How Christianity Prospered by Appealing to the Lower

Classes of Ancient Rome

Luigi Mangione

Teachers: Dr. Harris and Mr. Hastings

Due Date: 5/13/14

“As a gentleman, I have acted honorably on this paper” X Luigi Mangione

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 Paganism is defined a polytheistic, non-Abrahamic religion characteristic of the ancient

European world beginning in the Iron Age of Europe. Starting around 1200 B.C., European

civilization prospered under Paganism for more than a thousand years. Even with the destruction

of Corinth and the conquering of Greece in 146 B.C., Paganism prevailed, becoming the official

religion of the Roman Republic. Under Paganism, the Roman Republic rose to the Roman

Empire, the largest and most powerful empire in history. During the Pax Romana, however,

“Greco-Roman civilization lost its creative energies, and the values of classical humanism were

challenged by mythic-religious movements”, as explained by Marvin Perry, a former history

professor at Baruch College (Perry 96). A plethora of mystery cults and mythic religions existed

in Rome, with Christianity being just one small Jewish movement. Now, fast-forward 300 years,

Christianity finally dethroned Paganism, as Rome was deemed the Holy Roman Empire. From

this moment forward, Christianity dominated all aspects of European culture, everything from art

to society to theological mindset. But how was Christianity able to evolve from a small Jewish

movement to one of the most influential religions in human history?

While the Roman elites used Paganism to gain secular power and political influence,

Christianity appealed to the lower classes because it offered moral justice, fellowship, mystery,

and otherworldly promises. Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath of Oak Leaves, sculpted in 41

– 54 A.D., depicts Claudius as Jupiter and reflects the transformation of Paganism into political

propaganda in the first and second centuries. Furthermore, it explains how Paganism became

secular and more focused towards the nobility. In The Gospel According to Saint Matthew

written in 80 – 90 A.D., through otherworldly promises and appealing to outcasts, Saint Matthew

presented Christianity as a benevolent religion that created a fellowship and solved the problems

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of the Roman people. By attracting the lower classes with otherworldly promises, as seen in the

Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Christianity successfully converted people from Paganism

and gained support. Moreover, the Gospel aspired to create a community among its members,

thus satisfying the yearnings of Romans who suffered poverty, oppression, and isolation. In

addition, through The City of God written soon after 410 A.D., Saint Augustine compares the

Christian world with the pagan world, while arguing Christianity’s superiority. In this work,

Saint Augustine describes the Christian beliefs of an afterlife, justice, community, and individual

importance, all of which appealed to the lower classes. Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath of

Oak Leaves represents how Paganism repelled the lower classes, whereas the Gospel According

to Saint Matthew exemplified Christianity’s appeal to the impoverished Romans. Moreover,

Saint Augustine’s The City of God differentiates the pagan and Christian mindsets, while

explaining why Christianity stood the more attractive option for the lower classes.

The sculpture, Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath of Oak Leaves, portrays Claudius

as Jupiter with a strong and colossal appearance, whereas he was actually disabled, thus

reflecting the transformation of Paganism into political propaganda. In this sculpture created by

an unknown artist in 41 – 54 A.D., the artist depicts Claudius as Jupiter through the use of

several symbols. The artist sculpts Claudius with a scepter in his hand, a symbol of divine power.

Similarly he depicts Claudius without sandals and partially nude, other symbols of the divine. In

the sculpture, Claudius stands with an eagle below him. Ancient Romans recognized the eagle as

a symbol of Jupiter, the God of the gods. Also, as Ruzicka, the museum director at Washington

County Museum of Fine Arts, notes: “in Greek art, the pose in which a standing figure has one

arm outstretched and the other raised vertically to hold a staff or spear was generally reserved for

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Athena, Zeus, and Poseidon, the most powerful of the Greek deities” (Ruzicka 255). By clearly

depicting Claudius as Jupiter, the God of the gods, the artist uses the notion of divine power to

represent the importance and power of emperor Claudius.

Interestingly, the deification of emperors in Roman Culture occurred quite commonly.

Karl, a history professor at Tulane college, explains that in Roman Paganism “invariably, the

emperor’s spirit was worshiped in tandem with other gods” (Karl 21). In order to nourish an

imperial cult, however, emperors had to gain support from local elites, whose wealth and

influence could draw support from other pagan cults. By having an imperial cult title of

neokoros, a city could express its greatness (Karl 26). For this reason, local elites aspired to

support the imperial cult, weaving it into “the religious, social, and political fabric of cities”

(Karl 26). Through imperial cults, Paganism began to lose its meaning, instead becoming

political propaganda and means of patrician benefits. The Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath

of Oak Leaves represents this idea perfectly, as the depiction of Claudius as an all-powerful being

encompasses the definition of political propaganda. Recognizing the duplicity of Roman

Paganism, but still yearning for spiritual fulfillment, the Roman lower class turned to mystery

cults and other religious sects.

Upon further inspection of the work, the sculpture reflects the secularization of Roman

Paganism. For example, the artist puts very little detail into the libation dish when compared to

the rest of the sculpture. This artistic choice praises Claudius more than the libation dish, thus

praising Claudius more than the gods themselves. This choice diminishes the importance of the

gods, and reflects the secular nature of Paganism. Surrounded by a secular and meaningless

Paganism, the lower classes sought other forms of religion. Marvin Perry also adds that “the

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masses of peasants and slaves remained attracted to religious forms. Ritual, mystery, magic, and

ecstasy never lost their hold on the ancient world” (Perry 96). For this reason, the lower classes

sought other forms of religion rather than abandoning religion altogether. In addition, he explains

that “burdened by danger and emotional stress, and fearing fate as fixed in the stars, people

turned for deliverance to… mystery cults” (Perry 96). In addition to internal religious conflict,

Rome suffered under economic weakness and cultural stagnation, brought upon by various

aspects of Roman society and culture.

The sculpture of Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath of Oak Leaves depicts the

diminishment of Roman Paganism and thus culture, which parallels the economic downfall and

spiritual paralysis that overcame the Roman world in the first and second centuries. Perry

explains that “the urban upper class, on whom the responsibility for preserving cosmopolitan

Greco-Roman culture traditionally rested, became dissolute and pathetic, no longer taking

interest in public life” (Perry 100). These nobles, who removed themselves from public life and

squandered their wealth, rather than investing it in commercial or industrial enterprise,

consequently ushered in the decline of the Roman economy. Perry notes that the economy of

Rome during the Pax Romana had serious defects and that Rome failed to satisfy “agricultural

production to feed the cities, [or satisfy] growing internal mass markets to stimulate industrial

production” (Perry 95). With the nobility secluding themselves from public life and ignoring the

economic crisis of Rome, they left the lower class in the dark. Stuck in this crisis, the masses lost

interest in the material world and placed their hope in life after death, fertile ground for the rise

of Christianity. As Perry puts it: “the Roman world was undergoing a religious revolution and

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was seeking a new vision of the divine” (Perry 96). Thus, Christianity rose as the perfect remedy,

appealing to the cries of the oppressed and offering eternal happiness.

In The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, through its other-worldly promises and

appeal to outcasts, Saint Matthew presented Christianity as a benevolent religion that created a

community and solved the problems of the common people. In the powerful, authoritarian, and

hierarchical Roman Empire, a mindset existed that praised the generals and nobles, but paid no

heed to the majority of the population that was poor and weak. Through the Gospel, Matthew

outlined a contrary set of guidelines:

5:3 Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 5:4 Blessed are

they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. 5:5 Blessed are the meek: for they shall

inherit the earth. 5:7 Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. 5:8 Blessed are

the pure in heart: for they shall see God. 5:9 Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall

be called sons of God… 5:12 Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in

heaven. (Matthew 5:3 - 5:12)

Matthew’s message was directed to the poor and suffering, the majority of the population who

were ignored by the Roman culture. He specifically used anaphora, “blessed are the”, in order to

emphasize God’s love for the weak and outcast. He followed this with otherworldly promises,

thus offering a solution to the forgotten. These promises encompassed one of the most appealing

aspects of Christianity. As Koester, a professor of New Testament Studies, explains: “the

message that was preached here promised gifts, spiritual gifts, to people that went beyond the

everyday life experience and promised also immortality, a future life which would be liberation

from sickness and from disease and from poverty, and individual isolation. There is a future for

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the individual” (Koester). Caught in a confusing time and bogged down by poverty and sickness,

the lower class felt the only solution to their problems lay in a life after death, a solution that

Christianity readily offered.

Through the Gospel, Saint Matthew convinced the oppressed to follow the Christian

message by offering a sensible moral structure and justice guaranteed by God. Furthermore, he

incorporated this moral structure into the community of Christianity, creating a fellowship that

shaped the basic moral intuitions of its members. In the following passage, Matthew described

the moral justice that characterized the Christian community:

5:10 Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the

kingdom of heaven… 5:16 Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your

good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven… 5:19 Whosoever therefore

shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, shall be called least

in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, he shall be called great

in the kingdom of heaven. (Matthew 5:10 - 5:19)

In this passage, Matthew explained that those who are persecuted in this world for their beliefs

will be rewarded for eternity in heaven. Also, his use of “glorify your Father which is in heaven”

created a closely-knit family of Christians bound together under God by the same moral belief.

In addition, his use of “let your light so shine before men” created the perception that the

individual had worth. This suggested that Christians were special, unique, and important, as

opposed to the mentality of Rome that ignored peasants. This quotation also enticed Christians to

spread their beliefs and help convert other Romans by shining their light before others. Matthew

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offered a comforting message as well as a moral, loving community that the masses lacked and

yearned for.

In addition to creating a community that catered to the poor, suffering, and oppressed,

Matthew advocated a fellowship based on equality, where anyone from a servant to a king was

the same in God’s eyes. As Koester explains, “in Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither

male nor female, neither slave nor free. This is a sociological formula that defines a new

community... which makes you an equal with all other members of that community... it gives

even the lowliest slave personal dignity and status” (Koester). Matthew clearly sent this message

in the following passage:

8:8 And the centurion answered and said, Lord, I am not worthy that thou shouldest

come under my roof; but only say the word, and my servant shall be healed. 8:9 For I also

am a man under authority, having under myself soldiers: and I say to this one, Go, and he

goeth; and to another, Come, and he cometh; and to my servant, Do this, and he doeth it.

(Matthew 8:8 - 8:9)

Matthew described the centurion as “a man under authority” who was unworthy of Jesus, and

thus implied that all people, even authorities, were below God and equal in his eyes. Matthew

also praised piety toward the lower class as seen in the centurion’s concern for his servant. In

addition to having an inspiring and sensible message, Christianity yielded a sense of superiority

to its members, many of whom were oppressed.

In Saint Augustine’s The City of God, written sometime after 410 A.D., Saint Augustine

denounces Roman culture and religion while praising Christianity and exerting its superiority. In

this work, he juxtaposes two cities, the heavenly city and the worldly city. Clearly, the worldly

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city represents the Roman world, whereas the heavenly city describes the Christian world. This is

evident, as he characterizes the worldly city as “boasting”, “dominated by the lust for

domination”, and “lov[ing] its leader’s as symbols of its own strength”, all prominent features of

Roman culture (Augustine XIV, 28). Furthermore, he boasts Christianity’s superiority by

explaining: “in the city of the world both the rulers themselves and the people they dominate are

dominated by the lust for domination; whereas in the City of God all citizens serve one another

in charity” (Augustine XIV, 28). In this passage, he offers two very different mentalities, with the

City of God appealing much more to the lower class due to its message of charity and

community. Moreover, he suggests a sense of superiority over the aristocracy. Obviously, this

notion was very comforting for the lower classes. In addition to devaluing the Roman mindset,

Saint Augustine criticizes Roman Paganism.

Saint Augustine diminishes the Roman religion, criticizing its worldliness as well as its

exclusiveness. He denounces the Roman religion, describing its gods as: “false, wicked and

proud gods who, because they have been deprived of that unchangeable light which was meant

for all, are reduced to a pitiful power and, therefore, are eager for some sort of influence and

demand divine honors from their deluded subjects” (Augustine XI, 1). Through the above

quotation, Saint Augustine explains that the pagan gods “have been deprived of that

unchangeable light which was meant for all”, implying that the pagan religion directed itself to

the nobility and left the lower classes in the dark. Furthermore, Augustine denounces Paganism

on the basis that it required divine honors, whereas Christianity did not. This may have appealed

to many poor Romans who did not have the money to make sacrifices to the pagan gods. Koester

further describes the pagan gods, explaining: “the gods looked like no one more than the

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aristocrats, the emperor and his court. They looked like the courtiers. But here is a religion which

claims that God is made manifest in a peasant” (Koester). So, while Paganism directed itself

toward the nobility, Christianity, whose god was a peasant rather than an aristocrat, attracted the

lower class. In addition, Saint Augustine describes the followers of Paganism as those who “have

changed the glory of the incorruptible God for an image made like to corruptible man… and they

have worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator” (Augustine XIV, 28). In the

above quotation, he denounces Paganism on the basis that it exchanges the glory of God for the

emperor, and worships the emperor more than the gods themselves. Augustine’s argument

mirrors Emperor Claudius Wearing the Wreath of Oak Leaves, which exemplifies how the

Romans praised Claudius more than the gods themselves, diminishing the importance of the

gods, and reflecting the secular nature of Paganism. Christianity appealed to the lower classes by

devaluing Paganism and offering a sense of superiority, as well as offering otherworldly

promises, whereas Paganism focused on this world.

Saint Augustine’s The City of God appeals to the oppressed by lessening the importance

of this world, instead offering the eternal reward of heaven. Saint Augustine makes this life

seems pointless and temporary, claiming “those who think that the supreme good and evil are to

be found in this life are mistaken” (Augustine XIX, 4). In his work, he also explains that in

heaven “reigns that true and perfect happiness… toward whose beauty we can but sigh in our

pilgrimage on earth” (Augustine V, 16). Through his use of pilgrimage, he creates the perception

that this world is meaningless and temporary, a comforting message to many Romans who were

poor, sick, or oppressed. In addition to diminishing the importance of this world, Saint Augustine

describes a very appealing afterlife in which Christians “shall reign for ever and ever”

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(Augustine XV, 1), contrasting this world that was characterized by struggle for many poor

Romans. As Richards, a history professor at Gordon State College, describes: “as men became

increasingly powerless and insignificant, the naturalistic outlook became a pessimistic world

view which offered no hope of escape” (Richards). Instead of the Roman world view that

Richards explains, the oppressed were able to seek escape through the Christian afterlife.

Furthermore, Koester reinforces this idea in The Great Appeal, explaining: “the message of the

possibility for a human being to be related to something that is beyond the powers of this world

was certainly one great attraction” (Koester). The Christian afterlife not only offered an escape

for the lower classes, but also eternal punishment for the nobility, a sort of revenge to comfort

the poor.

As explained by Saint Augustine, Christianity offered generous gifts to the lower classes,

but showed no mercy to the Christian non believers, many of whom were of the aristocracy. He

clearly outlines this strict punishment when he stated: “the destiny of [the Christians] being an

eternal kingdom under God while the doom of the other[s] is eternal punishment along with the

devil (Augustine XV, 1). Saint Augustine does however justify this punishment, explaining that

the Roman elite

thought they were on the right road when they strove for honors, rule, and glory. Honor

has come to them from almost all peoples. The rule of their laws has been imposed on

many peoples. And in our day, in literature and history, glory has been given [to] them…

they have no right to complain of the justice of the true and supreme God. They have

received their reward. (Augustine V, 15)

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As shown above by Saint Augustine, Christianity determined brutal punishment for Roman elite,

while resulting this outcome to their honor, rule, and glory in this world, an appealing message to

the lower classes who lacked these worldly pleasures. This aspect of Christianity created a sort of

revenge on the upper class. Furthermore, it offered a justice guaranteed by God, in that no matter

what happens in this world, those who were moral would be rewarded for eternity in the next

world. Jaggard backs this idea of revenge, explaining: “the early Christians, who belonged to the

lowest ranks of society, were able to gain a great deal of psychological comfort from the thought

that those who belonged to the ruling orders were destined to be damned to hell” (Jaggard 354).

Christianity comforted the lower class by making up for their lack of worldly luxuries. Similarly,

it appealed to them by catering to their yearnings for individual worth and community.

When comparing the heavenly city with the worldly city, Saint Augustine explains that

the members of the heavenly city share a bond based on common moral standards, creating a

sense of community between the Christians. For example he states: “in the City of God all

citizens serve one another in charity” (Augustine XIV, 28). His use of “citizens” and “one

another” created a fellowship between the members of the heavenly city. Koester supports this

idea when he explains the kind of family summoned by Christianity stating: “to be part of the

Christian community... to be part of the church, is to belong to a society of closely knit friends,

brothers and sisters and Christ” (Koester). In this quotation, Koester uses “brothers and sisters”

to suggest an equality and mutual respect between the members of the community. This

countered the Roman culture in which they “never believed in equality; there was always a

hierarchy” (Karl 42). Koester later reinforces the idea of equality when he explains: “this religion

is saying that every person, man, woman, child, slave, barbarian, no matter who, is made in the

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image of God and is therefore of enormous value in the eyes of God” (Koester). Through this

passage, Koester emphasizes the equality offered by Christianity, and highlights that the

Christian message preaches individual worth. Richards backs this notion, while relating it to the

Roman world, stating: “many wanted some emotional justification for believing in their own

individual worth within a vast world-state ruled by a distant emperor” (Richards). Overall,

Christianity offered a sense of equality, community, and importance, which Paganism lacked,

thus making the transition from Paganism to Christianity quite easy for many lower class

Romans.

In the turbulent times of ancient Rome, the intentions of Paganism became distorted and

thus unappealing to many Romans. Paganism became simply political propaganda and means of

patrician benefits, and thus only applicable to upper class Rome. The great majority of Rome,

however, suffered poverty and oppression; and, therefore they sought other forms of religion.

During this time, a plethora of religions and mystery cults emerged. Due to its strong sense of

morality, guaranteed justice, close community, and promised afterlife, Christianity appealed to

the lower classes of Rome, who no longer felt a connection to Paganism. In first century Rome,

the aristocracy, who mainly practiced Paganism, stood a minimal percentage of the population.

The lower classes, however, composed nearly all of the population. Thus, in spite of Paganism’s

long reign, Christianity was able to rise from the midst.

Christianity can arguably been seen as the most influential religion in history. During the

Middle Ages, Christianity was the supreme authority and funded the arts, determined education,

and drove society in any direction it pleased, ultimately determining the mentality of modern

European civilization. Today 2.2 billion people in the world are Christian, comprising 32% of the

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population of the world. Christianity stands the most populous religion in the world, with the

next most populous religion being Islam which makes up just 23% of the world population.

Christianity can arguably been seen as the most influential religion in history, and had it not

succeeded, the course of the world would have been altered drastically.

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Oxford, U.K.: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Karl, Kenneth W. The Fall of the Pagans and the Origins of Medieval Christianity. Chantilly,

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"City of God (book)." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 Mar. 2014. Web. 13

May 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_God_(book)>.

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Harper, Jennifer. "84 Percent of the World Population Has Faith; a Third Are

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2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism>.

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 Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank Mr. Hastings and Dr. Harris for helping me with a few last

minute changes on my paper. Furthermore, I would like to thank them for their continuous input

throughout the month-long writing process. In addition, I would like to thank Spotify for helping

me stay focused during my research and writing. Also, thank you to John Lee for helping me

change my thesis and restructure my paper. Finally, I would like to thank Mrs Fuller for going

out of her way and helping me find several secondary sources.

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