History of Spices
"Herbs are the friends of physicians and the praise of cooks"
- Emperor Charlemagne (AD 742-814)
EARLY HUMANS
Abundant anecdotal information documents the historical use of
herbs and spices for their health benefits. Beginning 6 million
years ago, early man co-evolved with the flowering plants in the
world around him. Early documentation suggests that hunters
and gatherers wrapped meat in the leaves of bushes, accidentally
discovering that this process enhanced the taste of the meat, as
did certain nuts, seeds, berries, and bark. Over the years, spices
and herbs were used for medicinal purposes. They were also used
as a way to mask unpleasant tastes and odors of food, and later,
to keep food fresh. Ancient civilizations did not distinguish
between those spices and herbs used for flavoring from those
used for medicinal purposes. When leaves, seeds, roots, or gums
had a pleasant taste or agreeable odor, they became in demand
and gradually became a norm for that culture as a flavor
enhancer.
Archaeologists estimate that from as far back as 50,000 B.C.
humans had used the special qualities of aromatic plants to help
flavor their food. The primitive man would have utilized the
sweet-smelling spices in order to make their food taste better. He
would have offered all sorts of aromatic herbs to his primitive
gods. He would have used the spices to heal himself while he was
ill. From that moment on, spices played an important role in
human existence.
BIBLICAL TIMES
From the dawn of biblical times (17th century BC), spices were
prized for a wide variety of uses including religious offerings,
burial rituals, medicines, trade, and seasoning. Spices are
mentioned numerous times throughout the Bible. In the Song of
Solomon, several culinary spices are mentioned including
cinnamon and saffron. In 1000 BC, Queen Sheba visited King
Solomon in Jerusalem and offered him "120 measures of gold,
many spices, and precious stones" (2 Chronicles 9:9). The people
of Israel described manna bread as being “white like coriander
seeds” (Exodus 16:31). The New Testament refers to a religious
tithing of “a tenth of your spices - mint, dill, and cumin” (Matthew
23:23) and spices were described as anointing the body of Jesus
(Mark 16:1).
ANCIENT EGYPT
A summary of ancient Egyptian medical practices, the Ebers
Papryus (1500 BC), cited medical treatments consisting of
caraway, coriander, fennel, garlic, mint, onion, peppermint,
poppy, and onion. Onion and garlic were of particular
importance. Laborers who constructed the Great Pyramid of
Cheops consumed onion and garlic to promote health as well as
stamina and garlic cloves were found in the tomb of King
Tutankhamen. Some ancient Egyptians even placed wooden
figures of garlic cloves in their tombs to ensure a tasty and
wholesome afterlife. The Egyptians also enjoyed flavoring their
food with cardamom and cinnamon which they sourced from
Ethiopia.
EARLY CHINESE INFLUENCE
According to ancient myths, Shen Nung likely wrote Pen Ts’ao
Ching (The Classic Herbal) around 2700 BC. The early publication
mentioned more than a hundred medicinal plants including the
spice cassia, which is similar to cinnamon (called “kwei”). A later,
more comprehensive Chinese herbal, Pen Ts’ao Kang Mu was
published in 1596 BC by Li Shih Chen. Other historical evidence
suggested that cassia was an important spice in South China
when the province Kweilin, meaning "Cassia Forest", was founded
around 216 BC.
Early on, nutmeg and cloves from Moluccas were brought to
China. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Chinese courtiers in the
3rd century BC carried cloves in their mouths so their breath was
sweet when addressing the emperor. During the 5th century AD,
ginger plants were grown in pots and carried on long sea voyages
between China and Southeast Asia to provide fresh food and to
prevent scurvy.
ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
Ancient cuneiform records noted spice and herb use in
Mesopotamia in the fertile Tigris and Euphrates valleys, where
many aromatic plants were known. Sumerian clay tablets of
medical literature dating from the 3rd millennium BC mention
various odoriferous plants, including thyme. A scroll of cuneiform
writing, established by King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (668-633 BC),
records a long list of aromatic plants, such as thyme, sesame,
cardamom, turmeric, saffron, poppy, garlic, cumin, anise,
coriander, silphium, dill, and myrrh. The ancient Assyrians also
used sesame as a vegetable oil.
King Merodach-Baladan II (721-710 BC) of Babylonia grew 64
different species of plants in his royal garden. He kept records on
how to cultivate many spices and herbs such as cardamom,
coriander, garlic, thyme, saffron, and turmeric. The religion of
Babylonia involved an ancient medical god of the moon, who
controlled medicinal plants. Potent parts of herbs were not
allowed sun exposure and were harvested by moonlight.
Onions, garlic, and shallots became popular condiments in Persia
by the 6th century BC. Records from King Cyrus (559-529 BC)
noted a wholesale purchase of 395,000 bunches of garlic.
Persians also produced essential oils from roses, lilies, coriander,
and saffron.
ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME
Ancient Greeks imported Eastern spices (such as pepper, cassia,
cinnamon, and ginger) to the Mediterranean area. They also
consumed many spices produced in neighboring countries.
Examples include caraway and poppy seeds for bread, fennel for
vinegar sauces, coriander as a condiment in food and wine, and
mint as a flavoring in meat sauces. Garlic was widely used by the
country people in much of their cooking. Ancient Greeks wore
parsley and marjoram as a crown at their feasts in an attempt to
prevent drunkenness.
Spices and herbs played an important role in ancient Greek
medical science. Hippocrates (460-377 BC), wrote about spices
and herbs, including saffron, cinnamon, thyme, coriander, mint,
and marjoram. He noted that great care should be given to the
preparation of herbs for medical use. Of the 400 herbal remedies
utilized by Hippocrates, at least half are in use today. Roughly
500 years later, Theophrastus (372-287 BC), sometimes called
the "Father of Botany," wrote 2 books that summarized the
knowledge of over 600 spices and herbs.
The Greek Physician Dioscorides (AD 40–90), wrote De Materia
Medica, which was used for botany and medicinal knowledge in
both the East and the West for over 1500 years. The remedies
were based on an extensive catalogue of spices and herbs and
were more systematic than his predecessors who based their
remedies on magic and superstition.
The Romans were extravagant users of spices and herbs. Spice-
flavored wines were used in ancient Rome and spice-scented
balms and oils were popular for use after the bath. Since spices
were considered to have health properties, they were also used in
poultices and healing plasters.
When the Roman Empire extended to the northern side of the
Alps, the Goths, Vandals, and Huns of those regions were
introduced to pepper and other spices from the East. These
cultures were familiar with caraway, onions, rosemary, and thyme
and gradually became attracted to the Eastern spices.
ARAB AND MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Early on, spices were used as a source of trading. During the
ancient Roman Empire, trade routes were established with Arabia.
Traders supplied cassia, cinnamon, and other spices and
deliberately kept the source of their products secret. The intent
was to have a monopoly on the spice trade and the Arabians spun
great tales about how they obtained the spices in order to keep
their resource value high. They continued to keep the origins
secret for several centuries from both ancient Greek and ancient
Roman civilizations until about the 1st century AD, when the
Roman scholar Pliny made the connection between the Arabian
stories and price inflation.
Mohammed (AD 570-632), who established the principles of Islam
in the Koran, also co-owned a shop that stocked myrrh,
frankincense, and Asian spices. For 4 centuries following the
death of Mohammed, his followers (Mohammedans) created a
flourishing civilization. The Mohammedans were outstanding
scientists for their time. They advanced the process of extracting
flower scents from blossoms and herbs and created techniques to
distill essential oils from aromatic plants. Later (around the 9th
century AD), Arab physicians used spices and herbs to formulate
syrups and flavoring extracts.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
In the early part of the middle ages (before the Crusades), Asian
spices in Europe were costly and mainly used by the wealthy. A
pound of saffron cost the same as a horse; a pound of ginger, as
much as a sheep; 2 pounds of mace as much as a cow. A
Germanic price table of AD 1393 lists a pound of nutmeg as worth
7 fat oxen.
Black pepper, as well as other spices and herbs, was commonly
used as a monetary source. Eastern Europeans paid 10 pounds of
pepper in order to gain access to trading with London merchants.
Throughout Europe, individual peppercorns were accepted as
currency to pay taxes, tolls and rents (partly because of a coin
shortage). Many European towns kept their accounts in pepper.
Wealthy brides received pepper as a dowry and some landlords
would get paid in “peppercorn rent” (2).
With the coming of the Crusades (AD 1095-1492), international
exchange of goods became common. Gradually, Asian spices such
as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and cardamom became less
expensive and more widely available. Spices were used to
camouflage bad flavors and odors, and for their health benefits.
Spiced wines were also popular.
European apothecaries used Asian spices (such as ginger, pepper,
nutmeg, cinnamon, saffron, and cardamom) as well as garden
herbs in their remedies and elixirs. The remedies were largely
based on Arabian medical teaching.
An important person in developing and growing local herbs was
the King of France and Emperor of the West, Charlemagne (AD
742-814). He was the first leader to have farmers plant an
abundance of culinary herbs such as anise, fennel, fenugreek, and
sage, thyme, parsley, and coriander.
European cultivation of spices and herbs was largely controlled by
the church during this period. Religious spice and herb feasts
were common. Some ancient customs and superstitions (such as
tying bundles of herbs to stable doors to keep the witches out)
were also continued.
In AD 1180, King Henry II founded a "pepperer’s guild" of
wholesale merchants, which was a predecessor to the modern
day grocery store. The guild included spice trade management,
which included cleaning and preparing the spices for sale. The
original spicers and pepperers helped launch the apothecaries
and later became medical practitioners. Some common medical
practices included placing sponges soaked with cinnamon and
clove extracts under patients noses, sterilizing rooms with sage
smoke, and prescribing saffron, garlic soup, and juniper wine for
health benefits.
AGE OF EXPLORATION
Marco Polo mentioned spices frequently in his travel memoirs
(around AD 1298). He described the flavor of the sesame oil of
Afghanistan and the plants of ginger and cassia of Kain-du (the
city of Peking), where people drank a flavorful wine of rice and
spices. He reported that the wealthy in Karazan ate meat pickled
in salt and flavored with spices, while the poor had to be content
with hash steeped in garlic. He mentioned that in Hangchow,
10,000 pounds of pepper were brought into that heavily
populated city every day. Polo also described vast plantings of
pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and other valuable spices he had seen
growing in Java and in the islands of the China Sea, and the
abundance of cinnamon, pepper, and ginger on the Malabar Coast
of India. Some anecdotal evidence suggests that Polo’s accounts
led to an increased international spice trade during the 13th and
early 14th centuries.
The ancient Mesoamerican civilizations enjoyed a rich heritage of
spice and herb usage and many spices popular today were only
introduced to the outside world after the European discovery of
America. When Christopher Columbus set out on his second
voyage (AD 1493), he brought along Spanish physician Diego
Chanca, who introduced capsaicin (red pepper) and allspice to
Spanish cuisine. Vanilla is another spice that is native to Mexico.
It was an Aztec tradition to drink chocolate beverages with a dash
of vanilla. To this day, vanilla is a common ingredient in many
chocolate beverages and candies. The Badianus Manuscript (AD
1552) is the oldest herbal text from the Americas and it includes
ancient Mesoamerican prescriptions for a variety of afflictions (5).
King Manual I of Portugal had a large influence on bringing spices
to his country. Several sea voyages helped establish a trade route
to India. By AD 1501, via the port of Lisbon, Portugal had large
quantities of Indian spices such as cinnamon, cassia, ginger,
pepper, nutmeg, mace, and cloves. The King sent trade missions
to develop new markets for his spices throughout Europe,
especially in Germany. As the spice wealth poured into Lisbon,
the Portuguese crown monopolized the lucrative but risky pepper
trade. Cargoes of East Indian vessels were sold at high prices by
the King of Portugal to large European syndicates. As in medieval
times, the price of pepper served as a barometer for European
business in general.
AMERICAN HISTORY
European spices were part of the food staples brought to the
American colonies by early settlers. Colonists soon began
incorporating indigenous spices and herbs as well. Jamestown,
Virginia founder Captain John Smith (AD 1580-1631) wrote about
spices, such as sassafras and onions, employed for medicinal
purposes by the Native Americans (6). American colonists
incorporated Sassafras as a main flavor component for root beer
and it is also used in Creole cuisine (7).
After the Boston Tea Party (AD 1773), tea drinking became
unpatriotic in Colonial America and spices and herbs were used to
replace traditional tea. Sassafras bark, chamomile flowers,
spearmint leaves, lemon balm leaves, raspberry leaves,
loosestrife, goldenrod, dittany, blackberry leaves sage, and many
others were often used as a beverage (8).
Toward the end of the 18th century, the United States entered the
world spice trade. The British taxes and trade restrictions of
colonial days no longer obstructed American commerce. They
traded American salmon, codfish, tobacco, snuff, flour, soap,
candles, butter, cheese, and beef, for spices such as pepper,
cassia, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger.
Salem, Massachusetts enjoyed a flourishing Sumatra pepper trade
and profited immensely from taxation and sales (AD 1797-1846).
Most of the enormous quantities of pepper were re-exported to
European ports (Stockholm, Gothenburg, Hamburg, Copenhagen,
and Antwerp) or were transferred to Philadelphia, Boston, and
Baltimore for processing and distribution by other American
merchants and exporters. The largest single cargo on record for
one of the Salem pepper fleet was of just over 1 million pounds
(500 tons) of pepper, brought from Sumatra to Salem in 1806 by
the Eliza, a sailing ship of 512 tons. After 1846, an overproduction
of spices brought a gradual decline in its economic importance
until the final demise of the Salem pepper trade following the
outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 (AD 1861-1865).
War rations for American Civil War Union soldiers included
cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and pepper. One of the most unusual
uses for spices was conceived during the war. A letter found in
the United States Library of Congress indicates that ground red
and black peppers could be tied to a kite in a releasable bag to
find its way into the eyes and noses of the Confederate Army. It
should be noted that no one knows if this experiment was actually
tried (8).
MODERN SPICE USAGE
Unlike earlier times when monopolies dominated the spice trade,
commerce in spices is now relatively decentralized. Throughout
the world, spices and herbs are frequently used in cuisine, to
improve flavor, and to provide new tastes. Spices can be found
everywhere, including outer space: in 1982, spices were
incorporated into astronaut food for the United States space
shuttle program (9).
The information age (mid-20th century) has ushered in a new age
of global cuisine sharing. Curious home cooks increasingly
prepare meals from a wide range of ethnic heritages using an
increasing array of spices. The United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) reports that the consumption of spices in the
US has climbed exponentially over the course of the last half-
century, and spices such as ginger and chili pepper are being
used more frequently than ever before (10).
There is also a renewed interest in the health benefits of spices
and herbs. Data from 2015 indicates that 5-10% of adults in the
United States use botanical supplements such as spices, for
health benefits (11). The 2020-2025 US Dietary Guidelines for
Americans states that “Spices and herbs can help flavor foods
when reducing added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium, and they
also can add to the enjoyment of nutrient-dense foods, dishes,
and meals that reflect specific cultures” (12).
One of the most promising developments for spices in modern
times is that scientific evidence is accumulating that supports the
anecdotal health benefits touted by our ancestors. Research
shows that culinary spices and herbs may have beneficial effects
in areas such as heart health, cognition, and weight management
as well as improving diet quality by making healthier foods more
acceptable to consumers. The body of scientific evidence is ever
expanding to support the wisdom of our ancestors throughout the
ages.
INDIAN ORIGINS
Spices and herbs such as black pepper, cinnamon, turmeric, and
cardamom have been used by Indians for thousands of years for
both culinary and health purposes. Spices indigenous to India
(such as cardamom and turmeric) were cultivated as early as the
8th century BC in the gardens of Babylon (2).
Sushruta, an ancient surgeon (around 4th century BC), used white
mustard and other aromatic plants in bed sheets to ward off
malignant spirits. He also applied a poultice from sesame to
postoperative wounds which may have acted as an antiseptic.
Medical writings of Charaka (1st century) and Sushruta II (2nd
century) referenced spices and herbs. Sushruta II also used spices
and herbs such as cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, and
pepper for healing purposes. Spices such as cardamom, ginger,
black pepper, cumin, and mustard seed were included in ancient
herbal medicines for different types of health benefits. In
Ayurvedic medicine, spices such as cloves and cardamom were
wrapped in betel-nut leaves and chewed after meals to increase
the flow of saliva and aid digestion.
Indian history and culture are deeply intertwined with
Indian Spices. From morning cups of spicy tea to vibrant
protection enchantments, from delicious curries to bitter herbal
medicine, spices can be found all around. India has always been
the “Spice Bowl of the World,” drawing traders from
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Arabia, and Greece as well as invaders from
the Assyrians and Babylonians, as well as traders from the
Romans, Chinese, British, and Portuguese.
Naturally, with the significance of spices to Indian culture,
numerous historical and epic books, from the Vedas to the
Mahabharata, have referred to them. The earliest written record
in India on Spices is found in the Vedas – the Rig Veda, Yajurveda,
Samaveda and the Atharveda. Chilies are said to be the child of
the Fire God, Turmeric is said to have emerged from the sea when
the Asuras and Devas churned it for Ambrosia, and Shabari, a
Rama devotee, sowed Fenugreek.
The Garuda Purana mentions that sesame comes from the
pores of Vishnu and was one of the first plants to be
cultivated. According to Brahma Purana, sesame is blessed
by Lord Yama or the God of Death, which is why they are
known as the ‘seeds of immortality’. Sesame is associated
with creation and protection, a role given to Tilo / Tilothama
in the book ‘The Mistress of Spices’ by The Indo-American
Writer Chitra Divakaruni who wrote the book with the
inspiration and old stories and epics narrated to her by her
Bengali grandmother.
Turmeric
turmeric provides with the power of bravery and fortitude she
desperately needs as she contemplates taking her own life.
Turmeric is gendered in Sanskrit; it is feminized as Gauri (to
make fair), Jayanti (victory over sickness), and Lakshmi
(prosperity). Turmeric is also linked to the fertility goddess
Uma. It symbolizes female power and is thought to cleanse
sin and negativity.
Fennel
fennel or saunf is an equalizer. In mythology, the sage
Vashista eats fennel after swallowing the demon Illwal to
ensure that he won’t reappear.
Manjistha
manjistha, to soothe his thoughts. It is described by the
Indian sage and physician Charaka as a “rejuvenating herb”
with strong detoxifying properties. The Aitareya Aranyaka,
written during the Vedic era, contains the herb’s oldest
allusions. It played a significant role in ancient Indian
traditional religious ceremonies, particularly the sacred
thread ceremony known as “Upanayana Samskara.”
Kalojire (Black Cumin)
Kalojire, she tries to shield a gory bloody mess. Kalojire can
ward off the evil eye because it associates with the dark
planet Ketu. Ketu is thought to heal the effects of snakebites
and illnesses brought on by poisons, offer prosperity to the
devotee’s family, and protect against both. He grants good
health, fortune and cattle to his devotees.
