Moral Dilemma and
Moral Reasoning
Moral Dilemma
• A situation in which an agent perceives themselves as
having moral reasons to perform two (or more) different
actions, but due to conflicting circumstances, it is not
possible to carry out both (or all) actions simultaneously.
Moral Reasoning
• The active or explicit thinking guided by assessments of
reasons and rationality requirements, aiming to reach a
well-supported answer to a well-defined moral question
• Process by which people make judgments about what is the
right or wrong action in various problems of a moral nature
Moral Agent
• A being who has the ability to discern right from wrong, make ethical decisions
based on it, and be held accountable for his or her own actions
Moral Dilemmas
1. The Trolley Problem 7. Medical Resource Allocation / The
2. The Lifeboat Dilemma Doctor’s Dilemma
3. Whistleblowing 8. Privacy vs. Safety
4. Euthanasia / End-of-life Decision 9. Animal Testing
5. Honesty vs. Loyalty 10. Cultural Relativism
6. Capital Punishment 11. Cultural Tradition vs. Human Rights
12. Personal Gain vs. Altruism
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
In what stage of Moral Development do you
see yourself? How do you say so?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
1. Identify the Ethical Issues
2. Gather Relevant Information
3. Consider Stakeholder Perspectives
4. Explore Alternative Actions
5. Consult Ethical Guidelines and Principles
6. Make a Decision
7. Reflect on Decision
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Identify the Ethical Issues
• Recognize the moral dilemma or conflict at hand. Clarify what is at
stake and what makes the situation ethically challenging.
• Guide questions:
• What is the core ethical dilemma in this situation?
• Are there any conflicting values or principles at play?
• What makes this issue morally significant?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Gather Relevant Information
• Collect all necessary facts and data about the situation. This includes
understanding the context, the parties involved, and any laws or
policies that apply.
• Guide questions:
• What are the key facts of the situation?
• Who is involved and what are their roles and responsibilities?
• Are there any relevant laws, policies, or rules that apply to the
situation?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Consider Stakeholder Perspectives
• Think about the views, needs, and interests of all those who are
affected by the decision. This includes both direct and indirect
stakeholders
• Guide Questions:
• Who are the stakeholders, and how might they be affected by the
decision?
• What are the interests, concerns, or values of each stakeholder?
• How might different perspectives influence the ethical decision?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Explore Alternative Actions
• Identify possible courses of action. Consider the potential
consequences, risks, and benefits of each option.
• Guide Questions:
• What are the possible actions I can take?
• What are the potential outcomes, both positive and negative, of
each option?
• Are there any creative or less obvious solutions that could address
the ethical issue?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Consult Ethical Guidelines and Principles
• Refer to ethical codes, principles, or moral theories that can guide the
decision-making process. This can include professional standards,
religious beliefs, or philosophical frameworks.
• Guide Questions:
• What ethical principles or guidelines apply to this situation?
• How do these principles support or challenge the potential
actions?
• Are there any professional codes or societal norms that should
guide the decision?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Make a Decision
• Based on the information and analysis, choose the most ethical
option. Ensure the decision aligns with both the ethical principles and
the practical realities of the situation.
• Guide Questions:
• Which option best aligns with ethical principles and stakeholder
needs?
• What decision do I believe is the most ethically justifiable?
• How confident am I in the moral integrity of this decision?
Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
• Reflect on Decision
• After the decision is made, reflect on the outcome and the process.
Consider whether the decision was effective, ethical, and what could
be learned for future situations.
• Guide Questions:
• Was the outcome what I expected? Why or why not?
• How do I feel about the decision after it has been implemented?
• What lessons can I learn from this experience for future ethical
decisions?
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
1. Appeal to Tradition 7. Moral Equivalence
2. Appeal to Authority 8. Tu Quoque (You Too)
3. Ad Hominem 9. Appeal to Emotion
4. Hasty Generalization 10. Naturalistic Fallacy
5. False Dichotomy (False 11. Appeal to Majority
Choice) (Bandwagon Fallacy)
6. Circular Reasoning
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
Appeal to Tradition:
• This fallacy argues that something is morally right because it has always
been done that way.
•Example: "We've always celebrated this holiday, so it must be morally
correct to do so.“
Appeal to Authority:
• This fallacy occurs when someone argues that a belief or action is morally
right because an authority figure supports it.
•Example: "It must be right because a famous philosopher said so."
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
Ad Hominem:
• This fallacy attacks the person making the argument rather than addressing
the argument itself.
•Example: "You can't trust her opinion on morality; she's a hypocrite."
Hasty Generalization:
• This fallacy involves making a broad moral judgment based on limited or
insufficient evidence.
•Example: "One politician lied, so all politicians are corrupt."
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
False Dichotomy (False Choice):
• This fallacy presents a situation as having only two options when more
options are available.
•Example: "You’re either with us or against us."
Circular Reasoning:
• This fallacy occurs when the conclusion is used as a premise to support
itself.
•Example: "Stealing is wrong because it’s illegal, and it’s illegal because it’s
wrong."
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
Moral Equivalence:
• This fallacy compares two morally unequal actions as if they are the same.
•Example: "Littering is just as bad as stealing."
Tu Quoque (You Too):
• This fallacy deflects criticism by accusing the critic of similar faults.
•Example: "You can't tell me not to lie—you lied yesterday!"
Appeal to Emotion:
• This fallacy manipulates emotions instead of using logical reasoning.
•Example: "Think of how sad everyone would be if you didn’t help!"
Common Fallacies in Moral Reasoning
Naturalistic Fallacy:
• This fallacy argues that what is natural is morally right.
•Example: "It's natural for animals to fight, so violence must be acceptable."
Appeal to Majority (Bandwagon Fallacy):
• This fallacy argues that something is right because many people believe it.
•Example: "Everyone else cheats on their taxes, so it must be okay."
References:
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reasoning-moral/
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-dilemmas/
• https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/a-framework-
for-ethical-decision-making/
• https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/moral-agent
• Haksar, Vinit. Moral agents, 1998,
doi:10.4324/9780415249126-L049-1. Routledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis,
https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/moral-
agents/v-1
• https://www.physio-pedia.com/Moral_Agency
Summary
1. What are MORAL DILEMMAS and how do we resolve them?
2. When can one be considered a MORAL AGENT?
