Chapter One

Meaning, Nature and Scope of Sociology

The concept of sociology

The term sociology was first coined by a French thinker Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in
1838, linking two words, “Socius” and “logos”. Socius is a Latin word to mean society,
city or people where as logos is a Greek word which means knowledge or wisdom. The
literal meaning of sociology is, therefore, the knowledge or reason of society.

 Sociology is a social science concerned with the systematic study of

human social relationships and the various ways these relationships
are patterned in terms of social groups, organizations and societies.

Sociology and sociologists deal with the social environments: religions behaviors;
conduct in the military; the behavior of workers and managers in the industry; the
activities of voluntary associations; the changing relationship between men and women
or between aging individuals and their elderly parents. Furthermore, sociology and
sociologists study the behavior of groups in cities and neighborhoods; the activities of
gangs; criminals, and judges; differences in the behavior of entire classes- the rich, the
middles classes, the poor, the down-and- out; the way cities grow and change; the fate of
entire societies during and after revolutions; and a host of other subjects.

 Scope of Sociology

The scope of sociological study is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing
encounters between individuals on the street to the investigation of global social
processes. In general, sociologists focus on social environment. In sociology, social
environment refers to all the expectations and incentives established by other people in a
person’s social world. Sociology deals with behavior ranging from the intimate glances
of lovers to the complex coordination of a space shuttle launch. Thus, sociology focuses
on three different levels of analysis: Micro, Middle and Macro level.

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1. Micro level: - is concerned with the behaviors of the individual and his or her
immediate others- that is, with patterns of interactions among a few people. Example, it
deals with relations between spouses, peer groups, family members, etc.

2. Middle level: -Middle level social phenomena are those that occur in communities or
in organizations such as businesses and voluntary associations. Middle level social forms
are smaller than entire societies but are larger and involve more people than micro-level
social forms, such as the family or the peer groups, in which everyone involved, knows
everyone else or is in close proximity to the others.

3. Macro level: - deals almost exclusively with much larger-scale. The macro level of
social life refers to whole societies and the ways in which they are changing – that is, to
revolution, wars, major changes in the production of goods and services, and similar
social phenomenon are that involve very large numbers of people.

Sociology and common sense

Common sense is sometimes accurate; it is not always reliable, because it rests on

commonly held beliefs rather than on systematic analysis of facts. Sociologists do not
rests on commonly held beliefs Instead; each piece of information must be tested and
recorded, then analyzed in relation with other data.

How can sociology help us in our lives?

 Learning sociology provides us with the sociological imagination- a particular way

of looking at the word around us through sociological lenses.
 Helps us understand how social forces influence our goals, attitudes, behavior, and
personality.
 We can be more humane and people centered; we give high value to human
dignity.
 We play practical roles to tackle social pathologies (problems).
 Learning sociology allows us to have an awareness of cultural differences
(diversities).

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  Self – enlightenment (self-knowledge):-Sociology can provide us with increased
self- understanding it helps us to know our selves.
 Assessing the effects of different social institution.

The Sociological Imagination

Learning to think sociologically– looking, in other words, at the broader view– means
cultivating the imagination. Studying sociology cannot be just a routine process of
acquiring knowledge. A sociologist is someone who is able to break free from the
immediacy of personal circumstances and put things in a wider context. Sociological
work depends on what the American author C. Wright Mills, in a famous phrase, called
the sociological imagination. The sociological imagination requires us, above all, ‘to
think ourselves away’ from the familiar routines of our daily lives in order to look at
them anew.

Understanding the way in which our individual lives reflect the contexts of our social
experience is basic to the sociological outlook.

The sociological imagination (perspective) is an unusual type of creative thinking that

sociologists rely on in attempting to understand social behavior. It is an awareness of the
relationship between an individual and the wider society. It can bring new understanding
to daily life around us.

Sociological imagination is also the ability to see our private (individual) experiences and
personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of society and the
historical time in which we live.

The key element in sociological imagination is the ability to view one’s own society as an
outsider would, rather than only from the limited perspective of personal experiences and
cultural biases. For example, unemployment is not only a personal hardship but also a
social problem shared by millions of people. Divorce is a social problem since it is the
outcomes of many marriages. By employing the sociological imagination, it is
appropriate to question the way that a society is organized or structured.

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Most of us see the world in terms of the familiar features of our own lives. Sociology
demonstrate the need to take a much broader view of why we are as we are, and why we
act as we do. It teaches us that what we regard as natural, inevitable, good or true may not
be such, and that the ‘givens’ of our life are strongly influenced by historical and social
facts. Understanding the subtle yet complex and profound ways in which our individual
lives reflect the contexts of our social experience is basic to the sociological outlook.

In studying society, therefore, sociology employees its distinctive perspective which

entails the following three ways of looking:
1. Seeing the general in particular
2. Seeing the strange in the familiar
3. Seeing the individuality in social context

1. Seeing the general in particular

This way of looking entails thinking sociologically by identifying general patterns of
social life by looking at concrete specific examples of social life. It involves seeking out
general patterns of a given society in the behavior of its particular individual members.
One way of thinking sociologically in this way is to identify how society acts differently
on various categories of people while acknowledging that each individual is unique.
General patterns of a given society such as age, sex, class, power, prestige, etc can be
observed by looking at the different behavioral acts of women versus men, poor versus
rich, old versus young, ruled versus ruler.
Such perspective helps us to understand the sociological fact that “although every
individual is unique, society shapes the lives of members”. Through adopting this
perspective we will begin to think sociologically by realizing how the society we live in
as well as the general category into which we fall within that society shapes our particular
life experiences and guides our action, and life choices.
2. Seeing the strange in the familiar
Peter Berger stated the first wisdom of sociology as”things are not what they seem”.
Thinking sociologically means giving up or challenging the familiar idea that we live our
lives in terms of what we decided. Considering instead the initially strong notion that
society shapes our experiences. Hence, sociology shows the patterns and processes by

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which society shapes what we do ranging from preliminary social unit of the society to
different social institutions of a particular society’s notion of social, political, and
economic events of the world both historically and in contemporary sense.

3. Seeing the individuality in social context

The sociological imagination often challenges common sense by which revealing ideas
shapes that human behavior is not an individualistic as we may usually think. Hence the
perspective expresses the power of society to shape individual choices. For most of us, in
common sense, daily living is very individual which often carries a heavy load of
personal responsibility so that we get ourselves on the back when we enjoy success and
kick ourselves when things go wrong. Proud of our individuality, even in painful times,
we resist the idea that we act in socially patterned ways.
However, different sociologists used the distinctive point of view of sociology to explain
and analyze most what is usually taken- for -granted as individual act. The sociological
perspective leads to global awareness: which is based on the perspective that our place in
society profoundly affects our life experiences and hence the position of our society. The
larger world system affects everyone in our society.

Advantages of the Sociological Imagination

As we learn to use the sociological perspective, we readily apply it to our daily lives.
Doing so provides four general benefits.
A. The sociological perspective becomes a way of thinking that challenges familiar
understandings of ourselves and of others, so that we can critically assess the truth of
common assumptions.
B. The sociological perspective enables us to assess both opportunities and the
constraints that characterize lives. Sociological thinking leads us to see that, better or
worse, our society operates in a particular way. It helps us to see the pattern and
order found in all societies.
C. The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society.
Without an awareness of how society operates, we are likely to accept the status quo.
We might just think that this is how all societies are, or how all people behave

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 ‘naturally’. But the greater understanding of the operation of a society, the more we
can take an active part in shaping social life.
D. The sociological perspective helps us to recognize human differences and human
suffering and to confront the challenges of living in a diverse world.

1.1. Sociology and Other Sciences

Science: is the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge
obtained by those methods.

Comparing sociology with other sciences help us better understand the place of
sociology.

The similarity between sociology and other sciences

Sociology and Political Science: focuses on politics and government. Political scientists
study how people govern themselves: the various forms of government, their structures,
and their relationships to other institutions of society. Political scientists are especially
interested in how people attain ruling positions in their society, how they maintain those
positions, and the consequences of their activities for those who are governed.

Like political science, sociology studies how people govern one another and the impact
of various forms of government on human life.

Sociology and Economics: Economics also concentrates on a single social institution,

like political science. It studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods
and services by a society. They want to know what goods are being produced at what rate
and at what cost, and how those goods are distributed.

Sociologists, like economists, study the social consequences of production and

distribution of goods and services.

Sociology and Anthropology: Anthropology, in which the primary focus has been
preliterate or tribal people, is the sister discipline of sociology. The main focus of
anthropologists is to understand culture- a people’s total way of life. Culture includes (1)
the group’s artifacts such as its tools, art, weapons; (2) the group’s structure, that is, the

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hierarchy and other patterns that determine its members’ relationships to one another; (3)
the group’s ideas and values, especially how its belief system affects people’s lives; and
(4) the group’s forms of communication, especially language. The anthropologists’
traditional to focus on tribal people is now giving way to the study of groups in
industrialized settings.

Furthermore, anthropology (physical anthropology) studies human biology. The main

difference lays on method of inquiry. Predominantly, anthropological inquiry is carried
out through fieldwork (long time qualitative research through the presence of the
researcher in the society under study). However, it is difficult to put clear cut boundary
between the two disciplines.

Like Anthropologists, sociologists are also concerned with the study of culture.

Sociology and Psychology: The focus of psychology is on processes that occur within
the individual. Psychologists are primarily concerned with mental processes: intelligence,
emotions, perception and memory. Some concentrates an attitudes and values, others
focus on personality, mental aberration (psychopathology or mental illness), and how
individuals cope with the problem they face.

Like psychologists, sociologists are also concerned with how people adjust to the
difficulties of life.

The difference between sociology and other sciences

Political science and economics concentrates on a single social institution. But

sociologists do not concentrate on a single social institution.

Unlike anthropology, sociology focuses primarily on industrialized societies. And unlike

psychologists, sociologists stress factors external to the individual to determine what
influences.

1.2. Historical Development of Sociology

Sociology is a relatively new science, emerging as a distinctive discipline in the 19th

century. By the end of that century, the discipline was well established in most European

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and several U.S universities. Although the early development of sociology occurred in
Europe, Sociology’s maturation has taken place largely in USA.

Sociology has never been a discipline in which there is a body of ideas that everyone
accepts as valid. Many students are confused by the diversity of approaches they
encounter. Because, studying about our own lives and behavior is the most complex and
difficult endeavor we can undertake.

The objective and systematic study of human behavior and society is a relatively recent
development whose beginnings date from the late 1700s. A key development was the use
of science to understand the world- the rise of scientific approach. Traditional and
religious- based explanations were supplanted by rational and critical attempts of
knowledge.

Certain developments in Europe paved the way for the emergence of sociology.
Generally, the most important factors contributed for the development of sociology are
called the nineteenth century social currents or social issues. Among those factors the
most important ones include:

1. Revolutions
1.1. The French Revolution (1789)

The long series of political revolutions ushered in by the French Revolution in 1789 and
carrying over through the nineteenth century was the most immediate factor in the rise of
sociological theorizing. The impact of these revolutions on many societies was
enormous, and many positive changes resulted. However, what attracted the attention of
many early theorists was not the positive consequences, but the negative effects of such
changes. In the French Revolution, for the first time in history there took place the overall
dissolution of social order by a movement guided by secular ideas. The French revolution
which was aimed to abolish monarchical system was excessive in nature that caused
instability and disorder in French society. Social thinkers of the time like Auguste Comte
worried how to restore the social order. They needed an appropriate science that they
could use to understand, explain and solve the social problems of French society.

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 1.2. The Industrial Revolution (late 18th century- Britain)

The Industrial Revolution grew out of many economic and political developments as well
as intellectual ones. Increasingly the European economy shifted from a strictly
agricultural one to an economy based on manufacturing, trading, and many scholars
sometimes called “The Industrial Revolution.”

Industrial Revolution as a process begun in England and spreading out across Europe and
the United States. The transformation of Western European societies from being
agriculturally based to being industrially based, manual production system which
involved human and animal power was replaced by production system that involved in
animated energy sources like coal, steam, hydroelectric powers and so on.

The industrial revolution brought massive social changes and social problems.

i. Massive Social Changes

o New technological innovations (stem power and machinery)

o Rapid expansions of urban areas lead to new forms of social life (relationships).
E.g. Change in family structure (from extended family to nuclear family).
o Urbanization: - Following the establishment of factories and industries urban
centers were developing around them.
o Change of economic system from feudalism to capitalism and the beginning of
massive education
ii. Social problems

 Migration of peasants from the land (rural area) to factories and industrial work.

There were pulling and pushing factors for migration of peasant from their land. The
pulling factor was the need of job as daily laborer for wage in the factories in the urban
centers. The pushing factor was the eviction of peasants from their agricultural land of
crop production in favor of sheep rearing which was demanded for wool production for
textile factories.

 Unemployment :- The people migrated to urban centers from partly pushing factor
in rural areas ended up unemployed

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  Shortage of house:- there was no housing service that could absorb the excessive
migrants.

 Migrants from different corners of the urban center came from different cultural
back grounds that caused cultural confusion.

 Furthermore, people engaged in different criminal activities which were partly

contributed by poverty.

2. The Enlightenment and advances in natural sciences and technology

Enlightenment was an eighteen century intellectual movement. The enlightenment

thinkers started to ask question about society that sociologists eventually came to ask:
why do people do what they do? Why is there inequality? Wide spread poverty? Crime?
Before the eighteen-century, the answers to those questions had been religious.
The enlightenment changed a traditional explanation of human behavior. The central
belief of enlightenment is that society is created by people and people can determine what
society becomes as well as the belief that human individual action is strongly influenced
by society’s patterns, led to the development of sociology as a science in nineteen
century.

Enlightenment thinkers rejected the notion that we could understand the world by
explaining events in religious terms. Instead, they said we must turn to reason and
science, for everything in society like everything in nature, was lawful. In the human
history for long period of time religion and religious leaders had been the only source of
explanation regarding every aspect of human life. Whatever positive thing happen to
human individuals or society as whole, it was simply believed as blessing from
supernatural powers. If the opposite, something negative happened like famine, war,
disease occurred the only assumption was as if the curse from God. For all things and
people had been thought created for the glory of God questioning about the nature of
human being, government and natural environment was considered to be sinful.

The enlightenment was an important beginning to the study of society because it pointed
the way, and it asked the important questions even beyond the religious explanation. By
doing so it resulted in secularization where by the religious aspect of human life was

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separated from the nonreligious one. The dominance of religion as the only source of
explanation ceased for the first time. Social thinkers started to explain social phenomena
using scientific evidences which made possible the development of sociology and other
social sciences.

Another important result of enlightenment was the development of natural or physical

sciences that contributed to development of sociology. Sometimes before the
development of sociology, natural sciences like Biology, Physics and Chemistry were
developed. These sciences had developed their own methods of study that they employed
for studying physical features. Social thinkers, at then, had adopted those methods and
modified them to use in studying social phenomena. The enlightenment also inspired the
French Revolution, the other powerful influence on the development of sociology.

3. Secularization

Secularization is the process whereby religious thinking, practices and institutions lose
social significance. The influence of religion was minimal. Before secularization people
were under sacred outlook or taking everything for- grant (believing that everything is
predetermined by God). Therefore, sociology is a secular science.

Note: The Industrial Revolution, the French political revolution, and the Enlightenment
and advance in natural sciences and a technology were the major conditions that gave
rise to the emergence and development of sociology as an academic science.

The Founders or the Pioneering Sociologists

1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French Social Philosopher

The word “Sociology” was first coined in 1838 by Auguste Comte, French man, in his
work Positive Philosophy. His full name was Isidore-Auguste-Marie-Francois-Xavier-
Comte and he termed sociology replacing social physics which was termed in 1824.
Comte is generally referred to as the father of Sociology. He defined sociology as the
scientific study of social dynamics and social static.
While social dynamics refers to the changing, progressing and developmental
dimensions of society and the study of factors contributed to progress and social change,

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social static signify the social order and those elements of society and social phenomena
which tend to persist and relative permanent, defying change. It studies the mechanism
through which societies maintain themselves to the new generation and how society is
held together.

Originally Comte used the term “social physics”, but some of his intellectual rivals at the
time were also making use of the term. He wanted to distinguish his own views from
theirs, and he coined the term sociology to describe the subject he wished to establish.

He believed that the science of sociology should be based on systematic observation and
classification (positivism), the same principle that governed the study of the natural
sciences. Positivism is the idea of applying the scientific method to the social world.
Comte said sociology would use empirical methods to discover basic laws of society,
which would benefit human kind by playing a major part in the improvement of the
human condition.

Comte argued that sociology can and should study society and social phenomena
following the pattern and procedures of the natural science. His vision for sociology was
that of positive science. He believed that sociology should apply the same rigorous
scientific methods to the study of society that physics or chemistry use to study the
physical world. This approach is called positivism.

Positivism holds that science should be concerned only with observable entities that are
known directly to experience. A positivist approach to sociology believes in the
production of knowledge about society based on empirical evidence drawn from
observation, comparison and experimentation. Comte considers sociology as a “queen
of science “at the top of other social sciences and its practitioners/ sociologists as
“scientist priests”.

Comet’s Law of the Three Stages

According to Comte, society tends to evolve through three stages of human intellectual
progress or development that states each mental age of human kind is accompanied by a
specific type of social organization and political dominance. Comte claims that human

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efforts to understand the world have passed through the following three consecutive
stages.

1st. Theological /Fictious stage (Until 1300 AD)

2nd. Metaphysical Stage
3rd. Positive (Scientific) stage

The Theological Stage (from medieval period to 1300 AD):

In this stage thoughts were guided by religious ideas and the belief that society was an
expression of God’s will. Supernatural force is the central idea and things were taken-for-
granted. There was no critical investigation, both philosophical speculation and scientific
explanation were absent, but dominated by religious interpretation of occurrences.

According to Comte this stage refers to the period when everything in human living
condition was explained and understood through the supernatural powers. The period
covered the earliest era of human history extending through the medieval period to 1300.
Whatever happens to or for society was believed to be a curse or blessing from the super
natural power. It was believed that some were created good and other criminal. The lords
were considered as elect of God. People regarded society as an expression of external
purpose and will on earth. The family was the prototypical social unit, the standard to
which others conform. Political dominance is held by priests and military personnel.

The Metaphysical / Abstract Stage (1300-1800 AD):

Explanation of human society developed by religion gradually changed in to

metaphysical. Abstract natural forces were believed to be the source of explanation and
understanding. The explanation was in influenced by the philosophical idea of Thomas
Hobbes that state ‘society is not a reflection of God; rather the reflection of the
selfishness of individuals. The state replaced the family as the prototypical social unit and
the political dominance was held by the clergy and lawyers.

Positive / the Scientific Stage (Post 1800s):

All social phenomena are investigated in a scientific manner through observations,

experiment and comparison. The stage encouraged the application of scientific

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techniques to the social world. Both physical and social world began to follow the
scientific method to express the relationship between the world and human being. These
scientific methods led sociology to understand the cause of occurrence of different
situations in the society. Political dominance is held by individual administrators and
scientific moral guides, and the whole human race replaces the state as the operative
social unit. In keeping with this view, Comte regarded sociology as the last science
to develop following on from physics, chemistry and biology but as the most
significant and complex of all sciences.

Although Comte’s vision for the reconstruction of society was never realized, his
contribution to systematizing and unifying the society was important to the later
professionalization of sociology as an academic discipline.

2. Herbert Spencer ( 1820-1903)

He was an English sociologist and philosopher. Spenser believed that society operates
according to fixed laws. He believed that there exists a gradual evolution of society from
the primitive (militant) to the ethical. As generation pass, he said, the most capable and
intelligent (the fittest) members of a society survive, while the less capable die out.
Therefore, overtime societies steadily improve. Spencer called this principle “the survival
of the fittest”. Although Spencer coined this phrase, it is usually attributed to his
contemporary Charles Darwin, who proposed that living organisms evolve over time as
they survive the conditions of their environment. Because of their similarities, Spencer’s
view of the evolution of societies became known as “Social Darwinism”.

Drawing on Charles Darwin’s study on the origin of species, Spencer applied the
concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change ,
or evolve, over time. Similarly, he adapted Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival
of the fittest” by arguing that it is “natural” that some people are rich while others are
poor.

Consequently, Spencer believed that ideas of charity and helping the poor were wrong,
whether carried out by individuals or by the government. He opposed not only the law to
aid the poor but also any state interference in public affairs.

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 3. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)- French

Durkhiem, one of the most influential figures in the development of sociology in the 20 th
C., was conservative in his approach. Durkhiem see society as a real object: society is
order, a set of social force, a moral agreement, what he called a “collective consciences”
fragile, very real, and important, for determining much of what the individual does. One
of the Durkhiem’s classic works, suicide, is an attempt to show that, in highly personal,
individual “choice” like suicide, the individual is profoundly influenced by social forces
that he or she does not even recognize. Society, to Durkhiem, is more than the individuals
who make it up. It is almost a living thing, apart from the individual, developed over
time, and influential in all action. To Durkhiem, the ultimate justification of sociology is
the study of these social forces (or what he called “social facts”). Social phenomena such
as conventions, social rules and beliefs, and institutions like family, education and law,
were regarded by Durkhiem as ‘social facts’. I.e. they are external to the individual, and
exist independently of that person, exercising constraint on his or her behavior.

Like Comte, Durkheim believed that we must study social life with the same objectivity
as scientist study the natural world. His famous first principle of sociology was ‘study
social facts as things!’; by this he meant that social life could be analyzed as rigorously
as objects or events in nature. He said, for example, “Law is the measuring road of any
society”. Law reproduces the principal forms of social solidarity (cohesion). For
Durkheim, the main intellectual concern of sociology is the study of social facts.
Rather than applying sociological methods to the study of individuals, sociologists
should instead examine social facts (aspects of social life that shape our actions as
individuals), such as the state of the economy or the influence of religion.

Durkheim was particularly introduced in social and moral solidarity what holds society
together and keeps it from descending in to chaos. Solidarity is maintained when
individuals are successfully integrated in to social groups and are regulated by a set of
shared values and customs. According to Durkheim there are two types of Solidarity,
namely Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity

He related these solidarities to the division of labour ( the growth of divisions

between deferent occupations).

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 1. Mechanical Solidarity

A society characterized by mechanical solidarity is unified because all people are

generalists. The bond among people is that they are all engaged in similar activities and
have similar responsibilities. This type of solidarity is characterized by traditional
cultures with a low division of labor and most members of the society are involved
in similar occupations, they are bound together by common experience and shared
beliefs. Durkheim argued that a society with mechanical solidarity is characterized by
Repressive law. Because people are very similar in this type of society, and because
They tend to believe very strongly in a common morality, any offense against their
shared value system is likely to be of significance to most individuals. Since everyone
feels the offense and believes deeply in the common morality, a wrongdoer is likely
to be punished severely for any action that offends the collective moral system. Theft
might lead to the cutting off of the offender’s hands; blaspheming might result in the
removal of one’s tongue. Even minor offenses against the moral system are likely to
be met with severe punishment. In general, mechanical solidarity is grounded in
consensus and similarity of belief.

2. Organic Solidarity

A society characterized by organic solidarity is held together by the differences among

people, by the fact that all have different tasks and responsibilities. In organic solidarity
societies held together by people’s economic interdependence and recognition of the
importance of other’s contributions. As the division of labour expands, people become
more and more dependent on one another, because each person needs goods and
services that those in other occupations supply. This indicates the fact that there is
economic reciprocity and mutual dependence. Additionally, people in modern society
perform a relatively narrow range of tasks; they need many other people in order to
survive. Therefore, modern family needs the grocer, baker, butcher, auto mechanic,
teacher, police officer, doctor and so forth. These people, in turn, need the kinds of
services that others provide in order to live in the modern world. Modern society, in
Durkheim's view, is thus held together by the specialization of people and their need for
the services of many others. Moreover, a society with organic solidarity is characterized
by restitutive law, which requires offenders to make restitution for their crimes.

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Suicide

Suicide (taking one’s own life willfully) seems to be purely personal act; however, social
facts exert a fundamental influence on suicide behavior –anomie being one of these
influences. Even though humans see themselves as individuals exercising free will and
choice, their behaviors are often socially patterned and shaped.

One Durkheim’s major work, suicide, is still considered as an outstanding example of

how sociologists are able to test ideas scientifically. He compared the suicide rate of
several European countries. He found that each country’s suicide rate is different and that
it remained stable year after year. He found that different groups within a country had
different suicide rate. Especially Durkhiem found, Protestants, the wealthy men, and the
unmarried killed themselves at a higher rate than did Catholics and Jews, the poor,
women, and married people. Durkhiem explained these differences by reasoning that
suicide varied according to people’s social integration, the degree to which people are
tied to their social groups. There were also lower suicide rates during times of war than
during times of economic change or instability. Low suicide rates categories of people
are who have strong ties to other. By contrast, high suicide rates were found among types
of people who are typically individualistic.

Durkheim’s theory of suicide can be seen more clearly if we examine the relation
between the types of suicide and his two underlying social facts—integration and
regulation . Integration refers to the strength of the attachment that we have to society.
Regulation refers to the degree of external constraint on people. For Durkheim, the two
social currents are continuous variables, and suicide rates go up when either of these
currents is too low or too high. These findings led Durkheim to conclude that there are
social forces external to the individual which affects suicide rates.

Therefore, there are four types of suicide . If integration is high, Durkheim calls that type
of suicide altruistic. Low integration results in an increase in egoistic suicides. Fatalistic
suicide is associated with high regulation, and anomic suicide with low regulation.

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 I. Egoistic Suicide

Egoistic suicide is marked by low integration in society and occur when on individual is
isolated, or when his or her ties to a group are weakened or broken. According to his
study, this type of suicide is common, for example, among protestants (because of the
personal and moral freedom- meant that they stand alone’ before God) and single
people (since they remain more isolated within society as compared to married one’s).

II. Anomic Suicide

This type suicide is caused by a lack of social regulation. It is common during rapid
change or instability in society and divorce. If there is no rule and regulation governing
the process of divorce, and individual is more likely to commit anomic suicide. The
absence of governing rule and regulation will also work for suicide committed during
economic instability.

III. Altruistic Suicide

Altruistic suicide occurs when an individual is over – integrated (social bonds are too
strong) and values society more than himself or herself. Suicide becomes a sacrifice for
the “greater good”. It is common in “traditional” societies where values, norms,
customs and expectation of the group have on extreme influence on the group.
Japanese kamikaze pilots of WWII, a military self- sacrifice and the Hindu Suttee (self
killing performed by a woman up on the death of her husband) are examples of altruistic
suicide.

IV. Fatalistic suicide

Fatalistic suicide results when an individual is over- regulated by society. The oppression
of the individual causes a feeling of powerlessness before fate or society. Durkheim saw
this as of little contemporary relevance.

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 4. Karl Marx (1818—1883)

Karl Marx, a German Philosopher. Marx described society as a set of conflicting groups
who have different values and interests and often ruthless competition harmed society.
Marx, believed in an unfolding, revolutionary pattern of social change. He envisioned a
linear progression of modes of production from ancient civilization through slavery,
feudalism, capitalism, and communism.

His ideas contrasts sharply with those of Comte and Durkheim, but like them, he
sought to explain the changes that were taking place in society during the time of the
industrial revolution.

His interest in the European labour movement and socialist ideas were reflected in his
writings. Marx always concerned to connect economic problems to social institutions.
Therefore, his writings were rich in sociological insights.

According to the principle of economic determinism (an idea often associated with
Marx), the nature of society is based on the society’s economy. A society’s economic
system determines the society’s legal system, religion, art, literature and political
structure. Marx himself did not use the term economic determinism; the term was applied
to his ideas by others, no doubt a consequence of his concentration on the economic
sphere in capitalist society. Moreover, Marx recognized that even in capitalist society
economic institutions mutually affect each other. Marx even wrote that sometimes the
economy “conditions” rather than “determines” the historical process in capitalistic
society.

Capitalism and Class Struggle:

Although recognizing the presence of several social classes in the 19th Century industrial
society, farmers, factory workers, craft-people, owner of small businesses, wealthy
capitalist, Marx predicted that all industrial societies ultimately would contain only two
social classes. These are

1. The bourgeoisie – those who own the means for producing wealth in industrial
society and

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 2. The proletariat – those who sell their labor for the bourgeoisie for subsistence
wages

For Marx, the key to unfolding of history was class conflict between those controlling the
means for producing wealth and that laboring for them. Just as slave owners had been
over thrown by the slaves and landed aristocracy revolted against by the peasants, the
capitalist would fall to the wageworkers. Out of this conflict a classless society would
emerge without exploitation of the powerless by the powerful.

Marx concentrated primarily on change in modern times. For him, the most important
changes where bound up with the development of capitalism. Capitalism is a system of
production which involves the production of goods and services sold to a wide range of
customers. He identified two main elements within capitalist enterprise. These are capital
and wage- labor. Capital is any asset, including money, machines, or factories, which can
be used in order to make future assets. Wage- Labor refers to the pool of workers who do
not own the means of their livelihood but must find employment provided by the owners
of capital. For Marx, while the ruling classes are capitalists, the working classes are class
of wage workers.

The peasants helped to form an urban- based industrial working class, referred to as the
proletariat. According to Max, capitalism is inherently a class system in which class
relations are characterized by conflict. Although owners of capital and workers are each
dependent on the other (the capitalist need labor and the workers need wages) the
dependency is highly unbalanced. Factory is a center of conflict between proletariat and
capitalist. The relationship between classes is an exploitative one since workers have
little or no control over their labor.

It is not ideas or values human beings hold that are the main sources of social change.
Social change is prompted primarily by economic influences. Conflicts between classes
provide the motivation for historical development- they are the motor of history.
Therefore, all human history thus far is the history of class struggles. Marx believed in
the inevitability of a workers’ revolution which would overthrow the capitalist system
and usher in a new society in which there would be no classes. By this he didn’t mean
that all inequalities between individuals would disappear.

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1.3. The Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

What is Theory?

Theory is tentative idea or testable hypothesis and statement about the nature of reality
that could be accepted, rejected or modified after empirical study. It is systematic attempt
to explain how two or more phenomena are related. It is also a general statement about
how some parts of the world fit together and how they work (Macionis, 1997).
Theory is asset of interconnected hypotheses that offer general explanations for natural or
social phenomena.

A theory is “a statement of how and why specific facts are interrelated” (Macionis and
Gerber, 2002). Recall that Emile Durkhiem observed some categories of people (men,
Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmarried) has high suicide rates than others (women,
Catholics and Jews, the poor, and the married). He explained this observation by creating
a theory: A high risk of suicide results from a low level of social integration. Ferrante
(2006) indicated that sociological theory is “a set of principles and definitions that tell
how societies operate and people in them relate to one another and respond to the
environment.” There are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology. These are the
structural functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic-
interactionist perspective.

1. The Structural- Functionalist Perspective

It is one of the dominant theories both in Anthropology and Sociology. It is sometimes
called functionalism. It focuses on consensus, social order, structure, and function in
society. Functionalists sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability. It states that our social lives are guided by social
structure. It states that “the existing social structure is essential for the proper functioning
of the society as a system.”

The major terms and concepts developed in this theory include or the theory focuses on
order, structure, function (manifest or direct functions and latent or hidden, indirect
functions) and equilibrium. It pays considerable attention to the persistence of shared
ideas in society. Social order is maintained through agreement and consensus. The
different parts of a social system are closely interrelated that what happens in one affects

21
the others, and is influenced by them in turn. It means the parts of a social system are
interdependent just as the human body is made up of interrelated parts, each of which
plays a role in maintaining the whole. For instance, Armies (for weapon) →
Manufactures (for trained or educated man power) → schools (for budget) →
Government (for revenue or income, or protection) → society or armies. This simple
model shows the functional interdependence existing among the parts of the social
system.

Society like human body is composed of parts. The parts of society include family,
politics, religion, education, health, and so on. Each of society’s parts functions together
to maintain a larger system. Function is the contribution a part makes to order and
stability within the system according to functionalists. Functionalism views the parts of
society as organized into an integrated whole consequently, a change in one part of a
society leads to change in other parts. A major change in the economy, for example, may
change the family. This is what happened as a result of the industrial revolution. Before
the industrial revolution, agriculture was the dominant economic system in European
countries. The industrial revolution changed this and the family structure, political system
and so on. The need for a large farm labor force (fulfilled by having many children)
disappeared as industrialization proceeded, and family size decreased.

Functionalists realize that societies are not perfectly integrated. A certain degree of
integration is necessary for the survival of a society, but the actual degree of integration
varies. Another assumption of functionalism is that societies tend to return to the state of
stability or equilibrium after some upheaval has occurred. A society may experience
change over time, but functionalists believe that it will arrival to a state of stability by
incorporation of these changes so that the society will again be similar to what it was
before any change occurred.

The functional aspect in the theory stresses the role played by each component part in
the social system, where as the structural perspective suggests an image of society
where in individuals are constrained by the social forces, social backgrounds and by
group membership.

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It also visualizes or focuses on the macro aspects (study of society as a whole) of social
life where all the parts of the social system/ structure/ act together even though each
part may be doing different things /work/.

Functionalists argue that the overall goal of the various social structures is to maintain
consensus, stability, harmony and order (not conflict) in society. For a system to operate
effectively each of the individual sub- systems must perform its task and function. The
major argument is “society shapes the individuals.”

Critique of functionalism:

Focuses on macro- level (large scale) analysis of society neglecting micro-

level (small scale) societal realities.
- It tends to exaggerates consensus, integration and stability while
disregarding conflict, disensus and instability.
- Conservativeness in their approach: Critics argue that this perspective is
by nature conservative in that it defends existing arrangements.
Functionalists justified the existence of poverty as functional and
legitimizing the status quo. Functionalists reject this criticism, claiming
that they are not justifying poverty’s existence, but rather simply
illustrating why such parts continue to exist despite efforts to change and
eliminate them.
- The other critic is on the functionalists’ claim that parts exist because they
serve function. The critiques argued that a part may not serve any function
when it is first introduced. Often people have to work to make parts
useful. The functionalists assumed that every part functions in some way
to support smooth operation of society; this theory has difficulty
accounting for the origin of social instability. This assumption also lead
functionalists to overlook the fact that stability and order are frequently
achieved at a cost to some segment of the society, such as poor and
powerless individuals.

The proponents of Functionalism, a sociologist Robert K. Merton (1967), added some

concepts to functionalism to address some of the critiques. A contemporary American

23
sociologist, Robert K. Merton identified two types of functions that contribute to the
stability and order. These are Manifest and Latent Functions. The manifest functions are
those consequences which are intended, open obvious, conscious, and recognized, and
latent functions are those which are neither intended nor recognized. For example, the
manifest function of education is teaching writing skills, knowledge and so on. At the
same time the schools are providing a free ‘baby sitting’ service to parents and increasing
the manpower available for employment- these are some of the latent function of
education.

Merton also identified that parts of a social system can have a dysfunction – undesirable
effects on the operation of society. For example, the dysfunction of the automobiles is for
polluting the air. Dysfunctions can also be either manifest or latent functions. Manifest
dysfunctions are a part’s anticipated disruptions to order and stability. On the other hand,
latent dysfunctions are unintended, unanticipated disruptions to order and stability.

2. The Conflict Perspective

Conflict theory is rooted in the writings of Karl Marx, class conflict. The conflict
perspective is a theoretical framework based on the assumption that society is a complex
system characterized by inequality and conflict that generate social change. This
approach complements the structural functional paradigm by high lighting not integration
but division based on social inequality. So rather than identifying how social structure
promotes the operation of society as a whole, this approach focus on how these patterns
benefits to some people while being harmful to others.

This theory stresses the importance of power and conflict in societal relationships, as
well as the problems brought about by social and economic inequality, and scarcity of
resources. It emphasize conflict, rather than consensus, and constant social change,
rather than stability emanating due to the existence of scarcity of resources for
achieving goals.

Conflict theorists see society less as a cohesive system and more an arena of conflict and
power struggles. The major argument of this school of through is that “instead of people
working together to further the goals of the social system, people are seen achieving their
will at the expense of others”.

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During conflict and instability, the member of society will partly win and partly will lose
power/ resource. Marx believed that the economic system of a society shapes all other
aspects of social life and breeds determined social conflict. He said, the only way for
workers to overcome their oppression is through social action and revolution.

The struggle between social classes was the major cause of change in society. Much
change happens as rich people and poor people compete over scarce resources. Not all
conflict theorists are Marxist. Weber, for instance, is also a conflict theorist but not
Marxist. Whereas Marx focused on class conflict as the “engine” of historic change,
other see conflict among groups and individuals as a fact of life in any society.
Conflict can occur over many other aspects of society unrelated to class. For example,
conflict can occur when two people have a car accident, between men and women
(husband and wife), etc.

Like the functionalists, conflict theorists recognize the existence of social structures,
but instead of structures existing for the good of the whole system, social structures
(institutions) serve the interest of the powerful.

Marx said that there are two classes- bourgeoisie and the proletariat-in capitalist system.
According to him, class membership is determined by the individual’s relationship with
the means of production. Means of production includes the land, machinery, buildings,
tools, and other technologies needed to produce and distribute goods and services. The
bourgeoisie is the more powerful class that owns means of production and able to
purchase labor. The proletariats do not own anything of the production process except
their labor. On the other hand, workers’ interests are to gain more income and control
over their work. As the result of divergences of interest and value, the two classes are in
struggle with each other.

The value and interest of the two classes are different. The bourgeoisie are interested to
make profit. They need constantly to expand markets for their products. They always
search for ways that maximize their profit and minimize their loss. This can be achieved
by making production system more efficient, less dependent on human labor, and by
using cheap labor and raw materials. The bourgeoisie consider the working class like

25
machines or raw materials. In general, the owner class wants to make more profit by
lowering labor cost and getting workers to work hard.

Conflict exists between the two because the bourgeoisie, who owns the means of
production, exploits the workers. The bourgeoisie make profit without making any value
but by paying small amount of profit the working class make in the form of wage and
forcing them to work hard to increase output.

Key concepts developed in this perspective include conflict, complementation, struggle,

power, inequality, and exploitation. The conflict perspective analyze large- scale society
(wide patterns of behavior). The powerful influence or coerce the rest of the population in
to compliance and conformity. Therefore, social order is maintained, not by popular
agreement, but rather by the direct or indirect exercise of power by the dominant group.

Critiques of the conflict perspective:

- Conflict theorists argue that conflict (than consensus) is essential functional

for society; it quickens group allegiances and loyalties and thus act as a
social glue that binds people together. It overstates the importance of conflict
and disregard the stability and order that do exist within societies.

- The theory over emphasize on inequality and division, neglecting the fact of
how shared values and interdependence generate unity among members of
society.
- It sees society in very broad terms, neglecting micro- level social realities.
- The theory ignores the contribution of industrialization in improving the
wellbeing of humans.
- The theory is also criticized for over emphasizing changing society rather than
understanding how order and stability can be maintained.

3. Symbolic Interactionist perspective

Symbolic interactionists drawn much of their idea from American sociologists George
Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer( who coined the term
symbolic interactionism). The theory is concerned with how the self develops, the

26
meaning people attach to their own and others action, how people learn these
meanings and how meanings evolve. They said that we learn meanings from others and
adjust ourselves according to those meanings. Meanings are subject to change.

The symbolic interaction paradigm is a theoretical frame work based on the assumption
that society is the product of the everyday interaction of individuals. This approach is
primarily concerned with human behavior on a personal level. Interactionists reminded us
that the different social institutions are ultimately created, maintained, and changed by
people interacting with one another. George Herbert Mead devised a symbolic interaction
approach that focuses on signs, gestures, shared rules and written and spoken languages.

Symbols play an important role in interaction according to the symbolic interactionist

perspective. A symbol is “any kind of physical phenomena-word, object, color, sound,
feeling, movement, or taste-to which people attach a name, meaning or value”(White,
1949 cited in Ferrante, 2006). Symbols are shared by people and used to communicate
with one another.

Symbolic interactionism is concerned with micro level analysis of social life and
problems- how individuals subjectively act and react to objective situations and realities.
Interactionists see symbols as an especially important part of human communications.
Members of a society share the social meanings of symbols. People manipulate symbols
and create their social worlds through interaction.

Symbolic interactionism is concerned with the meanings that people place on another
behavior. Human beings are unique because most of what they do with one another has
meaning beyond the concrete act. According to Mead people do not act or react
automatically but carefully consider what they are going to do. They take into account the
other people involved and the situation in which they found themselves. The expectations
and interactions of other people greatly affect each individual’s actions in addition;
people give things meanings and act or react on the bases of these meanings. Because
most human activity take place in social situations in the presence of other people, we
must fit what we as individuals do with other people in the same situation are doing. We
go about our lives under the assumption that most people share our definition of basic
social situations.

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According to interactionists, the same situation need not evoke (suggest) the same
response in two people or in the same person in different circumstances. They stated that
interaction is generally face to- face and addresses “every day” activities.

The interactionists perspective takes the position that it is people who exist and act. All
the other “structures” found in society are nothing but human creations. For them,
society is always in a process of being created, and this occurs through interaction,
communication and negotiation. This perspective views symbols as the basis of social
life. Symbols are things to which we attach meanings and they stand for something else
other than themselves.

The theory stresses the analysis of how our behaviors depend on how we define others
and ourselves. It concentrates on process, rather than structure, and keeps the individual
actor at the center. The essence of social life and social reality is the active human
being trying to make sense of social situations. In general, this theory calls attentions to
the detailed, person- oriented processes that take place within the larger units of social
life. It generalizes about every day forms of social interaction in order to explain society
as a whole. Social order is maintained through shared understanding of everyday
behavior and the social meanings of symbols.

Critiques of Symbolic Interactionism:

 The symbolic interactionist approach ignores what Emile Durkheim called “social
facts”- ideas, feelings, and ways of behaving” that possesses the remarkable
property of existing outside the consciousness of the individual. Symbolic
interactionists cannot account for social structures and processes that are larger
than the individuals interacting within them.

 Symbolic interactionists acquire direct, firsthand, and extensive knowledge of a

social world. The direct approach has shortcomings; because symbolic
interactionists’ presence as observers can skew the data. That is, those being
observed may act in ways they think the researcher wants them to act.

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 CHAPTER TWO
THE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

2.1. The concept of society

A society is a system of interrelationships which connects individuals together. It also
refers to the people who share and engage in culture. Society is an independent grouping
of people who inhabit a common territory, have a common culture (shared set of values,
beliefs, customs etc) and are linked to one another through routinized social interactions
and interdependent statuses and roles.

Basic features of society

- Society is usually a relatively large grouping of people in terms of size.
- Its members share common and distinct culture.
- has a definite limited space or territory
- The people who make up a society have the feeling of identity and
belongingness, the feeling of oneness.
- Members of a society are considered to have a common origin and
common historical experience
- A society is self-governing and independent i.e. it has all the necessary
social institutions and organizational arrangements to sustain the system.
However a society is not an island rather societies are interdependent. People
interact socially, economically and politically.

It is important to note that the above features of a society are by no means exhaustive and
they may not apply to all societies. The level of society’s economic and technological
development, the type of economic or livelihood system a society is engaged in, etc may
create some variations among societies in terms of these basic features.

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 2.2. The Definition of Culture and Basic Cultural Concepts

Definition of culture
The word culture is defined in different ways. For some it is appreciation of literature,
music, art and food. For biologists, it may be colony of bacteria. But for sociologists and
other social scientists, the term has different meaning. Anthropologists define culture as
an aspect of human environment, both tangible and intangible, created by men. It is the
distinctive way of life of human society designed for living. Sociologists accept the
anthropological definition of culture.

Different scholars defined culture differently. Perhaps the most famous and
comprehensive is being that of Edward Barnett Taylor’s, British Anthropologist (1832-
1917.The term culture itself was first used by an English Anthropologist Edward B.
Taylor. He defined the term in his book, “Primitive culture” as “that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society”. In general, culture is the entire human
social heritage; values, norms, beliefs, language, religion, behaviors, skills, knowledge
and even material objects that are passed from one generation to the next. Culture is
acquired/ learned but not inherited.

Types of culture
There are two types of culture
1. Material (tangible):-Tangible or material culture includes physical artifacts, symbolic
objects like clay pots, dress, houses / buildings / computers, car, household utensils,
ornaments, coins, flags etc.
2.Non-material (intangible) :-culture Intangible or non-material culture comprises the
ideas, hospitality, values, norms, beliefs, customs and that society professes to hold (e.g.
monogamy, democracy language). A person cannot hold or see non-material culture.

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 Characteristics of culture
1. Culture is all inclusive
Culture includes all aspects of life of a society. It is a complete design of living
encompassing what societies have, do/make and think. For a society nothing is excluded
from their culture.
2. Culture is socially created and determined
It is the result of social interaction; hence, it is a social construction. Human beings learn
culture through interaction with others but other animals are led by their instinctive
behavior. Society creates culture for the gratification of human needs.
3. Culture is learned
This implies that culture is acquired. It is acquired through learning; it is not an innate or
biological behavior. That is, there is no human being born with culture. A person learns
culture as member of a society to have full participation in social life. Culture is learned
from each other through interaction in families, schools, and all forms of human social
organizations including religion, and group.
4. Culture is shared
Culture belongs to a society not to individuals as a single individual cannot develop
his/her own culture but only learns from the society. Cultural elements such as language,
values and norms, beliefs, ideology, and skills are common shared among members of a
society. Culture is the public property of a social group of people. It is a quality or
attribute of a group rather than an individual. But not all shared things are culture; beyond
its shared nature it must be learned. For example, we share black hair naturally, so it
cannot be culture. But the hair style is a culture because learning is involved.

5. Culture is Universal and Relative

Culture is universal because all societies have culture. There is no society without
culture; a society cannot be identified without its culture. That is, culture and society are
inseparable. Culture is also relative; culture varies from society to society and from time
to time even in a given society due to cultural changes.
6. Culture is stable and yet dynamic (it changes)

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Culture is a stable because people maintain valuable practices and behavior for
generations. The present generation hand over those values to the next. Therefore, culture
is accumulative because societies reserve old but still important cultural values.

However, culture is not fixed; rather it is dynamic or it changes. Cultural elements can
change if the society gets it important when it fails to meet the desire of the society or
replaced by the other which the society gets it more important. That is, culture is selective
because societies avoid old and out dated practices or behaviors. However, cultural
change is not as simple as it seems. It cannot be changed over night; it takes longer time
for the process is gradual. Culture cannot also be changed by individuals’ interest.

7. Culture is Organic and Supra- Organic

Culture is organic means there is no culture without human beings. It is supra – organic
because it is far beyond an individual life time. i.e. individuals come and go, but culture
remains and persists with some changes /modification.
Basic cultural concepts
1. Social values
Social values are abstract ideas which define what is considered important, worthwhile
and desirable within a given culture. Social or cultural values are shared assumption by
the member of society as to what is right and wrong, good or bad, important or
unimportant, desirable or undesirable. Hence, values are widely held beliefs and ideas
about what is important to the community’s identity or wellbeing. Privacy, equality,
freedom etc are examples of social values.

Value and norms work together to shape how members of a culture behave with in their
surroundings. Values and norms are deeply embedded, but can change over time. Values
at the level of the society are commonly known as social and /or cultural values. Values
are relative and subjective to be heavily influenced by the time and place. Although more
or less similar sets of social values can be identified across different societies, not all
societies do have similar value system. Hence values are dynamic in that they are liable
or subject to changes in response to change in social conditions.

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 2. Social Norms
Social norms are the standards which should govern behavior in role. They are the
society expectations of what is normal. Social norms are derived from values. Norms
obviously vary in strength according to the intensity of feeling associated with them and
the degree of conformity expected. Based on this assumption W.G. Summer classified
norms in to two groups, namely mores and folkways.

i. Mores: - are serious social norms up on which society’s existence is believed to

depend. They are those norms which must be followed because they are
believed essential to group welfare. For example, in modern society all
members may be required to wear clothing and to put in the ground their dead.
Such “must” are often labeled mores. People who violate such norms are
usually institutionalized in prisons or mental hospitals, physical punishment,
or capital punishment. Mores are considered as unchangeable, the only way
and truth. The strong reaction made people to adhere to mores. Members of a
society are also taught to adhere to their cultural mores almost from the time
they are born. As the result people incorporate the mores in to their cultural
norms. This process is called internalization.

When the term mores is used to refer to the must behaviors of a society, it generally
includes the must not behaviors or taboos. Mores are very important, strictly enforced
and punishable. Within each society some norms become codified. We call these codified
norms, laws.

ii. Folk ways: - compared to mores, folkways are less serious social norms such as
those governing daily relationships. Feelings about folkways are less intense
than feelings about mores and conformity with folkways is largely up to the
individual. Folkways are norms that are not strictly enforced. One group’s
folkways may be another group’s mores. Folkways govern the mundane
aspects or details of daily life– when and what to eat, how to greet to
someone, how to walk, how to talk and so on. Folkways give us discipline and

33
 support of routine and habit. Violation of folkways are tolerated and not taken
very seriously.
Folk ways are the way of life developed by a group of People. They are detailed and
minor instructions, traditions or rules for day-to- day life that help us function effectively
and smoothly as members of a group. Violating such kinds of norms may not result in a
serious punishment. Hence, they are less morally binding. This includes, for example,
table protocol, dressing rules, walking and talking style etc.

The conformity to folkways is not enforced by law, but by informal social control.
Folkways are distinguished from laws and mores in that they are designed, maintained
and enforced by public feeling, or custom, whereas laws are institutionalized, designed,
maintained, and enforced by the political authority of the society.

Generally, norms are the expectations, or rules of behavior, that develops out of values.
All societies have rules or norms specifying appropriate and inappropriate behavior, and
individuals are rewarded or punished as they conform to or deviate from rules. The norms
are blueprints for behavior, setting limits within which individuals may seek alternative
ways to achieve their goals. Norms are based on cultural values, which are justified by
moral standards, reasoning, or aesthetic judgments. Thus values are more abstract than
norms, they are the ideas that support or justify norms.

Each society has its own norms. Thus, what is considered right in one society may be
violation of a serious norm in another society. In addition, norms that are considered in
one society as serious may be considered as folkways in other societies.

3. Social Control
Social control refers to all the mechanism and process employed by a society to ensure
conformity. It involves the use of sanctions. It is control of the society over an individual.
Failure to conform to and/ or abide by the norms of a society is referred to as non-
conformity. Non- conformity is divided in to two groups. These are eccentricity and
deviance.

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I. Eccentricity: - refers to non- conformity to folk ways. It is usually overlooked by the
members of society.
II. Deviance: - non- conformity to mores. Deviance is a non- conformity taken very
seriously by members of the society because deviants hold at system of values and
norms which conflict with the values and norms of the society at large.
4. Cultural Universals
Cultural Universals refers to those practices, beliefs, values, norms, material objects, etc,
which are observed across all societies in the world, or across different social groups with
in a society. They condition behavioral similarity among individuals in a given society or
across societies. They do not allow differences in actions and behaviors, lifestyles,
attitude, etc .Examples of cultural universals include; - Athletics, Dream interpretation,
Joking, Dancing, Medicine, Marriage And etc.
5. Culture Shock
Culture shock is temporary psychological and social maladjustment individuals
experience when they came across the society different from their own culture i.e. first
contact. It is a feeling of confusion and anxiety caused by contacts with one another
culture. It also refers to the feeling of surprise, disorientation, and frustration of those
who find themselves among people who do not share their basic values and beliefs.
No person is protected from culture shock. Although individual variation is common,
highly ethnocentric people are exposed widely to culture shock. On the other hand
cultural relativists may find it easy to adapt to (overcome) culture shock.
6. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a tendency to feel that one’s own particular culture or way of life is
superior, right, and natural and that all other cultures are inferior and often wrong and
unnatural. It is basically an inclination to judge other‘s cultures in terms of the values and
norms of one’s own culture.
7. Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism refers to the notion that each culture should be evaluated from
the stand point of its own setting rather than from the stand point of a different culture.
8. Xenocentrism
Xenocentrism is the opposite of an ethnocentric attitude. It is a belief that every other
nation or culture is some how superior to one’s own. Xenocenrism also refers to

35
preference for products, styles, ideas, country, people, society, ethnic group, sex,
religion… of someone else’s culture rather than that of one’s own.

9. Sub- Culture
Sub-culture is a pattern that is distinct in important ways but has much in common with
the dominant culture. It contains some of the dominant cultural values but also values or
customs of its own. So, sub-culture is a culture with in a culture.
Members of a sub culture participate in the dominant culture while at the same time
engaging in unique and distinctive forms of behavior. Frequently, a subculture will
develop an argot, or specialized language, that distinguishes it from the wider society.
Argot allows insiders, the members of the subculture, to understand words with special
meanings. It also establishes patterns of communication that outsiders can’t understand.
Language and symbols offer a powerful way for a subculture to feel cohesive and
maintain its identity. Examples of subculture include street gangs, prostitutes, residents of
a retired community, prison inmates, and university student’s sub- culture. When a
subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposed certain aspects of the larger culture, it
is known as a counter culture.

10. Acculturation
Acculturation refers to the adoption of new traits or patterns as a result of contact with
another culture. Ideally, acculturation is the way people learn from one another as a result
of culture contact. It is the transmission of culture from one generation to another with in
the same culture through socialization.
11. Culture Lag
Culture lag is a condition by which non- material culture changes slowly, while material
culture changes fast. This occurs, for example, when the growth of technology (material
culture) fails to match high with the growth of know how or attitude (non- material
culture) towards it.
12. Culture Lead
Culture lead refers to the phenomenon where by in some less developed societies, the
change of non- material culture may outpace the material culture. For instance, due to
the effect of globalization and rapid assimilation process, people in the Third World

36
are accustomed to the ideology and cultures of the western world, though their material
culture is not changing keeping pace with non- material culture .

13. Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity (Variability): refers to differences with in cultures across societies and
places.
It is believed that human beings everywhere have the same biological and mental
makeup. But their motivations, customs and beliefs differ enormously. We observe
differences in technology, custom, diet, art, religion, government, marriage practices etc
Cultural diversity or variability can be both between societies and within societies.
Cultural variability between societies may result in divergent health and disease
conditions. E.g.: The prevalence of tapeworm among raw meat eating people may be a
case in point.
The concept of subculture can be used to denote the variability of culture with in a certain
society. Examples of subculture could be the distinctive culture of university students,
street children, and prostitutes etc.
The Causes for Cultural Variations
1. Geographic Factors
Climatic conditions, topography, vegetation etc are considered to be principal sources of
cultural variability. Societies adopt behavior in accordance with the natural environment.
Note: - While it is true that geographic factors influence culture in certain ways, it is
important to note that they do not necessarily play a determining role in shaping
culture.
2. Span of Interest
The argument here is that different societies have developed different span of interest
emphasizing on different aspects of life. For instance societies may emphasize on
acquisition of wealth, political and economic power, practice of religion (life after death),
individual achievement, etc such emphasis difference is thus believed to have contributed
to cultural variability.
3. Demographic Factors
Population size seems to be an important factor in this approach. One factor that
influence cultural development is invention. Hence it is assumed that invention is

37
dependent up on inventors and the number of inventors is directly related to the size
of the population.
4. Historic Chance
The argument here goes that cultural difference is due to mere historic chance or
exposure to certain historical circumstances and opportunities.

2.3. Socialization
Socialization is a process by which people learn the culture, attitudes, values and
behavior of a given social group. It is a process which begins immediately after birth and
continues unceasingly until the death of an individual. Socialization begins from the
cradle and lasts to the grave (it is an ongoing, never ending process).It is an interactive
process between peoples to learn the ways of their culture and also a process of making
some body social and fully human. Socialization can be looked at (viewed) from societal
and individual points of view.
From societal point of view socialization is the process of fitting (including) new
individuals in to an organized way of life and teaching them the society’s cultural
traditions. In this process, socialization transforms the human animal in to a human being.
From Individual point of view socialization is the process of developing a self through
interaction with other, a person gains an identity, develops values and aspirations.
Socialization may be formal or informal. Formal socialization is conducted by formally
organized social groups and institutions like schools, religious centers, mass media,
universities work places, military training centers etc.
Socialization is informal when it is carried out through the informal social interactions
and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and small social group levels.The most
important socialization is that we get through informal agents like family, parents,
neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful influence. In general
without some kind of socialization, formal or informal, society would cease to exist.
Goals (roles) of socialization:
- To promote conformity and avoid deviance
- To teach social norms and roles to the new generation
- To promote personality development and full humanness
- To transfer culture from generation to generation etc

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 2.3.1. Types of Socialization
There are six types or stages of socialization. These are Primary or childhood
socialization, Secondary or adulthood socialization, De- socialization, Re-socialization,
Anticipatory socialization, and Reverse Socialization.
A. Primary or Childhood Socialization
Child hood period refers to those the first1- 12 years of age. Primary socialization
therefore, occurs during infancy and child hood period. It was named primary first by a
person known as Charles Horton Cooley and it was said so because, primary socialization
is the most fundamental phase of socialization to shape the personality of an individual. It
is the most intense period of cultural learning, because it is at this stage that children’s
learn language and basic behavioral patterns of their society, which form the base for the
learning’s which occur in the latter ages. It is a crucial phase since it is at this phase that
we begin to develop our sense of who we are (our personality).
At this phase, family is the major agent of socialization to undertake the role of
socializing. A child who does not get the appropriate socialization at this phase will most
likely become deficient in his/ her social, moral, intellectual & personality development.
The human infant who is a biological being or organism is changed in to a social being
mainly at this early stage.

B. Secondary or Adulthood Socialization

Secondary or adulthood socialization is a socialization which occur during the maturity
period. Secondary socialization is also an important phase of socialization which prepares
individuals to take up new roles and new statuses in their life, reorienting themselves
according to the change in their roles & statuses. Example: - A fresh college graduates
who enter the world of work, to start their first job need to be socialized with the new
setting since there are quite many new roles & activities to be mastered.
Although our personality, is determined and shaped by the socialization experiences of
childhood the latter learning’s that occur in secondary socialization is also important by
preparing us to take up new social position in our society.

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 C. De-socialization
De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. De-socialization Refers to the
process by which an individual abandon or give up their former life styles, beliefs, values
and attitudes. Persons joining the new setting have first to be de-socialized, before they
are re-socialized.
Both re-socialization and de-socialization often take place in what is called total
institutions, an environment that is all encompassing and often isolated from the
community Total institutions include religious denominations, prisons, mental hospitals,
military units, and some political groups, etc.
D. Re- Socialization
Is a process of ones again learning new sets of norms, values, attitudes and behaviors that
are totally or partially different from the previously, learned one.
Example: - A criminal who enter prison need to be resocialized with the way of life that
exist in prison because, the way of life that exist in prison is different from the way of life
learned from the society.
Examples for re-socialization can be, brainwashing (rejecting old beliefs & ideas and
accepting new ideas), rehabilitation of criminals, religious conversion of sinners, and
living in monastery.
E. Anticipatory Socialization
is also another type of socialization by which individuals try to learn & internalize the
roles, values, attitudes and skills of a group which they want to Join in the future before
actually joining it.
Example, A high school student who is trying to adjust his behavior like a college student
before actually joining a college is undergoing Anticipatory socialization.
F. Reverse Socialization
Refers to the process of socialization where by the dominant socializing persons, such as
parents, happen to be in need of being socialized themselves by those whom they
socialize, such as children. This idea seems to be associated with the fact that
socialization is a two-way process.

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 2.3.2. Agents of Socialization
The Socialization process takes place in the following three components
- The socialize (the person being socialized)
- The socializer, and
- The social environment (the environment in which socialization takes
place)
The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships (friends),
schools, neighborhoods (the community), and the mass media, etc.

2.4. Meaning and types of social groups

A social group is a collectivity or set of people who involve in more or less permanent or
enduring social interactions and relationships. They are characterized by the following
features:
- They have regular and usually sustained interaction between members
- Members of a social group have Shared interest, a feeling of common
identity or belongingness
- Have some patterns for organization of behavior on a regular basis.
- Members are functionally integrated through role and status relationship in
the group structure.
From these characteristics “a group is a plurality of individuals who have contact with
one another, who take each other in to account in making decisions and who have some
sense of common identity as well as shared goals or interests.

2.4.1. Types of social groups

1. Primary groups
Primary groups are characterized by the following;
- They have close and intimate association and cooperation
- Usually, they are small in size and have face to face relationship
- They have relatively frequent contact
- Members have strong sense of identity and loyalty
- Deep and extensive communications

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 - High level of emotional & spiritual satisfaction and concern for friendly
relations as an end in themselves, not as a means to an end. The family,
neighborhood, children’s play group (Peer groups) are examples of primary
groups.
It is primary in time, intimacy and belonging. Primary groups have functions of
socialization and individual support.

2. Secondary groups
These groups have the following characteristics:
- They are relatively larger in size
- Instrumental in nature i.e. they have specific goals to be attained, and the
efforts of the group are directed at obtaining these goals.
- Relations are partial i.e. relations do not involve the entire personality of
the individual participant.
- Relationships are basically contractual in the sense that members are
expected to give something, perform some duty or play in some way for the
privilege of membership.
- There is little or no emotional involvement.
- Members are more competitive than cooperative
- The group is mainly a means to an end rather than an end in itself.
- They are more formal
3. Aggregates: - they are quasi social groups having the following basic features
- Mere physical proximity/ togetherness
- Lack of unifying (common) features
- Members are not functionally integrated
Examples for aggregates can be a group of people taking (waiting for) a tax or a bus, a
group of people walking in a busy city street, and a group of patients sitting or standing
in a waiting room of a hospital etc.

4. Category –characterized by the following basic features:

- They are physically dispersed (live apart) but share common traits and
interests.

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 - Have more or less similar lifestyles, physical and psychosocial
characteristics.
- There may be little or no social interaction, social structure, social norms
, etc but there is the feeling of belongingness, even though the people may
never know each other.
- Members belong to similar socio- economic back ground.
Examples for category can be all female engineers in Ethiopia, all women
aged 70 and above, all HIV patients in the world, and all rural people in
Ethiopia etc
5. Dyad – is the group of husband and wife without having children (a two-person peer
group) is a dyad.

2.5. Social Organization

Organization can be defined as a group with an identifiable member ship that engage in a
concerted collective action to achieve a common purpose.
Is a large grouping of people structured on Impersonal lines and set up to achieve specific
objectives. Since Organizations enables us to per sue activities that we could otherwise
not readily accomplish by ourselves, they are a central feature of all societies, and their
study is a core concern of sociology to day. A modern hospital is a good example of
organization & the objective of hospitals is to cure illness.
2.6. Social Status and Role
Status and roles are the two aspects of the patterns of social life which are necessary for
human interaction. They are basic unit of social structure.

 Social Status: - Is one building block of the social structure. It is a social position
that a person occupies with in a group or society. In sociology the term status is not
used to indicate ‘prestige’ only like presidential position & the like with influence,
wealth & fame rather, it refers to any of the social positions weather it is the highest
like president or the lowest like guards.
Every status is our social identity & helps define our relationship to others, they provide
us with a guide line for how we should act & feel. Every one occupies many statuses at
once.

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Status Set: - is used to refer to all the statuses that a person holds at a given time.
Example:- A teenage girl is a daughter to her parents, sister to her brother, a friend to
members of her social circle, a student at her college, a goal keeper at here soccer team,
all this are the statuses of these teenage girl.
Sociologists classify status in to two
1. Ascribed Status
These statuses are assigned to us by society at the time of our birth. They are naturally
given or acquired by birth. Gender (being male or female/boy or girl), race or ethnic
group, age, family, being black or white, son or daughter, etc are examples of ascribed
statuses.
2. Achieved Status
Achieved status is a status attained as a result of some activity or accomplishment. It is
attained by competitions, making efforts, commitments, choices, decisions and other
mechanisms. Being a husband or wife, a student or teacher, a physician, a nurse, a
lawyer, etc are achieved statuses. Achieved status may be regarded as the characteristics
of modern, industrial societies. In a traditional society most social statuses are naturally
acquired.
A person can have various statuses. But every person has at least two social statuses
simultaneously. Of the various statuses, one or two may be more dominant than others.
The most dominant of all is called a salient or master status. Master status is a status that
dominates other & there by determines a person’s general position in society.
Example, some times our occupation become our master status, series illness like AIDS
cancer became our master status &even close friends will neglect us whatever we were
before this illness. People with disabilities find that their status as a disabled, over weighs
or shadows their actual ability to perform success fully in meaning full employment.
 Social Roles: - is the behavior, obligation or privileges attached to a status. It is
another component of the social structure. It is a set of expectations of behavior for
people who occupy a given social position or status. People hold a status & perform
a role.
Example, holding the status of student involve certain expectations like one will attend
classes, do assignments & devote a lot of time to personal enrichment through academic

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study (so this are the role expected from a person holding the ‘status’ of student. With
each distinctive social status, there are some expectations of behavior or role.

Role Set: indicates the complements (varieties) of roles associated with a particular
status. Or it is all of the roles that go with a single status.
Role Conflict:-The roles for different statuses the person holds may conflict with each
other. for example Our doctor, who is also a mother, may find it difficult to devote the
long work hours required of her job and concurrently fulfill the expectations of being a
parent. Long work hours may make attending her child’s school plays or teacher
conferences difficult.
Role strain: - occurs when two or more roles associated with a single status are in
conflict.

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 CHAPTER THREE
DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL

3.1. The Concept of Deviance

In the broadest sense, deviance means not conforming to predominant norms. It is any
behavior that violates cultural norms. It also refers to behavior that violates the folkways,
mores, and laws of a particular group.
The sociological definition of deviance refers to behavior that violates group’s norms,
exceeds its (group’s) tolerance limits and is viewed as harmful or negative by the group.
Deviance encompasses a wide range of behavior. Perhaps the most significant type of
deviant behavior is crime behavior that violates law.
From a sociological perspective, deviance is subject to social definition within a
particular society and at particular time. Hence, it is relative.
3.1.1. The Relativity of Deviance
The following four aspects influence whether an act is defined as deviant and how serious
it is considered to be.
 The relevance of audience
 The relevance of time
 The relevance of social status
 The relevance of situation
A. The Relevance of Audience
An audience includes anyone who witnessed the act or was aware of the act. Audiences
may be strangers on the street, a family, a jury (members of ordinary citizens who seat for
trial), a group of neighbors or the public in general. The judgment of what is good or bad
depends on those who observe and evaluate the act.
B. The Relevance of Time
Normative expectations change over time. Even in a short span of ten or twenty years, the
standards and expectations of conduct can vary substantially in a modern industrial
society.
C. The Relevance of Social Status

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Peoples are perceived differently according to their social characteristics (position).
Generally, higher status individuals are less likely to be labeled as deviant or to receive
harsh treatment than are lower status individuals.
D. The Relevance of the Situation
The situational context is often as important as the act itself in determining whether an
act will be defined as deviant.
For example, you might argue that killing another human being (murder) is the ultimate
deviant act. But there are many times when people are not labeled as deviants or murders
just because he/she has killed someone. We ask whether the person killed in self-defense,
in war, whether the individual is considered legally insane or incapable of knowing right
from wrong, etc. In each case, the act was the same – a person killed another person.
3.1.2. Types of Deviants
Based on the following two dimensions (Objective rule breaking and Perception of
others/society) we can divide deviants into three types.
I. Pure Deviant
In this type of deviant there is objective rule breaking, and perceptions of others. The
person breaks the rule as well as the society or others perceive him as a deviant.
Criminals are examples for this type of deviant
II. Secret Deviant
Here, there is objective rule breaking, while there is no perception of others. White –
collar crime, embezzlement, corruption, homo sexuality, adultery, etc are examples of
secret deviant.
III. Falsely Accused Deviant
In this type of deviant there is no objective rule breaking, but there is perception of others
/society. A broad category of behaviors that are called residual rule- breaking fits in this
category. These are behaviors to which our society provides no explicit level and which
therefore sometimes lead to the labeling of the violators as mentally ill.

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 3.2. Theories of deviance
Sociological interest in deviance includes both interests in measuring formal deviance
and a number of theories that try to explain both the role of deviance in society and its
origins.
A. Social-Strain theory
According to Merton’s (1968) structural-strain theory, anomie results from
inconsistencies between the culturally approved means to achieve goals and those actual
goals. There are goals in a society that most people pursue (e.g., financial and material
wealth, power, status). There are also socially acceptable means to achieve these goals
(e.g., hard work, honesty). Most people conform to the acceptable means to achieve
goals. While some people are able to buy a nice home, designer clothing, and expensive
vehicles through legally derived funds, others do not have legitimate means to obtain
these things. Deviance results from a “strain” between means and goals—for example,
when there is a contrast between wants and economic realities.
Merton proposed a typology of deviance based upon two criteria: (1) a person's
motivations or her adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person's belief in how to attain her
goals. These two criteria are shown in the diagram below. On the basis of these criteria,
Merton identified four deviant adaptations to strain.
 Innovation: The most common type of deviance is innovation. People accept
culturally approved goals but pursue them in ways that are not socially approved.
A person who steals property or money to pay rent or purchase a car is
innovating, as is a drug dealer or embezzler. A member of the mafia values wealth
but employs alternative means of attaining wealth. The innovator accepts the
goals of society but pursues them with means that are regarded as improper .
In other words, the goals being sought by the individual are legitimate or
acceptable to the group but he uses prohibited means to attain them.
For example, a teacher unfairly assisting his students to pass the examinations
with high grade is innovative. Passing examination with high grades is accepted
by the school system, but he and his students use unacceptable means to
reach the acceptable goal.
 Ritualism: It occurs when someone is unsuccessful at achieving the socially
accepted goals, yet continues to adhere to social expectations for their

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 achievement. Merton identified lower-level bureaucrats who blindly apply rules
and regulations without remembering the larger goals of an organization as
examples of this circumstance. They may adhere so strictly to rules that they may
even over conform by focusing exclusively on following rules rather than other
goals. Generally, ritualism involves conforming to the group’s means but without
striving to reach the group goals. The ritualist has abandoned the goal of material
success and become compulsively committed to the institutional means. Work
becomes simply a way of life rather than a means to the goal of success.
 Retreatism: as described by Merton, the retreatist has basically withdrawn (or
retreated) from both the goals and the means of a society. This category involve
non- commitment to the goals and means of a social group. Generally, Retreatism
occurs when both culturally approved goals and means are rejected. Retreatists
are social “dropouts.” An example would be alcoholics, drug addicts, the
homeless, and the hopeless.
 Rebel: When both culturally approved goals and means are rejected and replaced
by other goals and means, the response is a rebellion to those goals and means.
Rebels substitute unconventional goals and means in their place. They feel
alienated from the dominant means and goals and may seek a dramatically
different social order. They attempt to create a new social structure. They may
even form a counterculture. Hippies, some religious groups, and members of a
revolutionary political organization (communist revolution) would be
characterized as fitting this category.
Summary of Merton’s social strain theory of deviance
According to Merton’s theory Non deviant means accepted both culturally approved
goals and means.it is Conformity to societal norms.

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 Deviant
Institutionalized means (e.g. Hard work) Societal goal (e.g. Acquisition of wealth)

Innovation Reject Accept

Ritualism Accept Reject

Retreatism Reject Reject

Rebellion Replace with new means Replace with new goals

B. Structural-Functionalism
The structural-functionalist approach to deviance will argue that deviant behavior plays
an important role in society for several reasons. One of the more important contributions
to society comes from actually drawing the lines between what is deviant and what is
not. Denoting a behavior or action as deviant clarifies the moral boundaries of a
society. This is an important function as it affirms the cultural values and norms of a
society for the members of that society. In addition to clarify the moral boundaries of
society, deviant behavior can also promote social unity, but it does so at the expense of
the deviant individuals, who are obviously excluded from the sense of unity derived from
differentiating the non-deviant from the deviants. Deviance creates awareness towards
the existing norms & values Challenge unjust and out dated laws, there by bringing
about needed social change, and punishment of deviants teaches the majority of the
people.
Finally, and quite out of character for the structural-functionalist approach, deviance is
actually seen as one means for society to change over time. Deviant behaviors can
imbalance societal equilibrium; in returning societal equilibrium, society is often forced
to change. Thus, deviant behavior plays several important roles in society according to
the structural-functionalist approach.
C. Conflict Theory
Conflict theory is based upon the view that the fundamental causes of crime are the social
and economic forces operating within society. Conflict theorists see deviance as a result
of conflict between individuals and groups. The theoretical orientation contributes to

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labeling theory in that it explains that those with power create norms and label deviants.
Deviant behavior is actions that do not go along with the socially prescribed worldview
of the powerful, and is often a result of the present social structure preventing the
minority group access to scarce resources. According to the social-conflict approach, the
determination of what is deviant and what is not deviant is closely tied to the existing
power structure of a society. For instance, laws in capitalist countries tend to reflect the
interests of the wealthy and powerful. Laws that codify one's right to private property will
tend to favor those with property and disfavor those without property (who might be
inclined to take property). In short, the social-conflict approach to understanding
deviance argues that deviance is a reflection of the power imbalance and inequality in
society.

D. Labeling Theory
Frank Tannenbaum and Howard S. Becker created and developed labeling theory. Becker
believed that "social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction
constitutes deviance." This theory holds that behaviors are deviant only when society
labels them as deviant. Labeling implies giving “bad-name” to individuals. It means that
the labels people are given affect their own and others’ perceptions of them, thus
channeling their behavior either into deviance or into conformity. Labeling theory, as its
name implies, puts the focus on the process of naming behaviors and the people that
perform them. Under this theory, certain behaviors are illegal because we choose to say
they are: we label them as crimes. Labeling theory argues that people become deviant as
a result of people forcing that identity upon them and then adopting the identity. Labels
are understood to be the names associated with identities or role-sets in society. Powerful
individuals within society—politicians, judges, police officers, medical doctors, and so
forth—typically impose the most significant labels. Labeling theory is very useful in
encouraging us to take account of the fact that being defined as a criminal is a social
process. If you break the law and don't get found out, you won't be officially labeled as a
criminal. If you go around telling all your friends that you broke the law, they may call
you a criminal but until you have been found guilty in a law court, officially you are not a
criminal.

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Generally, labeling Theory refers to the idea that individuals become deviant when two
things occur:
1. A deviant label is applied to them
2. They adopt the label by exhibiting the behaviors, actions, and attitudes
associated with the label.
E. Differential Association Theory
Edwin Sutherland coined the phrase differential association to address the issue of how
people learn deviance. This theory starts up with a fundamental assumption stating that"
all criminal behavior is a learned behavior like any other behavior". It is learned through
the association or interaction people have within their intimate personal groups.
According to this theory, the environment plays a major role in deciding which norms
people learn to violate. Specifically, people within a particular reference group provide
norms of conformity and deviance, and thus heavily influence the way other people look
at the world, including how they react. People also learn their norms from various
socializing agents—parents, teachers, ministers, family, friends, co-workers, and the
media. In short, people learn criminal behavior, like other behaviors, from their
interactions with others, especially in intimate groups.
The differential-association theory applies to many types of deviant behavior. For
example, juvenile gangs provide an environment in which young people learn to become
criminals.
In his differential association theory, Edwin Sutherland posited that criminals learn
criminal and deviant behaviors and that deviance is not inherently a part of a particular
individual's nature. Also, he argues that criminal behavior is learned in the same way that
all other behaviors are learned, meaning that the acquisition of criminal knowledge is not
unique compared to the learning of other behaviors.
3.3. Crime
Crime refers to non- conformist conduct that breaks a law. It is a violation of criminal
law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. It represents a
deviation from formal social norms administered by the state. This definition of crime
adhere the doctrine of “no crime without law.”
Types of crime
A. Crimes of violence (against the person)

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These are crimes basically committed against persons. Examples of crimes of violence
include rape, murder, assault, etc. Crimes of violence have most public attention.
B. Crimes against property
Crimes committed against property include stealing, burglary, destruction of public
property, etc. White – collar crimes are also added to this category.

C. Crimes against the state

Burning the flag of a nation, and treason, etc are examples of crimes against the state.
They can result in death penalty.

3.4. Social Control

Social control is a mechanism found, in and employed, by all society to ensure
conformity to norms, rules, and laws, etc. It is the control of the society over individuals.
Social control also refers to the various means used by a society to bring its members
back into line with cultural norms. Social control involves the use of sanctions. There are
two types of social control mechanisms, namely; Informal social control and formal
social control.
o Informal social control refers to elements of society that are designed to
reinforce informal cultural norms; examples might include parental reminders to
children not to, well, pick their nose. This type of social control is dominant in
simple societies in which almost everyone knows everyone else.
o Formal social control is common in complex societies. In this type of society,
laws are passed and enforcement machinery is created, written contracts replace
oral agreements, and people well in advance are made aware of the consequences
that they will have to face if they transgress social norms. Formal social control
refers to components of society that are designed for the resocialization of
individuals who break formal rules; examples would include prisons and mental
health institutions. Some researchers have outlined some of the motivations
underlying the formal social control system. These motivations include:
• retribution - some argue that people should pay for the crime they
committed

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 • deterrence - some argue that punishments, e.g., prison time, will
prevent people from committing future crimes
• rehabilitation - some argue that formal social controls should work to
rehabilitate criminals, eventually turning them into productive members of
society
• societal protection - finally, some argue that the motivation for formal
social controls is nothing more than removing the deviant members of society
from the non-deviant members
Sanctions are actions through which we reward conformity to norms and punish non-
conformity. There are two types of sanctions. These are positive sanction (reward) and
negative sanction (punishment).
 Positive sanction (reward): There are two types of positive sanctions
- Formal positive sanction (e.g. bonuses, medals, promotions, etc).
- Informal positive sanction (e.g. exaggerated praise or admire,
encouragement, signs of approval, flattery, etc).
 Negative sanctions (punishment): two types
- Formal negative sanctions (e.g. imprisonment, payments, dismissal from
job).
- Informal negative sanction (e.g. criticism, ridicule or laugh at, gossip,
stigmatization, warning, etc).

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 CHAPER FOUR
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, SOCIAL INTERACTION
AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

4.1. Social Stratification: basic concept

Society is heterogeneous in nature. Everywhere society is divided into various classes:
economic, social, political and religious. The process by which individuals and groups
are ranked in hierarchy of status is known as social stratification. Social stratification is
the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative power,
property and prestige. A sociologist John Scott defined stratification as “… its internal
division into a hierarchy of distinct social groups, each having specific life chances and
distinct style of life.” Social stratification is a society’s system for ranking.
People distribute rewards according to such attributes as income, wealth, power, prestige,
age, sex, ethnicity, race, religion and even celebrity. In a stratified society people are
evaluated as being “lower”, and “higher”, or “inferior” and “superior”. People attach
different prestige to different positions. The basis for attaching prestige shouldn’t base
on rational justification. It may be rooted in superstitions, non-rational and hidden in the
remote and forgotten past or religious beliefs.
It is important to realize that social stratification does not refer to individuals. It is a way
of ranking large groups of people in hierarchy that shows their relative privileges. It is
also important to know that every society stratifies its members. Social stratification is
universal regardless of its forms. Some examples of social stratification today and in
history include: Slavery, Feudal system (Estates), Caste, Clan, Social class And etc.
Some of the stratifications are rigid, for example, slavery, feudal system, caste and clan;
while others are flexible, for instance, social class.

Principles of Social Stratification

The four basic principles of social stratification are:
I. Social stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply reflection of
individual differences.

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 II. Social stratification persists over generation. In all societies, parents pass their
social positions along to their children, so that patterns of inequality stay much
the same from generation to generation.
III. Social stratification is universal but variable. Social stratification is found
everywhere. At the same time, whatever the basis or extent of inequality, it
varies from one society to another. In some societies, social stratification is
minimal and based on age and sex. In other societies, it is based on economic
criteria or achievement.
IV. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs. Any system of
inequality not only gives some people more resources than others but defines
certain arrangements as fair. Just as what is unequal differs from society to
society, so too the explanation of why people should be unequal. Furthermore,
virtually everywhere, people with the greatest social privileges express the
strongest support for their society’s system of social stratification, while those
with fewer social resources are more likely to seek change.
4.2. Types of Social Stratification
Stratification systems differ in the degree to which the movement of people from one
level to another is allowed or encouraged. Some stratification systems allow for the
movement of individuals to move from one stratum to another (change in a person’s
position, in a person’s hierarchy. In the contrary, in other stratification movement from
one stratum to another stratum is impossible or difficult. Thus, here we can classify
social stratification into two. These are closed stratification systems, and open
stratification systems.
1. Closed Stratification System
In close stratification system, people are ranked to some stratum on the basis of traits
over which they have no control. Close stratification systems have well-defined ranks and
rigid boundaries that are difficult or impossible for people to cross. In closed stratification
systems, people are ranked on the basis of ascribed characteristics or traits over which
they have no control. Ascribed statuses such as race or ancestry play important role in
determining people’s social position in closed stratification systems. People remain in the
same social position in close stratification systems; that is, to say social mobility is

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limited. Some examples of closed stratification systems are Indian caste system, South
Africa’ Apartheid, clan and etc.
Caste systems
Castes are social strata into which people were born and in which they remain for life.
Caste is an example of close stratification systems. People are ranked on the basis of
characteristics over which they have no control and that they cannot change.
Membership in caste is an ascribed status rather than an achieved status. Membership of a
particular caste cannot hope to leave the caste, i.e. the boundaries between castes remain
firm. They practice endogamy, marriage within their own groups and prohibit
intermarriage. To prevent contact between castes, they even develop elaborate rules about
ritual pollution, teaching that contact with inferior castes pollute the superior castes.
India provides the best example of a caste system. Based on not race but on religion, it
has existed for almost three thousand years. The Indian caste system has four main
castes or varnas and thousands of specialized sub-castes or Jati, with each Jati
working in a specific occupation.
Caste Occupation
o Brahmans ___ ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ priests or scholars
o Kshatriyans ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____landlords, rulers and militaries
o Vaishyas ___ _____ ____ ____ ____ ___merchants, traders, and skilled
artisans
o Sundras____ ____ _____ ____ _______ __ common labors (Peasants,
servants)
o Haryans _____ ____ ______ ____ ____ __ leather workers, sweepers, etc.
The Haryans are untouchables, social outcasts, and degrading laborers. They
are out of the caste system and are not the follower of Hindu religion.
There is a relationship between caste rank and the opportunities available to members of
that caste. People in lower castes are seen as innately inferior in intelligence, personality,
morality, capability, ambition, and many other traits. Contrarily, people in higher castes
consider themselves to be superior in such traits.
Apartheid
Apartheid is another example of close stratification systems. It is a system of law in
which everyone in South Africa was stratified into a racial category and issued an identity

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card denoting his or her race. It is a system in which skin color of the person determines
the life chances of an individual. The skin color of the person determines where and with
whom he or she could live, work, eat, travel, play, learn, sleep, and buried.

2. Open Stratification Systems

The other type of social stratification system is open stratification system. It is a
stratification system in which people are ranked on the basis of achieved statuses on
merit, talent, ability, or past performance. Open stratification is having ranks with well-
defined boundaries that may be crossed more readily. It is open stratification system in
which there is possibility for an individual to change one’s own social class position.
Social class is an example of open stratification system.
Social Class
A class system is much open, for it is based primarily on economic criteria- money or
material possessions. It remains one of the main forms of social stratification in modern
society. Classes are generally open to entry by newcomers, at least to some extent, and in
modern societies there tends to be a good deal of mobility between classes. Moreover, the
classes of modern societies are not homogeneous- their members do not all share the
same social rank. Social class divides the whole population into three; upper, middle,
and lower.

What Determines Social Class?

Karl Marx: The Means of Production
Although it is agreed that social class influences our lives in many ways, there is less
agreement about what social class actually is and what its origins are. Marx said that
social class depends on a single factor-the means of production-the tools, factory, land,
and investment capital used to produce wealth.
Marx argued that the distinctions people often make between themselves-such as
clothing, speech, education or relative salary-are superficial matters. They conceal the
only real significant dividing line that counts. There are two classes of people according
to Marx. These are the bourgeoisie (the rich and powerful who own industry and
commerce) and the proletariat (who work for the owners and do not own anything except
their labor). The bourgeoisie arrange society to their own benefit using their enormous

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wealth and power. The other groups, the proletariats, work for the bourgeoisie. However,
for they lacked class consciousness- a common identity based on their position in the
means of production. These groups did not consider themselves as exploited workers.
According to Marx, the capitalist gets wealthier and hostility of capitalism increases.
Marx argued that when workers recognize that capitalists are source of their oppressors,
they will unite and throw off the chains of their oppressors. He said that what holds back
workers unity and their revolution is false consciousness, workers mistaken thinking of
themselves as capitalists.
For Marx, the only distinction worth mentioning is whether a person is an owner or a
worker. This decides people’s lifestyles, shapes their ideas, and establishes their
relationships with one another, or the social class of an individual.
Max Weber: Property, Prestige, Status and Power
Max Weber became an outspoken critic of Marx. Weber argued that property is only one
fact. Social class is based on three elements: Property, prestige and power.
Property or Wealth: Economic Factors such as how much money a person earned or
inherited from Parents
Prestige: Respect we give to a person based on such things as accent, style of dress and
level of education.
Power: Power is the amount of influence a person has to affect important social
decisions.
In general, social class is a combination of these three elements for Weber.

4.3. Race and Ethnicity

People frequently confuse the terms “race” and “ethnicity”. For this reason, we begin
with important definitions.
Race: race is a category of men and women who share biologically transmitted
characters that members of a society deem socially significant. People classify each other
racially based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture,
and body shape.
Ethnicity: ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage. Members of an ethnic category may
have common ancestors, language and religion that confer a distinctive social identity.
Race and ethnicity, then, are quite different.

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 Racial and ethnic minority groups
Minority is a category of people that is both set a part by physical or cultural traits and
socially disadvantaged. Distinct from the dominant majority, in other words, minorities
are set apart and subordinated.
Minorities have two major characteristics. These are
i. Minorities share a distinctive identity.
ii. Subordination. Minorities typically have lower income, lower
occupational prestige and limited schooling.
Of course, not all members of any minority category are disadvantaged. Some are quite
wealthy, business leaders, etc.
Minorities are usually a small proportion of a society’s population. But not always- for
example, Black South Africans are disadvantaged even though they are a numerical
majority in their country.
4.4. Social Mobility
Every society has different strata in it. The different individuals and groups who occupy a
certain social position may not remain in that position permanently. Some may move
from one position to another, from higher social class position to lower social class
position, and vice versa. Social mobility implies a set of changes in opportunities,
incomes, lifestyles, personal relationships, social status and ultimately class membership.
Social mobility is a type of movement but it is not physical movement over geographical
space although social mobility could involve, and be brought about by, physical mobility.
It is movement in the social space, the shifting or changing of statuses or class positions.
Social mobility is a social process that takes place among individual members or groups
in a society, as they interact with each other. It is a process by which individuals or
groups move from one status to another; or from one class or stratum to another. In open
societies it is possible, for some individuals and their families and even entire
communities, to move from one stratum to another. Social mobility, therefore, refers to
the ability to move up or down the ladder of social class.
Types of Social Mobility
Sociologists have identified different types of social mobility. The following is a brief
discussion of the different types of social mobility (Team of Exeprts, 2000).

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 A. Vertical Social Mobility
Vertical social mobility is a type of social mobility that individuals experience when they
move from their social status to other higher or lower social status. It is a radical social
change in an individual's position. It is a movement between different social classes and it
involves a change in social position of an individual, a family or a group. It may be
upward or downward.
Inter-generational Social Mobility
Inter-generational mobility is usually measured by comparing the social class position of
children with that of their parents. This type of social mobility involves the movement up
or down, between the social class of one or two generations of a family, or a social group.
In this mobility, our focus of attention is a social group, like the family. Here we look at
change in the status position of the family over two or more generations, i.e. the social
position of the grandfather, the father and the son.
If a child, for example, whose father was an upper class person as a result of his wealth
becomes only a laborer in his own time, then he has experienced a downward
intergenerational social mobility.
Intra-generational mobility
Intra-generational mobility is one’s chance of rising or falling from one social class to
another within one’s own lifetime. This concerns individual changes in positions during
one's life span.
It may also refer to the change that occurs in social groups or a country's socioeconomic
position over a specified period of time. In other words, through achievement or other
means one can move up from being a poor primary school teacher to a high court judge.
Unlike the Inter-generational social mobility, intra-generational social mobility is within
one generation. But like inter-generational social mobility, it may be an upward or
downward social mobility. Unlike the inter-generational social mobility, our focus here is
on a specific individual or group. Here, we observe change in the social position of an
individual or a group over the life cycle of the individual himself or the group either
upward or in some cases downward. For example, a person in his/her lifetime may rise up
from a lower position such as shoe shining, and climb up the social ladder until he or she
becomes a member of privileged social and economic position. Or, others may happen to

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lose their once prestigious socio-economic position and as a result move down until they
end up in destitution.
Structural mobility:
Movement up or down the social class ladder that is attributed to changes in the structure
of society, not individual efforts. It is the changes in society that cause large numbers of
people to move up or down ward the class ladder.

Exchange Mobility: occurs when large numbers of people move up or down the social
class ladder, but on balance, the proportion of the social class remains the same.

B. Horizontal Social Mobility

Horizontal social mobility is also called lateral social mobility. It is movement within a
social class or a social position where the individual slightly improves and/or declines in
his social position within his/ her class level. Unlike vertical social mobility, it doesn't
involve drastic changes.

4.5. Social Movements

There are three indicator of social movement. These are:-
i. Social movements are purposely organized,
ii. They have lasting importance, and
iii. They seek to change or defend some social patterns.
Social movements are much more common today and develop around various social
issues. Social movements change conventional practices, rules and regulations of
societies or governments.
Social movements are persistent, organized, collective efforts to resist existing structures
and cultures, or introduce changes in them. Social movements allow less powerful
members of society to effectively challenge and resist the more powerful members.
Social movements also sometimes allow the relatively powerless to affect inter societal
relations. They can be the vehicle through which individual’s working together may be
able to address issues that otherwise seem too big, too daunting (intimidating), and
overwhelming to them.

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 Types of Social Movements
Social movements differ in the types of change they pursue, and the amounts of change
they aim for. Some movements targeted selected people while other tries to change
everyone. Social movements, thus, are classified based on:
Who is changed? and
How much change?
Taking into consideration these variables, we can classify social movements into four.
These are
i. Redemptive social movements
ii. Alterative social movements
iii. Reformative social movements
iv. Transformative social movements
i. Redemptive Social Movements: do not attempt to change the society; their efforts
target individual change (it seeks total individual change). Many redemptive
movements are religious movements seeking to convert individuals.
ii. Alterative Social Movement: also seeks changes among individuals. But while
redemptive movements seek total changes, alternative movements focus on
limited, but specifically defined, changes. For example, alcoholics anonymous
in an organization that helps alcoholics to achieve a sober life.
iii. Reformative Social Movements: aims to change society. Reformative social
movements generally work within the existing political system, seek only
limited social change but encompass the entire society. The objective of
reformative social movement is not to bring radical change in social structure
but to bring reformative change.
iv. Transformative Social Movement/Revolutionary social movement: like that of
reformative movements, is change in society. But while reformative social
movements work toward limited, specific changes, transformative movements
seek total changes in society. The objective is to bring radical or total changes
in social structure, resulting in a society that is completely different from the
existing form.

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 4.6. Social Interaction and structure
Social interaction
In social science, a social relation or social interaction refers to a relationship between
two (i.e. a dyad), three (i.e. a triad) or more individuals (e.g. a social group). It is an
everyday event in which at least two people communicate and respond through language
and symbolic gestures to affect one another’s behavior and thinking. Social relations,
derived from individual agency, form the basis of the social structure. To this extent
social relations are always the basic object of analysis for social scientists.
Social interaction is the mutual and reciprocal influencing by two or more people of each
other’s behavior. It consists of the interplay between your actions and those of other
people. It is the building block that makes all other forms of social life possible. It is the
result of taking others in to account simultaneously. When we study social interaction, we
examine behavior, mostly, at the micro sociological level. Micro sociology involves the
detailed study of what people say, do and think moment by moment as they go about in
their daily life. According to symbolic interactionists, our definitions of the situation (the
interpretations we give to our immediate circumstances) are critical to social interactions
and that we construct reality by means of definitions.
Forms of social interaction
Competition
Competition as a social process seems to be more pronounced than others. It is real in our
day-to-day interpersonal encounters, as well as in the global situations. Competition is the
process whereby individuals, groups, societies, and countries make active efforts to win
towards getting their share of the limited resources. It is an impersonal attempt to gain
scarce and valued resources of wealth, land, health care services, etc. As a result of
competition, stratification, physical separation and so on may happen in a given society.
Competition involves struggle, efforts, decisions, actions, etc., to survive. Competition is
balanced by cooperation.
Cooperation
Cooperation is a social process whereby people join hands towards achieving common
goals. Competition is more likely to occur in advanced, modern, industrialized societies
than in traditional, homogenous societies where cooperation appears to be more
important.

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 Conflict
In the process of competition for power (which could be economic, social, and political)
and resources, conflict is bound to take place. Conflict involves disagreement and
disharmony, which results due to differences in ideology, living standard, and other
social factors. It is a universal phenomenon, an ever- present reality, taking place both at
micro and macro levels. Conflict involves clash of interest between individuals in a social
group like in a family or between groups or societies. It results due to power imbalance,
due to unfair distribution of resources. Here, it produces social class and stratification.
Conflict may be between males and females, youngster and older generation; between
different religious, ethnic and, political groups.
Accommodation
People may decide to consciously avoid the source of conflict thereby arriving at an
agreement to live accepting one another, co-exist at relative peace, avoiding overt
conflict. Accommodation is a social process whereby people try to accept one another,
avoiding the sources of conflict to live in peaceful coexistence. It is a conscious
adjustment and compromise among conflicting groups so that they can live with one
another without overt conflict.
Assimilation
Assimilation is a social process whereby a group of individuals learns and accepts the
values, norms, etc., of another group and becomes sometimes virtually identical with the
dominant groups. Assimilation involves the acceptance or the internalizing of the larger
or dominant group's culture, values and life styles by the smaller or minority group.
Assimilation could imposed or voluntary. In this age of globalization there are
westernization processes, whereby peoples of the Third World are taking up the values,
notions and practices of the Industrialized West.
Social Structure
It is a term used in the social sciences to refer to patterned social arrangements which
form the society as a whole, and which determine, to some varying degree, the actions of
the individuals socialized into that structure. The meaning of "social structure" differs
between various fields of sociology.
Social structure refers to the recurrent and patterned relationships that exist among the
components of a social system. What sociologists call social structure consists of subtle

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understandings and agreements-networks of invisible rules and institutional
arrangements that guide our behavior.

Social structure provides an organized and focused quality to our group experiences. It
consists the recurrent and orderly relationships that prevail among the members of a
group or society.
One way we structure our everyday lives is by linking certain experiences together and
labeling them “family”, “church”, “government”…etc. however, strictly speaking, there
are no such things; there are only collections of individual people acting in certain ways
that we perceive as patterned and that we label with this kind of shorthand.
Social structure gives us the feeling that much of social life is routine, organized and
repetitive. Consequently, social structure constrains our behavior and channels our
actions in certain direction: they provide the frame work with in which we make our
choices.

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