flaws (e.g., inequality, financial instability).
• COVID-19 Pandemic:
◦ Exposed weaknesses in global cooperation.
◦ Renewed focus on multilateral financial safety nets and inclusive governance.

Key Takeaways for Exam

1. Governance Structures:
◦ Understand how global governance operates through institutions, informal groups, and
non-state actors.
2. Historical Context:
◦ Trace the evolution from the Bretton Woods system to fragmented, multipolar
governance frameworks.
3. Key Actors:

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 ◦ Analyze the roles of states, corporations, civil society, and emerging powers in shaping
governance.
4. Critical Challenges:
◦ Engage with critiques on sustainability, inequality, legitimacy, and the liberal order’s
decline.
5. Future Prospects:
◦ Explore how multilateralism, regionalization, and multipolarity could redefine global
governance.

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