Political Science – Ln 1 - Power-sharing

Belgium SRILANKA
POSITIONING : POSITIONING :
 Small country in Europe  Small island in Asia
 Borders Netherlands, France and Germany  South coast of Tamilnadu
Area & population : Population :
 Smaller than Haryana  Same as Haryana
 Little over 1 crore  2crore
Ethnic composition(Language) : Ethnic composition(Language) :
 59% - Dutch(Lives in Flemish region)  74% - Sinhalese
 40 % - French(Lives–Wallonia region)  18 % - Tamil (Indian tamils)
 1% - German  13% - Sri Lankan tamil
Ethnic composition in Capital(Brussels): (Natives)(Live in North & East of
 20% - Dutch country)
 80 % - French Religion :
Reason for tension : -  Most Sinhalese speakers are
**French Minority – Rich and Powerful Buddhist
**Dutch resented – Got benefits of economic Most Tamil speakers are Hindus or
development and education much later. Muslims
**Dutch (country)-Majority ;  7% Christians(Speak
Capital –Minority Tamil,Sinhala)
Accomodation in Belgium
The Belgian leaders recognised the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities. Between
1970 and 1993, they amended their constitution four times to enable everyone to live together within the
same country. The arrangement they worked out is very innovative.
 Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in
the central government.
 Special laws to become Acts need majority from each language group.
 State government are not made subordinate to central government.
 - Many powers of the central government have been given to states government of the two of
the regions of the country.
 Brussels has separate government in which both the communities have equal representation.
 Third kind of government elected by Dutch, French and German speakers. This is community
government.Incharge of – Language, Cultural and educational issues.
 In Belgium, the leaders have realized that the unity of the country is possible only by respecting
the feelings and interests of different communities and regions.
When many countries of Europe came together to form the European Union, Brussels was chosen as its
headquarters.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka:

 Sri Lankan emerged as an independent country in 1948.

 The leaders of the Sinhala community sought to secure dominance over the government by virtue
of their majority.
 Democratic government adopted Majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
 In 1956, an Act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language, thus disregarding
Tamil.
 Government followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university
positions and government jobs.
 A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
 All these measures, gradually increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils.
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  They felt the constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights,
discriminated them in getting jobs opportunities and ignored their interests.
 As a result, the relations between the Sinhala and Tamil communities strained over time.
 The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official
language, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs,
which was repeatedly denied.
 By 1980s, several political organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil Eelam
(state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
 The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned into
CIVIL WAR. The civil war caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of
the country.
 It ended in 2009.
Power sharing (two reasons make power sharing desirable)
Prudential
 Reduces possibility of conflicts between social groups.
 Social conflicts lead to violence and instability.
 Power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order.
 Prevents groups from over stepping their rights to enhance their own power.
 Stress that power sharing will bring better outcomes.
Note - Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often affects majority adversely
as well.
Moral
 The spirit of democracy calls for power sharing.
 People have the right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
 A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the
system.
 Emphasis the very act of power sharing is valuable.
Why is Power sharing necessary?
* For a long time, it was believed that all power of a government must reside in one person or group of
persons. If the power to decide is dispersed, it wont be possible to take quick decisions.
* One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy,
people rule themselves through institutions of self-government. In a good democratic government, due
respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping
of public policies. Therefore, it follows that in a democracy, political power should be distributed among
citizens.
Forms of Power sharing
1)Horizontal distribution of power / System of checks and balances -
Organs of government – Legislative , Executive , Judiciary.
*It allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Such a
separation ensures that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power.
*Each organ checks the others. This results in a balance of power among various institutions.
*In a democracy, even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to
the Parliament or State Assemblies.
*Judges are appointed by executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the
legislatures. This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances

2)Government at different levels - (Vertical division of power)

*A government for the entire country – called federal government. In India, it is Central or Union
Government. *Governments at the provincial or regional level –In India it is State Governments.
*The constitution clearly lays down the powers of different levels of government. This is called federal
division of power. The same principle can be extended the municipality and panchayat. This is Vertical
division of power(Federalism).

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3.Social Groups
*Power can be shared among different social groups, religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community
government’ in Belgium is an example.
*Constitutional and legal arrangements are made where socially weaker sections and women are
represented in the legislatures and administration.
* The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. This type of
arrangement gives space in government and administration to diverse social groups, who would feel
alienated. This gives minority communities a fair share in power.

Political Parties & Pressure groups and movements

 Political parties lead the competition. Coalition is formed if any party fails to get majority.
 Parties have to perform to remain in power.
 Power is shared among different political parties that represent different ideologies and social
groups.
 In a democracy, interest groups, like traders, businessmen, industrialists, farmers and industrial
workers. They influence on the decision-making process. They force the government to change their
policies.
Khalil’s dilemma(Case study)
“In the city of Beirut, lived Khalil. His father was Orthodox Christian and mother a Sunni Muslim.
People from various communities that lived in Lebanon came to live in its capital, Beirut. They lived
together, intermingled, yet fought a civil war among themselves. Khalil’s uncle was killed in that war.

At the end of this civil war, Lebanon’s leaders came together and agreed to some basic rules for power
sharing among different communities. The country’s President must be Maronite sect of Catholic
Christians. The Prime Minister must be Sunni Muslim. The Deputy Prime Minister must be Orthodox
Christian sect. The Speaker must be Shi’a Muslims. Under this pact, the Christians agreed not to seek
French protection and the Muslims agreed not to seek unification with the neighbouring state of Syria.
When the Christians and Muslims came to this agreement, they were nearly equal in population. Now
the Muslims are in clear majority.
Khalil does not like this system . He is a man with political ambition. But under the present system, the
top position is out of his reach. He does not practise any religion. He cannot understand why Lebanon
can’t be like any other ‘normal’ democracy. “Just hold an election, allow everyone to contest and
whoever wins maximum votes becomes the president, no matter which community he comes from. Why
can’t we do that, like in other democracies of the world?” he asks. His elders, who have seen the
bloodshed of the civil war, tell him that the present system is the best guarantee for peace?

Glossary
**Ethnic: A social division based on shared culture. People belonging to the same ethnic group believe
in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of culture or both. They need not
always have the same religion or nationality.
** Majoritarianism: A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever
way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.
** Civil war: A violent conflict between opposing groups within a country that becomes so intense that
it appears like a war.
**Prudential: Based on prudence, or on careful calculation of gains and losses. Prudential decisions are
usually contrasted with decisions based purely on moral considerations.

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 Picture Based Questions

The cartoon at the left refers to the problems of running the Germany’s
grand coalition government that includes the two major parties of the
country, namely the Christian Democratic Union and the Social
Democratic Party. The two parties are historically rivals to each other.
They had to form a coalition government because neither of them got
clear majority of seats on their own in the 2005 elections. They take
divergent positions on several policy matters, but still jointly run the
government. (Ans - Problems of coalition government)

In 2005, some new laws were made in Russia giving more

Powers to its president. During the same time, the US
President visited Russia. ans)Concentration of power under one
centre undermines the concept of democracy.

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Economics – Ln 1 - Development
1. Development – Progress or Growth of economy – with improvement in the quality(Health & Education)
of life.
2. Economy – A designated boundary area –(Developed , Developing, Under developed) Within which
Production, consumption, and investment activities are carried on.
3. National Income –Sum of market value of final goods and services(Finished goods obtained from
primary,Secondary & tertiary produced in a country in an accounting year [1 st April to 31st March of next
year -12 months]
4. Health – State of complete physical, mental and social soundness.
5. Education – Awareness of society regarding laws of the land.
6. Average income or per capita income - Income of the country divided by its total population.
7. Sustainable development –* Development should take place without damaging the environment *
Development of the present should not compromise with the needs of future generations.
-------
The idea of development or progress has always been with us. We have aspirations or desires about what we
would like to do and how we would like to live. Similarly, we have ideas about what a country should be
like. Development involves thinking about the ways in which we can work towards achieving
developmental goals.
Development goals or aspirations of different categories of persons.(Table 1.1)
Category of persons Goals or aspirations
Landless Rural Labourers *More days of work *Better wages *Local schools provide quality
education * No social discrimination
Prosperous farmers of *High income * Higher support price for crops* Required cheap labour
Punjab * Settle their children abroad
Farmers who depend only *Better irrigation facilities *Social & financial security to save from
on rain for growing crops natural calamities.
A rural women from a land *Good income *Good crops from agriculture
owning family
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Urban unemployed youth *Good salary* Better opportunities for job.
A boy from a rich urban *Better business opportunities *Modern life style
family
A girl from a rich urban *Able to decide what she wants to do in life. *Able to study & settle
family abroad.
An adivasi from Narmada *Good price for his acquired land*Good land in replacement of his
valley acquired land*Compensation

In the above table , Each one of them seeks different things. They seek things that are most important for
them, i.e., that which can fulfil their aspirations or desires. In fact, at times, two persons or groups of
persons may seek things which are conflicting.
Three types of goals:- Conflicting , Destructive ,Developmental, Monetary & Non Monetary goal.
##People look at mix of goals.
Conflicting goal - A girl expects as much freedom and opportunity as her brother, and that he also shares in
the household work. Her brother may not like this.
Destructive goal :- Sometime Conflicting goal forged into Destructive goal. To get more electricity,
industrialists may want more dams. But this may submerge the land and disrupt the lives of tribals who are
displaced. They might resent to this. Remedy -Govt prefer small check dams or tanks to irrigate the land.

Different persons can have different developmental goals. What may be development for one may not be
development for the other. It may even be destructive for the other.
##Income and other goals
** In Table1.1 - People desire are regular work, better wages, and decent price for their crops. In other
words, they want more income. Besides seeking (Monetary goal)more income, people also seek things like
(Non monetary goals like)Equal treatment, freedom, security, and respect of others. They resent
discrimination.
**Money, or material things that one can buy with it, is one factor on which our life depends. But the quality
of our life also depends on non-material things mentioned above.
**There are many things that are not easily measured but they mean a lot to our lives. These are often
ignored. Eg –Friendship.
##Mix of goals- People look at mix of goals:
Example 1- Get a job in a far off place”:- before accepting – apart from income - facilities for your
family, working atmosphere, or opportunity to learn.
(Why do you accept less pay job? Less pay , Regular employment, Enhances sense of security
Why do you accept high paid job? High pay, No job security, Reduce – Security and Freedom)
Example 2- Status of women engaged at jobs :-
**Their dignity in the household and society increases. **There is respect for women. **There would be
more sharing of housework. **Greater acceptance of women working outside. **A safe and secure
environment may allow more women to take up a variety of jobs or run a business.
##Notions of National development :
**Individuals have different goals , their notion of national development is also different.
**Different persons have different as well as conflicting notions of a country’s development.
Notion for some : -National development – Development in Technology, Infrastructure.
Notions for others: Development of an individual, quality of life, eradication of poverty among masses.

##How to compare different countries or states? Write a note on WDR

For comparing countries, their income is considered most important.
In World Development Report brought by the World Bank, classifying countries based on this criterion in
2019. (GDP and Per capita Income used by World bank for comparison)

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**High income (or) rich countries (or) developed economies – Economies characterized – High level of
income, Higher standard of living. Eg- USA , UK. * Per capita income of US$ 49,300 per annum and above.
** Low income or Under developed -Low level income, Low standard living. Eg- Bhutan & Nepal.
Per capita income of US$ 2500 or less.
** Low middle income countries ** US$ 6700 per annum. –Eg-India
** Developed countries -The rich countries, excluding countries of Middle East and certain other small
countries.It is useful for comparison.

Averages- Uses & Limitation

LIMITATION –It does not tell us how the income is distributed among poeple.
Table 1.2 – Comparison of 2 countries
Monthly income of citizens in Rupees
I II III IV V Average
Country A 9500 10500 9800 10000 10200
Country B 500 500 500 500 48000
**We like to be in country B as Vth citizen **Most prefer to be in A. **Both countries have same average.
**Country A is preferred, because of equitable distribution , People neither rich nor poor.** Country B most
citizens are poor, one person is extremely rich.

Income and other criteria: Table 1.3, 1.4

COMPARISON OF INCOME, PCI,IMR,LR,NAR
STATE PCI STATUS
PER CAPITA INCOME HARYANA 2,36,147 Highest
(2018- 19) KERALA 2,04,105 Middle
BIHAR 40,982 bottom
STATE IMR STATUS
Infant Mortality Rate per 1,000 HARYANA 30 Middle
live births (2018) KERALA 7 Bottom
BIHAR 32 Highest
STATE LR STATUS
HARYANA 82 Middle
Literacy rate - 2017-18 %
KERALA 94 Highest
BIHAR 62 Bottom
STATE NAR STATUS
Net attendance ratio HARYANA 61 Middle
(14 To15 AGE) KERALA 83 Highest
BIHAR 43 Bottom
Economic Survey 2020–21,P.A 157, National Sample Survey Organisation (ReportNo. 585),
National Statistical Office, Government of India.
# Infant Mortality Rate (or IMR) indicates the number of children that die before the age of one
year as a proportion of 1000 live children born in that particular year.
# Literacy Rate measures the proportion of literate population in the 7-and-above age group.
Net Attendance Ratio is the total number of children of age group 14 and 15 years attending school
as a percentage of total number of children in the same age group.

Result : **Haryana highest in PCI, middle in IMR,LR,NAR; **Kerala Middle in PCI, Highest is LR, NAR
, Least in IMR. ** Bihar has the highest IMR, last in all three PCI, LR, NAR

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##Public facilities
**Govt collects taxes. Duty to ensure public facility to everyone. ** Money in your pocket cannot buy all
the goods and services that you may need to live well.** Income by itself is not a completely adequate
indicator of material goods and services that citizens are able to use.
**your money cannot buy the pollution-free environment. ** your money cannot get you unadulterated
medicines. **Money cannot protect you from infectious disease.
**Many important things in life , the cheapest way to provide goods & services , collectively for all.

Role of Government in providing public facilities :

Govt Should open schools(for dropout Children girls),Hospital, Infrastructure , facilities to
ensure Safety Security etc ;
Ex- Kerala has Low IMR because Govt Cares adequate provision of basic health , education facilities .
Ex- Some states PDS functions well [ public distribution system ] in Health , Nutritional Status likely to be
better .

##B.M.I BodyMass Index - To find out if, adults are undernourished is to calculate by Nutritionist.
Formula - Take the height in centimeters , convert into metres. Divide the weight in kg by the square of the
height . If Ans - is less than 15.2
Undernourished. If BMI More than 28 - the person is overweight
Note : It is not applicable to growing Children.

##Write a Note on HDR (or) HDI (UNDP uses Education, Health and Per capita Income)
* Human Development report or index , published by UNDP (united nation Development Programme )
compares countries based on 3 criteria – 1. Education ( 2 ) Health ( 3 ) per capita Income in dollars

1.6 Data - India and its neighbours for 2021

Country Gross National Income Life Mean years of HDI rank in
(GNI) per capita (2017) expectancy schooling of people the world.
PPP $) at birth aged 25 and above
Sri Lanka 12,578 76.4 10.8 73
India 6,590 67.2 6.7 132
Myanmmar 3,851 65.7 6.4 149
Pakistan 4,624 66.1 4.5 161
Nepal 3,877 68.4 5.1 143
Bangladesh 5,472 72.4 7.4 129
Source : Human Development Report, 2021-22, United Nations Development Programme, New
York.
1. HDI stands for Human Development Index. HDI ranks in are out of 189 countries.
2. Life Expectancy at birth denotes, as the name suggests, average expected length of life of a
person at the time of birth.
3. Per Capita Income is calculated in dollars for all countries so that it can be compared. It is also
done in a way so that every dollar would buy the same amount of goods and services in any country.

##Sustainability of Development
Ex 1- Ground water in India
* Evidence Suggest , Ground water is Serious threat in the country **300 district surveyed , have reported
water lever decline 4 mts past 20 years. ** 1/3 of the Country is over using ground water.
**Another 25 years, 60 % doing the same over use ,it is a serious threat **Agricultural region –Punjab,
West UP, Central , South Coastal areas and rapidly growing urban settlements.

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Ex 2- Crude oil reserves
**The reserve would last only 50 years more. * India Importing oil because do not have enough stock. * If
prices of oil increase this is a burden for everyone. * USA – Has low reserve. Hence secure through military
( or ) Economic power .

TABLE 1.7 CRUDE OIL RESERVES-

Source : BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2018, P.12.
Country / Region Reserves (2017) Number of Years
(Thousand Million Barrels) Reserves will last
Middle East 808 70
USAmerica 50 10.5
World 169 50.2
To conclude
**Non – renewable resources, get exhausted after years of use. **We have fixed stock on earth it cannot be
replenished **We discover New resources , not known of earlier. ** New Sources, add to stock .
* Consequences of environmental degradation do not respect national or state boundaries this issue is global
Crisis ; Our future is linked together.
* * Sustainability of development , to find a new area of knowledge in which Scientist, Economist
philosophers, Social Scientists are working together , Raising the Standard of living ,
Ensuring better life, health, and to conserve our environment.
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Geography – Ln 1 - Resources and Development

Resources
Everything in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs and is technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally acceptable is termed a ‘Resource’.
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship
between nature, technology and institutions

The process of transformation of things available in our environment involves an interactive relationship
between nature, technology and institutions. Human beings interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their economic development. Resources are a function of human activities.
Human beings themselves are essential components of resources. They transform material available in the
environment into resources and use them.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves

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Development of Resources
Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. It was believed that
resources are free gifts of nature. Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately & has led to
the following major problems.

 Depletion of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.

 Accumulation of resources in a few hands, has divided the society into two segments -rich & poor.
 Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to Global ecological crises - global warming, ozone
layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.

An equitable distribution of resources has become essential for a sustained quality of life and global
peace. If the present trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the future of
our planet is in danger.
Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable
Economic Development means “development should take place without damaging the environment, and
development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future generations.”

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for first International Earth
Summit. The Summit was convened for addressing problems of environmental protection and
socioeconomic development at the global level.
The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change & Biological Diversity. The Rio
Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles & adopted Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable
Development in the 21st century.

Agenda 21
Declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at global sustainable development. It is an agenda
to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through global co-operation on common interests, mutual
needs and shared responsibilities. One major objective is every local government should draw its own local
Agenda 21.

Resource Planning – Why is it essential?

In India, some regions are self-sufficient in resources, and some regions have acute shortage.
For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal
deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development. The
state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources. The cold
desert of Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. It has very rich cultural heritage but it is
deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource planning at
national, state, regional and local levels.
Resource Planning in India
Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up for
implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological
development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts towards achieving the goals of
resource planning right from the First Five Year Plan launched after Independence.

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To overcome irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources, resource conservation at various
levels is important. The history of colonisation reveals that rich resources in colonies were the main
attractions for the foreign invaders. It was primarily the higher level of technological development of the
colonising countries that helped them to exploit resources of other regions and establish their supremacy
over the colonies.

Conservation of Resources:
Resources are vital for development. But irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources leads to
socio-economic & environmental problems. Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource
conservation in these words: “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.” He
placed the greedy and selfish individuals and exploitative nature of modern technology as the root cause for
resource depletion at the global level. He was against mass production & wanted to replace it with
production by the masses.

Resource Conservation -
At international level, the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a more
systematic way in 1968. In 1974, Gandhian philosophy was again presented by Schumacher in his book
Small is Beautiful. The seminal contribution to resource conservation at the global level was made by the
Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. This introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ &
advocated it a means for resource conservation, which was published in a book Our Common Future.
Another contribution was made at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.

Land Resources –
We live on land, we perform our economic activities on land and we use it in different ways. Thus, land is a
natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic
activities, transport and communication systems. However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore,
it is important to use the available land for various purposes with careful planning.

Indian land has a variety of relief features - mountains, plateaus, plains & islands.
Plains – About 43 % provides facilities for agriculture & industry.
Mountains - About 30 % ensure perennial flow of some rivers, facilities -tourism & ecological aspects.
Plateaus - About 27 % possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels & forests.

LAND UTILISATION - Land resources are used for:-

1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land on which crops are sown harvested.
Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as gross cropped area.

LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

**The use of land is both by
# Physical factors - topography, climate, soil types
# Human factors - population density, technological capability ,culture & traditions etc.

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**Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq km.
#Land use data is available 93 % only, as land use report for N.E states except Assam is not done fully.
#Areas of Jammu & Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have not been surveyed.

**The land under permanent pasture has decreased. Most current fallow lands are of poor quality or the cost
of cultivation is very high. These lands are cultivated once or twice in about 2 to 3 years and if these are
included in the net sown area then the percentage of NSA in India is about 54 % of the total reporting area.

**The pattern of net sown area varies from one state to another.
#80 % - Punjab and Haryana ,
#Less than 10% - Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur , Andaman Nicobar Islands.

**Forest area is lower than 33 % of geographical area, as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy
(1952). It was considered essential for maintenance of the ecological balance. The livelihood of millions of
people who live on the fringes of these forests depends upon it.
** A part of land termed as :- waste land -- rocky, arid and desert areas.
:- Land for non-agricultural use-- settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
Continuous use of land for a long period of time without taking proper measures to conserve & manage it,
has resulted in land degradation. This has serious repercussions on society & environment.
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
We have shared our land with the past generations and will have to do so with the future generations
too. Ninety-five per cent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land. Human
activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural
forces to cause damage to land.
Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, quarrying results in land degradation. Mining sites leave deep
scars and traces of overburdening the land. Industrial effluents lead to land &water pollution.
Reasons for land degradation :
**In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to mining have
caused severe land degradation.
**In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is the main reasons for
land degradation.
**In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation due to water logging leading to
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
**The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for
ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of
water into the soil after it settles down on the land.
**In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land and water pollution in
many parts of the country.
Ways through which problems of land degradation can be solved are:
1. Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
2. Planting of shelter belts of plants.
3. Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
4. Proper management of wastelands.
5. Control of mining activities.
6. Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.

Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports
different types of living organisms on the earth.

1. It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cms in depth. Various forces of nature, such as
changes in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers, etc.,
contribute to the formation of soil.
11
 2. Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important factors in
the formation of soil.
3. Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil play an important role.
4. Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.

Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, and chemical and
physical properties, the soils of India are classified into different types, as mentioned below.
Alluvial Soils

1. The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.

2. The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra.
3. It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains, particularly in the deltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
4. The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inland towards
the river valleys, soil particles appear to be bigger in size whereas in the upper side of the river
valley, the soils are coarse.
5. Based on age, Alluvial soils can be classified as:
6. Old Alluvial (Bangar): The Bangar soil has a higher concentration of kanker nodules than the
Khadar.
7. New Alluvial (Khadar): It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.
8. Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid
and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
Black Soil
1. This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Climatic conditions, along with the
parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
2. The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
3. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over the northwest Deccan
plateau and is made up of lava flows.
4. The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
and extends in the southeast direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
5. The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and are well-known for their
capacity to hold moisture.
6. Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
7. The soil is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or
during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Yellow Soils
1. This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
2. These soils develop a reddish colour due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
3. Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the
Piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
Laterite Soil
1. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climates with the alternate wet and dry
season.
2. This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
3. Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients. This type of
soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and the northeast regions.
4. The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but humus poor.
5. This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.
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Arid Soils
1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
2. This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is very high
and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
3. Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.
4. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium content
downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of water.
Forest Soils
1. These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas.
2. The soil texture is loamy and silty on the valley sides and coarse-grained on the upper slopes.
3. In the snow-covered areas of the Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with
low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial fans.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The soil erosion
is caused due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc. Also, there
are some natural forces like wind, glacier and water which lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion is also caused
due to defective methods of farming.
The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The land becomes unfit
for cultivation and is known as bad land. When water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope and the
topsoil is washed away, it is known as sheet erosion. The wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land,
known as wind erosion.
Different Ways of Soil Conservation
1. Ploughing along the contour lines decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called
Contour Ploughing.
2. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. This type of agriculture practice is done in the Western and
Central Himalayas.
3. When a large field is divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. Then,
this breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as Strip Cropping.
4. Planting lines of trees to create shelter helps in the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising the
desert in western India. Rows of such trees are called Shelter Belts.
*****************

History - 1. Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1. Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Dream of worldwide Democratic and Social Republics- The pact between nations – Frederic Sorrieu – 1848
(A series of 4 prints)
( Painting shows – * Citizens of nations marching towards statue of Liberty.
*USA & Switzerland had attained liberty(Nation states) were leading the march.
*France came next with its tricolor. * Germany came with its Black, Red & Gold flag * Austria, Kingdom
of two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
*The artists during French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure.
* The statue of Liberty holds the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in
the other. * On the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.

Modern State - centralised power , Sovereign Control, clearly defined Territory developing over a long
time in Europe
Nation State -majority of citizens , develop a sense common Identity , shared history , struggles action of
leaders , common people etc ,

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Unit 1. - The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
How did France benefit from the revolution , list the changes?
*In 1789 Nationalism came with french revolution as a full fledged territorial state under absolute monarch
was removed. *Political constitutional changes came which led to transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to
the French citizens. * The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the
nation and shape its destiny. *Events in France reached different cities of Europe. *Students , members of
educated middle classes set up Jacobin clubs. *Club activities, French armies campaign spread to Belgium,
Holland, Switzerland, Italy in 1790s. *French armies carry the Idea of Nationalism abroad, liberate people
of Europe from , despotism , help other people of Europe to become Nation..

What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among french people ?
French revolutionaries , introduced Various measures , practices create a sense of collective identity among
French People : -
( 1 ) Ideas of Lapatrie (2) Le Citoyen Emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights
under a constitution.
(2)A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
(3)The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(4) New hymns were composed, (5)oaths taken (6)Martyrs commemorated, in the name of the nation.
(7)A centralised administrative system was put in place
(8)Formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
(9)Internal customs duties and dues were abolished.
(10)A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(11)Regional dialects were discouraged.
(12)French, was spoken & written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

Napoleonic code 1804 – Civil code 1804

In1799,Napolean seized political power.
He gave the Civil Code of 1804 also known as Napoleanic Code.It envisaged:
**Equality before law. **Right to property.
**Abolished all privileges based on birth.. **Simplified administrative law.
**This Code was exported to the regions under French control, Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and
Germany. **Abolished feudal system, serfdom & manorial dues. **Removed restrictions on guilds in
towns. **Improved transport and communications.
**Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen, enjoyed a new-found freedom.
** Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws,
standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and
exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Napoleonic Code unpopular with other regions.(or) Drawback of Napoleonic Code

**In the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed. Initially, in
Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers
of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility.
Limitation :-
**The new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. **Increased
taxation, ** Increased censorship,
** Forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.

Unit 2
The Making of Nationalism Europe Political features of Europe:-
**Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms,
** Duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies, lived diverse peoples, not sharing a collective
identity, common culture, spoke different languages , belonged to different ethnic groups.

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** The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary,was a patchwork of many different regions and
peoples.
- Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland –
- Bohemia -Aristocracy dominantly German-speaking.
- Italian-speaking - provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
- Hungary, half people spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.
- In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
- Mass peasant lived within the empire –
Bohemians and Slovaks to the north,
Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south,
Roumans to the east in Transylvania.
Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding together was a
common allegiance to the emperor.
2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
Aristocracy :
**Socially and politically, dominant class.
** The members of this class were united by a common way of luxurious life.
**They owned estates in countryside and town-houses. **They spoke French for diplomacy and high
society. ** Their families were connected by ties of marriage.
**This powerful aristocracy was, numerically a small group
Peasants :
The majority of the population. In the west, land was farmed by tenants and small owners.
Eastern and Central Europe vast estates were cultivated by serfs.
Commercial classes :
**In Western and Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade, led to growth of towns and
the emergence of commercial classes , whose existence was based on production for the market.
**Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in France & German
states it occurred in 19th
A working-class / new social groups
**Working Middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals emerged.
In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late nineteenth century.
It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity , abolition of
aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for ?
Define : Liberalism : Term derives from Latin word liber meaning free.
(1)Liberalism it stood for freedom for Individual, (2)equality of all before the law .
(3)It emphasised on government by consent.
(4)The end of autocracy and clerical privileges
(5)A constitution and representative government through parliament. (6)Safe guard of private property.

Universal suffrage :** The right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning
men. ** Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. **Only for a brief period
under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.
**The Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women as minor, subject to the authority
of fathers and husbands. **In 19th & early 20th centuries - women and non-propertied men organised
movements demanding equal political rights.

Economic sphere- Liberalism

In the 19th century –the middle classes demanded :-
**Freedom of markets ** Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Eg- German-speaking regions in the first half of the 19th century.

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**Napoleon’s administrative measures carried out in 39 states of Germany possessed its own currency, and
weights and measures.
** In 1833 -A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods should pass through 11
customs barriers and pay customs duty of 5 % at each.
Each region
Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods. As each region had its own
system of weights and measures, this was time-consuming calculation.
The measure of cloth, was the elle each region it was different length. An elle in Frankfurt was 54.7 cm ; in
Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in Freiburg 53.5 cm.

New commercial classes :-

**Demanded for creation of a unified economic territory . **Allow unhindered movement of goods, people
and capital. **In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and most of
the German states. **The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the currencies from thirty to two.
**The creation of railways stimulated mobility, **Harnessing economic interests to national unification.
2.3 A New conservatism after 1815 .
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy, the
Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
Most conservatives, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. They realised,
changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could strengthen monarchy, make state power more
effective and strong. A modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and
serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

Congress Treaty of Vienna 1815

In 1815, reps of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – collectively defeated
Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegates signed - Treaty of
Vienna of 1815 with the object -
**Restored the Bourbon dynasty,
**A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion.
**North - kingdom of the Netherlands, included Belgium.
**South - Genoa was added to Piedmont
**West - Prussia was given important new territories **Austria controlled northern Italy.
** German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
**East, Russia got Poland . Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
Aim/intention :- Restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon
**create a new conservative order in Europe.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought
to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments. /imposed censorship to control
newspapers, books, plays and songs /,that reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom

2.4 The Revolutionaries

Liberal-nationalists initiated Secret societies in many European states to train revolutionaries / spread their
ideas./ To oppose monarchical forms that were established after Vienna Congress, /to fight for liberty and
freedom. They believed creation of nation-states as a necessary for freedom.

Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini.

Born in Genoa in 1805, member of secret society of the Carbonari.
He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. Founded two secret societies, -Young
Italy in Marseilles, Young Europe in Berne.
Members were young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.

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Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not
continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic .
This unification could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his model, secret societies were set up in
Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.

Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’ due to his opposition to
monarchy , his vision of democratic republic frightened conservatives.

Unit 3-The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848 ; July revolution 1830

Liberalism and nationalism led by educated middle-class elite - professors, school teachers, clerks and
members of the commercial middle classes. The Bourbon kings after 1815, were overthrown by liberals
who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. Metternich - ‘When France
sneezes,’ ‘the rest of Europe catches cold. ’ The July Revolution spread in Brussels , Belgium broke away
from the United Kingdom of Netherlands .
Greek war of independence
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since 15th century. In 1821, growth of revolutionary
nationalism for independence . Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile.M any
West Europeans had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of
European civilisation and mobilised public opinion against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron
organised funds , fought the war, where he died of fever in 1824. In 1832, the Treaty of Constantinople was
signed which recognised Greece as an independent nation.
3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Culture played an important role in Creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped
express and shape nationalist feelings.
1)Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of reason and science / focused on emotions,
intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common
cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
2)The French painter Delacroix depicts an incident ,20,000 Greeks were said to killed by Turks on the
island of Chios. Focusing the suffering of women and children using colours create sympathy for the
Greeks.
3) German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder
How to discover true German culture.? To oppose French domination.
Herder (1744-1803) said that (1) true German culture was discovered among common people – das volk.
(2)Through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances the true spirit of nation (volksgeist) popularised. So
collecting and recording folk culture was essential for nation-building. (3)Vernacular language and
collection of local folklore –helped carry the modern nationalist message to large people who were illiterate.
Eg- Poland, partitioned 18th century by Great Powers – Russia, Prussia and Austria. National feelings were
kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, through his operas and music, turned folk dances
like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Russia occupied Poland, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed.
In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place & ultimately crushed. Many members of clergy
in Poland used language as a weapon of national resistance. Used Polish for Church gatherings & all
religious instruction.
Result :- Large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities
for their refusal to preach in Russian.

Box 1 - The Grimm Brothers: Folktales and Nation-building

Grimms’ Fairy Tales is a familiar name. The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in the German
city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786 respectively. They studied law, collected old folktales. In 1812, they
published their first collection of tales.
They also published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language. The Grimm brothers also saw French
domination as a threat to German culture, and believed folktales were expressions of a pure and authentic
German spirit.

17
3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt (1)1830 great economic hardship in Europe. (2) 19 th century
enormous increase in population all over Europe. (3)Rural population migrated to cities in search of jobs &
lived in overcrowded slums.(4) Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation
was advanced. (5)Eg- Textile production, which was carried out in homes or small workshops & was partly
mechanised. (6)Aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled with feudal dues and obligations. (7)The
rise of food price, bad harvest led to pauperism in town and country.
1848 - Food shortages and widespread unemployment.

Weavers in Silesia-France/Paris .What does Journalist Wilhelm Wolff say about Silesian weavers?
The events of 1845, weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors. Reason - contractors
supplied raw material -gave them orders for textiles - but reduced payments. The misery of the workers is
extreme. Cotton weaving is the main occupation, 18,000 depended on the occupation. Contractors to
reduce the prices of the goods they order
Reaction of weavers:- (1) Group of weavers marched to the mansions of contractor demanding higher
wages. They were treated with scorn and threats. (2)Group of them into the house, smashed its window
panes, furniture.. (3)Next group broke into storehouse and plundered cloth. The contractor fled with his
family to a neighbouring village - refused to shelter. He returned 24 hours with army - In exchange 11
weavers were shot.

Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult
males above 21 , guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up.
3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals -Parallel to the revolts of the poor, in 1848 educated middle
classes(unemployed and starving peasants and workers) revolution was under way - in Europe.
February 1848 in France -Abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had
been proclaimed.
Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austria,-Hungary -liberal claimed their demands - constitutionalism & national
unification. Creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and
association. In Germany - middle-class professionals, businessmen and artisans - at Frankfurt decided to
vote for an all-German National Assembly.
On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church
of St Paul. / Women only observers /They drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy
subject to a parliament.
The deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and
joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly & removed parliament. Women had formed their
own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.
Despite this they were denied. Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and
repression could only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes
serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers
granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
4 The Making of Germany and Italy
4.1 Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
Unification of Germany-1866-1871
Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans. In 1848 they tried to unite different
regions(39 Autocratic states) of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected
parliament. It was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the
large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. Prussia took on the leadership of German unification. Prusian
chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect German unification.
Utilised Prussian army and bureaucracy - Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France
– ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony

18
held at Versailles. Prussian state demonstrated the dominance of power. The new state emphasis -
modernising currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures & practices
became a model for rest of Germany.
4.2 Italy Unified
Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. ruled by several dynasties & multi-national Habsburg
Empire. In middle 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by an Italian
princely house. The north  Austrian Habsburg empire. The centre  the Pope
South  Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language not acquired -common form- had many regional &
local variations.

1)Role of Giuseppe Mazzini :- In1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini wanted a coherent programme for a unitary
Italian Republic. He formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals.
The failure of revolutionary uprisings failed in 1831 & 1848. Responsibility fell on Sardinia-Piedmont
ruler King Victor Emmanuel II -- unify Italian states through war. The ruling elites in that region, offered
them possibility of economic development and political dominance(If he wins).
2)Role of Chief Minister Cavour Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to unify neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat. He spoke French much better than Italian. In 1859, through a tactful
diplomatic alliance with France , Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austrian forces.
3)Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi - In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi with regular troops, and a large number of
armed volunteers, marched into South Italy and kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the
support of the local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers. (Giuseppe Garibaldi regular troops + armed
volunteers  Marched to S.Italy & Two Sicilies + local peasants  drove out Spanish rulers)
3)Role of Victor Emmanuel II-- In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Short
comings :- Rates of illiteracy - very high. People were unaware of liberal- nationalist ideology. The peasant
masses who had supported Garibaldi in southern Italy had never heard of Italia[Motherland], and believed
that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!
4.3 The Strange Case of Britain ---In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of
revolution. It was a long process. During 18th century, The primary identities of British, Isles were 3 ethnic
ones – English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All had their own cultural
and political traditions. English nation grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its
influence on other nations. 1688, English parliament, seized power from the monarchy. The Act of Union
(1707) between England and Scotland resulted in formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain. The
British parliament was dominated by English members. The growth British identity meant Scotland’s
culture and political institutions were suppressed.
The Catholics of Scottish Highlands suffered when they wanted independence. The Scottish Highlanders
were forbidden to speak Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were driven out
of their homeland. Ireland divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped Protestants
to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country,( Catholic revolts suppressed).
After Failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated
into the United Kingdom in 1801.
A new ‘British nation’ was forged through dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the
British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were
actively promoted. Older nations -subordinate partners in this union.
5. Visualising the Nation --Artists in 18th , 19th centuries personified a nation. They represented a country
as if it were a person. Nations were portrayed as female figures.
The female figure became an allegory(When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom,
liberty)of the nation. During French Revolution artists used the female allegory to show - Liberty, Justice
& Republic. These ideals were represented through objects or symbols. The attributes of Liberty –The red
cap, the broken chain, Justice is a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Female allegories - in 19th century -France was Marianne, a popular Christian name, which meant People’s
nation. Her characteristics were drawn from Liberty & Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, marked on coins and stamps.

19
Germania - allegory of German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands
for heroism.
6 Nationalism and Imperialism –(Anti imperialist movements emerged to oppose colonisation)
By 19th century nationalist groups became intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.
Nationalism aligned with imperialism – World war I.
The Balkans -geographical and ethnic variation  modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were Slavs.
Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire. The spread of romantic nationalism in Balkans led the
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.
Balkans struggled to win back long-lost their independence. The Balkan states were jealous of each other -
hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. During this period, there was intense rivalry among
the European powers over – trade, colonies, naval and military might.
Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – countering powers, extending its own control over
Balkans, led to the First World War.

**************
History - Nationalism in India
Map 1 - Congress sessions:  1920 Calcutta  1920 Nagpur  1927 Madras session

20
History - Nationalism in India –Map 2 - Important Centres of Indian National Movement
a. Champaran (Bihar) - Movement of Indigo Planters
b. Kheda (Gujarat) - Peasant Satyagraha
c. Ahmedabad (Gujarat) - Cotton Mill Workers Satyagraha
d. Amritsar (Punjab) - Jallianwala Bagh Incident
e. Dandi March (Gujarat) – Salt satyagraha
[ Chauri Chaura (U.P.) - Calling off the Non-Cooperation Movement-– 2023-2024 syllabus ]

21
Geography - Resource and development - Identify Major Soil Types (Refer Book Pg - 8 )

- Alluvial soil – Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra ,East Coast plains, Mahanadi,Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
rivers.
- Black Soil -Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
- Red and Yellow Soils – Odisha, Chhattisgarh, south parts of middle Ganga plain , Piedmont Western
Ghats.
- Laterite Soil - Maharashtra, Odisha, parts of West Bengal , Karnataka, Kerala , Tamil Nadu.
Red laterite soils - Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
- Arid Soils - western Rajasthan
- Forest Soils - Himalayas,

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 Geography - Water Resources
Major Dams/ Multi Purpose Projects - Salal  Bhakra Nangal  Tehri  Rana Pratap Sagar  Sardar
Sarovar  Hirakud  Nagarjun Sagar  Thugabhadra

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Agriculture -  Major areas of Rice and Wheat (Refer book – Page - 33 )
RICE - WEST BENGAL, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh , Rajasthan.

WHEAT - Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.

Largest/Major producer states

Sugarcane - Uttar Pradesh ; Tea – Assam ; Coffee – Karnataka ; Rubber – Kerala
Cotton and – Maharashtra ; Jute - West Bengal

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