CHAPTER 7 : BUILDING SENTENCES

SECTION 1 AND 2: LIKNG WORDSAND SENTENCES

Linking words and phrases in English (also called 'connective' or 'transition' words) are
used to combine two clauses or sentences presenting contrast, comparison, condition,
supposition, purpose, etc.
They enable us to establish clear connections between ideas.

Most linking words can either connect clauses within a sentence, or start a sentence to
forma link with the previous statement.

1. Expressing addition:

To add information, you can use these expressions:

Examples:
in addition - as well as - moreover - what is more - not only...but also... - furthermore -
besides - also - too - and...

If the project fails this will have terrible consequences not only on our
department but also on the whole organization
John's grades are terrible because he has been so lazy these days. In addition
to this, his relationship with his parents got worse.
The report is badly written. Moreover, it's inaccurate.

2. Expressing contrast:

To express contrast, you can use these expressions:

Examples:

although - even though - in spite of / despite - however - yet - nevertheless - nonetheless -

on the contrary - whereas - on the one hand ...but on the other hand... - conversely - but...

Brain drain has terrible consequences on the developing

countries. Nevertheless, nothing has been done to solve the problem or at
least reduce its negative effects.
In spite of / despite Fred's old age, he goes jogging every morning.
Although she's very nice, her classmates hate her.
They have got two children, a boy and a girl. The boy takes after his
father whereas the girl takes after the mother.

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3. Expressing cause and effect

To express cause and effect, you can use these expressions:

Examples:
consequently - as a consequence - as a result - therefore - because of this - for this reason
- because - since - as - for - due to - owing to

She remained silent, for she was so depressed to talk.

We can't go to Sue's party because we'll be busy working on our project.
The plane was delayed because of the foggy weather.
He had spent most of his time hanging around instead of revising his
lessons. Consequently, he had a lot of trouble answering the exam questions.

5. Expressing purpose:

To express purpose use the following words:

Examples:

in order to - in order not to - so as to - so as not to - to - not to

She wakes up early in order to be on time to work.

They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife
He helped the new policewoman so as not to fail in her first mission.

4. Summarizing:

To summarize, you can use the following expressions:

Examples:

in conclusion - to conclude - to sum up - in a nutshell - in brief - in short - all in all -

everything considered...

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CHAPTER 7 : BUILDING SENTENCES
SECTION 3 : RELATIVE CLAUSES
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a noun phrase.

Example:

The man who is smoking is the murderer

The noun the man is modified by the relative clause who is smoking.

Relative clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are
talking about.

How to use relative clauses

They are used to provide extra information. This information can either:

define something (defining clause),

Example:
The girl who is standing there is a world champion in karate.
or provide unnecessary, but interesting information (non-defining clause).
Example:
Michael Jackson, who was a famous singer, died of an overdose.

Relative clauses can be introduced by:

1. A relative pronoun: who, whom, which, that, whose.

Example: "The man who is standing there is a famous writer."

2. A relative adverb: where, why and when.

Example: " The restaurant where I have dinner is nice."

3. None of them.

Example: "The man I met is extremely wealthy"

Relative pronouns:

• who - subject or object pronoun for people

They caught the lady who killed her baby.

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• which - subject or object pronoun
I read the book which is on the table.
I visited the town which you told me about.

• which - referring to a whole sentence

They were unsuccessful which is disappointing.

• whom - used for object pronoun for people, especially in non-restrictive relative
clauses (in restrictive relative clauses use who)

The boy whom you told me about got the best grades in mathematics.

• that - subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in restrictive relative
clauses (who or which are also possible)

I like the vase that is over there.

Relative adverbs:

• where - referring to a place

The restaurant where I usually have dinner is nice.

• when - referring to a time

There are times when I feel so lonely.

• why - referring to a reason

This is why she refused the offer.

CHAPTER 7: BUILDING SENTENCES

SECTION 4: EXPRESSIONS OF TIME, PLACE, AND REASON
1. EXPRESSING TIME:

There are many words and expressions to refer to time. You can use these to sequence
events and to make stories and anecdotes more interesting.

The present – permanent:

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Use the present simple tense to refer to permanent situations in the present.

I now live in a small town.

Nowadays I live in a small town.
These days, I don’t have much of a social life.

The present – temporary:

Use the present continuous tense to refer to temporary situations in the present.

At present / At the moment I’m living in a small town.

For the time being I’m living in a small town, but I hope to move soon.

Talking about a period of time in the past:

My mother started work as a nurse in the 1960s.

In those days she lived in London.
Back then nurses were badly paid.
At that time, nurses lived in special accommodation.

Talking about a single event in the past:

At one time she lost her door key and had to stay in a hotel.
On one occasion she nursed the son of a famous politician.

Sequencing events in the past:

There are many ways to sequence events in the past. Here are some of the more common
ones.

After (in the middle of a sentence)

Afterwards / After that / After a while (at the beginning of a sentence)
Then / Before (in the middle or at the beginning of a sentence)
Before that / Previously / Until then (At the beginning of a sentence)
By the time (in the middle of a sentence followed by a past perfect tense)
By then / by that time (at the beginning of a sentence)

I went shopping after I finished work.

I worked all day in the office. Afterwards / After that, I went shopping.
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I went shopping. After a while, I got bored.
I worked before I went shopping.
I went shopping at 6pm. Before that / Previously / Until then I had worked all day in
the office.
I worked all day, then I went shopping.
I was desperate to go shopping by the time I had finished work.
I worked until 6pm. By then / By that time, I was glad for the opportunity to go
shopping.

Other expressions to refer to the next event in a story:

Later on
Before long
At that moment / Suddenly
Meanwhile
At the same time
Simultaneously (a more formal way of saying meanwhile / at the same time)

I worked and then went shopping. Later on I met some friends for pizza.
I waited for a while in the restaurant. Before long, the waiter came up and asked
me…
At that moment / Suddenly, I heard the door slam.
Meanwhile / At the same time / Simultaneously my phone started to ring.

2. PLACE EXPRESSIONS:

Preposition of
Explanation Example
place
inside I watch TV in the living-room
I live in New York
Look at the picture in the book
She looks at herself in the
in mirror.
She is in the car.
Look at the girl in the picture
This is the best team in the
world

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 used to show an exact I met her at the entrance, at the
position or particular place bus stop
table She sat at the table
at events at a concert, at the party
place where you are to do at the
something typical (watch a movies, at university, at work
film, study, work)

attached Look at the picture on the wall

next to or along the side of Cambridge is on the River
(river) Cam.
used to show that something The book is on the desk
is in a position above A smile on his face
something else and touching The shop is on the left
on it. My apartment is on the first
left, right floor
a floor in a house I love traveling on trains
used for showing some /on the bus / on a plane
methods of traveling My favorite
television, radio program on TV, on the radio

by, next to, not far away in distance The girl who is by / next
beside, near to / beside the house.

in or into the space which The town lies

between separates two places, people halfway between Rome and
or objects Florence.

at the back (of) I hung my coat behind the

behind door.

further forward than She started talking to the

in front of someone or something else man in front of her

lower than (or covered by) the cat is under the chair.
under something else

below lower than something else. the plane is just below the the

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 cloud

above or higher than She held the

something else, sometimes umbrella over both of us.
so that one thing covers the Most of the carpets
other. are over $100.
over more than. I walked over the bridge
across from one side to the She jumped over the gate
other.
overcoming an obstacle

higher than something else, a path above the lake

above but not directly over it

from one side to the other of She walked across the

something with clear limits / field/road.
across getting to the other side He sailed across the Atlantic

from one end or side of They walked

through something to the other slowly through the woods.

in the direction of We went to Prague last year.

to bed I go to bed at ten.

towards the inside or middle Shall we go into the garden?

of something and about to be
into contained, surrounded or
enclosed by it

in the direction of, or closer She stood up and

towards to someone or something walked towards him.

used to show movement into I slipped as I stepped onto the

onto or on a particular place platform.

from used to show the place where What time does the

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 someone or something starts: flight from Amsterdam arrive?

3. EXPRESSING REASON:

Use to, so as to, and in order to to express purpose in the affirmative form.

Examples:

He is looking for a part time job to save some pocket money.

She wakes up early in order to be on time to work.
They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife.

Use so as not to and in order not to to express purpose in the negative form.

Examples:

They woke up early in order not to be late.

She exercises regularly so as not to get fat.
He helped the new policewoman so as not to fail in her first mission.

Purpose with so that

You can also express purpose with so that. In this case you generally need to use
a modal.

Examples:

He turned down the music so that he wouldn't disturb the neighbors.

He got a visa so that he can travel to the USA.
He decided to stay in England for a while so that he could practice his English.

Purpose with for:

Purpose can be also expressed by using for. For may be followed by a noun or a verb +
ing.

Examples:

I stopped there for a chat.

This mop is for cleaning the floor