Meissen porcelain

Meissen porcelain or Meissen china was the first European hard-

paste porcelain. Early experiments were done in 1708 by
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. After his death that October,
Johann Friedrich Böttger continued von Tschirnhaus's work and
brought this type of porcelain to the market, financed by Augustus
the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony. The production
of porcelain in the royal factory at Meissen, near Dresden, started
in 1710 and attracted artists and artisans to establish, arguably, the
most famous porcelain manufacturer known throughout the world. Commedia dell'arte figures, c. 1740,
Its signature logo, the crossed swords, was introduced in 1720 to 1744, 1735, modelled by Johann
protect its production; the mark of the swords is reportedly one of Joachim Kändler
the oldest trademarks in existence.

Dresden porcelain (or "china") was once the usual term for these wares, until in 1975 the
Oberlandesgericht (Higher Munich State Court) decided in favour of the Saxon Porcelain Manufactory
Dresden, which alone was then allowed to use the name Dresden Porcelain (it ceased producing in
2020).[1]

Meissen remained the dominant European porcelain factory, and

the leader of stylistic innovation, until somewhat overtaken by the
new styles introduced by the French Sèvres factory in the 1760s,
but has remained a leading factory to the present day. Among the
developments pioneered by Meissen are the porcelain figurines,
and the introduction of European decorative styles to replace the
imitation of Asian decoration of its earliest wares.

Since 1991, the manufactory has been operating as the Staatliche Part of a tea and chocolate service,
Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH,[2] whose owner is the Free c. 1725, given to Vittorio Amadeo II,
State of Saxony. The company is one of the world's leading King of Sardinia (1666–1732) by
porcelain manufacturers and one of the oldest and most Augustus the Strong, owner of the
internationally known German luxury brands.[3] Meissen factory

Beginnings
Chinese porcelain had gradually developed over centuries, and by the seventeenth century both Chinese
and Japanese export porcelain were imported to Europe on a large scale by the Dutch East India
Company and its equivalents in other countries. It was a very expensive product by the time it reached
European customers, and represented wealth, importance and refined taste in Europe. European attempts
to produce porcelain, such as the brief experiment that produced Medici porcelain in Florence, had met
with failure.[4]
At the beginning of the eighteenth century Johann Friedrich
Böttger pretended he had solved the dream of the alchemists, to
produce gold from worthless materials. When King Augustus II of
Poland heard of it, he kept him in protective custody and requested
him to produce gold. For years Johann Friedrich Böttger was
unsuccessful in this effort.

At the same time, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, a

mathematician and scientist, experimented with the manufacture Albrechtsburg castle in Meissen
of glass, trying to make porcelain as well. Crucially, his
ingredients included kaolin, the vital ingredient of true porcelain,
though he was unable to use it successfully.[5] Tschirnhaus supervised Böttger and by 1707 Böttger
reluctantly started to help in the experiments by Tschirnhaus.

When Tschirnhaus suddenly died, the recipe apparently was handed over to Böttger, who within one
week announced to the King that he could make porcelain. Böttger refined the formula and with some
Dutch co-workers, experienced in firing and painting tiles, the stage was set for the manufacturing of
porcelain. In 1709, the King established the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Manufactory
(Königlich-Polnische und Kurfürstlich-Sächsische Porzellan-Manufaktur),[6] placed Böttger's laboratory
at Albrechtsburg castle in Meissen and production started officially in 1710.

Early work
The first type of ware produced by Böttger was a refined and
extremely hard red stoneware known as "Böttger ware" in English
(in German: Böttgersteinzeug). This copied Chinese Yixing ware,
and like that was especially used for teapots, and now coffee pots.
Similar wares had been made by the Dutch and the Elers brothers
in England. Böttger's version was harder than any of these,[7] and
retained very crisp definition in its cast or applied ("sprigged") Böttger stoneware medal of 1935 for
details, on bodies that could be polished to a gloss before firing. the 225th anniversary of the factory
Models were derived from Baroque silver shapes and Chinese in Meissen; the obverse portrays the
inventor of the stoneware, Johann
ceramic examples. There was also a softer stoneware, which was
Friedrich Böttger
glazed and decorated.[8] Meissen's production of a hard paste
white porcelain that could be glazed and painted soon followed,
and wares were put on the market in 1713.

Böttger's experimental wares rapidly gained quality but never achieved successful painted and fired
decor. The first successful ornaments were gold decorations applied upon the fired body and finely
engraved before they received a second firing at a lower temperature. The lacy frameworks outside
painted scenes known in German as Laub- und bandelwerk in red, gold or puce, were often used.[9]
Augustus II charged first Johann Jakob Irminger with the design of new vessels. In 1720 Johann Gregor
Herold became the director and in 1723 introduced brilliant overglaze colours that made Meissen
porcelain famous, with an increasingly broad palette of colors that marked the beginning of the classic
phase of Meissen porcelain. His enamel paints are still the basis
for ceramic paints today. Initially painting mostly imitated the
oriental designs known from Chinese and Japanese export
porcelain, but some European landscape scenes were painted from
early on.[10]

The signature underglaze "Meissen Blue" was introduced by

Friedrich August Köttig. Soon minutely detailed landscapes and
port scenes, animals, flowers, galante courtly scenes and
Dish with Chinese scene and laub-
chinoiseries, fanciful Chinese-inspired decorations, were to be
und bandelwerk surrounds, 1720s
found on Meissen porcelain. The Kakiemon floral decoration of
vases and tea wares in Japanese export porcelain were combined
with Chinese famille verte to create a style known as Indianische Blume ("Indian Flowers"); Augustus
had large collections of both Chinese and Japanese porcelain. Coloured grounds with decoration painted
on white in panels appear in the 1730s.[11] Paintings by Watteau were copied. Wares were also sold with
plain glazed colors, usually white, to be enamelled in private workshops (Hausmalerei), many in
Augsburg and Bayreuth, and independently retailed.[12] The support of Augustus' patronage attracted to
Meissen some of the finest painters and modellers of Europe as staff artists.

Up to 1725
Böttger stoneware coffeepot, Böttger stoneware figure of
c. 1710–1713 Augustus the Strong, c. 1713

Oriental figure, c. 1715 Teapot, 1718–1720, with

"Oriental" flowers
 One of a pair of vases, 1720– Wine pot in the shape of a peach,
1725 c. 1725

Teapot, c. 1724–1725, Walters Art Sake bottle vase, painted by

Museum Johann Gregor Herold, 1725

Famous trademark

The Albrechtsburg was utilized to protect the secrets of the manufacture

of the white gold. As a further precaution, very few workers knew the
arcanum (hidden, secret knowledge) of how to make porcelain, and then
perhaps only part of the process. Thus, for a few years, Meissen retained
its monopoly on the production of hard-paste porcelain in Europe. By
1717, however, a competing production was set up at Vienna, as Samuel
Stöltzel, head of the craftsmen and arcanist at Meissen, sold the secret
recipe, which involved the use of kaolin, also known as china clay. By
1760 about thirty porcelain manufacturers were operating in Europe,
most of them, however, producing frit based soft-paste porcelain. Platter from Augustus III’s
dinner set with monogram AR
In order to identify the original Meissen products, Meissen developed (Augustus Rex). National
markings that initially were painted on, but were soon fired in Museum in Warsaw.
underglaze blue. Early markings such as AR (Augustus Rex, the
monogram of the King), K.P.M. (Königliche Porzellan-Manufaktur),
M.P.M. (Meissener Porzellan-Manufaktur), and K.P.F. (Königliche Porzellan-Fabrik)
were eventually replaced by the crossed swords logo, based on the arms of the Elector
of Saxony as Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire. Introduced in 1720, the logo
was used consistently after 1731 by official decree. Variations in the logo allow
approximate dating of the wares. However, in the 18th century, the mark was not
considered important, and it was commonly painted on in a crude manner. It wasn't
until the "dot period" when a gentleman asked that the mark be adjusted to look older
that the factory got serious about mark control.

Meissen
Artistic development trademarks

After Irminger, the next chief modeller, Johann Jakob Kirchner,

was the first to make large-scale statues and figurines, especially
of Baroque saints. His assistant was Johann Joachim Kaendler; in
1733 Kirchner resigned, and Kaendler took over as chief modeller,
remaining in place until his death in 1775, and becoming the most
famous of the Meissen modellers. Under his direction Meissen
produced the series of small figurines, which brought out the best
Bowl with European harbour scene,
of the new material (see below).[13] His menagerie of large-scale
c. 1735
animals, left in the white, are some of the high points of European
porcelain manufacture. His work resulted in the production of
exquisite figurines in the rococo style that influenced porcelain
making in all of Europe. He was supported by assistants like
Johann Friedrich Eberlein and Peter Reinecke.

In 1756, during the Seven Years' War, Prussian troops occupied

Meissen, giving Frederick II of Prussia the opportunity to relocate
some of the artisans to establish the Royal Porcelain Manufacture
Berlin (Königliche Porzellan Manufaktur Berlin; KPMB). With
the changing tastes of the neoclassical period and the rise of
Sèvres porcelain in the 1760s, Meissen had to readjust its
production, and in the reorganization from 1763, C.W.E. Dietrich
of the Dresden Academy became artistic director and Michel-
Victor Acier from France became the modelmaster. The practice of
impressing numerals that correspond to moulds in the inventory
Part of a table centrepiece, 1727–
books began in 1763. 1728

Marcolini period
Count Camillo Marcolini ran the factory from 1774 to 1813, when after the Battle of Leipzig he followed
Frederick Augustus I of Saxony into exile, dying in Prague the next year. This period's output was marked
by Sèvres styles and ventures into Neoclassicism, such as unglazed matte biscuit porcelain wares that had
the effect of white marble. Meissen wares were slightly reduced in quality, and considerably in quantity
during this period, as both Austria and Prussia banned imports, and Britain, France and Russia placed
high tariffs on imports - all now had their own industries to protect.[14]

19th-century
In the nineteenth century Ernst August Leuteritz modernized many
of the rococo figurines, and reissued them, creating a "Second
Rococo" characterized by lacework details (made from actual lace
dipped in slip and fired) and applied flowers. One of the flower
painters was Georg Friedrich Kersting. After about 1830 the
fortunes of the factory revived, although with wares that appeal
less to modern taste than the 18th-century ones. The factory had
great commercial success with the lithophane technique,
introduced in 1829, which produced a picture when held up to the
light.[15]

20th-century
Under Erich Hösel, who became head of the modelling department
Detail of Meissen Porcelain Urn in 1903, old styles were revived and reinterpreted. Hösel also
restored eighteenth century models. Some appealing work in the
Art Nouveau style was produced, but Meissen's mainstay
continued to be the constant production of revived eighteenth-century models.

After 1933, the artistic freedom of the artists became restricted by the State of Saxony in accordance with
the contemporary indoctrination process in Germany. Some artists (i.e. Ernst Barlach) who had
contributed to progressive Meissen during the Weimar period were banned.

After World War II and under Communist rule, the manufactory that had always catered to the rich and
wealthy had some difficulty to find its way. The danger was that Meissen would become a factory merely
producing for the masses. It was not until 1969, when Karl Petermann became the director, that Meissen
went back to focus on its old traditions and was also allowed a freer artistic expression.

Figures
Figurines had been produced under Böttger, when a small white figure of Augustus II the Strong was
produced. Johann Joachim Kändler modelled many of the most famous figures, which were initially made
for decorating the tables at grand meals, usually in white, replacing sugar sculptures. However, they soon
became very popular as ornaments for living rooms and were cheaper than an entire table service, so
available to a rather wider market, both in terms of geography and social class. Kändler soon had them
brightly painted, increasing their attraction.
Human figures were mostly courtiers, shepherds and
shepherdesses (Dresden shepherdess is a proverbial term),
commedia dell'arte characters, animals, personifications or
"allegorical figures" (such the seasons, virtues, or continents) and
figures in Chinese and Turkish costumes. As well as the pastoral
fantasy shepherdesses there were also some more realistic figures
of urban workers, based on print series of the street cries of Paris,
London and other cities. In the 1750s a large series of miners was
produced. The Meissen repertoire had a huge influence on other
European porcelain factories, and the porcelain figure is a defining
object for the Rococo.[16] Kändler "crinoline group", c. 1745

Kändler also produced a modello of Augustus III of Poland on a

horse which was intended to be a life size statue for the city. There is an all white figure of the Triumph of
Amphitrite in Berlin that is the only known figure signed by Kändler.[17]

A famous large group, or menagerie, of animal figures were ordered by Augustus for the Japanese Palace
he was building in the 1720s. Kändler took the series over in 1733, and modelled most of the figures.
These were often many times the size of most figures, and making them posed great technical problems.
Nonetheless, when seen as a group they were a sight that astonished and impressed visitors.[18] Smaller
figures of animals, especially birds, were also very popular.

The "Monkey Band" (German: Affenkapelle, lit. '"ape orchestra"'), are a comic group of figures of monkey
musicians, and a larger excited conductor, all in fancy contemporary costumes. They were first modelled
by Kändler and Reinicke in 1753–1754, with a later set in the 1760s. They were copied by Chelsea
porcelain and others.[19] Such singerie were popular in various media.
Large goat for the menagerie of The conductor from the "Monkey
the Japanese Palace, 1732 Band", 1760s version.

Pantalone with an actress, Pair of golden orioles, 1740–1741

Johann Joachim Kaendler, c.
1741

Le Marquis, from the Cris de Dancing Harlequine, from the

Paris series, c. 1757, Private Duke of Weissenfels series,
Collection. c. 1747, Private Collection.
 Apollo and the Muses, Asia from a set of the Four
centrepiece, c. 1750 Continents, modelled by
Kaendler, c. 1760

Candelabrum, one of a pair, Figurines by Jacob Ungerer:

1760s Gardener Girl with Dog, Goose
Girl, Lady with Cat, 1902.

Tableware patterns
Böttger early foresaw the production of tableware, and the first
services were made in the 1720s. Initial services were plain, but
Kaendler soon introduced matching decorations. Kaendler also
produced the 1745 "New Cutout" pattern, characterized by a wavy
edge cut, and is presumed to have designed the much-copied osier
pattern of a relief border imitating a woven wicker or osier fence.

Initially relatively small tea and coffee services were the most
produced, but from the 1730s large armorial porcelain dinner
services began to be made, initially for Augustus, but then other
buyers in Germany and abroad.[20] They also became used for
diplomatic gifts. Maria Amalia of Saxony, granddaughter of Plate from the Swan Service
Augustus, married the King of the Three Sicilies, later Charles
III of Spain, and her dowry is said to have included 17 Meissen
table services, inspiring the couple to found the Capodimonte
porcelain factoruy in Naples.[21]

The most famous of these is the Swan Service

(Schwanenservice) made in 1737–1743, for the manufactory's
director, Count Heinrich von Brühl;[22][23] It eventually
numbered more than a thousand pieces. At the end of World War
II, the pieces of the Swan Service were scattered amongst A Meissen Zwiebelmuster dinner
collectors and museums. Yet, with the moulds still available, the service
pattern continues to be made today. The Möllendorff Dinner
Service of the 1760s is another huge service, also today divided
between many collections.

The Blue Onion pattern (in fact copying Chinese pomegranates) has been in production for close to three
centuries. It was effectively designed by Höroldt in 1739 and is probably inspired by a Chinese bowl
from the Kangxi period. Widely popular, the pattern has been copied extensively by over sixty
companies; some of those competitors have even used the word Meissen as a marking. But the pattern
became so popular and widespread that the German Supreme Court in 1926 ruled that the Meissen
Zwiebelmuster was in the public domain.

A series of "Court Dragon" and "Red Dragon" tableware patterns features Chinese dragons, generally in
underglaze red with gilt details flying around the rim of the plate and with a medallion in the center of the
cavetto. A version of this pattern was used in Hitler's Kehlsteinhaus retreat.

Other popular patterns still in production include the Purple Rose pattern and the Vine-leaf pattern.
Hard-porcelain plate with Chinese Plate c. 1740
dragons, c. 1734, Musée des Arts
Décoratifs, Paris.

Dish from a tea-service, c. 1740 Two "osier pattern" dishes of the

first "Sulkowski" type, 1755–1760

Blaue Rispe pattern, from 1903,

by Richard Riemerschmid

Ownership
At the beginning the Meissen manufactory was owned by the King of
Saxony; by 1830 it came to belong to the State of Saxony. After World
War II, most of the equipment was sent to the Soviet Union as part of
war reparations. However, the workers using traditional methods and
the kilns that had not been dismantled were able to resume production
by 1946. The company became a Soviet Joint Stock Company in
Germany. Almost all of the production was sent to the Soviet Union, a
crucial step that kept the artisan community alive. After the
establishment of the German Democratic Republic, the company was
handed over to German ownership in 1950 and became a Volkseigener
Betrieb (VEB), a "people-owned company". VEB Meissen Porzellan
turned out to be one of the few profitable companies in the
economically troubled East German system, earning much needed Meissen watchcase, c. 1765,
foreign currency. After the German reunification in 1990, the company with a man playing a flute, a
was restored to the State of Saxony which is the sole owner. While its girl singing and a second man
products are expensive, the high quality and artistic value make reclining.
Meissen porcelain desirable by collectors and connoisseurs.

Meissen collections
The rarity and expense of Meissen porcelain meant that originally it
could be bought only by the upper classes; this gradually changed over
the 19th century. When a wealthy class emerged in the United States in
the nineteenth century, such families as the Vanderbilts started their
own collections. Many of these collections then found their way into
the world's great museums, including the Dixon Gallery and Gardens,
As Volkseigener Betrieb.
featuring one of the largest collections in America.[24]

A collection of 117 chinoiserie items, including a mantel clock case

made for Augustus the Strong dated 1727, which had been assembled by Franz Oppenheimer and his
wife, Margarethe, was auctioned by Sotheby's in September 2021 following the Oppenheimer's
successful claim for restitution submitted to the Dutch Restitution Commission.[25][26][27]

A Meissen porcelain chocolate pot, cover, and stand, dated c. 1780, were amongst the wedding gifts of
Queen Elizabeth II.[28]

Personalities
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, inventor of Meissen porcelain
Johann Friedrich Böttger, introduced manufacturing process of Meissen porcelain
Heinrich Gottlieb Kühn, introduced the colouring process
Friedrich August Köttig, introduced the Meissen Blue
Johann Joachim Kaendler, master modeller ca. 1730–1770[29]
 Johann Eleazar Zeissig, known as Schenau, painter, designer and Director of the drawing
school at the porcelain factory from 1773.

Gallery

Vase, c. 1730, in Man seated on plinth, Produced around Ebonized vitrine

Indianische Blume holding monkey and 1818 in the featuring hand
("Indian flowers") ball. Meissen factory. Wedgwood style, this painted Dresden(not
imitating the Dated c. 1735. British allowed the Meissen Meissen as
Kakiemon style of Museum company to compete previously
Arita porcelain, with its English mentioned) porcelain
Japan. counterparts, mounts, c. 1870.
Birmingham Museum
of Art.

Rococo Porcelain 12- Candelabrum for the Clock with birds by Central medallion of a
Light Chandelier, Aleksander Józef Johann Joachim Meissen plate, 19th
c. 1900. Sułkowski service by Kaendler, c. 1746 century.
Johann Joachim
Kaendler, c. 1736,
Dallas Museum of Art
 Four Elements Autumn and Summer
Porcelain Ewers by Porcelain Urns by
Meissen, 18th Meissen, 1880.
century.

See also
Bone china
Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe
Soft-paste porcelain
Emma Budge
Meißner Ofen- und Porzellanfabrik vorm. Carl Teichert (an unrelated porcelain manufacturer
also based in Meißen and using the mark "MEISSEN")

Notes
1. Oberlandesgericht München, Verdict 10 July 1975, Case number 6 U 5307/74.
2. "Porcelain Manufactory MEISSEN" (https://www.meissen.com/en/).
3. Florian Langenscheidt, Bernd Venohr (Hrsg.): Lexikon der deutschen Weltmarktführer. Die
Königsklasse deutscher Unternehmen in Wort und Bild. Deutsche Standards Editionen,
Köln 2010, ISBN 978-3-86936-221-2.
4. Battie, 86–87
5. Battie, 88
6. "Meissen porcelain" (http://www.starcookers.com/magazin/orte-zum-geniessen/meissner-po
rzellan/). (dead Link)
7. Battie, 88
8. Battie, 88
9. Battie, 89
10. Battie, 89
11. Battie, 89
12. Battie, 93–94
13. Greenberger, Michael (2019). Early Meissen Porcelain: The Michael Greenberger
Collection.
14. Battie, 158–159
15. Battie, 159–160
16. Battie, 91–92
17. Honey, W. B. (1934). Dresden China: An Introduction to the Study of Meissen Porcelain.
18. Battie, 91
19. Battie, 91–92
20. Battie, 90
21. Le Corbellier, 20
22. Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection.
[Birmingham, Ala]: Birmingham Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-904832-77-5.
23. Battie, 90
24. Meissen Encyclopaedia (http://www.buymeissen.com/Home/Encyclopedia/MeissenEncyclop
aedia/AndWhatisMeissenPorcelain/tabid/338/Default.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20080221113515/http://www.buymeissen.com/Home/Encyclopedia/MeissenEncyclop
aedia/AndWhatisMeissenPorcelain/tabid/338/Default.aspx) 2008-02-21 at the Wayback
Machine Laurence Mitchell. Accessed December 2006
25. "Porcelain seized by Nazis goes up for auction in New York" (https://www.theguardian.com/c
ulture/2021/aug/29/prized-porcelain-ends-incredible-journey-at-new-york-auction-monument
s-men). The Guardian. 29 August 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
26. "Sotheby's to sell $2m Meissen porcelain collection restituted by Dutch government to heirs
of Jewish industrialist" (https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/meissen-porcelain-worth-m
ore-than-usd2-million-to-be-sold-at-sotheby-s). The Art Newspaper. 22 April 2021. Retrieved
3 September 2021.
27. "Curating Provenances: A Fragile Past Meissen porcelain from the Oppenheimer family,
V&A Provenance Research Seminar, Learning Centre, Cromwell Road, London SW7
2SL,17 May 2023, 16:00– 17:30pm" (https://www.lootedart.com/W1PBKT989051).
www.lootedart.com. Retrieved 2024-02-15. "The Meissen porcelain brought together by
Margarethe and Franz Oppenheimer formed one of the most important collections of Early
Meissen in the world. They collected from their home in the Tiergartenviertel in Berlin in the
early 20th century but were forced to sell their collection when they fled the Nazi regime.
The collection ended up in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam where it was displayed as part of
the famous collection of Decorative Arts of Fritz Mannheimer. In 2021 the collection was
restituted to the heirs of the Oppenheimers, following a claim submitted to the Dutch
Restitution Commission. The collection was consequently sold at auction."
28. "Royal Collection" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140330231903/http://www.royalcollection.
org.uk/microsites/royalwedding1947/object.asp?grouping=&exhibs=NONE&object=19102&r
ow=39). Archived from the original (http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddin
g1947/object.asp?grouping=&exhibs=NONE&object=19102&row=39) on 30 March 2014.
29. Greenberger, Michael (2019). Early Meissen Porcelain: The Michael Greenberger
Collection.

References
Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus,
ISBN 1850292515
Le Corbellier, Clare, Eighteenth-century Italian porcelain (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/c
dm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/58497/rec/1), 1985, Metropolitan Museum of
Art, (fully available online as PDF)
Ducret, S. German Porcelain and Faience. 1962.
Greenberger, Michael. Early Meissen Porcelain: The Michael Greenberger Collection. New
York, NY, 2019.
Roentgen, R.E.: The Book of Meissen. Schiffer Publishing, Atglen, PA, USA 2nd edition,
1996.
Rückert, R. Meissner Porzellan 1710–1820. 1966.
Walcha, O. Meissner Porzellan 1975.
 Walcha, O.; Helmut Reibig [editor], "Meissen Porcelain." G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York,
1981.

Further reading
Naumann, Günter (2020). "Die Entwicklung der keramischen Industrie in Sachsen von ihren
Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart" (https://journals.qucosa.de/shb/article/download/391/494/498)
[The development of the ceramic industry in Saxony from its beginnings up to the present].
Sächsische Heimatblätter (in German). 2020 (2): 113–128. ISSN 0486-8234 (https://search.
worldcat.org/issn/0486-8234). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240119203053/http
s://journals.qucosa.de/shb/article/download/391/494/498) from the original on 2024-01-19.
Retrieved 2024-01-19. (16 pages)

External links
Homepage of the Meissen porcelain manufactory (https://www.international.meissen.com/)
Information and photo guide for the identification of individual Meissen figures (http://www.m
eissencollector.com/)
Meissen Lion at National Museums Scotland (https://web.archive.org/web/2015090905505
9/http://www.nms.ac.uk/explore/collections-stories/art-and-design/meissen-lion/)
Meissen Vulture at V&A Museum (https://web.archive.org/web/20090611233600/http://www.
vam.ac.uk/collections/ceramics/object_stories/meissen_vulture/index.html)

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