1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................

4
1.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2. Purpose and Scope ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................ 9
2.1.1. Definition of Housing and Its Importance ............................................................. 9
2.1.2. Historical Development and Evolution of Housing Planning ................. 10
2.1.3. Housing Typologies............................................................................................................ 12
2.2. PRINCIPLES OF NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING ..................................................... 24
2.2.1. Key Theories and Models in Planning .................................................................. 24
2.2.2. Human-Centered Design Principles ...................................................................... 31
2.2.3. Place making ....................................................................................................................... 32
.................................................................................................................................................................. 32
2.2.4. Social Sustainability in Neighborhood Design ............................................... 35
2.2.5. Walkability and Connectivity in Neighborhoods ...........................................36
2.2.6. Mixed-Use Development and Its Role in Urban Communities ............37
2.2.7. Inclusivity and Social Equity in Neighborhood Design ............................. 38
2.3. KEY COMPONENTS OF A NEIGHBORHOOD ...........................................................39
2.3.1 Open Spaces, Green Areas, and Public Spaces ................................................39
2.3.2 Infrastructure Planning ................................................................................................. 40
2.3.3. Social Infrastructures ..................................................................................................... 49
2.3.4. Community Centers and Cultural Spaces ......................................................... 52
2.4. PLANNING STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES............................................................. 55
2.4.1 Site Consideration and site planning ..................................................................... 55
2.4.2 Regulatory Framework for Neighborhood Design .......................................65
2.4.3 Standards for Density, Plot Size, and Setbacks .............................................. 66
2.4.4. Zoning and Land Use Regulations ....................................................................... 67
 2.4.5. Access and Mobility: Road Width, Parking, and Pedestrian Networks
................................................................................................................................................................. 68
2.5. DESIGN APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES .................................................................73
2.5.1. Incremental Development and Phased Growth ............................................73
2.5.2. Energy-Efficient and Green Building Design................................................... 75
2.5.3. Smart Neighborhoods: Technological Integration and Data-Driven
Solutions ............................................................................................................................................ 76
2.6. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN
NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 78
2.6.1. Social Integration and Community Engagement ........................................ 78
2.6.2. Affordable Housing and Economic Viability ................................................... 78
2.6.3. Climate Considerations, Environmental Resilience and Impact
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 79
2.6.4. Health and Well-being: Designing for Active Lifestyles ........................... 80
2.7. DESIGN CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES ....................................................... 80
2.7.1. Urban Sprawl and Density Management .......................................................... 80
2.7.2. Integration of Informal Settlements in Formal Planning........................ 82
2.7.3. Balancing Development and Preservation of Cultural Heritage ........ 83
2.7.4. Addressing Climate Change and Sustainable Urban Development84
2.7.5. Managing Gentrification and Ensuring Affordable Housing ................ 85
2.8. FUTURE TRENDS IN NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING ........................................... 86
2.8.1. Role of Technology and Smart Cities in Neighborhood Design .......... 86
2.8.2. Innovations in Urban Sustainability and Eco-Friendly Design ............ 88
2.8.3. Future Housing Trends: Adaptable and Flexible Spaces ......................... 89
2.8.4 Evolving Social Dynamics and Their Impact on Neighborhood Design
................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Works Cited ................................................................................................................................................91
The study of the local housing market provides a comprehensive overview of
demographic profiles, socioeconomic factors, and housing trends, which are
essential for understanding the current challenges and opportunities for
improvement in the area. It begins with an analysis of the demographic
landscape, including age distribution, income levels, and household sizes,
which significantly influence housing demand. Additionally, socioeconomic
conditions such as employment opportunities impact affordability and the
types of housing available. The assessment of existing housing stock reveals
gaps in supply and quality, highlighting issues like insufficient communal
spaces and varying standards that affect residents' satisfaction.

To address these challenges, the study identifies key issues such as

affordability, limited accessibility for individuals with disabilities, and a lack of
shared spaces that foster community interaction. It recommends several
strategies to enhance the housing market, including increasing the supply of
affordable units, promoting sustainable development practices, and investing
in community infrastructure. Notable proposals include adopting co-housing
concepts to strengthen community ties, incentivizing developers to produce
affordable housing through tax breaks or subsidies, and simplifying regulatory
frameworks to facilitate new developments. This multi-faceted approach aims
to create a resilient and inclusive housing system that meets the evolving
needs of the community while ensuring access to safe and quality housing for
all residents.
The literature review on neighborhood planning, specifically regarding
housing, aims to consolidate existing research and provide a clearer
understanding of the factors influencing housing development and
community dynamics. It examines the relationship between socioeconomic
and demographic factors and how these affect housing preferences,
satisfaction, and overall well-being. One key insight from the review is the need
for more inclusive studies that extend beyond Western perspectives, ensuring
that neighborhood planning strategies are applicable to diverse global
contexts.

This review covers a wide array of topics, including the influence of social
patterns, cultural norms, and economic conditions on housing trends. It also
addresses critical issues such as affordability, accessibility, and the quality of
housing stock. By integrating findings from fields like urban studies, sociology,
and public policy, the review highlights the complexity of neighborhood
planning and the multifaceted challenges in creating sustainable and inclusive
housing solutions.
Ultimately, the literature review provides a comprehensive foundation for
future research and offers valuable insights for policymakers. The goal is to
develop strategies that promote equitable, affordable housing solutions and
foster community well-being, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions.
The methodology for the literature review begins by defining the research
scope and formulating specific questions to guide the process. A thorough
search is conducted for relevant academic sources, including books, articles,
and reports, with a focus on quality and relevance. The selected literature is
then analyzed to identify key themes, trends, and gaps. This analysis is
synthesized to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. The
review concludes with an evaluation of the existing research, highlighting
areas for further exploration and offering recommendations to guide future
studies.
2.1.1. Definition of Housing and Its Importance
Housing is defined as the physical structures and associated spaces where
people reside, forming essential units of urban environments. Housing is more
than just a place for shelter; it is described as a key architectural and social
component that shapes urban identity and functionality.
Importance of Housing:
1. Livability and Quality of Life
Well-designed housing enhances residents' quality of life by ensuring
adequate space, safety, and access to amenities.
2. Social Integration
Housing serves as a platform for community interactions, fostering
social cohesion and cultural expression.
3. Economic Role
Housing development stimulates local economies through construction
and provides long-term assets for households.
4. Urban Form and Density
The book discusses how housing influences the density and layout of
urban areas, impacting sustainability and transport systems.
5. Sustainability
Integrating eco-friendly materials and designs in housing reduces
environmental footprints and supports sustainable urban growth.
6. Response to Socioeconomic Needs
Housing policies address challenges like affordability, homelessness, and
demographic shifts, reflecting its centrality in urban governance. (Firley
& Deupi, 2023)
2.1.2. Historical Development and Evolution of Housing
Planning
The historical development of neighborhood concepts begins with Clarence
Perry’s "Neighborhood Unit" model in the 1920s, which aimed to create
walkable, self-contained communities with schools, parks, and stores. This
concept influenced urban planning globally but faced criticism in the mid-
20th century for its rigid structure and reliance on automobile-centric designs.
Over time, New Urbanism emerged, advocating for more flexible, community-
oriented designs, focusing on integration, mixed-use spaces, and
sustainability, thus continuing the evolution of the neighborhood concept in
modern urban planning. (Talen, 2019)

1. Early Urban Planning and Public Health

It highlights the role of early urban planning policies, which were rooted in
improving public health during the industrial era. Issues like overcrowding,
sanitation, and housing quality were addressed through early zoning laws and
building regulations.

2. The New Deal Era and Public Housing

These programs aimed to address the housing crisis during the Great
Depression but also led to the creation of segregated housing projects due to
discriminatory practices.

3. Post-War Suburbanization
Following World War II, policies like the GI Bill and the expansion of federal
highway systems facilitated suburban growth. Levy critiques these policies for
promoting sprawl, increasing automobile dependence, and exacerbating
economic and racial segregation in cities.

4. Urban Renewal and Its Consequences

Urban renewal policies in the mid-20th century focused on "slum clearance"
and redevelopment but often displaced low-income and minority
communities. Levy examines the backlash against these policies and the
subsequent push for more inclusive and community-oriented planning.
5. Shift to Market-Oriented Housing Policies
Since the 1970s, housing policies shifted toward market-driven approaches,
including tax incentives for developers and deregulation. Levy discusses how
this shift reduced direct government involvement but increased challenges
like affordability crises and gentrification.

6. Modern Planning and Sustainability

Contemporary policies increasingly incorporate sustainable urban
development, focusing on densification, walkability, and environmental
considerations. Levy highlights the growing emphasis on mixed-use
developments and public-private partnerships to create more equitable
housing solutions.

7. Affordable Housing Challenges

It describes the ongoing struggles with housing affordability, especially in
rapidly urbanizing areas. Levy emphasizes the need for innovative policies that
balance economic development with social equity.(Levy et al., 2024, )
2.1.3. Housing Typologies

1. Single-Family Housing

A. Detached Single-Family Housing

The single-family detached house is the most common type of housing

in the United States. It is characterized by being a completely
independent structure and housing one family. The type of house can
usually be described as a ranch, high ranch, split-level, or two-story.

The single-family detached house is

generally considered to be the best
type of housing for families with
growing children. Only the one-family
house provides full use of private
outdoor facilities. Another distinct
advantage is the freedom to make
normal amounts of noise without
disturbing the neighbors. Also, the
close proximity to open space, grass,
and trees is considered desirable and
healthful.

This dwelling occupies its own structure from ground to roof, is

separated dwellings by yards or other open space, and is Designed for
occupancy by one family. The property lines and density of development
are influenced by

zoning and subdivision regulations which specify both minimum lot area
and dimensions, and features such as tile fields which are required for
individual septic tanks.

Type of construction can be of frame, brick veneer, solid masonry, or

stucco. The most common type is frame construction.

Lot sizes vary tremendously and reflect the cost of land, zoning
requirements, and the general character of the neighborhood. Prior to
World War Il, lot sizes tended to be small, some even as small as 20 by
100 ft. Since then, lot sizes have increased substantially. Modest lot sizes
range from 50 by 100 ft to half-acre lots. Lots over an acre can be
considered large. Lots up to 100 ft front normally have depths of 100 ft.
Lots with frontage greater than 100 ft usually have depths greater than
100 ft.

A garage is often included, which is either attached or detached.

Generally, older houses have detached garages while the new houses
have attached garages. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 460)

B. Typical House Plans

a. Simple Rectangle

The rectangle plan is the simplest and one of the most common
plan types. Most minimal! or economical houses utilize this kind of
plan because it encloses greater floor area per exterior wall length
than other plans. Its simplicity also results in uncomplicated
framing. The plan is compact, which results in a minimum of
circulation space. A garage or carport is generally located
alongside the kitchen or the front of the house.

Because of its compactness, there is a minimum of separation

between the living and sleeping activities, thereby lessening the
amount of privacy. This type of house is usually referred to as a
“ranch” type.

A variation on the simple rectangle plan is the offset rectangle

where the living area is pushed forward. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 464)
b. The In-Line Plan

The in-line plan is an excellent solution for many unusual site

conditions. On a narrow lot it allows access to side patios and
outdoor areas; on steep hillsides it allows the maximum economy
of construction and land usage. It can have good circulation (at the
expense of a long corridor) and the same good orientation for all
the rooms.

The plan may be adapted to a two-story house, where it helps to

concentrate circulation and utilities, while retaining the advantage
of providing the best orientation for both floors. (De Chiara et al.,
1995, 466)

c. T or L Plan

The T plan is the placement of the living and sleeping areas at right
angles to each other. By such juxtaposition, excellent separation
and privacy of the two functions is achieved. It may also be possible
to achieve better orientation for both functions since they are
relatively independent of each other. The internal circulation and
access to all rooms direct if the entrance is located at the junction
of the two wings. If the site slopes, it is possible to locate the
garage, recreation, and utility areas under one of the wings. A
variation of the T plan is the L plan. This occurs when the living area
is located at the top or bottom of the sleeping wing instead of at
the center. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 468)
d. H and U Plan

H and U plans divide living and sleeping units into separate

sections. This layout is especially applicable to a utility core concept
in which the kitchen becomes part of the connecting link.
Excellent separation of activities is achieved, and useful patios
afford shelter and privacy. In addition, each room can receive cross
ventilation. The chief disadvantage of these types is in the long
perimeter walls (almost 50 percent more than the same space in a
simple rectangle), resulting in higher construction cost as well as
increased expense of heating and air conditioning. (De Chiara et
al., 1995, 469)

e. Utility-Core Plan

The rectangular utility-core plan has several advantages. The

house may be almost square and very compact, with a good
concentration of utilities. In addition, the core acts as a buffer
between the sleeping and living zones. The problems of this plan
include the difficulty of properly relating the kitchen, garage, and
main entrances, and the excessive circulation space that is often
required.. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 472)
f. The Split-Level Plan

The split-level plan produces a maximum of total interior area for

a house of small overall size, and its separate levels can give greater
privacy and interest in each area. It is very adaptable to sloping lots,
and helps to solve the problems of deep foundations in northern
climates. However, it may require & somewhat complicated
framing System, and is difficult to relate to outdoor areas without
special terracing or grading.

The split-level house is a multilevel dwelling unit consisting of

either three or four levels separated by one-half floor heights, but
all connected by a single stair. The most com- mon type is the
three-level design, which has the main living area (living room,
kitchen, and dining area) on the middle level. The upper level, one-
half flight up, contains the sleeping area (bedrooms and bath), and
the lower level, one-half flight down, contains the utility, recreation,
work areas, or a garage. Sometimes a level below the lower level is
introduced as a cellar.

The split-level house was originally designed to accommodate or

take advantage of sloping terrain. Frequently, because of
advantages of the split-levels, this type of house is placed on flat
sites. The result is either an excessive amount of grading and
retaining walls, or an awkward relationship of house to site.

The main advantage is the separation of the living, sleeping, and

recreation-utility areas, yet they are more accessible than in a
traditional two-story house. One drawback to the split-level is that
it is more complicated and costly to build than a one or two-story
house. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 474)

g. Court or Atrium House

This type of house is a single-family, one-story dwelling unit and is

described as either a court, garden-court, atrium, or patio house.
The common element is an open landscaped courtyard partially or
completely surrounded by living areas. The major source of light
and air is through the open garden courtyard. Sometimes it is
attached, as in a row house, or clustered as in a checkerboard
 pattern, but most frequently it is a detached structure. Historically,
this type of house dates back several thousand years to Egyptian,
Greek, and Roman houses. The open court is a variation of the
Greek peristyle and the Roman atrium. All the living areas opened
out into the atrium, creating a secluded indoor-outdoor space. This
inward-directed house provides maximum privacy and livability. A
large degree of integration of the house with the landscaping can
be achieved. When used as an attached house, it makes maximum
use of the lot and generally can be located on a much narrower lot
than a conventional detached house. When enclosed by high walls
or parts of the indoor living space, the house completely shuts off
the outside world and assures greater protection from intruders. A
garage may be incorporated within its enclosing walls, or a
common parking area can be provided at the ends of the
groupings or clusters.

The density of this type of housing, depending on size of units and

site development, can be described as medium-density and
generally will be similar to town house or row house densities. An
approximate range would be from 12 units per acre for large
courthouses to 18 units for small ones. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 478)

C. Zero-Lot Line Houses

Zero-Lot Line Houses emphasizes the need to make efficient use of

limited land resources, which is central to zero-lot line housing. These
homes fit well within pocket neighborhoods because they minimize
unnecessary space (like side yards) and allow for shared or centralized
communal areas.

Efficient Use of Land: It emphasizes the need to make efficient use of

limited land resources, which is central to zero-lot line housing. These
homes fit well within pocket neighborhoods because they minimize
unnecessary space (like side yards) and allow for shared or centralized
communal areas.

a. Fostering Community:
Zero-lot line houses often feature designs that integrate with
shared outdoor spaces, like gardens or courtyards. This
 encourages interaction among neighbors, a cornerstone of
Chapin's pocket neighborhood philosophy.
b. Privacy and Connection:
Designs that balance privacy and community. In zero-lot line
homes, the wall on the property line is typically windowless,
ensuring privacy, while the opposite side may open up to
community spaces, fostering a sense of connection.
c. Human-Scaled Design:
Designing homes and neighborhoods on a human scale,
prioritizing walkability and neighborly interaction. Zero-lot line
homes can contribute to this by creating compact, walkable
layouts that feel cohesive and intimate.
d. Shared Spaces vs. Private Spaces:
It discusses how shared amenities, such as common gardens,
pathways, or courtyards, can replace large private yards in zero-lot
line developments, allowing for communal living while reducing
maintenance burdens for homeowners.
e. Architectural Variation: To avoid monotony, it encourages varied
architectural styles within compact layouts like zero-lot line
developments. This creates visual interest and a sense of
uniqueness in the community.

D. Semi-Attached (Duplexes)

The semi attached house is an independent lot that is attached on one

side to a similar dwelling on an adjacent lot. The attachment is made
along a common or “party” wall, which is jointly owned. The main
advantage of this type of construction is the economy achieved in the
construction of the party wall. Because one side yard is eliminated, it is
also possible to build on a narrower lot than if it were a detached
dwelling. This type of dwelling can be used for either one or two families.
Usually this type of dwelling is two stories high, but it can be one story
also.

As a one-family dwelling, the living room, kitchen, and dining areas are
on the first floor while sleeping areas are on the second floor. This type is
usually owner-occupied.
As a two-family dwelling, each floor has a separate unit with its own
independent entrance. The owner usually lives in the lower unit and
rents the upper unit. Garages are either detached or incorporated into
the cellar, or lowest level of the structure.

The term duplex refers to a single structure consisting of two separate

dwelling units. It may be a two-story walk-up building in which one
dwelling unit is situated over another, with access to the upper
apartment by means of a private staircase. It may also be a structure
having two dwelling units located side by side, with the individual units
on one or more levels. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 487)

E. Quadruplexes

The consolidation of four single-family houses into one structure utilizing

common walls need not destroy the privacy of the individual dwellings.
It permits greater use of the total site for outdoor living. The advantages
of such an arrangement are shown in the accompanying plan. Concrete
wall construction provides for better sound insulation and the back-to-
back arrangement of plumbing cores. Further economies will accrue in
reduced fuel costs and maintenance of shared driveways and foot-
paths. All utility services are combined and economically run
underground rather than overhead. The elimination of rear and side
yards allows maximum use of the site, while careful orientation and
screening assures privacy for each residence. Automobile parking is
centralized to serve the four units and thus requires less area. The
amount of open land in between these “quadruplexes” is greater than
many present subdivisions and can be assigned either to community
functions or more dwelling units, developing higher densities without
overcrowding. Abundant landscaping and the use of varied setbacks
would greatly enhance the total appearance.

Adjacent to the common walls are the kitchen, bathrooms, stair hall, and
power core with utility room, none of which requires a window. The
bedrooms, dining and living areas, and family room have outside
exposure, and in some cases they open to terraces. (De Chiara et al., 1995,
493)
F. Row Houses

The row house is a Standard dwelling type in many American cities. It is

characterized by a great economy in the use of land, moderate construction
cost, and low maintenance and operating
costs. It affords each family its own home
and the opportunity of developing a plot of
land for its own use. The economy of a row
house plan obviously derives from the
length of the rows, although the per-unit
saving diminishes with the length of the
building. The economic advantage of a long
building results in part from the elimination
of end walls, but there are also savings in
land utilities and walks.

Row houses are not adaptable to steep contours except by heavy cutting;
ordinarily, buildings should tend to parallel the contours, since longitudinal
slopes can only be accommodated by costly breaks of floor level. (Chiara, n.d.,
499)

G. Town Houses

The town house, which has become popular in recent years. is similar to the
old row house. It is an independent dwelling on an independent lot. which is
attached on both sides to a similar dwelling on both adjacent lots. The
attachment is made along two common or party walls that are jointly owned.
The chief advantage of this construction is the economy of the party walls.
Also, because no side yards are required, it is possible to build on a relatively
narrow lot. Old row houses were built on lots as narrow as 16 and 18 ft wide.
However, this is not recommended. Lot widths should be a minimum of 20 ft.
but preferably wider.

Town houses are usually one-family dwellings with the living room, kitehen,
and dining area on the lower level and the sleeping areas on the upper level.
Row houses may contain two dwelling units, one above the other.
A built-in garage is desirable if it can be reasonably incorporated within the
house. Alternate solutions are a parking space either in front of the house or
in a group parking area close by.

The town house has long been advocated for rental housing for urban families
with children as a good compromise between the desirability of a detached
single-family house and the economic necessity of multifamily units. It is
decidedly preferable from the viewpoint of the tenants because of greater
livability. The results of surveys in both public and private housing indicate that
families want to have direct access to the house, an individual yard or garden,
and a place for small children to play close to the house where they can easily
be supervised. These are features that the town house can provide.

From the management point of view, town house projects can be designed for
maximum tenant maintenance of land area. They can also be designed for
either individual heating installations or a central heating plant. Individual
heating installations, thought of higher operating cost to the tenant, result in
lower maintenance cost to the management. (Chiara, n.d., 507)

I. Mobile Houses

The mobile home is considered a special category of single-family

housing. The mobile home is perhaps the most economical form
of single-family housing built today. It combines the economy of
indoor and outdoor space and con- struction costs and, in addition,
is not bound by the same standards other single-family housing is.
Since it is often designed for and occupied by families with few or
no children, it is smaller than conventional housing. By using less
land per house site and by clustering common facilities-laundries,
indoor and outdoor recreation, etc. mobile home parks can be built
at densities well above those for other detached dwellings. Finally,
low costs are possible by using construction methods and
materials which the codes do not permit for other types of
housing. (Chiara, n.d., 544)
2. Apartments

Garden Apartment
The garden apartment is generally a walk-up apartment complex, most
frequently two stories high but occasionally three stories high. The
apartments are grouped into separate buildings containing 8 to 16 units per
building. When this type of building first evolved, the buildings were
clustered around landscaped courts, gardens, and yards and built in
suburban areas on relatively inexpensive land. As a result of the low
coverage and extensive landscaping, a “garden” atmosphere was created
and thereby received its name. (Chiara, n.d., 653)

Low-rise Apartment
The low-rise apartment building is generally considered to be a structure
three to eight stories high. Older buildings usually are in the lower range of
three to five stories and are walk-ups. In urban areas, many low-rise
apartments were built on individual lots. If they are located in a commercial
zone, they would generally have retail stores on the ground or street level.
(Chiara, n.d., 656)

High-rise Apartment
The high-rise apartment building is generally considered to be any
structure over eight stories. Over the years, as construction techniques
improved, the height of residential buildings has steadily increased. Today,
twenty- to forty-story buildings are not uncommon. Taller buildings can
easily be constructed if necessary. The most common types of buildings are
the tower and the slab. Such construction is usually necessitated by high
land cost in central urban areas. (Chiara, n.d., 656)
2.2.1. Key Theories and Models in Planning

Theories

Garden City Concept

The Garden City Concept, introduced by Ebenezer Howard in 1898, envisions a
self-contained, planned community that combines the benefits of urban and
rural living. Designed in a concentric layout, it features a central park
surrounded by residential, industrial, and agricultural zones, emphasizing
greenery and open spaces. With a population cap of around 30,000, it
promotes manageable growth and a balanced lifestyle. Garden cities aim for
economic independence through mixed-use development and are
interconnected with other similar towns via transportation networks. This
concept focuses on sustainability, improved living conditions, and harmony
between people and the environment.
Case Study on Letchworth Garden City

Letchworth Garden City was established in 1903, recognized as the first Garden
City. It was designed by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker under the vision of
Ebenezer Howard.

Key Features:
1. Separate Areas: Residential,
industrial, and agricultural areas
are kept apart to improve
efficiency and reduce
overcrowding.
2. Green Spaces: Parks, gardens, and
a green belt around the city
promote healthy living and protect
the environment.

3. Cottage-Style Homes: The homes

are low-density and cottage-style,
with private gardens for privacy
and good airflow.
4. Local Industries: Having local
businesses means less commuting,
making the city more self-sufficient
and reducing traffic.
5. Walkable Streets: Tree-lined streets
and good public transport make it
easy to walk around and get places.
6. Community Spaces: Central areas encourage socializing and ensure
shops and services are nearby, fostering a sense of community.
Geddisian Triad
Geddisian Triad is the concept of planning initiated by Sir Patrick Geddes in
1911. Considered the Father of modern town planning, Sir Patrick Geddes first
to link sociologists’ concepts into town planning. Geddes was concerned with
the relationship between people and cities and how they affect one another.
He emphasized that people do not merely need shelter, but also food and
work, recreation and social life. This makes the house an inseparable part of the
neighborhood, the city and the surrounding open country and the region. The
town planning primarily meant establishing an organic relationship among
‘Folk, place and work’, which corresponds to triad.
Case study on Tel Aviv, Israel (Master Plan for the City)
Tel Aviv, Israel (Master Plan for the City) was created by Sir Patrick Geddes
between 1925 and 1929. The plan envisioned a city with public gardens, small
streets, and main roads crossing the city.

Key Features:

1. Vision as a Garden City: Inspired by the Garden City movement, Geddes

planned Tel Aviv with an emphasis on integrating green spaces and
urban living.
2. Adaptation to Local Climate: Streets were designed to maximize airflow,
providing natural ventilation to mitigate the hot Mediterranean climate.
3. Neighborhood-Centric Design: Residential areas were organized into
self-contained neighborhoods with shared facilities such as schools,
markets, and communal spaces.
4. Functional Zoning: Clear zoning for residential, commercial, and
industrial areas ensured efficient use of space and reduced urban chaos.
5. Human-Centric Urbanism: Streets and boulevards were designed to
prioritize pedestrian movement and social interaction.
6. Flexibility for Growth: Geddes designed the city to accommodate future
population growth while maintaining its livability.
7. Grid Layout with Organic Variations: The city employed a grid system but
included curved streets and cul-de-sacs to break monotony and adapt
to natural contours.
8. Cultural Sensitivity: The plan respected the cultural identity of the Jewish
population, envisioning Tel Aviv as a modern city with roots in their
heritage.
Defensible Space Theory

The defensible space theory of architect and city planner Oscar Newman
encompasses ideas about crime prevention and neighborhood safety.
Newman argues that architectural and environmental design plays a crucial
part in increasing or reducing criminality. Throughout his study, Newman
focused on explaining his ideas on social control, crime prevention, and public
health in relation to community design. The theory argues that an area is safer
when people feel a sense of ownership and responsibility for that piece of a
community. Newman asserts that "the criminal is isolated because his turf is
removed" when each space in an area is owned and cared for by a responsible
party. If an intruder can sense a watchful community, he feels less secure
committing his crime. The idea is that crime and delinquency can be
controlled and mitigated through environmental design.
Case Study on Greenwich Village, New York:

Greenwich Village is a neighbourhood on the west of Lower Manhattan in New

York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston
Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west.

Key Features:
1. Territoriality: the idea that
one's home is sacred
2. Natural surveillance: the
link between an area's
physical characteristics
and the residents' ability to
see what is happening
3. Image: the capacity of the
physical design to impart a
sense of security
4. Milieu: other features that
may affect security, such as
proximity to a police
substation or busy
commercial area
5. Safe Adjoining Areas: for
better security, residents
obtain higher ability of
surveillance of adjoining
area through designing
the adjoining area.
Models
1. Neighborhood Unit Model
This concept, rooted in Clarence Perry's 1929 model, is revisited as a framework
for organizing urban areas around central facilities like schools, parks, and local
businesses. Rohe and Gates discuss its evolution and how it has been adapted
for modern planning, including critiques of its rigidity and potential
reinforcement of segregation.
2. Community-Based Development
The authors stress the importance of community-based approaches that place
residents at the center of planning processes. They explore how this model
enables neighborhoods to actively shape their development while addressing
local needs and leveraging local resources.
3. Participatory Planning
Participatory planning emerges as a cornerstone of their approach, advocating
for grassroots involvement. The book outlines methods for engaging residents
in decision-making processes, empowering them to take part in shaping
policies, land use, and development projects.
4. Collaborative Planning Models
Rohe and Gates emphasize the collaborative model where partnerships
between local governments, community organizations, and private
stakeholders are prioritized. They argue that collaborative planning can help
address funding challenges and align diverse interests.
5. Social Capital Theory
The theory that strong social networks and trust within communities enhance
the success of neighborhood planning is discussed. Rohe and Gates highlight
the role of social capital in mobilizing resources, advocating for improvements,
and ensuring plan sustainability.
6. Incremental Development Approach
This model favors gradual, step-by-step neighborhood improvements over
large-scale, top-down initiatives. It allows for flexibility and responsiveness to
changing community needs and reduces risks associated with large-scale
projects. (Rohe & Gates, 1985)
2.2.2. Human-Centered Design Principles
The Human-Centered Design (HCD) principles are outlined as a framework to
approach problem-solving with a focus on the needs, experiences, and
feedback of the people you are designing for. Below are the key principles
described in the guide:
1. Empathy-Driven Understanding
Human-Centered Design starts with deeply understanding the people for
whom the solution is being designed. This involves engaging with users to
learn about their challenges, aspirations, and behaviors through interviews,
observations, and immersive research.
2. Co-Creation
Collaboration with stakeholders and the intended users is central to the
process. Co-creation sessions bring diverse perspectives together to develop
ideas that are grounded in real-world contexts.
3. Iterative Prototyping
Solutions are developed through rapid prototyping and testing. The iterative
nature of HCD allows designers to refine ideas based on feedback and learn
from failures to create more effective outcomes.
4. Context-Specific Design
Solutions must fit the social, cultural, and environmental contexts of the users.
HCD emphasizes tailoring designs to align with the unique realities of the
community being served.
5. Sustainability and Feasibility
Beyond desirability, solutions are evaluated for their feasibility (technological
and logistical) and viability (economic sustainability). This ensures designs are
practical and implementable.
6. Systems Thinking
The approach considers the broader systems in which a solution will operate,
ensuring the design addresses root causes rather than just symptoms.
7. Inclusive Design
HCD values inclusivity, ensuring that solutions are equitable and accessible to
all, particularly marginalized or underserved groups. (Gaffin & Van Der Ryn, n.d.)
2.2.3. Place making

1. Definition of Place-Making
○ A social and political process to create meaning and value in public
spaces, driven by community engagement and aimed at
achieving social, cultural, and political goals.
○ Evolved since the 1960s as a human-centered urban
transformation approach to improve safety, comfort, and vibrancy
in public spaces.
2. Key Principles of Place-Making
○ Community as Experts: Engage residents to gather insights and
historical perspectives.
○ Place Over Design: Focus on access, economic opportunities, and
welcoming environments.
○ Collaborative Approach: Involve partners like institutions,
governments, and community groups.
○ Observation and Vision: Learn from how people use spaces and
create a shared vision for the area.
○ Experimentation: Test small-scale improvements and build on
results.
 ○ Triangulation: Arrange interconnected elements to encourage
synergy in public spaces.
○ Continuous Improvement: Place-making is an ongoing process
requiring adaptability and community feedback.

3. Benefits of Place-Making
○ Community Goals: Enhances quality of life, social capital,
sustainability, and a sense of belonging.
○ Urban Design Objectives: Promotes harmony, diversity,
interconnection, and flexibility.
○ Functional Goals: Revitalizes local areas, improves accessibility,
and creates adaptable spaces.
○ Security Objectives: Enhances safety through active, social spaces.
○ Aesthetic Goals: Preserves identity and architectural beauty,
reviving cultural and symbolic values.

4. Challenges in Place-Making
○ People and Community: Lack of community participation,
expertise, and stakeholder coordination.
○ Policy and Regulation: Bureaucratic barriers and inflexible policies
hinder project alignment.
○ Funding and Resources: High costs and unreliable financing
complicate execution.
○ Time Constraints: The lengthy process of coordination, stakeholder
engagement, and context analysis.
○ Awareness: Public officials and professionals often lack
understanding of the benefits of place-making.

5. Criteria for Successful Place-Making

○ Access and Links: Spaces should be well-connected to
surroundings, easy to access, and navigate.
○ Comfort and Image: Safety, cleanliness, seating, and visual appeal
ensure usability.
○ Uses and Activities: Offer varied and engaging activities that
attract diverse groups.
○ Sociability: Facilitate social interactions, community connections,
and group engagement. (B.B & J, 2018)
6. Historical Context
○ Originated from ideas by Jane Jacobs and William H. Whyte in the
1960s as a bottom-up process.
○ Gained prominence in the 1990s as part of the new urbanism
movement to counter urban isolation and degradation.

7. Place-Making as a Process and Tool

○ Process: Facilitates interventions by specialists to create shared
visions and common goals.
○ Tool: Helps designers understand user needs and foster a
connection to urban environments.
8. Overcoming Challenges
○ Small-scale improvements and experimental approaches build
momentum.
○ Strong partnerships, transparent communication, and active
community engagement ensure success.
2.2.4. Social Sustainability in Neighborhood Design
Sustainability in neighborhood design is approached through practical
strategies and innovative methods. It emphasizes designing neighborhoods
that integrate environmental considerations, reduce energy use, and
encourage social cohesion. It explores key principles such as mixed-use
development, walkability, green building practices, and efficient resource
management. sustainability in neighborhood design focuses on integrating
environmental, economic, and social principles to create vibrant, eco-friendly
communities. Here are some key points that are included in sustainability in
neighborhood design:

1. Mixed-Use Developments: Encouraging diverse land use to reduce

commuting distances and promote local economies.
2. Walkability and Connectivity: Designing pedestrian-friendly streets and
networks that minimize car dependency.
3. Green Infrastructure: Incorporating renewable energy, water
conservation, and eco-friendly materials.
4. Community-Centric Design: Enhancing social interaction and inclusivity
through shared spaces and thoughtful layouts. (Friedman, 2022 )
2.2.5. Walkability and Connectivity in Neighborhoods
Walkability and connectivity are essential elements for
building neighborhoods that prioritize people over
cars. It ensures neighborhoods with easy access to
essential services like schools, stores, and parks,
encouraging walking as the primary mode of
transportation. Connectivity refers to the integration of
diverse transportation options and pedestrian routes
that link different areas, promoting efficient
movement within the community while fostering
social interaction and economic activity. These
elements create healthier, more sustainable
communities (Langdon, 2017). The key aspects are:

1. Integrated Street Networks: It refer to the layout of streets and pathways

that are interconnected and accessible, encouraging walking, cycling,
and other non-motorized forms of transportation. A well-designed
networks make it easier for people to move between various parts of a
neighborhood, reducing reliance on cars and enhancing the overall
livability of urban areas. This connectivity improves social interaction and
helps create more sustainable, walkable communities.
2. Mixed-Use Development: It refers to the integration of residential,
commercial, and recreational spaces within close proximity, promoting
convenience and reducing the need for cars. It emphasizes that mixed-
use neighborhoods foster a vibrant, diverse community by providing
easy access to essential services, enhancing social interactions, and
encouraging walkability. This design concept helps create dynamic,
sustainable environments that support local economies and improve
quality of life.
3. Livability and Sustainability: It refers to the quality of life in a
neighborhood, emphasizing convenience, safety, accessibility, and social
engagement. Sustainability in this context focuses on creating
environments that are environmentally responsible, economically viable,
and socially inclusive, ensuring that communities thrive without
depleting resources for future generations.

It serves as a guide for planners and designers to foster sustainable,

livable cities. (Cuthbert, 2003)
2.2.6. Mixed-Use Development and Its Role in Urban
Communities
It is an integration of residential, commercial, and recreational spaces within a
single development or area. The aim is to create vibrant, walkable
communities that minimize the need for car travel, enhance social interaction,
and support economic activity. Its key roles include:
1. Economic Revitalization:
Mixed-use developments bring life to underutilized urban areas,
attracting investment, boosting property values, and encouraging local
economic activity. By integrating residential, retail, and office spaces,
they create hubs of activity that drive consumer spending and job
creation.
2. Enhanced Livability:
These developments support a better quality of life by combining
essential services and amenities within walkable distances, reducing the
need for car travel. This accessibility improves convenience and fosters
healthier lifestyles.
3. Community Building:
By incorporating public spaces like parks, plazas, and community
centers, mixed-use developments encourage social interactions, foster
inclusivity, and enhance the sense of community within urban areas.
4. Environmental Benefits:
Compact, mixed-use areas reduce urban sprawl, lower greenhouse gas
emissions by minimizing car dependency, and support sustainable
public transit systems.
5. Urban Efficiency:
Mixed-use development optimizes land use by combining functions that
would otherwise be separated, making efficient use of infrastructure and
reducing costs for municipalities. (Schwanke, 2003)
2.2.7. Inclusivity and Social Equity in Neighborhood Design
It focuses on how the built environment can promote justice, fairness, and
accessibility for all community members. It emphasizes that design decisions
can either reinforce or challenge social inequalities, making thoughtful, equity-
driven practices essential in urban planning and architecture. Key Principles of
Inclusivity and Social Equity in Neighborhood Design are:

1. Addressing Historical Inequities:

Recognizes the legacy of discriminatory practices in urban planning, such as
redlining and exclusionary zoning, which have marginalized certain
populations. Advocates for restorative design approaches that actively undo
these inequities, such as creating affordable housing and accessible public
spaces.
2. Community-Centered Planning:
Encourages involving community members in the design process to ensure
that their needs and aspirations are reflected. Prioritizes participatory design
methods that amplify underrepresented voices.
3. Equitable Resource Distribution:
Promotes fair access to amenities like parks, schools, healthcare facilities, and
public transportation. Highlights the importance of addressing environmental
justice by ensuring all neighborhoods have clean air, water, and green spaces.
4. Diversity in Design:
Supports creating spaces that celebrate cultural and demographic diversity.
Focuses on designing neighborhoods that accommodate people of all ages,
abilities, and socioeconomic statuses.
5. Economic and Social Opportunities:
Emphasizes integrating mixed-use development and job opportunities within
neighborhoods to reduce disparities and foster economic inclusion.
6. Metrics for Equity:
Proposes developing frameworks to measure and evaluate the equity
outcomes of design projects, ensuring accountability and transparency.
2.3.1 Open Spaces, Green Areas, and Public Spaces

Open Spaces Allocation: Allocate 10–20% of land area for open spaces, ensuring
accessibility within a 5-10 minute walking distance (400–800 meters).
Green Areas Standards: Dedicate 15–25% of neighborhood land to green areas,
adhering to the 9 square meters per person standard recommended by WHO.
Public Spaces Allocation: Reserve 5–15% of land for public plazas, squares, and
pedestrian-friendly zones, often overlapping with green and open spaces.
Distributed Open Spaces: Distribute smaller open spaces (e.g., pocket parks)
across neighborhoods and centralize larger communal spaces for equitable
access.
Strategic Green Placement: Use green belts as buffer zones, corridors to
connect parks, and periphery parks as "lungs" for urban areas.
Public Spaces Placement: Position public spaces near activity nodes like
markets, transit hubs, and streets, ensuring visibility and accessibility.
Zoning and Hierarchy: Enforce zoning laws for mandatory green space
allocation and create a hierarchy of pocket parks, community parks, and
regional parks.
2.3.2 Infrastructure Planning

Roads
In residential developments, traffic circulation should be designed to route
around the development rather than through it. Major traffic arteries should
provide quick access, but once inside, safety and convenience take priority over
speed. Arterial streets should not lead directly to homesites to prevent
dangerous backing into fast-moving traffic. Collector streets, ideally located
near the perimeter, should connect arterial streets to minor access roads that
serve individual homes. Short loop streets and cul-de-sacs offer the safest
access for small housing groups. Superblocks with clustered elements allow
for common spaces that are easily accessible on foot. Minor streets can be
narrower if parking is provided elsewhere, helping reduce construction costs

Type of Function Desi Speed Other Widths Spacin R.O.W.

Facility and - Feature g Pavem
Design rabl s ent
Features e
Gra
d-es

Freeways Provide 3% 60 Depress Variable; 200- 12' per

regional mph ed, at related 300’ lane; 8-
and grade to 10'
metropolit or populati shoulde
an elevate on and rs; 8'-60'
continuity d. industrial median
and unity. Require centers strip.
Limited s
access; no intensiv
grade e
crossing; landsca
no traffic ping
stops. and
service
roads.
Expressw Provide 4% 50 General Variable; 200- 12' per
ays metropolit mph ly at generally 250' lane; 8-
an and grade. radial or 10'
city Require circumfe shoulde
continuity s rential rs; 8-30'
and unity. service median
Limited roads strip.
access, and
some adequa
channeliz te rear
ed grade lot
crossings buildin
and g
signals at setback
major lines
intersectio (75').
ns.
Parking
prohibited
.

Major Provide 4% 35-45 Require 1/2 to 2 120- 84' max

Roads unity mph s 5' wide miles 150' for 4
(Arterials througho detach lanes,
) ut ed parking
contiguou sidewal , and
s urban ks, median
area. plantin strip.
Usually g strips
form (5'-10'),
boundarie and
s for adequa
neighborh te
oods. buildin
Minor g
access setback
control: lines
channeliz (30' to
ed 60').
intersectio
ns;
parking
generally
 prohibited
.

Secondar Main 5% 35-40 Require 1/2 to 1 60' 60'

y Roads feeder mph s 5' wide mile
(Minor streets. detach
Arterials) Signals ed
where sidewal
needed, ks,
stop signs plantin
on side g strips
streets. betwee
Occasiona n
lly form sidewal
boundarie ks and
s for curb.
neighborh
oods.

Collector Main 5% 30 Require 50’ to 64' 30'–36' 36' max

Streets interior mph s at for 2-12'
streets. least 4' traffic
Stop signs wide lanes, 2-
on side detach 10
streets. ed parking
sidewal lanes.
ks;
vertical
curbs;
plantin
g strips
are
 desirabl
e.

Local Local 6% 25 Sidewal 50' 30'–36' 30'-36'

Streets service mph ks at (75'
streets. least 4' practica
Non- in width l
conducive for turnaro
to densitie und)
through s
traffic. greater
than 1
dwellin
g
unit/acr
e.

Cul-de- Street 6% 25 Should 50’ 30'–36' 36' (90'

sac open at mph not diamet
Streets only one have a er
end, with length turnaro
provision greater und)
for a than
practical 500
turnaroun feet.
d at the
other.

This table organizes the functional characteristics of each street type, design
features, desirable grades, speed limits, and other specifications related to
residential circulation and access.
Design Single-family Multifamily Feeder or Collector
Element Residential Residential Streets

Street Width 50 ft 60 ft 60 ft

Pavement 26 ft 32 ft 36 ft
Width

Curbs Straight curb Straight curb Straight curb

recommended recommende recommended
d

Sidewalk 4 ft minimum 4 ft minimum Same as local

Width residential

Sidewalk 3 ft minimum if no 3 ft minimum Same as local

Setback trees; 7 ft with trees if no trees; 7 ft residential
with trees

Horizontal 200 ft minimum Same as Same as local

Alignment sight distance single-family residential

Vertical 6-8% maximum Same as Flat grade within

Alignment grade desirable; 3- single-family intersection; 6%
4% per 100 ft max maximum between
rate of change 100–160 ft

Cul-de-sac 400-500 ft Same as N/A

Length maximum length single-family

Turnaround 40 ft minimum Same as 12 ft curb radius for

Radius (without parking); 50 single-family local and feeder
ft minimum (with streets; 50 ft curb
parking) radius for feeder street
intersecting main
highway

Pavement Nonskid with Same as Same as local

Surface strength to carry single-family residential
traffic load
Sight Same as for local Same as Same as for local
Distance at residential streets single-family residential streets
Intersections

Intersection Flat section Same as 90° intersections

Design preferred from 50 to single-family preferred; less than
100 ft each way from 60° is hazardous
intersection, but no
grade over 3-5%
Key Recommendations:
● Street and Pavement Width: Wider streets are required for multifamily
housing to accommodate increased traffic flow.
● Sidewalk Setback: A greater setback is needed where trees are planted
between the curb and sidewalk.
● Vertical Alignment: A gentle slope is preferred, with a maximum of 6%
grade for intersections and transitions between streets.
● Turnaround Radius for Cul-de-sacs: A minimum of 40 ft radius for single-
family housing and 50 ft when parking is provided.
● Sight Distance: Ensure vehicles are visible to each other within 75 ft of
intersections at a speed of 25 mi/h, and no obstructions should block this
view.
These guidelines ensure that streets in residential areas are safe, functional,
and conducive to a pleasant living environment, while also supporting traffic
flow at reasonable speeds.

DESIGNATION RIGHT-OF-WAY FUNCTION

WIDTH
Arterial Streets and 80-120 feet Primarily devoted to
Highways the movement of high
volumes of traffic at
relatively high speed;
only rarely interrelated
with adjacent land
areas; vehicular access
is almost always
limited.
Marginal Access 40 feet These are minor
Streets streets that are parallel
to and adjacent to
arterial streets and
highways, which
provide access to
abutting properties
and protection from
through traffic.
Collector Streets 60-80 feet These carry traffic from
pavement width— minor streets to the
32 feet min. major system of
arterial streets and
highways, including
the principal entrance
streets of a residential
development and
streets for circulation
within such a
development. They
permit access to
adjacent land areas,
but generally do not
permit long-distance
through traffic.
Minor Streets 50-60 feet These carry traffic from
pavement width— collector streets to the
24-32 feet individual land parcels
within any given area.
The primary function
of these streets is to
provide access to
abutting properties.
Loop 50-60 feet Same as minor street.
pavement width—
24-32 feet
Cul-de-sac 800 feet max. Dead-end street with
40 feet min. proper turning radius
curb radius without at end. Provides quiet
parking residential street with
no through traffic. Also
helps solve difficult site
problems with
restricted access.
Alleys 20 feet These are minor ways
that are used primarily
for vehicular service
access to the back or
the side of properties
otherwise abutting a
street. May be
necessary in group,
row houses, or
apartment
developments. Not
recommended in
single-family
developments.

Utilities
From a planning perspective, the location of utility lines is challenging due to
each utility company having its own standards, which often don't align with
others. Installing or servicing these lines can disrupt streets and traffic.
Overhead lines, like electrical and telephone wires, are visually unappealing
and vulnerable to weather-related disruptions. In new housing developments,
careful planning of utility line placement is crucial for both efficiency and
aesthetics.

Water Supply and Sanitary

Water Supply Mains Location:
● Can be placed under sidewalks, planting strips, or streets.
● Must be at least 10 ft away from sewers or gas mains and positioned
above them.
● Water mains are often placed on the north side of east-west streets and
east side of north-south streets to prevent freezing.
Wells
● Should be located far from septic tanks, sewers, cesspools, and drainage
fields.
● Minimum recommended distances:
○ 50 ft from septic tanks and sewers.
○ 100 ft from drainage fields.
○ 150 ft from cesspools.
Sanitary Sewer
Mains Location:
● Typically located on the centerline of the road.
● Made of clay tile pipes.
● If placed in the planting strip, tree roots may cause damage to the pipes.
● Centerline placement ensures the pipe is equidistant from building lines
on both sides of the street.
● The sewer line should be positioned below the water supply mains.

Storm Sewer
● Typically placed one-third of the distance from the curb line to the
centerline of the street.
● Located on the opposite side of the street from the waterline to prevent
contamination.

Electricity
● Often located above planting strips, causing interference with trees, risk
of falling wires, and visual pollution.
Alternative Location:
● Power lines can be placed at the rear of lots, either above or below
ground, with service lines extending to the house.
● Requires adjustments for servicing when needed.
Underground Power Lines:
● Despite higher costs, the trend is moving towards placing power lines
underground.
● Benefits:
○ Reduces the risk of outages due to weather or other factors.
○ Enhances the aesthetic appeal by eliminating unsightly lines and
reducing visual clutter.

Telephone, cables
● Telephone Lines:
○ Can be located either above or below ground.
 ○ Historically, most lines were above ground, either using electric
poles or separate structures, which are unsightly and vulnerable to
weather disruptions.
● Underground Installation:
○ Telephone lines, TV cables, and special lines should be placed
underground.
○ Some efforts have been made to combine electric, telephone, and
TV cables into a single underground trench for easier installation
and maintenance.
● Rear-Lot Easement:
○ Lines may also be located at the rear-lot easement if necessary.

2.3.3. Social Infrastructures

Education

This category includes preschool and formal school services, such as child-care
centers, kindergartens, and elementary schools. These facilities should ideally
be within a safe walking distance, allowing children to access them without
crossing vehicular streets. The maximum distance should not exceed 0.25
miles. In low-density areas, bus transportation is typically used to meet these
standards.

Facility Distanc Capacit Description Function

e y
Served (People)

Child-care Central, 500- Small-scale, Provides care for

center 0.2-0.4 1,500 residential in preschool-age
miles character, located children (3-4 years),
within housing enabling mothers to
complexes, easily seek employment,
accessible by offering structured
walking. learning, social
activities, and
fostering community.

Nursery Central, 2,000- Similar to child- Serves the social and

0.4-0.8 3,000 care centers but educational needs of
miles emphasizes social children (2.5-5 years);
adjustment and includes a fenced play
the introduction area, classrooms
to learning (~1,000 ft²), and
processes. footpath access
without crossing
streets.

Kindergart Central, 2,000- Formal Serves educational

en 0.2-0.4 3,000 instruction in needs of children (5-6
miles educational years), preparing them
processes, usually for elementary school;
part of requires separate
elementary entrance and play
school complexes. areas.

Elementary Central, 5,000- Major community Serves children (6-11

school 0.2-0.4 8,000 facility, often near years); includes a
miles residential screened playground
centers or other (7-14 acres), parking
neighborhood spaces, and safe
facilities. footpath access
 without crossing
streets.

Recreational
Residential neighborhoods should include accessible facilities catering to
children and adults, enhancing community recreation and safety. These
facilities encompass playlots for preschool children, centralized playgrounds
for grade-school children, and passive outdoor areas for adults. Playlots,
integral to housing developments, are designed with enclosed spaces for play
equipment, open turfed areas for active play, and shaded areas for quiet
activities. They should be located within 300-400 feet of living units, ensuring
safe, easy access. Layout considerations include adequate drainage, shaded
equipment placement, and designated spaces for various activities to ensure
safety and encourage creativity. Specific equipment like climbers, swings, and
sand areas are prioritized, complemented by strategic seating and
landscaping for supervision and aesthetics. Recreational spaces are designed
to serve diverse needs year-round.
Playgrounds for Children Aged 6–16
1. Purpose and Location: Playgrounds cater to recreational and
developmental needs of children aged 6–16, typically located at or near
the neighborhood’s center, often adjacent to elementary schools. This
arrangement fosters joint educational and recreational use.
2. Design and Components:
○ Apparatus area with swings, slides, and jungle gyms.
○ Open turfed area for informal play like running and jumping.
○ Game courts and fields for sports like softball, soccer, and
volleyball.
○ Quiet zones for crafts, storytelling,
Playlots should be enclosed with low fences or plants to ensure child safety and
easy supervision. Benches with and without shade should be strategically
placed for adult comfort. Amenities like drinking fountains with tot steps and
play equipment tailored for preschoolers, such as swings, slides, and climbing
structures, should combine traditional and imaginative features. Popular items
include playhouses, themed structures (e.g., trains or boats), and sand play
areas to foster creative and safe play

A neighborhood park is primarily for passive recreation, emphasizing a natural,

sylvan character with open lawns, trees, shrubs, and floral arrangements.
Essential in dense areas, it often combines with playgrounds or schools but
may require separate 3–5 acre sites. Smaller spaces (1–2 acres) can also serve
this function. Parks enhance community aesthetics through creative
landscaping, incorporating features like sculpted forms, fountains, and varied
surfaces for visual and practical appeal.

2.3.4. Community Centers and Cultural Spaces

One way to provide activity space for both young and old is with a community
center. It could provide meeting and recreational spaces complete with a
serving kitchen for catering, The lower (presumably more noisy) level could
contain a teenage center with separate access and include game rooms,
dance halls, etc. It should not be necessary for the teenagers to feel they must
abandon the community to find activities especially suited to them; nor should
their activities be in conflict with their parents’ entertainment.
A branch library can play an important role as a cultural center. In addition to
providing books, it can provide record and tape lending, music-listening
facilities, visual-aid facilities, lecture series, and act as a-general information
center. With such an expanded role, the library or cultural center will be an
important element in the neighborhood. The general standards for small
public libraries are shown in Table 2. Regardless of the size of the community,
its library should provide access to enough books to cover the interests of the
whole population.

facility Location Capacit Description Function Planning

& y Consideratio
Distance (Peopl ns
Served e)
Church or Central to 500- A place of Hosts Should be
Synagogu congrega 2,500 worship, religious easily
e tion often a services, accessible,
social gatherings, located in a
center for and social quiet area,
the activities for with space for
congregati the landscaping
on; may neighborhoo and off-street
include d. parking.
religious
education
facilities.

Branch Central, 1 Up to A small Serves the Should be

Library mile max. 5,000 branch of a neighborhoo accessible on
larger d’s limited a main
library reading and thoroughfare
system; research or
includes needs. neighborhoo
children’s d center with
and adults’ parking and
reading room for 80%
rooms and expansion.
various
media.

Recreatio 0.25-0.5 Up to A Provides May be part

n Center mile 5,000 multipurpo recreational of a school or
se building activities, park; should
with including be separated
facilities like small from quieter
gyms, outdoor facilities; off-
swimming activities and street
pools, game a full range of parking is
rooms, and indoor desirable.
meeting activities.
rooms.
Social 0.25-0.5 Up to A Supports May be part
Center mile 5,000 multipurpo social of a school;
se building activities should
emphasizin such as include food
g passive dances, preparation
activities banquets, facilities and
like game meetings, provide off-
rooms, shows, and street
reading exhibits. parking.
areas, and
meeting
rooms.

Health Central, Up to Small Provides Should be

Center 0.25-0.5 5,000 medical minor health part of a
mile offices services, acts school or
offering as a health easily
basic information accessible on
diagnostic center, and foot, with
and may serve as provisions for
treatment a referral off-street
services; bureau. parking.
often a
public or
private
group
practice.

Multi Central, Up to Group of Acts as an Should

Service 0.25-0.5 5,000 offices or information provide a
Center mile flexible and sense of
space that community connection
adapts to guidance with
changing center, government
needs. offering legal organizations
and and be easily
professional accessible to
advice. the
community.
2.4.1 Site Consideration and site planning
Site planning is a broad and vital process that involves selecting sites,
organizing buildings functionally in relation to the topography and
environment, and integrating circulation routes, land use, and utility needs. It
requires careful consideration of factors like climate, local customs, economic
conditions, laws, land costs, and family demographics. Successful site plans
harmonize with the land's character and balance elements such as natural
features, building orientation, circulation, parking, and utility placement. Each
site is unique, demanding a tailored approach rather than rigid, universal
guidelines to ensure efficiency, economy, and livability.

2.4.1.1 Noise Control

The best way to control noise is to avoid it by carefully selecting a building site.
Choosing quieter areas or relocating to avoid noise issues is often more
effective and economical than redesigning an acoustically poor plan. Future
noise levels should also be considered, as urban development or increased
traffic can worsen conditions. Favor sites with natural or artificial sound
barriers, such as trees or walls, and those located on rolling terrain or upwind
from noise sources to minimize sound exposure. Avoid sites near traffic
intersections, hills, or congested areas, as they often experience high noise
levels from vehicle movement and braking.
Where there is ample space, trees can be used to moderate noise. A thick growth of
leafy trees and underbrush reduces noise about 6 to 7 dB/100 ft (average over the
audible frequency range). Low-frequency loss is 3 to 4 dB, high frequency loss is 10 to
12 dB. A single row of trees is worthless as a noise barrier. Because of interreflection,
multiple rows of trees are more effective. High-frequency loss is 3 to 4db.

2.4.1.2 Fire Protection

1. Fire Flow Requirements: The water system must meet both domestic
and fire fighting needs. The American Insurance Association (AIA) sets
flow requirements based on population:
● 1,000 population = 1,000 gal/min.
● Larger cities may require up to 12,000 gal/min or more, with
additional fire flow for second fires.
2. Residential Fire Flow Minimums:
● Single-family detached homes (30 ft separation): 500 gal/min for 1
hour.
● Single-family attached or low-rise multi-family (combustible): 750
gal/min for 1.5 hours.
 ● Other areas and buildings require higher flow, typically 750-2,000
gal/min for up to 4 hours depending on the structure.
3. Fire Hydrant and Distribution System:
● Mains should be at least 8 inches in diameter, with dead-end
mains not exceeding 600 feet.
● Hydrants should be spaced every 500 feet, or every 300 feet for
residential and multi-family areas, and within 200 feet for high-rise
buildings.
● Hydrants should be located 5-10 feet from the street or driveway
and no closer than 50 feet to a building.
● A minimum 6-inch connection to the main is required for
hydrants.
4. System Design:
● Hydrants must have adequate pressure (20 psi residual) and flow
capacity in addition to peak domestic demand.
● Sectionalizing valves should limit the impact of breaks or
shutdowns to 800 feet of piping.
● Water pipes should be made from materials that prevent
tuberculation, which can reduce flow.

Large-scale site development enables accurate traffic volume prediction

based on land use, allowing streets to be designed for specific needs, such as
accommodating emergency vehicles and fire apparatus. Streets enhance
access, act as fire breaks, and ensure connectivity with minimum two
roadways or a divided single roadway for reliability. Design standards include
minimum pavement widths (22–36 ft), adequate grades (not exceeding 10–
15%), and proper lighting and signage. Dead-end streets are discouraged in
high-density areas to avoid access issues. Streets should support heavy
emergency vehicles and include turnarounds or circulation patterns for safety
and functionality.

Each residential and public structure must ensure easy emergency access.
Driveways for fire department access should be at least 20 ft wide and paved.
Single-family homes should be within 100 ft of a street or driveway, while low-
rise multifamily dwellings should be within 75 ft, and high-rise dwellings within
50 ft. Access to public buildings should be from at least two roads or a non-
dead-end street. Buildings should have unique, clearly visible house numbers
that follow local patterns to avoid confusion and ensure quick identification.
2.4.1.3 Proxemics

Proxemics, a concept introduced by anthropologist Edward T. Hall, examines

how humans utilize space and the effects of spatial arrangements on
communication and social interactions. This understanding is vital in urban
planning, as it informs the design of spaces that cater to human behavior and
foster social connections. Hall identified four proxemic zones—intimate,
personal, social, and public distances—that define how people interact based
on their relationships. Additionally, the concept of territoriality describes how
individuals claim different types of spaces, such as public areas, personal living
spaces, and immediate surroundings.
Incorporating proxemics into urban planning can significantly enhance
community interaction and accessibility. By designing public spaces like parks
and plazas with varying distances between seating areas, planners can create
environments that encourage socialization while respecting personal space.
Furthermore, understanding cultural differences in spatial norms allows for
inclusive designs that cater to diverse populations. However, challenges such
as high population density and evolving social norms—especially in light of
recent events like the COVID-19 pandemic—require planners to adapt
continually to ensure comfort and promote positive interactions among
residents.

2.4.1.4 Solar Energy Utilization

Site planning focuses on two key issues: (1) maximizing solar energy and (2)
optimizing building placement to reduce energy needs. This involves decisions
at multiple scales, starting from the regional climate and geography to the
specific building site. Key considerations include building orientation,
placement, and overall site integration to enhance energy efficiency through
solar exposure.

Cool Region
In cool regions, site planning prioritizes maximizing sun exposure. South-
facing slopes and outdoor areas on the building's south side capture solar heat.
Walls and fences can create sun pockets and shield against cold winds,
enhancing warmth and comfort.

Temperate Region
In temperate regions, solar collectors should be positioned on south-facing
slopes, within 10° of true south, for optimal exposure during spring, fall, and
winter. Outdoor living spaces are best located on the southwest side, shielded
from cold north and northwest winds. Deciduous vegetation on the south side
provides summer shade and winter sun access, while landforms or vegetation
on the north reduce winter wind impact.Structures in windy regions can
feature steeply pitched roofs on the windward side to deflect wind and reduce
roof exposure. Blank walls, garages, or storage areas can be placed on the north
side for insulation. Protect north entrances from winter winds using earth
mounds, evergreen vegetation, or fences. Warm-weather outdoor spaces
should be oriented to capture cooling southwest summer breezes
Hot humid region
In hot, humid regions, solar collectors for heating need maximum winter sun
exposure, while cooling and water heating require year-round solar access,
with collectors oriented within 10° of south. Site planning should prioritize air
movement and shading to maintain comfort throughout the year

Optimal site design for solar energy and energy conservation utilizes
vegetation and other elements to enhance solar exposure, comfort, and
efficiency. Materials like trees, shrubs, and groundcovers regulate temperature,
wind, and solar radiation. Trees provide shade, deflect winds, and moderate site
conditions. Shrubs reduce wind and glare, while turf stabilizes temperatures
with low reflectivity. Paving, fences, walls, and trellises can absorb or reflect
solar radiation and manage airflow effectively

Walls, fences, or vegetation can influence air flow patterns, so site design must
balance visual control with maintaining desirable climatic conditions. Downhill
evening airflows should not be obstructed to prevent unwanted cold air
pockets. Proper placement of barriers ensures effective air circulation while
avoiding adverse effects.

(Time Saver Std. 4 Housing &, n.d., #)

2.1.1.4 Acoustic Control

Acoustic control in housing projects is essential for enhancing comfort,
privacy, and overall quality of life. Several strategies can be employed to
manage noise effectively:

1. Site Planning and Layout

● Buffer Zones: Green spaces, gardens, and water features can act as
noise buffers between noisy areas and residential zones
● Orientation: Strategic positioning of buildings to shield living areas
from external noise, using less noise-sensitive spaces like garages
as barriers, is recommended (ISO, 1996).
2. Building Design
● Room Arrangement: Locating bedrooms and living rooms away
from high-noise areas, such as roads, and using service areas
 (kitchens, bathrooms) as sound buffers is an effective design
solution (Berglund, et al., 2000).
● Massing: Clustered or staggered building layouts can help block
noise transmission across the site (Sharma et al., 2011).
3. Building Materials
● Soundproof Walls: The use of double or staggered-stud walls filled
with sound-absorbing materials like fiberglass or mineral wool
helps minimize sound transmission (ISO, 1996).
● Windows and Doors: Double-glazed or laminated glass windows,
along with solid-core doors and proper seals, are essential to
prevent noise intrusion (Berglund, et al., 2000).
● Floors and Ceilings: Acoustic underlayment or suspended ceilings
with sound-absorbing panels can reduce floor impact and
airborne noise (Sharma et al., 2011).
4. Landscaping for Noise Reduction
● Vegetation: Dense shrubs and trees help absorb sound waves and
reduce noise levels (Berglund, et al., 2000).
● Earth Berms: Raised mounds of soil, or berms, are highly effective
at reducing noise from external sources (Sharma et al., 2011).
● Fences: Installing acoustic fences or walls, especially near high-
noise areas, offers an additional noise barrier (ISO, 1996).
5. Interior Acoustic Treatment
● Absorptive Materials: Carpets, rugs, curtains, and upholstered
furniture help reduce indoor noise reflection and absorption
(Berglund, et al., 2000).
● Acoustic Panels: Adding panels to walls or ceilings in shared
spaces reduces echo and airborne noise (Sharma et al., 2011).
6. Mechanical Systems
● Quiet HVAC Systems: Low-noise equipment and sound-
dampening ducts help control mechanical noise (ISO, 1996).
● Isolation Mounts: Vibration noise from mechanical systems can be
minimized by using isolation mounts like rubber or springs
(Sharma et al., 2011).
7. Safety and Security
2.4.2 Regulatory Framework for Neighborhood Design
The regulatory framework for housing design in Nepal is governed by the
Nepal Building Act of 1998 and the Nepal National Building Code (NBC).

Floor Area Ratio

In new residential development, FAR ranges from 1.25 to 1.75 depending on plot
size and zone. In the formulation of FAR, the percentage of ground coverage is
also counted in new residential development which is permitted maximum
use of 40% to 80%. The percentage of site coverage decreases with the increase
of plot size.

Ground Coverage

● 70% ground coverage is allowed for the construction of residential

buildings having area 250 m2; similarly, 60% ground coverage is allowed
for the construction of residential buildings having area more than 250
m2.
● 50% ground coverage is allowed for the construction of government,
semi-government and public buildings.

Right of Way

● ROW for the newly constructed road must be 3 m from the center of
that road; however, in case of some geographical constraints, the
technical committee can recommend and approve the ROW within 2
m. For such newly constructed roads, minimum setback from the road
edge must be 1.5 m.
● Roads with length less than 50 m (Cul-de-Sac/Dead-end) that were
constructed and got construction approval before the enforcement of
this bylaw will have the ROW of minimum 1.5 m.
● ROW will be made 2 m from the center of the road for existing buildings
constructed already along the road having less than 4 m width.
 ● Minimum turning radius of
every road should be
maintained at 3.5 m.

Building Height

According to the building byelaws,

maximum height of the building is
governed by two factors.
● FAR
● Light plane

Even though FAR permits higher building height, the light plane factor
restricts its height. The maximum height of building is not more than the
height of light plane (Mishra, 2019)

2.4.3 Standards for Density, Plot Size, and Setbacks

Residential density

The intensity of land use should not be so great as to cause congestion of

buildings or to preclude the amenities of good housing. Specifically, densities
should be limited to provide:

● Adequate daylight, sunlight, air, and usable open space for all dwellings
● Adequate space for all community facilities
● А general feeling of openness and privacy

Densities should have a reasonable relationship to land and improvement

costs. Two types of density measurement are needed:

● Density measures for residential areas of the neighborhood (called

residential or dwelling densities) to ensure adequate open space, light,
and air for residential facilities
● Density measures for the entire neighborhood (termed neighborhood
densities), taking all land uses into account, to ensure provision of
adequate community facilities in relation to population load. (De Chiara
et al., 1995, #)
Plot size
According to the planning regulation, appropriate minimum plot size has been
defined as 2.5 annas. The idea is based on providing a residential environment
that encompasses infrastructure, services and the plot of the land. It is an
important part of housing standards. It is a way to affect the housing density,
to control cost, and to suggest the building location, and its envelope on the
plot. Selection of plot size affects the unit cost of housing, influencing both the
cost of land and that of infrastructure. (Mishra, 2019, #)

Setbacks
● In case of public buildings having height more than 10 m and below 17
m, minimum setback from the adjoining plot must be 3 m; similarly for
other buildings, minimum setback from the adjoining plot must be of 2
m.
● The ratio between any building with more than 17 m height and the
setback from the adjoining plot must be 4:1 but the minimum setback
will not be considered to be less than 5 m.
(Mishra, 2019, #)

2.4.4. Zoning and Land Use Regulations

2.4.5. Access and Mobility: Road Width, Parking, and
Pedestrian Networks
Road Width

● Main road of the proposed project should not be less than 8 m wide
that connects the existing public road.
● Every road of the proposed project that connects the existing public
main road must have a separate entrance and exit gate and lane up to
20 m of that existing public road.
● Residential building up to 10 m height is allowed for construction on land
that touches a 6 m wide public road. Likewise, only for the land that
touches an 8 m wide public road, residential or public buildings with
more than 10 m height are allowed for construction. (Mishra, 2019, #)

Parking

The following are some of the FHA standards for parking:

● Paved parking areas and courts must be provided to meet the needs of
the residents and their guests without interference with normal traffic.
● Parking areas and courts must be located for convenient access to the
living units without impairing the views from living rooms, entrances and
front yards.
● Dimensions of parking areas and courts must be adequate for
convenient use for occupant parking.
● Where necessary to provide for bumper clearance and suitable screen
planting, parking facilities must not be nearer than 5 ft to any street,
property line, or project facility.
● Driveways must have two traffic lanes for their entire length, usually 18
ft in addition to any parking space, except that a single lane may be used
for short. straight-service driveways where two-way traffic is not
anticipated.
● Garages, carports, and Parking bays are set back at least 8 ft from the
nearest edge of any moving traffic lane to the extent necessary to
provide sight lines for safe entry into trafficway. (De Chiara et al., 1995, #)
 Dimensions

Space Tennant Parking Attendant Parking

45° 60° 90° 45° 60° 90°

Stall depth 17’-6” 19’-0 “ 18’-0” 17’-2” 18’-10” 18’-0”

perpendicular to
aisle

Aisle Width 12’-8” 18’-0” 29’-0” 12’-8” 17’-4" 22’-0”

Unit parking 47’-8” 56’-0” 65’-0” 47’ -0” 55’-0” 58’-0”

depth

Stall width 12’-8" 10.6" 9-0" 11’-4" 9’-3" 8’-0”

parallel to aisle

Bays
The parking bay system is the Most efficient and least
expensive arrangement. It occupies a minimal area
and may serve individual buildings or groups of
buildings along minor residential streets. However,
vehicles backing out into traffic may create hazardous
conditions.

Buffer
The buffer system is similar to the parking bay, except
that this arrangement separates parking maneuvering
from roadway traf- lic. It occupies more area than the
parking bay and may also serve individual buildings or groups of buildings. It
may be located on a fairly active street.

Perpendicular
While this is one of the safest and most attractive systems,
its relatively great depth penetrates the site and may
absorb areas that might best be used in other ways. In
some cases, buildings may be located around the park-
ing court, thus integrating the parking space with
surrounding spaces. It may be located on a fairly active
street.

Parallel
Parallel parking is similar to the buffer system in all
respects except that this design is more efficient in so far
as it uses a double- loaded parking aisle. Like the parking
court, it also penetrates the site fairly deeply, but may also
be integrated with the open spaces around it. It may be
located on a fairly active street.

Parking garages
Using the basement of apartment buildings for Parking purposes presents
problems that must be weighed against each other to determine the most
economical manner of providing space for the required number of cars. The
type of parking and the number of cars that can be accommodated depend
upon the dimensions of the space and location of columns in the area assigned
to parking. To achieve the ideal arrangement may prove too costly, and it may
be more economical to use more floor space for a maximum number of cars.
Each individual case must be studied to obtain the best net results. Where local
regulations permit and space is available, parking should be provided in or just
off the street. (De Chiara et al., 1995, #)

Pedestrian Networks

A safe and convenient system of pedestrian walks is essential. It should be

functionally organized and follow the natural traffic patterns of pedestrians.
Walks should be wide enough to accommodate two-way traffic. Paved areas,
especially at main entrances, must be of sufficient area to accommodate
anticipated activities.

The following standards are based on FHA standards for pedestrian circulation:

● Access to the dwellings and circulation between buildings and other

important project facilities for vehicular and pedestrian traffic must be
comfortable and convenient for the occupants.
● Walking distance from the main entrances of buildings to a street,
driveway, or parking court must usually be less than 100 ft; exceptions to
this standard should be reasonably justified by compensating
advantages, such as desirable views and site preservation through
adaptation to topography. In no case must the distance exceed 250 ft.
● Street sidewalks and on-site walks must be provided for convenient and
safe access to all living units from streets, driveways, parking courts, or
garages and for convenient circulation and access to all! project facilities.
● Width, alignment, and gradient of walks must provide safety,
convenience, and appearance suitable for pedestrian traffic, shopping
carts, and for moving of furniture. Small jogs in the alignments shall be
avoided.
● Steps and stepped ramps must be avoided if possible in order to
facilitate servicing with wheeled vehicles.
● An open and unobstructed passageway must be provided at grade level
of each inner court. Such passageways must have a cross- sectional area
of not less than 40 sq. ft and sufficient headroom to permit the passage
of non vehicular fire-fighting equipment, and must be continuous from
the inner court of a yard, or an unobstructed open area between
buildings. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 85)

A classification of walks is useful to provide uniform terminology and to serve

as a check on the scope of this feature of planning:

1. Sidewalks: parallel to city and project streets

2. Collector walks: not parallel to streets; designed for general circulation.

3. Approach walks: leading to buildings or groups of buildings from other

walks, streets, or drives
4. Entrance walks: leading directly to dwell- ing or building entrances

The walk plan should be functional, built up of primary, secondary, and tertiary
elements, each adjusted in location, width, and material to serve its purpose.
Directness of access is essential; otherwise most people seem inclined to
shortcut, unless they are funneled into the intended paths by planting or
barriers. (De Chiara et al., 1995, 85)
2.5.1. Incremental Development and Phased Growth
Incremental Development and Phased Growth is a key concept in urban
planning and neighborhood design that focuses on developing areas in a
gradual, systematic manner. This approach ensures sustainable growth,
efficient resource utilization, and adaptability to future needs. Incremental
development is a strategy where housing or urban areas are developed step
by step, rather than being constructed all at once. Phased growth refers to the
organized sequencing of development stages based on priorities, resources,
and changing needs.

Key Features:

1. Step-by-Step Development:

● Construction happens in manageable stages rather than one large

project, reducing initial investment costs.
● Infrastructure and facilities are introduced gradually, in tandem with the
growth of the population or demand.

2. Adaptability:

● Allows for changes and upgrades in response to technological, social, or

environmental factors.
● Facilitates adjustments based on feedback from residents or community
needs.

3. Resource Efficiency:

● Optimizes the use of land, finances, and labor.

● Prevents overbuilding and reduces the risk of vacant or underused
spaces.

4. Community Involvement:

● Promotes participation from stakeholders, including local residents, in

each phase of development.
 ● Builds trust and ensures that development aligns with the community's
needs and aspirations.

5. Focus on Priorities:

● Critical infrastructure (like roads, sanitation, and utilities) is developed

first.
● Residential, commercial, and recreational spaces follow as demand
increases.

Benefits:

● Cost-effective
● Sustainability
● Flexibility
● Reduced risk
● Equitable growth

Implementation in Housing and Neighbourhood Design:

● Infrastructure first
● Affordable housing
● Mixed-use development
● Zoning flexibility
● Monitoring and Feedback

Examples in practice:

1. Incremental Housing in Latin America:

● Projects like Elemental in Chile have successfully implemented

incremental housing models, where residents can expand their homes
over time.

2. Phased Growth in Urban Areas:

 ● Cities like Curitiba, Brazil, have adopted phased development strategies
focusing on transit-oriented growth and environmental sustainability.
(C., 1976, #)

2.5.2. Energy-Efficient and Green Building Design

2.5.3. Smart Neighborhoods: Technological Integration and
Data-Driven Solutions
2.6.1. Social Integration and Community Engagement
To foster social integration and community engagement in neighborhoods, design
spaces that encourage interaction and inclusivity. Incorporate mixed-use
development with homes near shops, schools, and community hubs to promote
daily interactions. Ensure housing diversity with varied types and price points to
attract people from different socio-economic backgrounds. Prioritize pedestrian-
friendly streets with wide sidewalks, lighting, and active facades like porches or
stoops to facilitate casual encounters and safety. Include accessible public spaces
such as parks and plazas designed for diverse uses to serve as community gathering
points. Maintain balanced density to support vibrant street life without
overcrowding, and involve residents in participatory planning to reflect their cultural
and social needs. These strategies create inclusive and vibrant neighborhoods.
(Jacobs, 2016, 55-112)

2.6.2. Affordable Housing and Economic Viability

To ensure affordable housing and economic viability in neighborhood design,
prioritize mixed-use development where residential, commercial, and recreational
spaces coexist. This promotes a vibrant local economy, supports local businesses,
and reduces commuting costs, making housing more affordable. Diversity in
housing types—including a range of sizes and price points—accommodates
different income levels, fostering mixed-income neighborhoods and preventing
segregation.
Encourage small-scale, incremental development to keep costs manageable and
avoid displacement of existing residents. Design neighborhoods to be walkable and
well-connected to public transportation, reducing reliance on cars and lowering
living costs. Lastly, adopt flexible zoning that allows for a mix of uses, enabling
developers to create affordable housing while maintaining economic sustainability
through local business support. (Jacobs, 2016, 143-152)
2.6.3. Climate Considerations, Environmental Resilience and
Impact Assessment
1. Site Analysis and Ecological Sensitivity: Conduct thorough site analysis to
understand natural features like soil quality, water drainage, vegetation, and
ecosystems. This ensures that development minimizes environmental
disruption and integrates with the landscape.
2. Topography and Water Management: Work with natural topography to
manage stormwater and prevent erosion. Design neighborhoods that
preserve wetlands and natural water bodies while using sustainable water
management practices such as permeable surfaces, rain gardens, and
retention basins.
3. Climate-Responsive Design: Design neighborhoods to respond to the local
climate by maximizing natural light and incorporating passive heating and
cooling techniques. Orient buildings to reduce energy consumption and use
natural ventilation to minimize dependence on artificial heating and cooling.
4. Biodiversity Preservation: Preserve biodiversity by incorporating native plant
species and creating green corridors to support local ecosystems. Avoid
invasive species and enhance environmental health by integrating green
spaces into urban design.
5. Green Infrastructure and Sustainable Development: Incorporate green
infrastructure such as green roofs, urban forests, and community gardens to
reduce urban heat islands, manage stormwater, and improve air quality.
These elements also provide recreational spaces for residents.
6. Sustainable Materials and Energy Use: Use sustainable materials and energy-
efficient technologies in neighborhood design. Incorporate renewable energy
sources like solar panels and wind energy, and opt for recycled or locally
sourced materials to reduce the carbon footprint. (McHarg, 2008)

The National EIA Guidelines contains objectives, methods of screening projects

requiring the level of environmental assessment (IEE or EIA), scoping, impact
identification and prediction, report review, monitoring and evaluation and
impact auditing. The guidelines also contain methods for ensuring public
participation during the preparation of the EIA report, including the need of
impact mitigation measures in the EIA report. It calls for identifying physical-
chemical, biological, socio-economic and cultural impacts and proposing
mitigation measures to avoid, eliminate and/or minimize or mitigate each
adverse impact and to augment beneficial impacts resulting from the project.
The guidelines also stresses on the inclusion of monitoring and evaluation and
a framework for environmental auditing in the EIA report. (Bhatt, 2009)

2.6.4. Health and Well-being: Designing for Active Lifestyles

To design neighborhoods that promote an active lifestyle and maintain health and
well-being, prioritize pedestrian-friendly spaces with wide sidewalks and
pedestrian-only areas to encourage walking. A mixed-use design, where residential,
commercial, and recreational spaces are placed close together, fosters walking and
cycling. Public spaces like parks, plazas, and streets should be designed to
accommodate a variety of activities, such as walking, cycling, and socializing, while
ensuring safety and comfort through well-lit, well-maintained paths and active
street fronts. Incorporating green spaces, tree-lined streets, and nature into the
urban environment encourages outdoor physical activity and improves mental
health. Additionally, integrating bike infrastructure with dedicated lanes and bike-
sharing stations promotes cycling as a safe and healthy mode of transport. These
strategies together create vibrant, active neighborhoods that support both physical
and mental well-being. (Gehl, 2013, 80-110)

2.7.1. Urban Sprawl and Density Management

Urban sprawl refers to the uncontrolled expansion of cities into rural or
undeveloped areas, typically characterized by low-density, single-use
developments and heavy reliance on private vehicles. This type of growth
consumes large amounts of land, leading to the loss of agricultural spaces,
natural habitats, and increased environmental degradation. Sprawl often
results in fragmented land use, social isolation, and higher infrastructure costs
as municipalities extend roads, utilities, and services over vast areas.
Additionally, it creates car-dependent lifestyles, which contribute to increased
pollution, traffic congestion, and reduced opportunities for social interaction.
Urban Sprawl Challenges:
 1. Environmental Degradation: Sprawl consumes large amounts of land,
leading to habitat destruction, loss of agricultural land, and increased
carbon emissions due to reliance on automobiles.
2. Economic Inefficiency: Sprawl increases infrastructure costs for roads,
utilities, and public services, often creating financial strain on
municipalities.
3. Social Isolation: Sprawl leads to car-dependent lifestyles, reducing
opportunities for social interaction and community building.
Strategies for Managing Density and Mitigating Sprawl:
1. Compact, Mixed-Use Development: Promote higher-density
neighborhoods with a mix of residential, commercial, and recreational
spaces to reduce land consumption and reliance on cars.
2. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Design neighborhoods around
public transportation hubs to reduce car dependency and support
sustainable density.
3. Preservation of Open Spaces: Establish urban growth boundaries and
protect natural areas to limit sprawl and focus development within
designated zones.
4. Infill Development and Redevelopment: Prioritize the use of
underutilized urban spaces, such as vacant lots or brownfields, to
increase density without expanding the urban footprint.
5. Walkability and Connectivity: Design neighborhoods with pedestrian-
friendly layouts, shorter block lengths, and interconnected streets to
support walking and biking.
6. Affordable and Diverse Housing: Provide a range of housing options,
including multi-family units and accessory dwellings, to accommodate
diverse populations within denser areas.
7. Policy and Zoning Reforms: Implement zoning regulations that
encourage higher-density housing and mixed-use developments while
discouraging low-density sprawl.
8. Community Engagement: Involve residents in planning processes to
ensure that higher-density designs meet their needs and gain
community acceptance. (Wheeler, 2013)
2.7.2. Integration of Informal Settlements in Formal Planning

Informal settlements refer to residential areas where housing and

infrastructure have been developed without formal planning, regulation, or
legal compliance. These settlements are often the result of rapid urbanization,
economic disparities, and a lack of affordable housing options in cities.
Common characteristics include:
1. Lack of Legal Tenure: Residents typically do not have legal rights to the
land or housing they occupy, making them vulnerable to eviction.
2. Inadequate Infrastructure: Basic services like water supply, sanitation,
electricity, and waste management are often insufficient or entirely
lacking.
3. Substandard Housing: Structures are usually built with temporary or
low-quality materials, without adherence to building codes or safety
standards.
4. High Population Density: These areas are often overcrowded, with
limited access to open spaces or essential amenities.
5. Social and Economic Exclusion: Residents often face marginalization,
with limited access to education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities.
To integrate informal settlements into formal urban planning effectively, it is
crucial to adopt approaches that foster community participation and equity.
Community-driven initiatives, supported by governments or NGOs, ensure
that residents' needs and priorities shape development. These initiatives
should focus on legalizing tenure, which provides a sense of ownership and
security while encouraging self-improvement and investment in housing. At
the same time, upgrading basic infrastructure such as sanitation, water, and
electricity is essential to improving quality of life and integrating settlements
into formal urban systems.

Urban Equity and Development Frameworks

1. Integrated Zoning Policies: Avoid segregation of informal settlements by
creating inclusive zoning that encourages socio-economic mixing.
2. Resilience to Risks: Develop disaster-resilient housing to protect
vulnerable communities in informal settlements.
3. Infrastructure Investment: Prioritize basic infrastructure upgrades to
uplift informal neighborhoods and integrate them seamlessly into
formal city frameworks. (De Chiara et al., 1995)

2.7.3. Balancing Development and Preservation of Cultural

Heritage
To address balancing development and preserving cultural heritage in
housing design, emphasize integrating historical and cultural values into
urban planning frameworks while accommodating modern needs. Key
strategies include:
1. Adaptive Reuse: Convert historic buildings into modern housing or
community spaces to retain cultural identity while serving
contemporary purposes.
2. Contextual Design: Ensure new developments respect the scale, style,
and materials of historical surroundings, blending seamlessly with
heritage areas.
3. Community Involvement: Engage local communities in planning to
align developments with cultural priorities and foster a sense of
ownership.
4. Zoning and Protection: Implement legal frameworks like heritage
zoning or preservation overlays to protect culturally significant sites from
redevelopment pressures.
 5. Cultural Impact Assessments: Conduct assessments to evaluate how
proposed developments affect cultural heritage, ensuring minimal
disruption. (De Chiara et al., 1995)

2.7.4. Addressing Climate Change and Sustainable Urban

Development
Addressing climate change and promoting sustainable urban development
during housing design involves implementing strategies that balance
environmental sustainability with social and economic needs. Here are specific
approaches:
1. Incorporating Renewable Energy: Designs should integrate solar panels,
wind turbines, and other renewable energy systems to reduce reliance
on fossil fuels and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Passive solar design
and energy-efficient materials further enhance sustainability
2. Water Management and Conservation: Incorporate rainwater
harvesting, graywater recycling, and efficient plumbing systems to
reduce water consumption. Stormwater management systems can
prevent urban flooding.
3. Optimizing Land Use: Encourage mixed-use development to minimize
urban sprawl and promote walkability. Compact neighborhoods reduce
transportation emissions and conserve natural areas.
4. Sustainable Materials and Construction: Use locally sourced, recycled, or
low-carbon materials. Modular and prefabricated construction can
minimize waste and expedite construction timelines.
5. Green Spaces and Biodiversity: Integrate parks, green roofs, and vertical
gardens to improve air quality, reduce heat islands, and support local
biodiversity.
6. Resilient Infrastructure: Ensure structures are designed to withstand
climate-related risks, such as rising sea levels or extreme weather events.
Adaptability for future environmental challenges is essential. (UN
Habitat, 2012)
2.7.5. Managing Gentrification and Ensuring Affordable
Housing
Gentrification is a process of urban redevelopment where low-income,
historically underprivileged neighborhoods undergo significant changes,
often due to an influx of higher-income residents. This transformation typically
leads to improvements in infrastructure, amenities, and property values.

Complexities of Gentrification
1. Economic Displacement: Gentrification often results in the
displacement of low-income residents due to rising rents and property
values, challenging social equity.
2. Cultural Erosion: The influx of wealthier residents can dilute the cultural
identity and heritage of neighborhoods.
3. Policy and Market Interplay: The process is influenced by a mix of private
market dynamics and state policies, complicating accountability and
intervention efforts.
4. Global and Local Dynamics: Gentrification is not uniform; it varies by
geographic, cultural, and economic contexts, making one-size-fits-all
solutions ineffective.

Strategies for Managing Gentrification

1. Inclusive Policy Making: Encourage mixed-income housing
developments and enforce regulations to protect vulnerable
communities.
2. Rent Controls and Subsidies: Introduce rent stabilization measures and
provide housing subsidies for low-income residents.
3. Community Engagement: Empower local communities to participate in
decision-making processes, ensuring that redevelopment aligns with
their needs.
4. Cultural Preservation: Implement policies to preserve historical
landmarks and promote local businesses.
5. Equity-focused Development: Align urban redevelopment projects with
frameworks that prioritize social and economic inclusion. (Lees et al.,
2013).
2.8.1. Role of Technology and Smart Cities in Neighborhood
Design
Smart city technologies encompass a range of digital innovations and data-
driven solutions that
contribute to more efficient, sustainable, and livable urban environments. This
section explores
the diverse benefits that smart city technologies offer to municipalities,
residents, and
businesses alike.
1. Enhanced Resource Efficiency: Smart city technologies optimize
resource use through
advanced sensors and IoT devices. This includes smart meters for water and
energy
management, predictive analytics for waste reduction, and real-time
monitoring of
environmental parameters. By efficiently managing resources, cities can
reduce costs and
minimize environmental impact.
2. Improved Infrastructure Management: Digital infrastructure and IoT
enable proactive
maintenance of urban infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and utilities. Smart
sensors
detect potential issues in real-time, allowing for timely repairs and optimized
service
delivery. This enhances infrastructure resilience and extends asset lifespan.
3. Sustainable Mobility and Transportation: Smart transportation systems
leverage data
analytics and connected technologies to improve traffic flow, reduce
congestion, and
enhance public transportation efficiency. This includes real-time traffic
monitoring,
smart parking solutions, and integration of autonomous vehicles for safer and
more
sustainable mobility options.
4. Quality of Life and Urban Well-being: Smart city initiatives prioritize
residents' well-
being by enhancing public safety, healthcare delivery, and access to education
and
cultural amenities. Technologies such as smart surveillance, telemedicine, and
digital
Education platforms contribute to safer, healthier, and more inclusive urban
communities.
5. Economic Growth and Innovation: Smart city ecosystems stimulate
economic growth
by attracting investment in technology infrastructure, fostering
entrepreneurship, and
supporting digital industries. Enhanced connectivity and data accessibility
enable
businesses to innovate and adapt to market demands more effectively.
6. Environmental Sustainability: By promoting energy efficiency, reducing
carbon
emissions, and conserving natural resources, smart city technologies
contribute to
environmental sustainability. This includes initiatives such as smart grids,
renewable
energy integration, and green building standards that minimize ecological
footprint and
enhance urban resilience to climate change.
7. Community Engagement and Governance: Digital platforms and IoT
enable
transparent and participatory governance, empowering residents to engage
in decision-
making processes and contributing to local initiatives. This fosters a sense of
community
ownership and accountability, strengthening social cohesion and civic
participation.
8. Resilience to Disasters and Emergencies: Smart city technologies
enhance
preparedness and response to natural disasters, public health crises, and other
emergencies. (Narain, 2024, 13-16)
2.8.2. Innovations in Urban Sustainability and Eco-Friendly
Design
Innovative urban development integrates green infrastructure to enhance
ecological health and urban livability. Elements such as green roofs, urban
forests, and eco-corridors improve biodiversity, reduce the effects of urban
heat islands, and create inviting, walkable spaces. These features address
environmental challenges while fostering healthier, more enjoyable urban
environments for residents.
Equally important are advancements in renewable energy systems and
energy-efficient buildings. Solutions like district heating, passive solar design,
and zero-energy structures significantly reduce urban carbon footprints.
Coupled with sustainable mobility initiatives—such as public transit networks,
bike-sharing programs, and pedestrian-friendly city designs—these strategies
collectively reduce automobile dependence, promote healthier lifestyles, and
strengthen urban resilience against climate challenges. (Beatley, 2000, 45-70,
95-130, 170-200)
2.8.3. Future Housing Trends: Adaptable and Flexible Spaces
The key trends in adaptable and flexible housing, along with citations from
relevant books that delve into these concepts are:
1. Modular and Prefabricated Housing: Modular homes are designed using
pre-constructed units that can be easily assembled or reconfigured,
offering a flexible solution for diverse living needs. This allows
homeowners to customize their spaces based on changing lifestyles,
such as accommodating growing families or adapting to new work-
from-home arrangements. Modular housing is efficient, cost-effective,
and rapidly deployable, making it a prominent trend in future housing
design. (Cohen, 2009, 45-60)
2. Multifunctional and Adaptable Spaces: The design of multifunctional
spaces is becoming increasingly popular in response to the demand for
flexibility in urban living. Rooms that can serve multiple purposes—such
as transforming from a home office to a guest bedroom or a dining room
to a recreational space—are central to modern housing. This adaptable
approach allows residents to maximize limited space while meeting
various personal and family needs. (Gibberd and Hill, 2017, 13-34)
3. Sustainability and Eco-friendly Design: Sustainable design principles are
closely intertwined with flexible housing, emphasizing eco-friendly
materials, energy-efficient systems, and green infrastructure. Features
like solar panels, green roofs, and rainwater harvesting systems not only
contribute to reducing a home's environmental impact but also enhance
its adaptability by making it more self-sufficient and resilient to climate
challenges (Beatley, 2000, 58-77)
4. Smart Home Integration: Smart technologies are increasingly integrated
into residential spaces to enhance adaptability and energy efficiency.
Automated systems that control lighting, heating, and security adjust
based on residents' needs, improving comfort while minimizing energy
consumption. This technological integration is key to creating homes
that are both flexible and sustainable. (Cohen, 2009, 77-93)
2.8.4 Evolving Social Dynamics and Their Impact on
Neighborhood Design
Social dynamics are changing rapidly, and these shifts are influencing the
design of neighborhoods. These shifts in social dynamics are reshaping how
urban planners and architects approach neighborhood design. They are
moving towards more adaptable, inclusive, sustainable, and health-conscious
environments that meet the evolving needs of diverse communities. Some of
the impacts of social dynamics on neighborhood design can be described as:

1. Changing Family Structures and Housing Needs: Family dynamics are

diversifying, with more single-person households, multi-generational
families, and communal living arrangements. This has led to an increase
in co-living and modular housing designs, where flexibility and shared
spaces cater to a variety of family structures. These designs prioritize
affordability and community integration. (Gaffin & Van Der Ryn, 115-120)
2. Increased Focus on Sustainability: With growing concerns about climate
change, neighborhoods are being designed with a focus on
sustainability. Green spaces, renewable energy, and sustainable
materials are central to modern design. Urban areas are prioritizing eco-
friendly infrastructure to support a healthier lifestyle and reduce
environmental impact. (Beatley, 2016, 67-80)
3. Technological Advances and Smart Neighborhoods: The integration of
smart technologies in neighborhoods allows real-time adjustments to
public infrastructure, such as traffic management and energy
consumption. These technologies promote better efficiency, security,
and connectivity, influencing how residents interact with their
environment. (Hall, 2012, 78-92)
4. Urbanization and Cultural Diversity: As cities become more culturally
diverse, the design of neighborhoods reflects this change through
inclusive spaces that promote social integration. Public spaces, such as
parks and community centers, cater to different cultural needs and
encourage interaction among diverse groups. (Mumford, 1961, 221-235)
5. Health and Well-being Focus: There is an increasing emphasis on
designing neighborhoods that promote health and well-being. Features
like pedestrian paths, green areas, and recreational facilities are
integrated into neighborhoods to encourage physical activity and
improve mental health. The design also aims to reduce stress and
 enhance quality of life by incorporating natural elements and accessible
spaces. (Gehl, 2010, 45-60)

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