Ernest Hemingway

Ernest Miller Hemingway (/ˈhɛmɪŋweɪ/ HEM-ing-

way; July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American Ernest Hemingway
novelist, short-story writer and journalist. Known for
an economical, understated style that influenced later
20th-century writers, he has been romanticized for his
adventurous lifestyle and outspoken, blunt public
image. Some of his seven novels, six short-story
collections and two non-fiction works have become
classics of American literature, and he was awarded the
1954 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb

of Chicago. After high school, he spent six months as a
reporter for The Kansas City Star before enlisting in
the Red Cross. He served as an ambulance driver on
the Italian Front in World War I and was seriously Hemingway in 1939
wounded by shrapnel in 1918. In 1921, Hemingway Born July 21, 1899
moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign Oak Park, Illinois, U.S.
correspondent for the Toronto Star and was influenced Died July 2, 1961 (aged 61)
by the modernist writers and artists of the "Lost Ketchum, Idaho, U.S.
Generation" expatriate community. His debut novel, Notable Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
The Sun Also Rises, was published in 1926. In 1928, awards (1953)
Hemingway returned to the U.S., where he settled in Nobel Prize in Literature
Key West, Florida. His experiences during the war (1954)
supplied material for his 1929 novel A Farewell to
Spouses Hadley Richardson
Arms.
Pauline Pfeiffer
In 1937, Hemingway went to Spain to cover the Martha Gellhorn
Spanish Civil War, which formed the basis for his 1940 Mary Welsh
novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, written in Havana,
Children Jack · Patrick · Gloria
Cuba. During World War II, Hemingway was present
with Allied troops as a journalist at the Normandy Signature
landings and the liberation of Paris. In 1952, his novel
The Old Man and the Sea was published to
considerable acclaim, and won the Pulitzer Prize for
Fiction. On a 1954 trip to Africa, Hemingway was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes,
leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life. He died by suicide at his house in
Ketchum, Idaho, in 1961.

Early life
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, an affluent suburb just west
of Chicago,[1] to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician.
His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park,[2] a conservative community about
which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to."[3] When
Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall,[4]
after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.[2] His sister Marcelline preceded
him in 1898, and his younger siblings included Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and
Leicester in 1915.[2] Grace followed the Victorian convention of not differentiating children's clothing by
gender. With only a year separating the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one another strongly. Grace
wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept his hair long and dressed both
children in similarly frilly feminine clothing.[5]

Grace Hemingway was a well-known local musician,[6] and taught her

reluctant son to play the cello. Later he said music lessons contributed to
his writing style, as evidenced in the "contrapuntal structure" of For
Whom the Bell Tolls.[7] As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his
mother, although they shared similar enthusiastic energies.[6] His father
taught him woodcraft during the family's summer sojourns at Windemere
on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan, where Ernest learned to hunt,
fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. These early
experiences instilled in him a life-long passion for outdoor adventure and
living in remote or isolated areas.[8]

Hemingway went to Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park
Hemingway was the second between 1913 and 1917, where he competed in boxing, track and field,
child and first son born to water polo, and football. He performed in the school orchestra for two
Clarence and Grace. years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English
classes.[6] During his last two years at high school he edited the school's
newspaper and yearbook (the Trapeze and Tabula); he imitated the
language of popular sportswriters and contributed under the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to Ring
Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[9] After leaving high school, he went to
work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[9] Although he stayed there only for six months, the
Star's style guide, which stated "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English.
Be positive, not negative", became a foundation for his prose.[10]

World War I
Hemingway wanted to go to war and tried to enlist in the U.S. Army
but was not accepted because he had poor eyesight.[11] Instead he
volunteered to a Red Cross recruitment effort in December 1917 and
signed on to be an ambulance driver with the American Red Cross
Motor Corps in Italy.[12] In May 1918, he sailed from New York, and
arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German
artillery.[13] That June he arrived at the Italian Front, holding the ranks
of second lieutenant (A.R.C.) and sottotenente (Italian Army)
simultaneously.[14] On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene
of a munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving the
shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his
1932 non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after
we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected
fragments."[15] A few days later, he was stationed at Fossalta di
Piave.[15]

On July 8, right after bringing chocolate and cigarettes from the Hemingway as 1st Lt. in the
A.R.C., in late 1918. In
canteen to the men at the front line, the group came under mortar fire.
Northern Italy, he drove
Hemingway was seriously wounded.[15] Despite his wounds, he ambulances for two months
assisted Italian soldiers to safety, for which he was decorated with the until he was wounded
Italian War Merit Cross (Croce al Merito di Guerra) and with the
Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor (Medaglia d'argento al valor
militare).[note 1][16][17] For his deed, he saw furthermore promotion to first lieutenant (A.R.C.) and tenente
(Italian Army).[18] He was only 18 at the time. Hemingway later said of the incident: "When you go to
war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you
are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."[19] He
sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center,
and spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital
in Milan.[20] He spent six months at the hospital, where he met "Chink" Dorman-Smith. The two formed
a strong friendship that lasted for decades.[21]

While recuperating, Hemingway fell in love with Agnes von

Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. When
Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he
believed Agnes would join him within months, and the two would
marry. Instead, he received a letter from her in March with news that
she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers
writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man; in
future relationships Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a
wife before she abandoned him.[22] His return home in 1919 was a
difficult time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained
from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without
a job and with the need for recuperation.[23] As biographer Michael S.
Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what
In Milan in 1918
he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell
them how scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who
could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[24]
That September, he went on a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of
Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[19] The trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted
River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude
after coming home from war.[25] A family friend offered Hemingway a job in Toronto, and with nothing
else to do, he accepted. Late that year, he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the Toronto Star
Weekly. He returned to Michigan the next June[23] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live
with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.[26] In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor
of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson.[26]

He met Hadley Richardson through his roommate's sister. Later, he claimed, "I knew she was the girl I
was going to marry."[27] Red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", Hadley was eight years older than
Hemingway.[27] Despite the age difference, she seemed less mature than usual for a woman her age,
probably because of her overprotective mother.[28] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women,
claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but Agnes lacked Hadley's childishness. After exchanging
letters for a few months, Hemingway and Hadley decided to marry and travel to Europe.[27] They wanted
to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to go to Paris instead, writing letters of
introduction for the young couple.[29] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later,
Hemingway signed on as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star and the couple left for Paris. Of
Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had
hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."[30]

Paris
Anderson suggested Paris because it was inexpensive and it was where
"the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway
would meet writers such as Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra
Pound who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".[29]
Hemingway was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered,
brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."[31]
He lived with Hadley in a small walk-up at 74 rue du Cardinal
Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and rented a room nearby for work.[29]
Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[32] became
Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack;[33] she introduced
him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter,
whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway
popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[34] A regular at
Hemingway's 1923 passport
photo; at this time, he lived in Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo
Paris with his wife Hadley and Picasso, Joan Miró, Juan Gris,[35] and Luis Quintanilla.[36] He
worked as a foreign eventually withdrew from Stein's influence, and their relationship
correspondent for the Toronto deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.[37]
Star Weekly.
Pound was older than Hemingway by 14 years when they met by
chance in 1922 at Sylvia Beach's bookstore Shakespeare and Company.
They visited Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.[31] The two forged a strong friendship; in
Hemingway Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.[35] Pound—who had just finished editing T.
S. Eliot's The Waste Land—introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce,[31] with whom
Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".[38]

During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the
Toronto Star newspaper.[39] He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where
he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as
"Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain
Has the Best, Then Germany".[40] Almost all his fiction and short
stories were lost, when in December 1922 as she was traveling to join
him in Geneva, Hadley lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the
train station Gare de Lyon. He was devastated and furious.[41] Nine
months later the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John
Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence,
Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published
in Paris. All that remained after the loss of the suitcase were two of the
stories the volume contained; he wrote the third story early in 1923
while in Italy. A few months later, in our time (without capitals) was
Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby
produced in Paris. The small volume included 18 vignettes, a dozen of
Hemingway in Schruns,
which he wrote the previous summer during his first visit to Spain,
Austria, in 1926, months before
where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He considered Toronto they separated
boring, missed Paris, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather
than live the life of a journalist.[42]

Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into
an apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.[42] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit The
Transatlantic Review, which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-
Loringhoven, and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[43]
When Hemingway's first collection of stories, In Our Time, was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore
comments from Ford.[44][45] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important
early story by a young writer,[46] and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating
the short-story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.[47] Six months earlier,
Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and
hostility".[48] Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and
decided his next work had to be a novel.[49]

The year before, Hemingway visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, for the first time,
where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[50] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona again in 1924
and a third time in June 1925; that year, they brought with them a group of American and British
expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff
Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[51]

A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would
become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later.[52] A few months later, in December 1925, the
Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began extensively revising
the manuscript. Pauline Pfeiffer, the daughter of a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas, who came to
Paris to work for Vogue magazine, joined them in January. Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged
 Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for a
quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return,
began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to
Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[53] The manuscript arrived
in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August
1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.[52][54][55]

The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,[56]

received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest
work".[57] Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins
that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being
lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in
The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[58]

From left to right: Ernest Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on
Hemingway, Harold Loeb, Lady The Sun Also Rises.[55] In early 1926, Hadley became aware of his
Duff Twysden, Hadley
affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that
Hemingway, Donald Ogden
Stewart, and Patrick Stirling
July.[59][60] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in
Guthrie, at a café in Pamplona, November she formally requested a divorce. They split their
Spain, July 1925. possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the
proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[61] They were divorced in January
1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.[62]

Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to

Catholicism.[63] They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he
contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short
stories,[64] Men Without Women, which was published in October
1927,[65] and included his boxing story "Fifty Grand". Cosmopolitan
magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it,
"one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best
prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism."[66]
Ernest and Pauline Hemingway
in Paris in 1927
By the end of the year Pauline was pregnant and wanted to move
back to America. Dos Passos recommended Key West, and they left
Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe head injury in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a
skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent
forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he
was reluctant to answer.[67] After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big
city".[68]

Key West
Hemingway and Pauline went to Kansas City, Missouri, where their son Patrick was born on June 28,
1928, at Bell Memorial Hospital.[69] Pauline had a difficult delivery; Hemingway wrote a fictionalized
version of the event in A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, they traveled to Wyoming,
Massachusetts, and New York.[70] On December 6, Hemingway was in New York visiting Bumby, about
to board a train to Florida, when he received the news that his father
Clarence had killed himself.[note 2][71] Hemingway was devastated,
having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about
financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He
realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in
1903, and said, "I'll probably go the same way."[72]

Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on The Hemingway House in Key
the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. West, Florida, where he lived
He had finished it the previous August but delayed the revision. The between 1931 and 1939 and
where he wrote To Have and
serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to appear in May.
Have Not
In April, he was still working on the ending, which he may have
rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was
published on September 27, 1929.[73] Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established
Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The
Sun Also Rises.[74] In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon.
He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete
with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being
literally of life and death."[75]

During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he
found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly
bear.[76] He was joined there by Dos Passos. In November 1930, after taking Dos Passos to the train
station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. He was hospitalized for seven
weeks, with Pauline tending to him. The nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during
which time he suffered intense pain.[77]

His third child, Gloria Hemingway, was born a year later on

November 12, 1931, in Kansas City as "Gregory Hancock
Hemingway".[note 3][78] Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in
Key West with a carriage house, the second floor of which was
converted into a writing studio.[79] He invited friends—including
Waldo Peirce, Dos Passos, and Max Perkins[80]—to join him on
fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry Tortugas. He
continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he
Ernest, Pauline, and Hemingway wrote of Key West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all
children pose with marlins after a well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly restless".[81]
fishing trip in Bimini in 1935
In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-
week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa, as well as for
the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber".[82] The
couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya; then moved on to Tanganyika Territory,
where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara, and west and southeast of present-day
Tarangire National Park. Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Percival who had guided
Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these travels, Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery
that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in
"The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on
Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.[83]

He purchased a boat in 1934, naming it the Pilar, and began to sail the Caribbean.[84] He arrived at
Bimini in 1935, where he spent a considerable amount of time.[82] During this period he worked on To
Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, which became the only novel he wrote
during the 1930s.[85]

Spanish Civil War

Hemingway had been following developments in Spain since early in his career[86] and from 1931 it
became clear that there would be another European war. Hemingway predicted war would happen in the
late 1930s. Baker writes that Hemingway did not expect Spain to "become a sort of international testing-
ground for Germany, Italy, and Russia before the Spanish Civil War was over".[87] Despite Pauline's
reluctance, he signed with North American Newspaper Alliance to cover the Spanish Civil War,[88] and
sailed from New York on February 27, 1937.[89] Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn accompanied
Hemingway. He had met her in Key West a year earlier. Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and,
like Pauline, had worked for Vogue in Paris. According to Kert, Martha "never catered to him the way
other women did".[90]

He arrived in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker Joris

Ivens.[91] Ivens, who was filming The Spanish Earth, intended to
replace John Dos Passos with Hemingway as screenwriter. Dos
Passos had left the project when his friend and Spanish translator
José Robles was arrested and later executed.[92] The incident
changed Dos Passos's opinion of the leftist republicans, and
caused a rift with Hemingway.[93] Back in the U.S. that summer,
Hemingway prepared the soundtrack for the film. It was screened
at the White House in July.[94] Hemingway (center) with Dutch
filmmaker Joris Ivens and German
In late August he returned to France and flew from Paris to writer Ludwig Renn serving as an
International Brigades officer during
Barcelona and then to Valencia.[95] In September he visited the
the Spanish Civil War in Spain in
front in Belchite and then on to Teruel.[96] On his return to Madrid 1937
Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was
being bombarded by the Francoist army.[97] He went back to Key
West for a few months in January 1938. It was a frustrating time: he found it hard to write, fretted over
poor reviews for To Have and Have Not, bickered with Pauline, followed the news from Spain avidly and
planned the next trip.[98] He took two trips to Spain in 1938. In November he visited the location of the
Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, along with other British and American journalists.[99] They
arrived to find the last bridge destroyed and had to retreat across the turbulent Ebro in a rowboat,
Hemingway at the oars, "pulling for dear life".[100][101]

In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana.
This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway
met Martha Gellhorn.[102] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented Finca Vigía ("Lookout
Farm"), a 15-acre (61,000 m2) property 15 miles (24 km) from Havana. That summer while visiting with
Pauline and the children in Wyoming, she took the children and left him. When his divorce from Pauline
was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.[103]

Hemingway followed the pattern established after his divorce from Hadley and moved again. He split his
time between Cuba and the newly established resort Sun Valley.[104] He was at work on For Whom the
Bell Tolls, which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940.[104] His pattern was to move around
while working on a manuscript, and he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun
Valley.[102] Published that October,[104] it became a book-of-the-month choice, sold half a million copies
within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and as Meyers describes, "triumphantly re-established
Hemingway's literary reputation".[105] In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for
Collier's magazine.[106] Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM. Meyers
writes that Hemingway had little enthusiasm for the trip or for China;[106] although his dispatches for PM
provided incisive insights of the Sino-Japanese War according to Reynolds, with analysis of Japanese
incursions into the Philippines sparking an "American war in the Pacific".[107] Hemingway returned to
Finca Vigía in August and left for Sun Valley a month later.[108]

World War II
The United States entered the war after the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.[109] Back in Cuba,
Hemingway refitted the Pilar as a Q-boat and went on patrol for German U-boats.[note 4][19] He also
created a counterintelligence unit headquartered in his guesthouse to surveil Falangists,[110] and Nazi
sympathizers.[111] Martha and his friends thought his activities "little more than a diverting racket", but
the FBI began watching him and compiled a 124-page file.[note 5][112] Martha wanted Hemingway in
Europe as a journalist and failed to understand his reticence to take part in another European war. They
fought frequently and bitterly, and he drank too much,[113] until she left for Europe to report for Collier's
in September 1943.[114] On a visit to Cuba in March 1944, Hemingway was bullying and abusive with
Martha. Reynolds writes that "looking backward from 1960–61 [anyone] might say that his behavior was
a manifestation of the depression that eventually destroyed him".[114] A few weeks later, he contacted
Collier's who made him their front-line correspondent.[115] He was in Europe from May 1944 to March
1945.[116]

When he arrived in London, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he became
infatuated. Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because
Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him
hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. She was unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him
of being a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished".[117] The last time that
Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he prepared to return to Cuba;[118] their divorce was
finalized later that year.[117] Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third
meeting.[117]

Hemingway sustained a severe head-wound that required 57 stitches.[119] Still suffering symptoms of the
concussion,[120] he accompanied troops to the Normandy landings wearing a large head bandage. The
military treated him as "precious cargo" and he was not allowed ashore.[121] The landing craft he was on
came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire when it turned back. Hemingway
later wrote in Collier's that he could see "the first, second, third, fourth and fifth waves of [landing
 troops] lay where they had fallen, looking like so many heavily laden
bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover".[122]
Mellow explains that, on that first day, none of the correspondents were
allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea Dix.[123]
Late in July, he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment
commanded by Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanham, as it drove toward Paris",
and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia
in Rambouillet outside of Paris.[116] Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway
got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of
Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not
supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."[19] This was, in fact, in
Hemingway with Col. contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up
Charles "Buck" Lanham in on formal charges; he said that he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only
Germany during the fighting offered advice.[124]
in Hürtgenwald in 1944,
after which he became ill He was present at the liberation of Paris on August 25; however contrary
with pneumonia to legend, he was not the first into the city nor did he liberate the Ritz.[125]
While there, he visited Sylvia Beach and met Picasso with Mary Welsh,
and in a spirit of happiness, forgave Gertrude Stein.[126] Later that year, he
observed heavy fighting at the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.[125] On December 17, 1944, he traveled to
Luxembourg, in spite of illness, to report on The Battle of the Bulge. As soon as he arrived, however,
Lanham referred him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia; he recovered a week later,
but most of the fighting was over.[124] He was awarded a Bronze Star for bravery in 1947, in recognition
for having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions".[19]

Cuba and the Nobel Prize

Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to
1945.[127] In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy
five months later. The Hemingway family suffered a series of
accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a
1945 car accident, he injured his knee and sustained another head
wound. A few years later Mary broke first her right ankle and then
her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left
Patrick with a head wound, severely ill and delirious. The doctor in
Cuba diagnosed schizophrenia, and sent him for 18 sessions of
electroconvulsive therapy.[128]
Hemingway in the cabin of his
Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: boat Pilar, off the coast of Cuba,
in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 F. Scott c. 1950
Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946
Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins,
Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend.[129] During this period, he suffered from severe
headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result
of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.[130] Nonetheless, in January 1946, he began
work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June.[note 6][131] During the post-war years, he also
began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air", which he wanted to
combine in one novel titled The Sea Book. Both projects stalled. Mellow writes that Hemingway's
inability to write was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.[note 7][132]

In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there,
Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired the
novel Across the River and into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and
published in 1950 to negative reviews.[133] The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across
the River and Into the Trees, Hemingway wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks,
saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[130] Published in September 1952,[134] The
Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity,
and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953. A month later he departed Cuba for his second trip to
Africa.[135][136]

While in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in successive

plane crashes, in January 1954. He had chartered a sightseeing flight
over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way
to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an
abandoned utility pole and was forced into a crash landing.
Hemingway sustained injuries to his back and shoulder; Mary
sustained broken ribs and went into shock. After a night in the brush,
they chartered a boat on the river and arrived in Butiaba, where they
were met by a pilot who had been searching for them. He assured
them he could fly out, but the landing strip was too rough and the
Hemingway and Mary in Africa plane exploded in flames. Mary and the pilot escaped through a
before the two plane accidents broken window. Hemingway had to smash his way out by battering
the door open with his head.[137] Hemingway suffered burns and
another serious head injury, that caused cerebral fluid to leak from the
injury. [138] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death.
He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating in Nairobi.[139] Despite his injuries,
Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain
caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.[140] When a bushfire broke out, he was again
injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[141]
Months later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked
discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[140] The accidents may have
precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had
been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat
the pain of his injuries."[142]

In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl
Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[143] but he gladly accepted the prize
money.[144] Mellow says Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after
his plane accidents and their worldwide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in
Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."[145] He was
still recuperating and decided against traveling to Stockholm.[146] Instead he sent a speech to be read in
which he defined the writer's life:
 Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers
palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his
writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness
and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and
if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of
it, each day.[147][148]

Since his return from Africa, Hemingway had been slowly writing his
"African Journal".[note 8][149] Late in the year and early into 1956 he was Hemingway's Nobel-Prize
[149] telegram in 1954
bedridden with a variety of illnesses. He was ordered to stop drinking
so as to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but eventually
disregarded.[150] In October 1956, he returned to Europe and visited ailing Basque writer Pio Baroja, who
died a few weeks later. During the trip, Hemingway again became sick and was treated for a variety of
ailments including liver disease and high blood pressure.[151]

1954 Nobel Acceptance Speech

0:00 / 0:00

Opening statement of Nobel Prize acceptance speech, 1954 (recorded privately by Hemingway after the
fact).

Problems playing this file? See media help.

In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in
1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were
filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to
Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast.[152] By
1959, he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the
following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden;
and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana as he
focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Reynolds claims it was during this period that
Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.[153]

Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway considered a permanent move to
Idaho. In 1959, he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River, outside Ketchum and left Cuba—
although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government, telling The New York Times
he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of Batista.[154][155] He was in Cuba in November 1959,
between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and the following year for his 61st
birthday; however, that year, he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to
nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals.[156] On July 25, 1960, the
Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, Finca Vigía was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with
Hemingway's collection of about 5,000 books.[157]

Idaho and suicide

After leaving Cuba, in Sun Valley, Hemingway continued to
rework the material that was published as A Moveable Feast
through the 1950s.[152] In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a
series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life magazine.[158]
Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of
control.[159] For the first time in his life he could not organize his
writing, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him.
Hotchner helped trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and
Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Hemingway bird-hunting at Silver
Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[160] Hotchner found Creek, near Picabo, Idaho, in
January 1959; with him are Gary
Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and
Cooper and Bobbie Powell
confused",[161] and suffering badly from failing eyesight.[162] He
left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960. Mary went with him
to New York where he set up a small office and attempted unsuccessfully to work. Soon after, he left New
York, traveling without Mary to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life magazine. A few
days later the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary
until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."[163] He was,
in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.[160] Feeling lonely, he took
to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first installments of The Dangerous Summer
published in Life that September to good reviews.[164] In October, he went back to New York, where he
refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho,
where they were met at the train station in Ketchum by local physician George Saviers.[160]

He was concerned about finances, missed Cuba, his books, and his life there, and fretted that he would
never return to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault.[165] He believed the manuscripts
that would be published as Islands in the Stream and True at First Light were lost.[166] He became
paranoid, believing that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.[note 9][162] Mary
was unable to care for her husband and it was anathema for a man of Hemingway's generation to accept
he suffered from mental illness. At the end of November, Saviers flew him to the Mayo Clinic in
Minnesota on the pretext that he was to be treated for hypertension.[165] He was checked in under
Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.[164]

Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that
he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as many as 15 times in December 1960.[167]
Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document 10 ECT sessions. The
doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being treated may have been
caused by his long-term use of Reserpine and Ritalin.[168] Of the ECT therapy, Hemingway told
Hotchner, "What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and
putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient."[169] In late January 1961 he
was sent home, as Meyers writes, "in ruins". Asked to provide a tribute to President John F. Kennedy in
February he could only produce a few sentences after a week's effort.

A few months later, on April 21, Mary found Hemingway with a shotgun in the kitchen. She called
Saviers, who admitted Hemingway to the Sun Valley Hospital under sedation. Once the weather cleared,
Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient.[170] Hemingway underwent three electroshock
treatments during that visit.[171] He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on June
30.
Two days later Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early
morning hours of July 2, 1961.[172] Meyers writes that he unlocked the basement storeroom where his
guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer, "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss
shotgun ... put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains."[173] In
2010, however, it was argued that Hemingway never owned a Boss and that the suicide gun was actually
made by W. & C. Scott & Son, his favorite one that was used at shooting competitions in Cuba, duck
hunts in Italy or at a safari in East Africa.[174]

When the authorities arrived, Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital.
Returning to the house the next day, she cleaned the house and saw to the
funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem
to her a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been
accidental.[175] In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that
he had shot himself.[176] Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the
funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death
had been accidental.[175] An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket
during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed
to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[177]
The Hemingway Memorial
Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of in Sun Valley, Idaho
his father before he killed himself;[178] his father may have had hereditary
hemochromatosis, whereby the excessive accumulation of iron in tissues
culminates in mental and physical deterioration.[179] Medical records made available in 1991 confirmed
that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961.[180] His sister Ursula and his
brother Leicester also killed themselves.[181]

Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life, which
exacerbated his erratic behavior, and his head injuries increased the effects of the alcohol.[130][182] The
neuropsychiatrist Andrew Farah's 2017 book Hemingway's Brain, offers a forensic examination of
Hemingway's mental illness. In her review of Farah's book, Beegel writes that Farah postulates
Hemingway suffered from the combination of depression, the side-effects of nine serious concussions,
then, she writes, "Add alcohol and stir".[183] Farah writes that Hemingway's concussions resulted in
chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which eventually led to a form of dementia,[184] most likely dementia
with Lewy bodies. He bases his hypothesis on Hemingway's symptoms consistent with DLB, such as the
various comorbidities, and most particularly the delusions, which surfaced as early as the late 1940s and
were almost overwhelming during the final Ketchum years.[185] Beegel writes that Farah's study is
convincing and "should put an end to future speculation".[183]

Writing style
Following the tradition established by Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis,
Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist.[9] The New York Times wrote in 1926 of
Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a
truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to
shame."[186] The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, tight prose that made Hemingway famous, and,
according to James Nagel, "changed the nature of American writing".[187] In 1954, when Hemingway
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently
demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary
style."[188] Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his]
experience of world war". After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions
of Western civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers and by creating a
style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which
nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."[19]

Hemingway's fiction often used grammatical and stylistic structures from languages other than
English.[189] Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish
influenced Hemingway's prose,[190][189] which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in
italics, as occurs in The Old Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations. He also often used
bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.[191][192][193]

Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker

believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the If a writer of prose knows enough of
least, how to prune language, how to multiply what he is writing about he may omit
intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way things that he knows and the reader, if
that allowed for telling more than the truth."[195] the writer is writing truly enough, will
Hemingway called his style the iceberg theory: the facts have a feeling of those things as
float above water; the supporting structure and strongly as though the writer had stated
symbolism operate out of sight.[195] The concept of the them. The dignity of movement of an
iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it
omission". Hemingway believed the writer could being above water. A writer who omits
describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "Big things because he does not know them
Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing only makes hollow places in his
occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on writing.
fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about
anything else).[196] Paul Smith writes that Hemingway's —Ernest Hemingway in Death in the
first stories, collected as In Our Time, showed he was Afternoon[194]
still experimenting with his writing style,[197] and when
he wrote about Spain or other countries he incorporated
foreign words into the text, which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs
in The Old Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations.[198] In general, he avoided complicated
syntax. About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences without subordination—a simple childlike
grammar structure.[199]

Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in
general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences
and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep
at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the
front?"[200] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to
be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you
leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is
how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[201]
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd In the late summer that year we lived in
believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in a house in a village that looked across
response to Henry James's observation that World War I the river and the plain to the mountains.
had "used up words". Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" In the bed of the river there were
photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is pebbles and boulders, dry and white in
the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which the sun, and the water was clear and
lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static swiftly moving and blue in the
sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a channels. Troops went by the house and
collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation down the road and the dust they raised
(colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in powdered the trees.
favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences
build on each other, as events build to create a sense of —Opening passage of A Farewell to Arms
showing Hemingway's use of the word
the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an
and[202]
"embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also
uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly
from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to
fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.[203]
Conjunctions such as "and" are habitually used in place of commas; a use polysyndeton that conveys
immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—
uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. Benson compares them to haikus.[204][205]

Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his style and frowned upon expression of emotion; Saul
Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."[206] Hemingway's intent was not to
eliminate emotion, but to portray it realistically. As he explains in Death in the Afternoon: "In writing for
a newspaper you told what happened ... but the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made
the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely
enough, always, was beyond me". He tried to achieve conveying emotion with collages of images.[207]
This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce,
and Marcel Proust.[208] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times
over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[209]

Themes
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, expatriation, wilderness, and loss.[210] Critic
Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the American West—extended in
Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of
Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The
Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[211] In Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism, Jeffrey
Herlihy describes "Hemingway's Transnational Archetype" as one that involves characters who are
"multilingual and bicultural, and have integrated new cultural norms from the host community into their
daily lives by the time plots begin."[212] In this way, "foreign scenarios, far from being mere exotic
backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating factors in-character action".[213]

In Hemingway's fiction, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; it is where the hunter or fisherman might
experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey.[214] Nature is where men exist
without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.[211] Although Hemingway does
write about sports, such as fishing, Carlos Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the
sport.[215] At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism,
evident in detailed descriptions such as those in "Big Two-Hearted River".[8]

Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the
good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light
woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[211]
Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character
favorably and a female unfavorably".[216] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded
his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-
slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-
evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths)
and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his
writings were one-sidedly masculine."[217] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber
"are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.' "[218]

Death permeates much of Hemingway's work. Young

believes the emphasis on death in "Indian Camp" was The world breaks everyone and
not so much on the father who kills himself, but on afterward many are strong in the
Nick Adams, who witnesses these events and becomes a broken places. But those that will not
"badly scarred and nervous young man". Young break it kills. It kills the very good and
believes the archetype in "Indian Camp" holds the the very gentle and the very brave
"master key" to "what its author was up to for some impartially. If you are none of these
thirty-five years of his writing career".[220] Stoltzfus you can be sure it will kill you too but
considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with there will be no special hurry.
a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if
"nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved —Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell to
at the moment of death. Those who face death with Arms[219]
dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis
Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life
are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.[214] In
his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that
Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers,
fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".[221]

Emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen and The Sun
Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a
generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character,
Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also Rises. Her character supports the theme
not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the
start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.[211] In God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen,
the emasculation is literal, and related to religious guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes
the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "An Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high
country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's
dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to
the "natural" spring for redemption.[215]
In recent decades, critics have characterized Hemingway's work as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan
Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism and found that "critics interested in
multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway. Typical is this analysis of The Sun Also Rises:
"Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to
be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to
Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality" and racism in
Hemingway's fiction.[222] In an overall assessment of Hemingway's work Beegel has written:
"Throughout his remarkable body of fiction, he tells the truth about human fear, guilt, betrayal, violence,
cruelty, drunkenness, hunger, greed, apathy, ecstasy, tenderness, love and lust."[223]

Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who
came after him either emulated or avoided it.[224] After his reputation
was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises, he
became the spokesperson for the post–World War I generation,
having established a style to follow.[187] His books were burned in
Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and
disavowed by his parents as "filth".[225] Reynolds asserts the legacy
is that "[Hemingway] left stories and novels so starkly moving that
A life-sized statue of Hemingway
some have become part of our cultural heritage."[226] Benson believes
by José Villa Soberón at El
the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for Floridita, a bar in Havana
exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.[227] The
Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard-boiled style" and
the machismo must be separated from the author himself.[225] Benson agrees, describing him as
introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.[228]
During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an
influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes
of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs".[229] In
2002, a fossil billfish from the Danata Formation of Turkmenistan was named Hemingwaya after
Hemingway, who prominently featured a marlin in The Old Man and the Sea.[230]

Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s, she donated her
husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to
assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and
fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway Review.[231] His granddaughter Margaux
Hemingway was a supermodel and actress and co-starred with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976
movie Lipstick.[232][233] Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.[234]

Selected works
This is a list of work that Ernest Hemingway published during his lifetime. While much of his later
writing was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed
below.
 Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923)
in our time (1924)
In Our Time (1925)
The Torrents of Spring (1926)
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
Men Without Women (1927)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
Death in the Afternoon (1932)
Winner Take Nothing (1933)
Green Hills of Africa (1935)
To Have and Have Not (1937)
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
Across the River and into the Trees (1950)
The Old Man and the Sea (1952)

See also
Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and
grandchildren

References

Notes
1. On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerou s
pieces of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before
taking care of himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more
seriously wounded by the same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere
until after they had been evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61
2. Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985),
2
3. She would undergo sex reassignment surgery between 1988 and 1994. See Meyers (2020),
413
4. Germany targeted ships leaving the Lago refinery in Aruba to transport oil products to
England; in 1942, more than 250 ships were destroyed. See Reynolds (2012), 336
5. He would remain under surveillance until his death. See Meyers (1985), 384
6. The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
7. The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in
1970. See Mellow (1992), 552
8. Published in 1999 as True at First Light. See Oliver (1999), 333
9. The FBI had opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the Pilar to patrol the
waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s,
see Mellow (1992), 597–598; and appeared to be monitoring his movements at that time, as
 an agent documented in a letter written a few months later, in January 1961, about
Hemingway's stay at the Mayo clinic. see Meyers (1985), 543–544

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External links

Digital collections
Works by Ernest Hemingway in eBook form (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/ernest-hemi
ngway) at Standard Ebooks
Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/50533) at Project
 Gutenberg
Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Hemingway%2
C%20Ernest) at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Ernest Hemingway (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subje
ct%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ernest%20Heming
way%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20creator%
3A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20E%2
E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%22%20OR%20description%3A%22
Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%2
2%29%20OR%20%28%221899-1961%22%20AND%20Hemingway%29%29%20AND%2
0%28-mediatype:software%29) at the Internet Archive
Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://librivox.org/author/1543) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)

Physical collections
Ernest Hemingway Collection (https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/ernest-hemingway-collectio
n) at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
Ernest Hemingway collection (https://archives.lib.umd.edu/repositories/2/resources/107) at
the University of Maryland Libraries
Ernest Hemingway Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book
and Manuscript Library.
Ernest Hemingway's Collection (https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadi
d=00056) at The University of Texas at Austin
Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at
Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. (https://findingaids.library.columbia.ed
u/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079484)
Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 (https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archival
collections/pdf/mss18572_1.pdf) Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books
and Special Collections (https://archives.library.sc.edu/repositories/5/resources/869)

Journalism
"The Art of Fiction No. 21" (https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-
no-21-ernest-hemingway). The Paris Review. Spring 1958.
Ernest Hemingway's journalism (http://www.historicjournalism.com/ernest-hemingway-1.htm
l) at The Archive of American Journalism

Biographical and other information

Ernest Hemingway (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/625) on Nobelprize.org
FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway (https://vault.fbi.gov/ernest-miller-hemi
ngway/ernest-hemingway-part-01-of-01/view)

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