INTRODUCTION

At the end of the colonial system, peace and stability were two of the main
challenges facing African countries because of their political and
institutional history. Although it lasted only a relatively short period of less
than a century in African history, colonization completely reshaped this
continent. It has created new states, redefined the stakes of power,
reoriented economic forms, crystallized new interests. The risk, under these
conditions, was to see the continent sink into endless border wars after the
end of colonial regulation.

I- CAUSES OF AFRICAN POLITICAL INSTABILITY

1- colonial struggles

The wars of independence constituted a first group of conflicts. In the

aftermath of the Second World War, at the same time as committed
literature emerged, Africans began to consider armed struggle as a means of
gaining independence.

2- inter-state conflicts

Some inter-state wars are also the direct result of the colonial legacy. This
type of conflict was most feared in the 1960s, when most African countries
gained independence. It is this fear that explains the efforts to avoid them
through the principle of the inviolability of the borders resulting from
colonization enshrined in the OAU charter. In retrospect, we notice that they
were less numerous than the civil wars and that they have almost
disappeared since the 1990s. The most well-known cases have been in Mali
and Burkina Faso on two occasions, Somalia and Ethiopia, Chad and Libya
and, for the post-1990 period, Ethiopia and Eritrea. These conflicts are
sequels of the colonial process in the sense that they result from the

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arbitrary demarcation of borders that are not well recognized and are
generally structured around territorial claims.

3- Ethnic conflicts

Ethnic conflicts have thus become a field of study in their own right. Far
from sticking to a primary explanation, and without falling into the thesis of
the colonial fabrication of ethnicity, Donald Horowitz shows how
colonization reinforced ethnic identities. Some groups have been more
favoured than others, such as the Kikuyu in Kenya, the Djerma in Niger, the
Baoulé in Côte d'Ivoire or the Hawiye in Somalia.

4- The legacies of the colonial political system

The British and French colonization methods did not have the same effects
on African countries in the aftermath of independence. After the end of
colonialism, the Anglophone regions have more or less succeeded in
establishing a better management of the political, economic, social and
cultural (linguistic) than that of French-speaking Africa. The Indirect Rule
practiced by the British occupier in the African colonies favoured the
emergence of a local ruling class (political and economic) whose only
relationship with the United Kingdom was allegiance to the royal crown.
Local institutions remained under the authority of British officers, but it
was the traditional chiefs who explained and reinforced colonial policy.
These colonies had their own local parliaments that were modelled on the
British model. The French, on the other hand, have imposed direct rule to
manage the colonies from Paris or through French governors receiving their
orders from the French capital. Not only has it been stifled any local
initiative, but it has also ensured that, since independence and until today,
special relations have been established between France and its former
colonies in French-speaking Africa. The colonial legacy largely explains why

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"[t]he democratization of English-speaking Africa was less painful than that
of French-speaking Africa."

Such a legacy is even more marked in the cultural fields.

5- Authoritarian Regimes

Some African leaders cling to power through authoritarian means,

suppressing dissent and limiting freedoms. This can create an environment
ripe for protests and uprisings.

6- Corruption and Governance

Corruption has been a persistent issue in many African countries,

undermining trust in government institutions. Poor governance can lead to
economic mismanagement, resulting in widespread poverty and
disenfranchisement.

II- THE CONSEQUENCES

1. Establishment of the infernal cycle of coups d'état

The 82 coups that Africa experienced between 1960 and 2000 were
devastating for the continent – contributing to the instability, corruption,
human rights violations, impunity and poverty that characterized many
African countries during this period.

The recent wave of coups in Africa is therefore bad news. In the past two
years, coups have taken place in Mali (twice), Chad, Guinea, Sudan, Tunisia
and, arguably, Algeria and Burundi, while most of these countries were in
the midst of democratic transition. This type of coup can be traced back to
the coups in Egypt and Zimbabwe a few years earlier. This means that

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nearly 20% of African countries have been hit by coups since 2013. The
continent is therefore at risk of returning to the bad days of military bad
governance – a period often remembered for its "lost decades".

2. Impact on socio-economic development

Political instability and corruption in Africa have a profound impact on the

continent's socio-economic development. These scourges hinder economic
growth, reduce investment and divert resources needed to improve people's
living conditions. First, political instability creates a climate of uncertainty
that discourages domestic and foreign investors. Companies are reluctant to
locate in countries where changes in government or internal conflicts can
jeopardize their operations. As a result, employment opportunities and
wealth creation are limited, contributing to perpetuating the cycle of
poverty.

In addition, political corruption diverts public funds that could be invested

in infrastructure, education, health and other key development sectors. This
mismanagement of public resources limits citizens' access to quality
services and perpetuates social inequalities. As a result, a large part of the
African population continues to face socio-economic challenges such as lack
of access to education, health, clean water and decent employment.

III- SOME SOLUTIONS

1. Legislative and institutional reforms

Legislative and institutional reforms are essential elements in addressing

political instability, corruption, and other challenges facing Africa. These
reforms aim to strengthen democratic governance, promote transparency
and accountability, and create an enabling environment for socio-economic
development. On the legislative front, it is crucial to adopt laws that
criminalise corruption, ensure transparency in tendering procedures and

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protect whistleblowers. Laws strengthening the independence of the
judiciary are also needed to ensure fair application of the law and to combat
impunity for acts of corruption.

From an institutional point of view, it is essential to strengthen control and

regulatory bodies, such as anti-corruption agencies, ethics committees and
auditing bodies. These institutions must be provided with sufficient
resources and a clear mandate to conduct independent investigations and
punish acts of corruption.

2. Strengthening accountability mechanisms

Strengthening accountability mechanisms is a crucial step in the fight

against corruption and political instability in Africa. These mechanisms aim
to increase the transparency and accountability of public institutions and
political actors. To achieve this, it is essential to set up independent
oversight and regulatory bodies with adequate resources and a clear
mandate to investigate corruption cases and sanction those responsible.
These bodies must be free from political interference in order to ensure
their impartiality and effectiveness.

Strengthening accountability mechanisms also involves promoting citizen

participation and civil society in the oversight of public activities. Citizens
must be informed of their rights and duties, and encouraged to denounce
acts of corruption and abuse of power. Safe and anonymous reporting
channels must be put in place to protect whistleblowers.

CONCLUSION

Political instability can have serious ramifications, affecting not only the
countries involved but also regional stability and international relations.

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Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies that consider
the unique circumstances of each nation.