Translated from Portuguese to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

com

BODYBUILDING
MASTERCLASS

PERIODIZATION IN BODYBUILDING:
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

DEIVIDI SOARES FERREIRA

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PRESENTATION
After several years of studying and experiencing the sports field, in
addition to years of sharing relevant and scientifically-based
content on social media, I am writing this material to bring you a
compilation of information about preparing bodybuilding athletes
and improving their body aesthetics.

The objective of the ebook is to present in a simple way a vast

knowledge related to nutrition, training and ergogenic resources
for building a more athletic physique, mainly for coaches,
nutritionists, bodybuilding athletes and people seeking a change in
body aesthetics.

This material covers various metabolic and physiological aspects of

the bulking, cutting and finishing phases of athletes, as well as
strategies used behind the scenes in bodybuilding competitions.

Cheers

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SUMMARY
PRESENTATION ............................................................................................................ 2
1. INTRODUCTION TO BODYBUILDING.................................................................. 10
1.1 Most popular categories .................................................................................. 13
1.1.1 Classic Physique ............................................................................................ 13
1.1.2 Bodybuilding ................................................................................................. 17
1.1.3 Mens Physique ............................................................................................. 19
1.1.4 Fitness bikini ................................................................................................. 22
1.1.5 Wellness ....................................................................................................... 24
2. BIOENERGETICS AND METABOLISM.................................................................. 28
2.1 Energy expenditure and its variations ............................................................. 30
2.2 Metabolic reactions ......................................................................................... 31
2.2.1 Glycolysis – Generating energy from carbohydrates..................................... 32
2.2.2 Glycogenesis – Glycogen synthesis ............................................................... 34
2.2.3 Glycogenolysis – Breakdown of glycogen ..................................................... 35
2.2.4 Gluconeogenesis – Synthesis of new glucose ............................................... 36
2.2.5 Lipolysis and beta-oxidation ......................................................................... 37
2.2.6 Protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy ................................................... 39
2.3 Forms of energy reserve .................................................................................. 42
2.3.1 Glycogen ....................................................................................................... 42
2.3.2 Adipose tissue .............................................................................................. 43
2.4 HORMONAL CONTROL OF ENERGY METABOLISM ........................................... 44
2.4.1 Insulin ........................................................................................................... 44
2.4.2 Glucagon ...................................................................................................... 45
2.4.3 Catecholamines and lipolysis ........................................................................ 46
2.5 METABOLISM IN EATING PERIODS................................................................... 48
2.5.1 Fed state (Post-absorptive) ........................................................................... 48
2.5.2 Night fasting ................................................................................................. 49
2.5.3 Metabolism during physical exercise ............................................................ 50
3. BASIC AND APPLIED NUTRITION FOR BODYBUILDING....................................... 52
3.1 Macronutrients................................................................................................ 53
3.1.1 Carbohydrates – Overview ........................................................................... 54
Digestion and absorption ...................................................................................... 55
3.1.2 Proteins – Overview ..................................................................................... 56
Digestion and absorption ...................................................................................... 57

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3.1.3 Fats – Overview ............................................................................................ 58
Digestion and absorption ...................................................................................... 60
3.1.4 Dietary fiber – Overview ............................................................................... 61
3.1.5 Bioactive compounds ................................................................................... 62
3.2 MICRONUTRIENTS ........................................................................................... 63
3.3 Vitamins .......................................................................................................... 64
3.3.1 Vitamin A ...................................................................................................... 64
3.3.2 Vitamin D ...................................................................................................... 65
3.3.3 Vitamin E ...................................................................................................... 66
3.3.4 Vitamin K ...................................................................................................... 67
3.3.5 Vitamin B1 – Thiamine.................................................................................. 67
3.3.6 Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin................................................................................. 68
3.3.7 Niacin ........................................................................................................... 69
3.3.8 Vitamin B5 – Pantothenic acid ...................................................................... 70
3.3.9 Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine................................................................................ 70
3.3.10 Biotin .......................................................................................................... 71
3.3.11 Vitamin B9 – Folic acid ................................................................................ 72
3.3.12 Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin............................................................................ 73
3.3.13 Vitamin C .................................................................................................... 73
3.4 MINERALS ........................................................................................................ 74
3.4.1 Hill ................................................................................................................ 74
3.4.2 Sodium, chlorine and potassium................................................................... 75
3.4.3 Calcium ......................................................................................................... 77
3.4.4 Phosphorus................................................................................................... 78
3.4.5 Magnesium ................................................................................................... 79
3.4.6 Iron ............................................................................................................... 81
3.4.7 Copper .......................................................................................................... 83
3.4.8 Zinc ............................................................................................................... 85
3.4.9 Selenium....................................................................................................... 86
3.4.10 Iodine ......................................................................................................... 88
3.4.11 Manganese ................................................................................................. 89
3.4.12 Boron .......................................................................................................... 90
3.4.13 Chrome ....................................................................................................... 91
3.4.14 Molybdenum .............................................................................................. 92
3.4.15 Minerals and obesity .................................................................................. 93
3.5 PREDICTIVE EQUATIONS .................................................................................. 94
3.5.1 Practical examples ........................................................................................ 96
3.5.2 How calorie deficit works ............................................................................. 97

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3.5.3 How caloric surplus works ............................................................................ 99
3.5.4 Calculating free meals ................................................................................ 100
3.6 DIET STRATEGIES ........................................................................................... 101
3.6.1 Low carb ..................................................................................................... 101
3.6.2 High Carb .................................................................................................... 103
3.6.3 Ketogenic diet............................................................................................. 104
3.6.4 Carbohydrate cycling .................................................................................. 106
3.6.5 INTERMITTENT FASTING ............................................................................. 107
3.6.6 Refeed and free meals ................................................................................ 109
3.7 Supplementation ........................................................................................... 110
3.7.1 Useful supplements .................................................................................... 110
3.7.1.1 Protein powders ...................................................................................... 110
3.7.1.2 Creatine ................................................................................................... 111
3.7.1.3 Beta alanine ............................................................................................. 112
3.7.1.4 Caffeine ................................................................................................... 112
3.7.2 Supplements used in specific contexts ....................................................... 113
3.7.2.1 Multivitamins, isolated vitamins and minerals......................................... 113
3.7.2.2 Glycerol ................................................................................................... 114
3.7.2.3 Taurine .................................................................................................... 114
3.7.2.4 Omega-3 .................................................................................................. 114
3.7.3 Dispensable supplements ........................................................................... 115
3.7.3.1 BCAA ........................................................................................................ 115
3.7.3.2 Glutamine ................................................................................................ 115
3.7.3.3 L-Carnitine ............................................................................................... 116
3.7.3.4 Thermogenics .......................................................................................... 116
4. ANABOLIC STEROIDS ...................................................................................... 117
4.1 Classes of anabolic steroids ........................................................................... 118
4.2 Expected and side effects .............................................................................. 120
4.2.1 Side effects related to estradiol and DHT ................................................... 122
4.3 Esters and half-life of anabolic steroids ......................................................... 124
4.4 Laboratory tests............................................................................................. 125
4.5 Post Cycle Therapy (PCT) ............................................................................... 127
5. TRAINING VARIABLES ..................................................................................... 129
5.1 Training principles ......................................................................................... 130
5.1.1 Progressive overload .................................................................................. 130
5.1.2 Adaptation .................................................................................................. 131
5.1.3 Specificity ................................................................................................... 131

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5.1.4 Individuality ................................................................................................ 132
5.1.5 Awareness .................................................................................................. 132
5.1.6 Variation ..................................................................................................... 132
5.1.7 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 133
5.1.8 Accommodation ......................................................................................... 133
5.1.9 Reversibility ................................................................................................ 133
5.2 Training volume ............................................................................................. 134
5.3 Intensity ........................................................................................................ 135
5.4 Quantifying intensity in aerobic exercise ....................................................... 137
5.5 Subjective perception of effort ...................................................................... 139
5.6 Total workload (Volume load) ....................................................................... 141
5.7 Training to failure .......................................................................................... 141
5.8 Interval between sets .................................................................................... 143
6. TRAINING PERIODISATION.............................................................................. 144
6.1 Phases of periodization ................................................................................. 145
6.2 Training cycles ............................................................................................... 146
6.3 Periodization models ..................................................................................... 147
6.3.1 Linear periodization .................................................................................... 147
6.3.2 Reverse linear periodization ....................................................................... 148
6.3.3 Wave periodization .................................................................................... 149
6.3.4 Adapted linear periodization ...................................................................... 150
6.4 Advanced techniques .................................................................................... 151
6.4.1 Load progression ........................................................................................ 152
6.4.2 Cluster set................................................................................................... 153
6.4.3 Bisset .......................................................................................................... 154
6.4.4 Drop set ...................................................................................................... 155
6.4.5 Rest Pause .................................................................................................. 156
6.4.6 Forced repetitions ...................................................................................... 156
6.4.7 Partial repetitions ....................................................................................... 157
6.4.8 Flow restriction (vascular occlusion) ........................................................... 157
6.4.9 Stretching between sets ............................................................................. 158
6.4.10 Dispensable techniques for muscle hypertrophy ...................................... 158
6.4.11 Considerations on advanced techniques .................................................. 159
6.5 Training splits ................................................................................................ 159
6.5.1 Division AB.................................................................................................. 160
6.5.2 ABC Division................................................................................................ 161
6.5.3 ABCD Division ............................................................................................. 162
6.5.4 ABCDE Division ........................................................................................... 162

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6.5.5 ABCDEF Division ......................................................................................... 163
7. OFFSEASON – BULKING .................................................................................. 165
7.1 What to analyze to periodize the bulking diet? ............................................. 167
7.1.1 Objective .................................................................................................... 167
7.1.2 Current needs ............................................................................................. 167
7.1.3 Body composition ....................................................................................... 168
7.1.4 Health status and clinical history ................................................................ 169
7.1.5 Routine, preferences and experience with diets......................................... 170
7.1.6 Level of training and expenditure on daily activities ................................... 170
7.1.7 Use of drugs, anabolic steroids and supplements ....................................... 171
7.1.8 Financial condition...................................................................................... 172
7.2 Diet periodization .......................................................................................... 172
7.3 Supplements used in bulking ......................................................................... 183
7.4 Drugs used in bulking .................................................................................... 184
7.5 Most used steroids in bulking ........................................................................ 186
7.6 Analysis to periodize training......................................................................... 189
7.6.1 Physical condition and body composition ................................................... 189
7.6.2 Current training level .................................................................................. 190
7.6.3 Purpose and needs ..................................................................................... 191
7.6.4 Routine, availability and preferences.......................................................... 192
7.6.5 Nutritional support and ergogenic aids ...................................................... 193
7.7 Training periodization in bulking ................................................................... 194
7.7.1 Work volume, frequency and training division ........................................... 194
7.7.2 Training division.......................................................................................... 196
7.7.3 Choosing exercises ..................................................................................... 197
7.7.4 Order of exercises....................................................................................... 198
7.7.5 Choosing the intensity and interval between sets ...................................... 198
Base 1 ................................................................................................................ 201
7.8 Transition from bulking to cutting ................................................................. 209
7.8.1 Dietary adjustments in the transition phase to cutting ............................... 209
7.8.2 Training adjustments in the transition phase to cutting ............................. 211
7.8.3 Drugs and steroids ...................................................................................... 213
8. PRE-CONTEST - CUTTING ................................................................................ 214
8.1 What should I analyze to periodize my cutting diet? ..................................... 217
8.1.1 Objective .................................................................................................... 217
8.1.2 Current needs ............................................................................................. 217
8.1.3 Body composition ....................................................................................... 218

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8.1.4 Health status and clinical history ................................................................ 219
8.1.5 Routine, preferences and experience with diets......................................... 220
8.1.6 Level of training and expenditure on daily activities ................................... 220
8.1.7 Use of drugs, anabolic steroids and supplements ....................................... 221
8.1.8 Financial condition...................................................................................... 222
8.2 Diet periodization .......................................................................................... 222
8.3 Supplements used in cutting ......................................................................... 233
8.4 Drugs used in cutting ..................................................................................... 234
8.5 Most commonly used steroids for cutting ..................................................... 237
8.6.1 Physical condition and body composition ................................................... 241
8.6.2 Current training level .................................................................................. 242
8.6.3 Purpose and needs ..................................................................................... 242
8.6.4 Routine, availability and preferences.......................................................... 244
8.6.5 Nutritional support and ergogenic aids ...................................................... 244
8.7 Training periodization during cutting............................................................. 245
8.7.1 Work volume, frequency and training division ........................................... 245
8.7.2 Choosing exercises ..................................................................................... 248
8.7.3 Order of exercises....................................................................................... 249
8.7.4 Choosing the intensity and interval between sets ...................................... 250
8.8 Transition from cutting to bulking ................................................................. 258
8.8.1 Dietary adjustments in the transition phase to bulking .............................. 259
8.8.2 Training adjustments in the transition phase to bulking ............................. 261
8.8.3 Drugs and steroids ...................................................................................... 263
9. FINALIZATION ................................................................................................. 264
9.1 Depletion of glycogen stores ......................................................................... 265
9.2 Dehydration................................................................................................... 269
9.2.1 Alcohol and dehydration ............................................................................ 271
9.3 Sodium pump ................................................................................................ 271
9.4 Carbohydrate Super Compensation (CARB-UP) ............................................. 273
9.5 Drugs used in the finalization ........................................................................ 277
9.5.1 Diuretics ..................................................................................................... 278
9.5.2 Laxatives ..................................................................................................... 280
9.5.3 Antiflatulents .............................................................................................. 280
9.5.4 Stimulants................................................................................................... 281

10.1 Rehydration ................................................................................................. 283

10.2 Energy replacement..................................................................................... 283
10.3 Withdrawal of drugs .................................................................................... 284

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10.4 Training ....................................................................................................... 284
10.5 Back in the game, a second competition in a row ........................................ 285
11.REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 287
11.1 Articles ........................................................................................................ 288
11.2 Books ........................................................................................................... 292

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1. INTRODUCTION TO BODYBUILDING

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Bodybuilding is a sport whose basic objective is to sculpt and display bodies in good physical shape
as true works of art, molded from intense weight training, aerobic exercises, a controlled diet
according to the individual's needs, supplementation, and also with the use of ergogenic resources
to enhance the entire process.

Athletes must have an extremely low body fat percentage and good muscle volume, creating a
silhouette that fits the category standard. A very interesting phrase used in the bodybuilding world
is that “the athlete does not choose the category, but rather the category chooses the athlete”. This
phrase refers to the fact that each individual has a different physical standard from the other, which
makes it easier to adapt to one category, but more difficult to adapt to another.

The most popular categories for men include Classic Physique, Bodybuilding and Mens Physique,
while the most popular women's categories are Bikini Fitness and Wellness. In competitions,
athletes are divided into subcategories based on height, body weight and age. Some categories,
such as Bikini Fitness, Wellness and Mens Physique, are divided only by height and age, while
athletes in categories such as Classic Physique and Bodybuilding are further divided into
subcategories with very strict body weight limits.

The physiques are displayed on large stages where the athletes must do the mandatory poses for
each category, free poses in individual presentations and even elaborate parades in the women's
categories. Each category requires a specific silhouette, level of definition, volume and muscle
proportion, the champion is usually the athlete who best fits these standards and is able to show off
their physique through poses, individual presentation and parade. It is important to mention that
the athlete will be judged at all times while on stage.

The judges evaluate several criteria, such as muscle mass, fitness level, mandatory and free poses,
stage presence, and even clothing, hair, makeup, and accessories (in the case of women). A
bodybuilding athlete's preparation goes through different stages, both in training and diet. The
offseason is more flexible, and the work is usually directed at gaining muscle mass, aiming to
improve specific points of the physique in order to present a superior set in the next competition.

The weight gain phases are called bulking, where the individual consumes calories above their daily
energy expenditure, generating a caloric surplus so that, together with intense, well-periodized
training, the anabolic processes are enhanced to achieve good results in terms of muscle
hypertrophy. It is worth mentioning that not all body weight gained during the bulking periods is
muscle mass, as there is fat gain and increased water retention due to the caloric surplus generated
by the diet.

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The phases of weight loss and consequent reduction in body fat percentage are called cutting, and
usually begin when the individual begins to gain weight and body fat rapidly. During the cutting
periods, the individual must burn more calories than their daily intake (calorie deficit), favoring the
loss of body fat. However, there is also a decrease in water retention and food volume in the
intestinal tract, influencing total body weight. Cutting is usually initiated when an athlete's body fat
percentage is rising rapidly during a bulking phase or when the individual has a competition coming
up. The weeks/months leading up to the competition in which the athlete is preparing to compete
are known as pre-contest. This phase aims to reduce the individual's body fat percentage to
competitive levels while maintaining the muscle volume built during bulking.

It is important to mention that at the end of the pre-contest, the athlete goes through one more
stage before being ready to go on stage: the finalization. During the finalization, the professional
who takes care of the athlete makes fine adjustments almost daily, because the physique changes
very quickly during this period and requires a careful look and feeling from the professional to
adjust the variables of training, diet and ergogenic resources so that the athlete goes on stage in the
best physical condition.

During the finishing phase, important processes occur, such as hyperhydration, dehydration,
depletion of muscle glycogen stores and carbohydrate overcompensation (carb-up). The
manipulation of body water aims to remove as much water as possible that is “between the skin
and the muscles” of the individual, leaving the skin closer to the muscle tissue and the physique
looking even drier.

During the finishing week, the athlete usually goes through a period of very low carbohydrate intake
and a high volume of training. The goal of these interventions is to “deplete” muscle glycogen
stores, making muscle tissue even more sensitive to glucose uptake. After depleting muscle
glycogen stores, dehydrating the athlete and bringing him/her into the weight category, the carb-up
should be started and the muscles filled out, leaving the physique with a lean and voluminous
appearance on stage.

Stages of preparation for a bodybuilding athlete

Off season Bulking Cutting Pre-contest Finalization (peak week)
The season outside of In this phase, the Here the goal is to This phase aims to The goal is to reduce
competitions is objective is to gain as reduce the fat reduce the water retention and fill
usually used for much muscle mass percentage and polish percentage of body the muscles, leaving the
vacations, maintaining with as little fat as the physique, usually fat to competitive individual full and dry,
physical fitness or possible, which occurs after bulking. levels. ready for the stage.
increasing muscle normally occurs in
volume. the off-season. Up to 10% for men Up <8% for men It starts 5 to 7 days
to 15% for women <12% for women before the competition.

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The athlete must go through several stages during preparation for a bodybuilding competition,
which is why it is necessary to have the supervision of a professional with a critical eye, based on
science and, if possible, with practical experience in the sport to adjust all the variables of the
different stages of preparation, leaving the athlete in their best condition on stage and with peace
of mind. The following chapters will demonstrate in a didactic way how to manipulate all the
variables of a bodybuilding athlete's diet, training and finishing, using practical models tested and
approved by real athletes.

1.1 Most popular categories

Like all sports, in bodybuilding there are several categories with divisions by gender, age, weight and
height. Some categories may be unified depending on the number of athletes, federation and the
organization of the event. Among the men's categories, the most popular currently are Classic
physique, Bodybuilding and Mens physique. The names of the categories, fitness level, posing
standards and clothing may differ from one federation to another, so you need to pay attention. The
most popular female categories currently are Bikini fitness and Wellness, the standards of poses,
fitness level, muscle volume and clothing differ in some aspects depending on the chosen
federation.

1.1.1 Classic Physique

In this category and its subdivisions, criteria such as symmetry, muscle volume and physical
conditioning are evaluated, and it is extremely important that the athlete has good control over the
abdominal muscles in order to be able to present and maintain the abdominal vacuum. The
physiques presented follow an “X” pattern, where athletes must have a wide shoulder girdle, a tight
waist and thick legs, maintaining a good proportion of muscle volume and physical conditioning.

The Classic physique category is divided by age and height/body weight ratio, and can be unified.

JUNIOR
JUNIOR CLASSIC PHYSIQUE DIVISION TABLE - IFBB STANDARD
Athletes aged 16 to 20 Athletes aged 21 to 23 Height/weight ratio
World division Unified with respect Unified with respect Up to 168 cm: + 2 kg
height/weight height/weight Up to 171 cm: + 3 kg
South America Division Unified with height/weight ratio Up to 175 cm: + 4 kg
Up to 180 cm: + 6 kg
Up to 188 cm: + 7 kg
Up to 196 cm: + 8 kg
Above 196 cm: + 9 kg

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SENIOR

SENIOR CLASSIC PHYSIQUE DIVISION TABLE - IFBB STANDARD

Athletes over 23 years old Height/weight ratio
World division Up to 168 cm Up to 168 cm: + 4 kg
Up to 171 cm Up to 171 cm: + 6 kg
Up to 175 cm Up to 175 cm: + 8 kg
Up to 180 cm Up to 180 cm: + 11 kg
Above 180 cm Up to 188 cm: + 13 kg
Up to 196 cm: + 15 kg
South America Division Up to 175 cm Above 196 cm: + 17 kg

MASTER

CLASSIC PHYSIQUE MASTER DIVISION TABLE - IFBB STANDARD

Athletes aged 40 to 44 Athletes aged 45 to 49 Athletes aged 50 and over Height/weight ratio
World division Unified division, with Unified division, with Unified division, with The same used in
height/weight ratio height/weight ratio height/weight ratio senior

To find the weight limit for the athlete in the Classic physique category, a simple calculation must be
made, considering the height and additional weight margin allowed for each subcategory, as shown
below:

(Height in centimeters – 100) + allowed weight margin = athlete's weight limit

CLASSIC PHYSIQUE JUNIOR TABLE (16 to 23 years old) – IFBB STANDARD

Up to 168cm Up to 171cm Up to 175cm Up to 180cm Up to 188cm Up to 196cm Above 196cm
Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight
168 70 168.5 71.5 171.5 75.5 175.5 81.5 180.5 87.5 188.5 96.5 196.5 105.5
2kg margin 169 72 172 76 176 82 181 88 189 97 197 106
169.5 72.5 172.5 76.5 176.5 82.5 181.5 88.5 189.5 97.5 197.5 106.5
170 73 173 77 177 83 182 89 190 98 198 107
170.5 73.5 173.5 77.5 177.5 83.5 182.5 89.5 190.5 98.5 198.5 107.5
171 74 174 78 178 84 183 90 191 99 199 108
3kg margin 174.5 78.5 178.5 84.5 183.5 90.5 191.5 99.5 199.5 108.5
175 79 179 85 184 91 192 100 200 109
4kg margin 179.5 85.5 184.5 91.5 192.5 100.5 200.5 109.5
180 86 185 92 193 101 201 110
6kg margin 185.5 92.5 193.5 101.5 201.5 110.5
186 93 194 102 202 111
186.5 93.5 194.5 102.5 202.5 111.5
187 94 195 103 203 112
187.5 94.5 195.5 103.5 203.5 112.5
188 95 196 104 204 113
7kg margin 8kg margin 9kg margin

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The sub-junior and junior subcategories follow the same height/weight ratio standard, while the
senior and master subcategories use another standard for dividing athletes, allowing individuals a
greater margin of body weight to better fill out their physique.

CLASSIC PHYSIQUE SENIOR TABLE – IFBB STANDARD

Up to 168cm Up to 171cm Up to 175cm Up to 180cm Up to 188cm Up to 196cm Above 196cm
Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight
168 72 168.5 74.5 171.5 79.5 175.5 86.5 180.5 93.5 188.5 103.5 196.5 113.5
4kg margin 169 75 172 80 176 87 181 94 189 104 197 114
169.5 75.5 172.5 80.5 176.5 87.5 181.5 94.5 189.5 104.5 197.5 114.5
170 76 173 81 177 88 182 95 190 105 198 115
170.5 76.5 173.5 81.5 177.5 88.5 182.5 95.5 190.5 105.5 198.5 115.5
171 77 174 82 178 89 183 96 191 106 199 116
6kg margin 174.5 82.5 178.5 89.5 183.5 96.5 191.5 106.5 199.5 116.5
175 83 179 90 184 97 192 107 200 117
8kg margin 179.5 90.5 184.5 97.5 192.5 107.5 200.5 117.5
180 91 185 98 193 108 201 180
11kg margin 185.5 98.5 193.5 108.5 201.5 118.5
186 99 194 109 202 119
186.5 99.5 194.5 109.5 202.5 119.5
187 100 195 110 203 120
187.5 100.5 195.5 110.5 203.5 120.5
188 101 196 111 204 121
13kg margin 15kg margin 17kg margin

The swim trunks should be made of a non-shiny fabric, the color should be uniform according to the
athlete's choice, and should cover at least the front part from the waist to the upper thigh. It is
important that the swim trunks have a minimum width of 15 cm on the sides and cover the entire
gluteal region. Regarding the poses, the athletes must perform quarter turns so that the judges can
evaluate the athlete's general silhouette. They normally start with a semi-relaxed pose facing
forward and then perform quarter turns to the right, respecting the following order:

• Facing: semi-relaxed position

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the left side

• Half quarter turn, back: shows the back in a semi-relaxed position

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the right side

Front Quarter Turns Back Quarter Turns

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After performing the quarter turns, athletes must perform the compulsory poses as verbally
requested by the referees. The execution of the compulsory poses follows the following order:

• Front double biceps • Front vacuum

• Side chest • Front abs and legs

• Back double biceps • Favorite Classic Pose (Athlete's Choice)

• Side triceps

In addition to the quarter turns and compulsory poses, the best-placed athletes perform an
individual presentation, where a routine of free poses is performed in conjunction with music
previously chosen by the athlete.

For a bodybuilder, training in compulsory poses, quarter turns and individual presentation must be
taken as seriously as weight training sessions, aerobics and diet, as there is no point in sculpting a
well-defined physique and not being able to present it properly on stage.

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1.1.2 Bodybuilding
The main criteria evaluated in the Bodybuilding category are symmetry, proportion, density,
definition and muscle volume. Typically, physiques follow an “X” pattern, with a wider shoulder
girdle, tight waist and thick legs. The category is divided into subcategories based on age and body
weight, and can be unified.

JUNIOR AND SENIOR

JUNIOR AND SENIOR BOBYDBUILDING DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD

Athletes aged 16 to 20 Athletes aged 21 to 23 SENIOR – athletes over 23 years old
World division Unified Up to 75kg Up to 65kg
Over 75kg Up to 70kg
South America Up to 75kg Up to 75kg
Division
Over 75kg Up to 80kg
Up to 85kg
Up to 90kg
Up to 95kg
Up to 100kg
Over 100kg

MASTER

BODYBUILDER MASTER DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD

Division 40 to 44 years old 45 to 49 years old 50 to 54 years old 55 to 59 years old 60 years or older
World division Up to 70kg Up to 70kg Up to 80kg Up to 75kg Unified division
Up to 80kg Up to 80kg Over 80kg Over 75kg
Up to 90kg Up to 90kg
Over 90kg Over 90kg
South America Up to 70kg Up to 70kg Unified division Unified division Unified division
Division Up to 80kg Up to 80kg
Over 80kg Over 80kg

The Bodybuilding categories use the classic thin swim trunks as clothing, with fabric and colors
chosen by the athlete. According to the IFBB rulebook, the elimination round takes place when
there are more than 15 athletes in the category and semifinals when the number of competitors is
equal to or less than 15 athletes. In the elimination round, the athletes enter the stage and are
positioned in front of the referees/public, where they must perform two stops (front and back) in a
semi-relaxed pose.

After completing the two stops, the athletes are distributed along the diagonal line of the stage.
Groups of four, five or six athletes will then be called to the central line, depending on the number
of participants, to perform four comparative poses in the following order:

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• Front, double biceps • Back, double biceps

• Side, chest • Front, abdominal and legs

Afterwards, all athletes will be lined up in a single line at the back of the stage, where only the five
highest-scoring athletes will be called to the center of the stage to perform the seven comparative
poses in the following order:

• Front, double biceps

• Front, dorsals expansion

• Side chest

• Back, double biceps

• Back, dorsal expansion

• Side triceps

• Abs and legs

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After performing the comparative poses, the athletes are lined up behind the stage and only the six
best-positioned athletes will be called to participate in the semifinals, where they will have to
perform the seven compulsory poses again, followed by a one-minute posedown (free poses). At
the end of the posedown, the first athlete called must remain on stage to perform their individual
presentation of up to 60 seconds using music of their own choice. After all the individual
presentations, the six athletes will be called and lined up in a line at the back of the stage. The
athlete's number will be called for the awards, starting from the sixth to the first place. For the
Overall (absolute champion) competition, the winning athletes of each Bodybuilding subcategory
are called to the stage, where they will be instructed to perform the four quarter turns, and may
also be asked to perform the compulsory poses. The quarter turns are used by the judges to
evaluate the athlete's overall silhouette. They usually start with the semi-relaxed pose facing
forward and then perform the quarter turns to the right in the following order:

• Facing: semi-relaxed position

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the left side

• Half quarter turn, back: shows the back in a semi-relaxed position

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the right side

After completing the quarter turns and any compulsory poses requested, the athletes are lined up
at the back of the stage and the overall champion is announced.

1.1.3 Mens Physique

This category is intended for men who are looking for a physique with less muscle volume, while
maintaining an athletic and aesthetically pleasing body.

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Differing slightly from the categories previously mentioned, in mens physique the evaluation begins
at the athlete's head and continues downwards, evaluating the overall physique. Facial features
such as hairstyle, smile, facial expressions and beauty are evaluated throughout the moment the
individual is on stage.

As for the physique, a “Y” pattern is followed, where the individual must have broad shoulders and
back, a thin and tight waist, maintaining good symmetry, muscular proportion and physical
conditioning in the upper part of the body, in addition to well-worked calves.

The athlete must convey confidence in his/her performance, demonstrating good stage presence
throughout the time he/she is on stage. The categories are subdivided by height and age as shown
in the table below:

JUNIOR

DIVISION TABLE FOR JUNIOR MENS PHYSIQUE CATEGORY – IFBB STANDARD

16 to 20 years old 21 to 23 years old
World division Up to 174 cm
Unified Up to 178 cm Above 178 cm

South America Division Up to 170 cm

Above 170 cm

SENIOR

DIVISION TABLE FOR SENIOR MENS PHYSIQUE CATEGORY – IFBB STANDARD

Athletes over 23 years old
World division Up to 170 cm
Up to 173 cm
Up to 176 cm
Up to 179 cm
Up to 182 cm
Above 182 cm
South America Division Up to 167 cm
Up to 170 cm
Up to 173 cm
Up to 176 cm
Up to 179 cm
Above 179 cm

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MASTER

MENS PHYSIQUE MASTER CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD

Athletes aged 40 to 44 Athletes over 45 years old
World division Unified Unified
South America Division Unified

The men's physique categories wear beach shorts, which can be plain or patterned. According to
the IFBB rulebook, the elimination round takes place when there are more than 15 athletes in the
category and the semifinals when the number of competitors is equal to or less than 15 athletes.
The athletes enter from the left side of the stage and line up in a single line facing the audience,
where the judges ask the competitors to perform the pose Front and back.

The athletes will then be divided into groups proportional to the number of competitors and
positioned diagonally across the stage. After this division, the athletes will be called in small groups
(4, 5 or 6 athletes) to the center of the stage to perform the four comparative poses:

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the left side

• Half a quarter turn, back-to-back: stand with your back to the referees

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the right side

• Half a quarter turn, facing: they face the referees

It is worth remembering that all athletes are being judged at all times while they are on stage,
including those who are lined up diagonally while the competitors do comparative poses in the
center of the stage.

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After the quarter turns, the athletes will be lined up in a single line in numerical order before exiting
the stage. The six best-placed athletes in the semifinals will participate in the final, and must
perform the compulsory comparative poses as instructed by the judges.

If the number of athletes is six or fewer, the category will be sent directly to the finals. For the
Overall competition, the champions of each subdivision will be called and lined up in the center of
the stage, where they will perform the quarter turns according to the order of the referees. After
the quarter turns, the athletes are directed to the back of the stage and the Overall champion is
announced.

1.1.4 Fitness bikini

This is the category with the least muscular development among the female categories, and was
created with the aim of showing femininity, style, and well-defined muscle tone in the shoulders,
back, and legs. Athletes must convey confidence and good stage presence during the performance.

Competitors must not have excess body fat, large muscle volume and separations, vascularization or
excessive physical conditioning. Body proportion, beauty, healthy appearance, hair, makeup and
skin tone are also part of the judging criteria. It is important to note that the color of the makeup
should not be too dark so that the athlete's natural tone can be seen.

The athletes must parade wearing bikinis, high heels and accessories such as bracelets, earrings or
even rings to give more charm and brilliance to the presentation. As in the other categories, all
athletes are evaluated from the moment they step on stage until they leave. The categories are
divided by age and height as specified in the tables below:

JUNIOR
JUNIOR FITNESS BIKINI CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD
Athletes aged 16 to 20
World division Unified

South America Division Unified

SENIOR
SENIOR FITNESS BIKINI CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD
Athletes over 23 years old

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World division Up to 158 cm
Up to 160 cm
Up to 162 cm
Up to 164 cm
Up to 166 cm
Up to 169 cm
Up to 172 cm
Above 172 cm
South America Division Up to 160 cm
Up to 162 cm
Up to 164 cm
Up to 166 cm
Up to 169 cm
Above 169 cm

MASTER
FITNESS MASTER BIKINI CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD
World division Athletes aged 35 to 39 - Unified Division. Athletes aged 40 to 44 -
Unified Division. Athletes over 45 - Unified Division.

South America Division Athletes over 30 years old - Unified Division.

Athletes over 35 years old - Unified Division.

According to the IFBB rulebook, the elimination round takes place when there are more than 15
athletes in the category and semifinals when the number of competitors is equal to or less than 15
athletes. The athletes enter from the left side of the stage and line up in a single line facing the
audience, where the judges ask the competitors to perform the pose Front and back.

The athletes will then be divided into groups proportional to the number of competitors and
positioned diagonally across the stage. After this division, the athletes will be called in small groups
(4, 5 or 6 athletes) to the center of the stage to perform the four comparative poses:

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the left side

• Half a quarter turn, back-to-back: stand with your back to the referees

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the right side

• Half a quarter turn, facing: they face the referees

It is worth remembering that all athletes are being judged at all times while they are on stage,
including those who are lined up diagonally while the other competitors do comparative poses in

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the center of the stage. After performing the quarter turns, the athletes will be lined up in a single
line in numerical order before leaving the stage.

Front Quarter turn Ofback Quarter turn

After the comparisons, the six best-placed athletes performed the “I-walk” in the final round. The
competitors will be called to the center of the stage one by one in numerical order, and must leave
the back of the stage and walk to the center, where they must perform four poses of the athlete's
choice and then proceed to the diagonal line while they wait for the other competitors to perform
their parade and poses.

After all athletes have completed the walk and poses, they are positioned at the center of the stage
to perform the quarter turns. The competitors will be instructed to walk four steps to the back of
the stage after performing the back pose, where they must wait for the command to perform the
quarter turns, face the judges and return to the center line. The judges may alternate the athletes'
positions and request the quarter turns again for new comparisons. After the comparisons, the
competitors will be rotated to leave the stage.

For the Overall competition, all Bikini subcategory champions are called to the stage in numerical
order where they will be lined up along the center line. The athletes then perform quarter turns and
walk to the back of the stage. Upon completing the quarter turns and walk, the competitors step
away from the stage and the Overall champion is announced.

1.1.5 Wellness
This category seeks symmetry and good muscular proportion, generating a slight disproportion of
the lower limbs and buttocks in relation to the upper part of the body. It was created with the aim
of showing femininity, style, and well-defined muscular tone in the shoulders, back and legs.

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Competitors must not have excess body fat, large muscle volume or separations, vascularity or
extreme physical conditioning. Body proportion, beauty, healthy appearance, hair, makeup and skin
tone are also part of the judging criteria. It is important to note that the paint should not be done in
a color that is too dark to allow the athlete's natural tone to be visible.

As for the parade and presentations, the athletes must parade wearing bikinis, high heels and
accessories such as bracelets, earrings or even rings to give more charm and brilliance, being very
important that the competitor conveys confidence and a certain charm during the presentation. As
in the other categories, all athletes are evaluated from the moment they step on stage until they
leave. The categories are divided according to age and height, as shown in the tables below:

JUNIOR
JUNIOR WELLNESS CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD
Athletes aged 16 to 20 Athletes aged 21 to 23
World division Unified Unified
South America Division Unified

SENIOR
SENIOR WELLNESS CATEGORY DIVISION TABLE – IFBB STANDARD
Athletes over 23 years old Up to 158 cm
Up to 163 cm
Up to 168 cm
Above 168 cm

MASTER
Division Athletes aged 35 to 39 Athletes aged 40 to 44 Athletes aged 45 and over
World Unified Unified Unified

South America Unified

According to the IFBB rulebook, the elimination round takes place when there are more than 15
athletes in the category and semifinals when the number of competitors is equal to or less than 15
athletes.

The athletes enter from the left side of the stage and line up in a single line facing the audience,
where the judges ask the competitors to perform the pose Front and back. The athletes will then be
divided into groups proportional to the number of competitors and positioned diagonally across the

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stage. After this division, the athletes will be called in small groups (4, 5 or 6 athletes) to the center
of the stage to perform the four comparative poses:

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the left side

• Half a quarter turn, back-to-back: stand with your back to the referees

• Half a quarter turn to the right: shows the right side

• Half a quarter turn, facing: they face the referees

It is worth remembering that all athletes are being judged at all times while they are on stage,
including those who are lined up diagonally while the other competitors do comparative poses in
the center of the stage. After performing the quarter turns, the athletes will be lined up in a single
line in numerical order before leaving the stage.

Front Quarter turn Ofback Quarter turn

After the comparisons, the six best-placed athletes performed the “I-walk” in the final round. The
competitors will be called to the center of the stage one by one in numerical order, and must leave
the back of the stage and walk to the center, where they must perform four poses of the athlete's
choice and then proceed to the diagonal line while they wait for the other competitors to perform
their parade and poses.

After all the athletes have completed the walk and poses, they are positioned in the center of the
stage to perform the quarter turns. The competitors will be instructed to walk four steps to the back
of the stage after performing the back pose, where they must wait for the command to perform the
quarter turns, face the judges and return to the center line. The referees may rotate the positions of
the athletes and request quarter turns again for further comparisons. After the comparisons, the
competitors will be rotated to leave the stage.

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For the Overall competition, all Bikini subcategory champions are called to the stage in numerical
order where they will be lined up along the center line. The athletes then perform quarter turns and
walk to the back of the stage. Upon completing the quarter turns and walk, the competitors step
away from the stage and the Overall champion is announced.

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2. BIOENERGETICS AND METABOLISM

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Before starting to periodize your diet and training for bodybuilding, you need to understand the
actions and interactions of the body with the macro and micronutrients in your diet during fasting,
feeding, and even during physical exercise to produce energy, tissues, and keep your body
functioning properly. Here, we will briefly explain some concepts about bioenergetics and
metabolism.

Bioenergetics, in a simplified way, is the study of energy transformations that occur in cells,
transformations that obey thermodynamics, such as the law of the principle of conservation of
energy.

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed”

Metabolism consists of a coordinated cellular activity involving several systems, enzymes, hormones
and other components. It represents the energy transformations that occur in cells and throughout
the organism. The function of metabolism is to create larger molecules, break molecules into
smaller particles, obtain energy, among others, and is extremely important for maintaining the life
of the organism.

Still referring to metabolism, we have the concepts of ANABOLISM and CATABOLISM, the latter of
which causes much concern/fear among bodybuilders, athletes and bodybuilding enthusiasts.
Anabolism has the function of creating larger molecules through smaller particles, such as the
formation of glycogen in the muscles from glucose or the synthesis of fat (triglycerides) through the
combination of fatty acids and glycerol in adipose tissue, anabolism being a process that conserves
energy.

In catabolism, the opposite occurs, larger particles are degraded into smaller particles in order to
extract energy and also release substrates that will be used in the production of other molecules,
such as the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate (glycolysis) which serves as a substrate for generating
energy in the Krebs cycle.

Both processes (anabolism and catabolism) occur in a coordinated manner and at all times. They are
extremely necessary to maintain the body's energy and to constantly renew its structures.
Metabolism is regulated by substances such as enzymes, hormones and neurotransmitters. This
regulation depends on variables such as the availability of nutrients and the presence of oxygen in
adequate quantities.

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2.1 Energy expenditure and its variations

In order for the body to remain fully functioning, a constant supply of energy to the cells is
necessary, and this energy is obtained from food in the diet and from the individual's energy
reserves. The body's caloric expenditure considers the energy expenditure at rest (only to maintain
vital functions) which can be called the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) and represents approximately
60 to 70% of the total energy expenditure (TEE), added to other factors.

It is important to mention that humans do not live in complete rest, as several movements are
necessary throughout the day to move around, perform daily activities and exercise. When factors
such as digestion and absorption of food, performance of daily activities and physical exercise are
considered, energy expenditure increases beyond the BMR, resulting in the individual's total caloric
expenditure.

Factors that influence daily calorie expenditure

Absorption and digestion:
The process of digestion and absorption of nutrients results in an increase in energy expenditure,
known as diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) and represents approximately 5% of the individual's
total energy expenditure.
Thermogenesis:
The production of heat to maintain ideal body temperature, such as when exposed to cold, is
known as non-shivering thermogenesis and represents approximately 15% of total energy
expenditure.
Spontaneous or conscious physical activities:
Movements made in everyday life such as walking, talking, climbing stairs, sitting down and
standing up, among others.
Activities performed unconsciously, such as “tics”, must also be taken into account, representing
around 20 to 30% of total energy expenditure;
Physical exercises:
Physical exercise (weight training, walking, cycling, running, playing football, among others) and
daily work (job) increase energy expenditure, thus increasing total caloric expenditure during the
day.
Depending on the intensity of the exercise or work performed, there may be a large increase in
energy expenditure.

Through daily nutrition, individuals can obtain the nutrients necessary for energy production, tissue
synthesis, hormones and several other substances that are extremely important for maintaining the
normal functioning of the body.

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Proteins, carbohydrates and fats undergo distinct metabolic pathways and reactions to produce
energy (ATP). The composition of the diet, the individual's nutritional status and the type of exercise
performed influence the percentage of use of each macronutrient to meet the individual's energy
demand.

Some tissues, such as the brain and red blood cells, are unable to efficiently use fats and amino
acids to produce energy, and therefore depend exclusively on glucose to remain fully functional.
Hormones related to metabolic control, such as insulin, glucagon, GH and cortisol, are responsible
for maintaining circulating glucose levels between 60 and 100 mg/dl in the fasting state.

A sudden drop in plasma glucose concentrations to values below 60 mg/dl is characterized as

hypoglycemia and can cause damage to central nervous system functions such as vision, motor
coordination and cognition. Severe cases of hypoglycemia can result in coma and death.

Fasting glucose levels above 110 mg/dl characterize a condition of hyperglycemia, which, sustained
over the long term, increases oxidative stress in cells, accumulation of intracellular lipids and
consequent lipotoxicity. Chronic hyperglycemia and all the cellular stress caused by the condition
induce resistance to the action of insulin, decreased glucose tolerance and development of type 2
Diabetes Mellitus, further increasing the risk of other comorbidities.

When caloric intake is less than the individual's daily energy expenditure, a caloric deficit is
generated, leading to increased use of energy reserves to maintain vital functions and the body's
development, resulting in loss of body weight and decreased energy levels.

In cases where caloric intake exceeds daily energy expenditure, a caloric surplus is created,
culminating in the replenishment of energy reserves and accumulation of body fat if the caloric
surplus is sustained in the long term. Thus, it is clear that there is a need to maintain an adequate
balance between caloric intake and expenditure, respecting the energy demand and needs of the
individual so that it is possible to maintain a healthy weight and metabolism.

2.2 Metabolic reactions

Glucose is a molecule derived from the digestion of carbohydrates and is the main energy substrate
used in high-intensity activities such as weightlifting and manual labor.

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For glucose to be used as energy, the molecule must be absorbed in the intestine, transported to
the tissues, captured by the cells and then oxidized through several metabolic reactions to finally
produce ATP, a highly energetic compound used by the body.

Fats and proteins can also be used to produce ATP, but they undergo different metabolic reactions
than carbohydrates. The body uses fats as the main energy substrate to meet the energy demand of
the basal metabolic rate during fasting and low to moderate intensity activities such as sweeping
the house, light walking, washing dishes and brushing teeth. The contribution of fat to meet the
energy demand decreases while the use of carbohydrates (glycogen/glucose) increases as the
intensity of the activity increases.

Protein catabolism supplies approximately 5 to 15% of the daily energy demand, depending on the
individual's protein intake and the relationship between daily caloric expenditure and intake. During
periods of more aggressive caloric deficit, such as during fat reduction phases for bodybuilding
competitions, the contribution of proteins to energy generation can reach approximately 20% of the
daily energy demand.

The use of proteins to produce energy is increased in situations of caloric restriction, trauma and
low protein intake. Protein catabolism can be mitigated by adjusting the intake of calories, proteins
and even increasing carbohydrate consumption.

2.2.1 Glycolysis – Generating energy from carbohydrates

Carbohydrates obtained through diet need to be digested into smaller molecules (glucose, fructose
and galactose) before being absorbed in the intestine and made available in the bloodstream.
Glucose molecules are transported to the tissues where they are taken up by the cells through
specific transporters, the GLUTs.

Main glucose transporters, their locations and functions.

Transporter Tissue
GLUT-1 Glucose-dependent cells such as red blood cells,
endothelial cells and nervous tissue.
They are also found in the liver, adipose and
muscle tissue.

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GLUT-2 Located in the pancreatic beta cell, it also acts
as a sensor for blood glucose levels.
Participates in the transport of fructose. This
transporter is also found in the liver, intestine
and kidneys.
GLUT-3 Located in the brain, they act by maintaining
glycemic levels in neuronal cells.
GLUT-4 They are found in muscle and adipose tissue.
It acts through the action of insulin on its
receptor.

After entering the cell, glucose is transformed (phosphorylated) into glucose-6-phosphate by the
enzyme hexokinase so that it cannot return to the extracellular environment. In this way, glucose
can be oxidized in the cell's mitochondria in order to produce energy (ATP). Glycolysis consists of a
set of 10 reactions that occur inside the cell, the objective of which is to "break down" glucose
molecules (6 carbons) until they form pyruvate, a three-carbon compound, which can be oxidized in
the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria or converted to lactate in the cytoplasm if there is low oxygen
availability.

In short, glucose in the bloodstream enters the cell through GLUTs. Subsequently, glucose is
phosphorylated into glucose-6-phosphate, a change necessary to prevent glucose from leaving the
cell. Still in the cytoplasm, the glucose-6-phosphate molecule is converted into fructose-6-
phosphate, fructose-1-6-bisphosphate, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, phosphoenol pyruvate, and
finally into pyruvate. Each glucose molecule produces two pyruvates.

Pyruvate can then be converted to Acetyl-CoA to initiate the Krebs cycle to produce ATP and reduce
the coenzyme NAD to NADH and hydrogen. In tissues with few mitochondria or at times of low
oxygen availability, such as during high-intensity muscle contraction, energy production occurs
anaerobically where pyruvate is reduced to lactate and NADH and hydrogen are reoxidized to NAD.

The coenzymes NADH and FADH2 produced in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
are oxidized by the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane to produce
energy and recycle NAD and FAD. This process is oxygen-dependent and produces almost 20 times
more ATP than glycolysis. It is worth mentioning that carbohydrates are responsible for
approximately 50% of the daily caloric requirement of human beings, in addition to being directly
related to performance in various sports and physical exercises in general. The glucose molecule can
be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Hepatic glycogen will be used to maintain stable
blood glucose levels, while muscle glycogen will be used exclusively by the muscles during muscle
contraction.

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It is important to mention that muscle glycogen does not directly contribute to maintaining blood
glucose levels. Some amino acids and products of fat metabolism can contribute to energy
production by forming pyruvate, acetyl-CoA or intermediates of the Krebs cycle. Lactate produced
during training can be used by the liver to produce new glucose molecules through
gluconeogenesis. Amino acids and glycerol can also be used in this process.

2.2.2 Glycogenesis – Glycogen synthesis

Glycogenesis basically consists of an anabolic phase of metabolism, where several glucose

molecules are joined by specific bonds to form a macromolecule used as an energy reserve in
animals. Glycogen is an energy molecule formed by several glucose residues, and can be stored in
the liver and muscles. Muscle tissue can store around 300 to 700g of glycogen, while the liver can
store around 80 to 120g of glycogen.

For glycogen synthesis to occur, a large quantity of glucose molecules will be required in the
bloodstream, which occurs after a meal rich in carbohydrates. The ingestion of carbohydrates
triggers the release of insulin into the bloodstream, which stimulates the expression of glucose
transporters, such as GLUT-4 in muscle and adipose tissue, favoring the entry of glucose into cells.
Hepatic glycogen allows blood glucose levels to be maintained during periods of low food intake,
such as during fasting, contributing to blood glucose levels for up to 24 hours. It is worth noting that
after this period, the body resorts to other mechanisms to maintain stable blood glucose levels.

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While liver glycogen contributes to maintaining blood glucose levels, muscle glycogen is used
exclusively by muscle tissue to generate muscle contraction and does not directly contribute to
maintaining blood glucose levels. Glycogen synthesis occurs through the action of enzymes that act
in the process of joining glucose molecules, such as glucokinase, phosphoglucomutase, UDP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase, glycogen synthase and glycogen branching enzyme.

2.2.3 Glycogenolysis – Breakdown of glycogen

This process occurs in the opposite direction to glycogenesis, leading to the breakdown of glycogen
in order to release glucose molecules into the bloodstream or muscle tissue to allow muscle
contraction. Due to the nature of the reaction, glycogenolysis can be considered a catabolic process.

During periods of low food intake or low

blood glucose levels, signals are released for
the release of hormones such as glucagon,
cortisol, catecholamines and GH, which act
to stimulate the breakdown of liver glycogen
in order to release glucose to help maintain
blood glucose levels. Glycogenolysis is
controlled by enzymes such as glycogen
phosphorylase, glycogen debranching
enzyme, phosphoglucomutase and glucose-
6-phosphatase.

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During periods of low food intake and during physical exercise, glucose and ATP concentrations
decrease, which reduces insulin levels while the release of glucagon and catecholamines increases.
Glucagon and adrenaline increase cAMP levels in the cell, activating the enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase so that glycogen breakdown begins and other reactions occur until glucose is
released into the bloodstream through the GLUT2 transporter.

When individual eats, glucagon levels decrease while ATP, glucose and insulin concentrations
increase, inhibiting the action of the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase, which prevents the
breakdown of glycogen while promoting synthesis. It is worth mentioning that the enzyme glucose
6-phosphatase is responsible for converting glucose 6-phosphate into glucose so that it can be
released into the bloodstream. This enzyme is only present in liver cells and for this reason muscle
glycogen does not directly contribute to maintaining blood glucose levels.

2.2.4 Gluconeogenesis – Synthesis of new glucose

When glucose demand increases to the point where it cannot be sustained by the hepatic glycogen
stores, mechanisms are activated whereby the metabolism stimulates the synthesis of new glucose
molecules from substrates such as lactate, amino acids and glycerol. These mechanisms aim to
maintain stable blood glucose levels. Gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and renal cortex during
prolonged periods of fasting or in times of great stress. This process is mediated by hormones such
as glucagon, adrenaline, cortisol and GH.

During periods of dietary restriction, insulin levels decrease and glucagon levels increase. This
hormone acts mainly on the liver, stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to release glucose
into the bloodstream and control blood sugar levels. Lactate, produced mainly during intense
muscle contraction, is transported to the liver, where it undergoes the action of the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase, converting it to pyruvate.

Some amino acids such as alanine, arginine, methionine, cysteine, histidine, threonine and valine
can be directed to the liver and then converted to pyruvate, following the glucose synthesis
pathway. It is worth mentioning that alanine is a very abundant amino acid in muscle tissue, being
one of the main amino acids used for the synthesis of hepatic glucose. Alanine undergoes the action
of the enzyme glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GPT) to then be converted to pyruvate and the
amino acid glutamate. Non-glycidic substrates, with the exception of glycerol released by the
breakdown of fat, reach the liver and are then converted via enzymatic processes to pyruvate. The
pyruvate molecule is converted to oxaloacetate, phosphoenolpyruvate, glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, glucose 6-phosphate and finally to
glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream.

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The glycerol molecule is obtained through the breakdown of triglycerides (fat), undergoing the
action of the enzyme glycerol kinase with the expenditure of an ATP molecule to form glycerol 3-
phosphate. The glycerol 3-phosphate molecule is converted to Dihydroxyacetone phosphate leading
to the reduction of NAD+ to NADH + H+ in the process.

From this substance, the fructose 1,6-bisphosphate molecule can then be produced, which
continues the path to glucose synthesis. It is worth mentioning that for every two glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate molecules formed, one of them needs to be converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
so that they can condense and then form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.

2.2.5 Lipolysis and beta-oxidation

The fat present in adipose tissue is in the form of triacylglycerols (TAG) and in order to be burned
(oxidized), it needs to be mobilized and transported from the adipose tissue to the tissues that
require energy. After being captured by the tissues, the fat needs to be “activated” and transported
into the mitochondria, where it will be degraded to acetyl-CoA, which can then be used by the
Krebs cycle to form ATP.

In conditions of prolonged fasting, low energy reserves and physical exercise, the hormones
glucagon and adrenaline have their levels elevated. These hormones bind to adipose tissue cells to
stimulate the activation of two essential proteins, perilipin and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL),
which then induce the breakdown of TAG into fatty acids and glycerol.

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These products can then be released into the bloodstream. This is the first stage of the fat burning
process, called lipolysis. Fatty acids (FA) are not soluble in the blood, so they must bind to albumin
in order to be transported to the tissues that need energy.

After being absorbed by the cells, the FAs are transformed into acyl-CoA, a substance that binds to
carnitine to be transported to the interior of the mitochondria, where it will be converted by other
processes until releasing Acetyl-CoA, NADH and FADH2. This is the second stage of the fat burning
process, called beta oxidation. Acetyl-CoA produced during beta-oxidation can be oxidized in the
Krebs cycle, forming ATP and CO2 in the process...that's right, the fat is released as carbon dioxide
after being fully oxidized.

It is worth mentioning that diets with very low carbohydrate content or prolonged periods of fasting
increase beta-oxidation, leading to the accumulation of Acetyl-CoA. Excess Acetyl-CoA can be
mobilized to the liver and then converted into ketone bodies, which serve as energy fuels that
replace glucose for some tissues.

Glycerol is transported to the liver, where it can be transformed back into triglycerides or form new
glucose through gluconeogenesis. The coenzymes NADH and FADH2 produced in the process are
oxidized in the electron transport chain, located inside the mitochondria, where electrons are
transported from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space and back to the
mitochondrial matrix.

At the end of the transport system, electrons react with oxygen to form ATP, water and carbon
dioxide. In the inner membrane of the mitochondria there are uncoupling proteins (UCPs), which
help transport protons from the intermembrane space to the mitochondrial matrix, producing
energy in the form of heat instead of ATP.

Thermogenic supplements work by increasing heat production in the mitochondria, forcing the
body to request more substrates to synthesize ATP and thus meet the energy demand of the tissues.
It is worth mentioning that most thermogenic supplements have a negligible effect, generating
increases of up to 100kcal in the individual's basal caloric expenditure.

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2.2.6 Protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy

Protein synthesis basically refers to the production of new proteins from the binding of specific
amino acid sequences, which are determined by the genetic code (DNA). When there is a need to
synthesize new proteins, the DNA present in the cell nucleus is replicated by the action of the
enzyme RNA polymerase, producing messenger RNA (mRNA). This process is called transcription.
The mRNA leaves the nucleus for the cytoplasm and then attaches to the ribosomes, where the
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) recognizes the mRNA, causing the transfer RNA (tRNA) to bring the amino
acids necessary for protein synthesis to the ribosomes. This process is called translation.

Protein synthesis and degradation are regulated by factors such as nutritional status, training and
the action of hormones such as insulin, GH, testosterone, T3 and cortisol. Protein synthesis and
degradation processes occur continuously in the body, where protein degradation occurs in certain
tissues (such as muscle) in order to release amino acids into the bloodstream to maintain the
concentration of amino acids in the plasma. This process is called protein turnover and occurs
constantly, allowing the body to renew approximately 1 to 2% of the body's proteins daily. During
periods of prolonged fasting, severe dietary restriction, low protein intake, physical exercise, trauma
and surgery, protein degradation rates increase.

Approximately 75% of the amino acids released are reused, while the remainder can be oxidized to
form energy, transformed into glucose or excreted as urea. Muscle represents the largest reservoir
of amino acids in the body, while the liver contains the enzymes responsible for carrying out the
urea cycle, eliminating excess nitrogen from the degradation of amino acids.

For muscle hypertrophy to occur, the individual must maintain a positive nitrogen balance, i.e.,
protein synthesis must be greater than protein degradation on a daily basis. To maintain a positive
nitrogen balance, it is important that dietary protein intake is adequate to the individual's needs,
and it is advisable to divide protein intake into at least 3 meals throughout the day to ensure
maximum protein synthesis.

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Muscle hypertrophy is basically an adaptation to mechanical, hormonal and nutritional stimuli that
together lead to an increase in muscle mass by increasing the number of sarcomeres in parallel with
those already present in the muscle, in addition to increasing the volume of intracellular fluid, thus
increasing the diameter of the muscle fiber.

Mechanical stimuli, cell energy status, hormone action, growth factors and nutrients are capable of
activating cell signaling cascades whose purpose is to increase the number of myonuclei in the
muscle cell. The activation and inhibition of these pathways is related to hormones such as insulin,
testosterone, GH, IGF-1, T3, nutrient intake and high-intensity muscle contraction itself.

Strength training increases the density of IGF-1 receptors and increases the release of this growth
factor in muscles. IGF-1 signals protein synthesis through activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.
After binding to its receptor, IGF-1 activates proteins such as PI3K, AKT and mTOR, and inhibits
enzymes such as GSK3 B, FOXO and TSC2.

When active, FOXO is related to muscle atrophy, while activation of TSC2 inhibits the action of
mTOR, a protein that plays an essential role in signaling protein synthesis.

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Testosterone is a potent anabolic hormone that, after entering the muscle cell, binds to the
androgen receptor (AR) and travels to the cell nucleus to stimulate the transcription of DNA into
mRNA, resulting in increased synthesis of contractile proteins such as actin and myosin. It is worth
mentioning that testosterone also has an anti-catabolic effect by inhibiting genes such as MURF1
and atrogin1, which are responsible for signaling protein degradation.

Insulin is a hormone released by the pancreas mainly after the ingestion of carbohydrates. It has
several metabolic effects such as stimulating the synthesis and reducing the degradation of proteins
by activating mTOR, and also acting to increase the production of muscle glycogen.

Muscle hypertrophy can occur in acute response to training (sarcoplasmic) and chronically
(sarcoplasmic). Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy basically refers to the accumulation of fluids, metabolites
and intracellular proteins during training. Myofibrillar hypertrophy, on the other hand, consists of an
increase in contractile proteins in muscle fibers, stimulated by long-term weight training. Another
important factor related to muscle hypertrophy is the microlesions in muscle fibers caused by
training, normally generated by using overloads to which the individual is not accustomed. After
generating microlesions in the exercised muscle, cells of the immune system such as macrophages
and neutrophils are recruited to begin the process of tissue repair.

It is worth mentioning that immune system cells generate a certain degree of inflammation in the
muscle tissue to be repaired, which may be responsible for the muscle pain that occurs after
training sessions with overload/volume to which the individual is not adapted. During the tissue
regeneration period, satellite cells are activated by local factors related to training, such as
increased muscle temperature, IGF-1, interleukin-6 and nitric oxide. Satellite cells proliferate
throughout the muscle tissue and differentiate into myonuclei; as a result, muscle cells with a
greater number of myonuclei can be more potently stimulated by training, hormones and nutrients.

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2.3 Forms of energy reserve

The body needs constant energy to keep functioning properly. This energy is obtained through the
foods contained in the individual's daily diet and from the body's reserves. Due to the constant
demand, the body has energy reserves that are capable of storing nutrients from the diet so that
there is substrate available for later formation of ATP, maintaining the proper functioning of the
body even in periods of low or no food intake, such as fasting, and in moments of high energy
expenditure, such as during strenuous physical exercise or manual labor.

2.3.1 Glycogen

Glycogen is the body's storage form of carbohydrates. It is formed by the union of several glucose,
water and sodium molecules and is found in the liver and muscles. During periods of low energy
intake (such as fasting, calorie deficit and physical exercise), the liver's glycogen stores are gradually
depleted, releasing glucose into the bloodstream in order to maintain stable blood glucose levels
and provide a continuous flow of glucose to the other body tissues.

The amount of glycogen in the liver of an adult man is approximately 120g, while muscles contain
approximately 700g of glycogen. It is worth noting that the greater the muscle volume an individual
has, the greater the capacity to store muscle glycogen. Muscle glycogen does not directly contribute
to maintaining blood glucose levels, and is only used by the muscle tissue itself during activities with
greater energy demand, such as weight training sessions or manual labor.

It is important to mention that the metabolization of glycogen during exercise produces lactate,
which will be directed to the liver during rest to be used in the production of new glucose molecules
(gluconeogenesis), and can thus be released into the bloodstream and help maintain blood glucose
levels or be used in the resynthesis of glycogen.

Adequate carbohydrate intake is extremely important for replenishing and maintaining liver and
muscle glycogen stores. Carbohydrates are highly relevant nutrients for sports performance and
performance in high-intensity, calorie-burning activities.

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2.3.2 Adipose tissue

The body's largest source of energy reserves is fat. It can be stored in various tissues, but only
adipose tissue is considered an efficient and safe place to store it. Fat is stored in adipose tissue in
the form of triglycerides (TG), which are composed of 3 fatty acid (FA) molecules linked to a glycerol
molecule. TG are obtained through diet and can be produced in the liver in the event of excessive
calorie intake. When excess fat is stored in the muscles and liver, for example, problems such as
insulin resistance can occur, disrupting carbohydrate metabolism and leading to the development of
type 2 diabetes and other comorbidities.

Most of the fat present in adipose tissue comes from the diet. This fat is absorbed in the intestine as
free fatty acids and 2-monoglycerides. Once in the intestinal cell, these molecules are transformed
again into triglycerides and are complexed with apolipoprotein B-48 along with cholesterol and
phospholipids, forming a lipoprotein capable of transporting this fat through the blood, the
chylomicron. Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic vessels and pass through the hepatic circulation
(liver) and are released into the bloodstream, where they can be transported to tissues such as
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and adipose tissue.

In the target tissues, the triglyceride present in the chylomicron is broken down by the enzymatic
action of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), releasing fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids are used to form
energy or transformed back into triglycerides, while the glycerol is transported to the liver to form
new glucose. The chylomicron, which is now free of triglycerides and full of cholesterol, is
transported to the liver, binds to specific receptors and releases cholesterol to the liver.

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2.4 HORMONAL CONTROL OF ENERGY METABOLISM

Metabolism is an integrated system with several chemical reactions, controlled mainly by the action
of hormones and neurotransmitters, with the purpose of maintaining energy levels and releasing
substrates to create other compounds.

Some of the hormones that regulate metabolism are insulin, glucagon, adrenaline and
noradrenaline (catecholamines), which will exert their effects depending on the energy context,
level of nutrients available at the time or energy reserves (amount of body fat and/or liver and
muscle glycogen).

2.4.1 Insulin

Insulin is a hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells in response to nutrient levels from food. It is
highly anabolic and has effects on various tissues such as the liver, muscles and adipose tissue. It is
worth mentioning that insulin is released mainly after the ingestion of carbohydrates, but proteins
and fats also stimulate the release of the hormone.

It can be called the “hormone of abundance” because it is released in sufficient quantities to

respond to the size of the meal consumed. Below are the main effects of insulin on some organs:

• Liver: Stimulates the production of hepatic glycogen, inhibits glucose synthesis and glycogen
breakdown. Glucose is also converted into triacylglycerols (produces fat).

• Muscle: Insulin stimulates increased uptake of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, muscle
glycogen synthesis and protein synthesis. It is worth mentioning that the participation of
insulin in muscle hypertrophy is more associated with its anti-catabolic effect.

• Adipose tissue: There is a decrease in the expression of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) and
an increase in lipoprotein lipase, i.e., a decrease in the breakdown and an increase in the
production of fat.

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Basically, insulin acts to store nutrients that are in excess, as in the case of high-calorie diets. The
hormone acts by causing these excess nutrients to be stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and
muscles, fat in adipose tissue and as proteins in the muscles.

Liver glycogen will be used in times of food shortage, such as overnight fasting, ensuring that the
glycemic rate remains stable and there is a constant supply of glucose to the brain and other tissues.

Muscle glycogen, on the other hand, will only be used by muscle tissue in moments where there is
intense physical effort, as in the case of weight training, providing energy for the muscles to
continue carrying out the contraction/work imposed on them during a certain period.

Fat is used as the main energy fuel in situations where caloric intake is lower than daily energy
expenditure (calorie deficit), in the periods between meals, overnight fasting, low to moderate
intensity exercises (such as walking, biking, jumping rope, sweeping the house, washing dishes,
playing with the dog, among others).

2.4.2 Glucagon

This is a hormone released by pancreatic alpha cells, which, like insulin, responds to variations in
the levels of available nutrients, and can be called the “hunger hormone”.

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Glucagon has the opposite function to insulin, acting by mobilizing stored substrates in order to
increase and maintain blood glucose levels. The secretion of this hormone is influenced by factors
such as reduced blood glucose levels and protein and fat intake. Its secretion is reduced with
carbohydrate intake due to the release of insulin.

Glucagon acts mainly in the liver, inhibiting glycogenesis while increasing glycogenolysis, and also
stimulating hepatic glucose synthesis through gluconeogenesis, thus releasing glucose into the
bloodstream to maintain blood glucose levels.

In adipose tissue, glucagon increases fat breakdown (lipolysis) while decreasing fat formation
(lipogenesis) and stimulates increased production of ketoacids in the liver through fatty acids
released by lipolysis.

In short, when an individual is fasting or exercising vigorously, blood glucose levels tend to fall,
resulting in a reduction in insulin levels and an increase in glucagon levels. Glucagon then acts on
the liver, breaking down glycogen and stimulating glucose production through amino acids, glycerol,
and lactate, so that it can maintain stable blood glucose levels.

2.4.3 Catecholamines and lipolysis

Adrenaline and noradrenaline (catecholamines) are produced in the medulla of the adrenal gland
and are released into the bloodstream in certain situations, such as during physical exercise and
when blood sugar levels drop. These substances function as hormones in various tissues of the
body.

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Catecholamines bind to adrenoreceptors that are located in the membrane of target tissues, these
receptors are divided into alpha (α-1 and α-2) and beta (β-1, β-2 and β-3) adrenergic receptors.

During physical exercise, there is a greater release of adrenaline into the bloodstream, causing a
“fight or flight” response, the purpose of which is to provide sufficient energy to the muscles while
maintaining an adequate supply of glucose and oxygen to the brain.

Below are listed some of the effects of adrenaline after binding to β receptors during exercise:

• Increased blood flow to the muscles due to the action of catecholamines in the heart, veins
and arteries;

• Greater breakdown of muscle and liver glycogen;

• Increased hepatic glucose synthesis through compounds such as amino acids, lactate and
glycerol;

• Increased breakdown of fat in adipose tissue.

Catecholamines also increase energy availability during exercise by increasing glucagon secretion (β-
2) and inhibiting insulin release (α-2), increase oxygen supply by stimulating the relaxation of
bronchiolar smooth muscle and reduce energy demand for the gastrointestinal and urinary tract,
avoiding spending energy where it is not needed at the time.

The mechanism of action of β-adrenergic receptors consists of an increase in the activity of

adenylate cyclase, with a consequent increase in cAMP inside the cell. The increase in the
concentration of cAMP acts as a second messenger, activating specific proteins that initiate the
physiological actions of that tissue, such as lipolysis in adipose tissue.
With the increase in cAMP in adipose tissue cells, there is activation of proteins responsible for
breaking down fat and mobilizing fatty acids, which can be oxidized in tissues with high energy
demand, and glycerol, which can be transported to the liver and used to synthesize new glucose
molecules.

In addition to β-adrenergic receptors, adrenaline can also bind to α-adrenergic receptors in

adipocytes, causing effects such as reduced Adenylate Cyclase activity, which decreases cAMP and
consequently blocks lipolysis.

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It is worth mentioning that areas of the body with those “more resistant fats” at the end of cutting
normally have a high density of α-adrenergic receptors and/or a low density of β-adrenergic
receptors, making it difficult to reduce the percentage of fat in that area.

2.5 METABOLISM IN EATING PERIODS

As mentioned in previous topics, the body needs energy at all times and for this reason there are
body energy stores such as fats and glycogen. Metabolism has its action coordinated by hormones,
catecholamines and other substances with the aim of maintaining stable energy levels in different
metabolic states. There are basically four metabolic phases:

• Digestive phase: period used to digest a meal, lasting around 2 to 3 hours;

• Post-absorptive phase: period between meals, such as the window between breakfast and
lunch, for example. It can be considered the “anabolic” period, where the body stores
energy in the form of glycogen, fat and proteins.

• Night fast: which occurs between the last meal before bed and the first meal after waking
up, such as the period between dinner the night before and breakfast the next day.

• Physical exercise or strenuous work: Bodybuilding and manual labor are good examples.

Below we will briefly describe how metabolism works during different eating periods.

2.5.1 Fed state (Post-absorptive)

After waking up in the morning and having a meal with carbohydrates, proteins or fats,
the individual leaves the fasting state and enters the fed state. The food is digested and
absorbed, causing its nutrients to enter the bloodstream. There is then an inversion in
the insulin/glucagon relationship, where insulin levels increase and glucagon levels
decrease, thus changing to an anabolic state.

Much of the glucose absorbed through carbohydrate digestion will

be distributed to tissues such as the brain, muscles and liver for
energy production (ATP) through glycolysis and the Krebs
cycle. Some glucose is still used by the liver to produce
lipoproteins such as cholesterol.

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Excess glucose not used for the formation of ATP or the synthesis of other products can then be
stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles or converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue if
glycogen stores are full and there is still glucose left over.

The amino acids absorbed through protein digestion will be metabolized in the liver to form
lipoproteins and plasma proteins such as albumin. What is not captured by the liver can then be
used by cells for protein synthesis (muscles, enzymes, hormones and others) or be used to form
energy.

If protein intake exceeds the amount required for protein synthesis and energy production, this
excess can be converted to fat. Most dietary fat is organized in the intestine into lipoproteins and
chylomicrons (composed of triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, and apoproteins).

Chylomicrons pass through the lymphatic system and are released into the bloodstream,
undergoing the action of LLP (lipoprotein lipase), releasing free fatty acids and glycerol that can be
reorganized into triacylglycerols and stored in adipose tissue or used for energy production by other
cells.

What is left of the chylomicrons and HDL cholesterol are directed to the liver, where they are
processed to form lipoproteins such as LDL and VLDL; some of the cholesterol can still be directed to
the production of bile salts.

2.5.2 Night fasting

During the fasting period, there is an increase in the use of fat and liver glycogen reserves to provide
constant energy to maintain vital functions. The amount of energy used during this period serves to
maintain breathing, brain activity, among other vital functions and is called the basal metabolic rate
(BMR).

During the nighttime fasting period, aiming to maintain blood glucose levels, there is an increase in
the release of glucose by the liver, both through the breakdown of hepatic glycogen (glycogenolysis)
and the formation of new glucose (gluconeogenesis), with glycogenolysis being responsible for
approximately 50% of the release of glucose by the liver during this period.

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During prolonged periods of fasting, hepatic glycogen reserves are not sufficient, so
gluconeogenesis predominates, where the liver produces glucose through products such as glycerol,
lactate and some amino acids such as glutamine and alanine. The kidneys also produce glucose,
however, on a scale sufficient only to maintain the amount of glucose used by the adrenal medulla,
not contributing to the maintenance of blood glucose levels.

During this period, most of the energy is obtained from the oxidation of fat, which is released from
adipose tissue through lipolysis. Basically, lipolysis releases fatty acids to be oxidized in tissues such
as muscles and the liver to form energy, and glycerol to synthesize new glucose molecules in the
liver.

This process is regulated by hormones such as glucagon, GH, cortisol and catecholamines. The brain
cannot use fatty acids during periods of low blood sugar levels, but it uses ketone bodies that are
produced in the liver through the metabolization of fatty acids.

Muscle proteins may also be broken down, releasing amino acids that can be captured by the liver
for use in gluconeogenesis. This process is stimulated by the hormones glucagon, cortisol and
adrenaline. The increase in the levels of these hormones is responsible for maintaining a constant
supply of glucose to the bloodstream.

2.5.3 Metabolism during physical exercise

The metabolic response during exercise is similar to the metabolism during fasting, where there is
an increase in fat breakdown, liver and muscle glycogen breakdown, and increased hepatic glucose
synthesis. The purpose of these changes is to meet the energy demand of exercise while
maintaining blood glucose levels at adequate levels. Initially, there is a small amount of energy (ATP)
in the muscle fibers. As muscle contraction occurs during exercise and this ATP is used up, ADP is
formed, and this is where the creatine phosphate (CP) system comes in.

Creatine acts by providing phosphate for ADP to be regenerated into ATP, allowing muscle work to
continue for a few more seconds. This system can provide enough energy for around 15 seconds of
intense work such as weightlifting or short-distance running.

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After the initial seconds sustained by the ATP-CP system, the muscles need to maintain ATP
production to continue the exercise, a demand that is met by liver and muscle glycogen reserves in
addition to the fat present in adipose tissue. It is worth noting that glucose and fat are the main
substrates used to form energy. This energy can be produced in the adequate presence of oxygen
(aerobic) or with low oxygen (anaerobic).

As the exercise continues to be performed at high intensity, the oxygen demand cannot be met
efficiently. At this point, the predominance of fat use to produce energy decreases, increasing the
participation of muscle glycogen in the synthesis of ATP via the anaerobic pathway. During the
production of ATP using glucose as fuel, glucose is converted to pyruvate, which is transformed into
acetyl-CoA and subsequently enters the Krebs cycle to then continue the formation of ATP (aerobic
pathway).

In conditions where there is low oxygen availability, such as during intense muscle contraction,
pyruvate is converted to lactate instead of acetyl-CoA, increasing the concentration of lactate and
hydrogen in the cell. This process produces energy up to 2.5x faster than the aerobic pathway, but it
cannot be maintained for long due to the reduction in pH caused by the accumulation of
intracellular hydrogen.

The accumulation of hydrogen in the muscle causes the “burning” sensation during the last
repetitions of the exercise. The lactate is directed to the liver, where it can be used to form new
glucose or be regenerated into pyruvate and then used in the synthesis of ATP.

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3. BASIC AND APPLIED NUTRITION FOR BODYBUILDING

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Before discussing the preparation and periodization of the diet, it is necessary to have basic
knowledge about nutrition, understand the macro and micronutrients, dietary fibers and bioactive
compounds that make up the food and, consequently, the diet. To enable the preparation of the
diet, it is also necessary to know dietary strategies that are safe, effective and applicable to the
routine and needs of the individual, facilitating adherence to the plan and obtaining the best
possible result.

Bodybuilding is a sport that seeks to change body composition through diet, supplementation,
training and adequate rest. The preparation of bodybuilding athletes requires periods of high and
low calorie intake, normally divided into distinct phases, known as cutting (reducing the percentage
of fat) and bulking (gaining muscle mass).

It is extremely important that the professional knows the nuances of theory and practice involved in
each phase of preparation, from the composition of the diet to the use of drugs and the finalization
of athletes for the stage. Depending on the phase of preparation, it may be necessary to use drugs
such as anabolic steroids, thermogenics and stimulants to enhance metabolic action and even
generate a better response in protein synthesis and fat burning.

It is important to note that the use of drugs should be done under specialized medical supervision,
taking into account the individual's needs and tolerance. Supplementation can be used to
complement the diet or improve performance during training, and should always take into account
the individual's needs and preferences. It is worth mentioning that there are several supplements
on the market, however, many have no proven effects, are unnecessary or simply do not work.

Below, basic nutrition concepts will be covered, in order to enable intelligent periodization of the
diet, respecting the individual's demand, needs and objectives in order to achieve the best results in
preparation.

3.1 Macronutrients

Basically, macronutrients are large molecules that need to go through a digestion process to then
release smaller particles that can then be absorbed by the body. Macronutrients form the basis of
the diet and are responsible for providing energy and substrates for the production of cells,
hormones and tissues.

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• Carbohydrates: at the end of carbohydrate digestion, the monosaccharides glucose, fructose
and galactose are released. The main function of this macronutrient is to provide a substrate
for rapid energy production in metabolism.

• Proteins: after digestion, this macronutrient releases amino acids and some smaller
peptides. Its main function is to provide amino acids for the production of tissues,
hormones, enzymes, etc.

• Fats: during the process of fat digestion, free fatty acids, phospholipids and cholesterol are
released. The functions of fat include transporting substances, participating in cellular
structure and synthesizing hormones.

3.1.1 Carbohydrates – Overview

This class of nutrients is produced by plants and is responsible for most of the energy in the diet.
The recommended daily carbohydrate intake is around 50 to 60% of the daily caloric intake,
depending on the individual's energy needs. They provide 4 calories per gram of the nutrient.

Carbohydrates can be divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and

polysaccharides. For classification purposes only, monosaccharides and disaccharides are
considered simple carbohydrates, while oligosaccharides and polysaccharides can be called complex
carbohydrates. This classification basically depends on the composition of the carbohydrate in
question, as shown in the table below.

Classification Examples Observation

Monosaccharides GlucoseFr Simplest units of carbohydrates.
uctose
Galactose
Disaccharides Amylose Combination between two monosaccharides.
Sucrose
Lactose
Oligosaccharides Malto dextrins Combination between 3 and 10 monosaccharides.
Fructooligosaccharides
(FOS)
Polysaccharides StarchGlyc It contains large amounts of monosaccharides in its
ogen composition.
Cellulose

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Digestion and absorption

Starch is the most important carbohydrate in human nutrition. Its digestion begins in the mouth and
during chewing, the food matrix is mixed with enzymes (salivary amylase) that partially “reduce”
the size of the starch, keeping the smaller carbohydrates present intact, which then continue to the
stomach.

In the stomach, the food is mixed and water is absorbed, forming a viscous food bolus (chyme) and
inactivating α-amylase due to the acidic pH of the stomach. The chyme is directed to the small
intestine, where it undergoes the action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes, releasing
monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) and some residues of maltose, isomaltase and dextrins.

The glucose and fructose that were released are then absorbed by their respective transporters in
the intestinal cells. It is important to mention that for glucose to be absorbed and released into the
bloodstream, its specific transporter must be activated. The activation of the sodium-dependent
glucose transporter (SGLT-1) occurs through energy expenditure.

Fructose is absorbed through a different transporter than glucose, GLUT-5, and there is no energy
expenditure in the process. For this reason, it is very interesting to use the combination of glucose
and fructose at specific times, such as close to training or in the carbohydrate super compensation
phase in the final week.

A certain portion of starch cannot be digested and is known as resistant starch. There are also some
oligo and polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin that cannot be digested and
are called dietary fiber. Both resistant starch and dietary fiber are sent to the colon (large intestine)
where intestinal bacteria are responsible for fermenting these compounds.

The fermentation of dietary fiber releases short-chain fatty acids, which can be used to produce
energy by intestinal cells and stimulate the production of hormones related to satiety. It is worth
mentioning that gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane are released as flatulence.

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3.1.2 Proteins – Overview

Proteins are essential macronutrients for humans and can be obtained through diet from animal
and plant sources such as meat, eggs, milk, protein powder, soy, combinations of various
vegetables, among others. They provide 4 calories per gram of the nutrient.

Basically, proteins are made up of smaller molecules called amino acids, the sequence of these
amino acids contained in the protein determines its final structure and function in the body.
Proteins are composed of a combination of 20 amino acids in different proportions, giving them
various functions such as structural, regulatory, defense, transport of substances, among others.
Each protein has its own amino acid sequence, and if there is a defect in the amino acid sequence of
that protein, as in some genetic diseases, its function may be reduced or lost.

Amino acids can be classified as essential, conditionally essential and non-essential, see table
below:

Essentials Conditionally essential Non-essential

Phenylalanine Glycine Alanine

Tryptophan Proline Aspartic acid

Valine Tyrosine Glutamic acid

Leucine Serine Asparagine

Isoleucine Cysteine and Cystine

Methionine Taurine
Threonine Arginine
Lysine Histidine

Glutamine

• Essential amino acids: must be ingested through the diet, mainly through protein sources of
high biological value, as the body cannot produce them.

• Conditionally essential amino acids: may be considered essential depending on the clinical
context or developmental stage, and must be obtained through diet.

• Non-essential amino acids: this class of amino acids can be produced by the body in
sufficient quantities, meaning that additional intake is not necessary.

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Proteins can be classified as complete, partially complete or incomplete. This classification refers to
the amount of essential amino acids present in their composition and also how much of this protein
can be used by the body (bioavailability). Complete proteins are those that provide all essential
amino acids, such as those from animal sources such as meat, eggs and milk.

Foods from plant sources normally have partially complete and totally incomplete proteins in their
composition, not offering sufficient quantities of essential amino acids. However, proteins from
plant sources can form complete proteins from the combination of certain foods, such as a mixture
of rice and beans, where one food complements the missing amino acids in the other.

Daily protein requirements depend on several factors such as total caloric intake, age, body
composition, training level, carbohydrate consumption, sleep time/quality, hormone use and the
relationship between hunger and satiety reported by the individual.

Daily protein intake recommendations

Sedentary individuals 0.8 to 1.2 g/kg day
Physically active individuals 1.2 to 1.6 g/kg day
Bodybuilders During cutting:2 to 2.5 g/kg day
During bulking:1.4 to 2g/kg day
Light individuals with low satiety:up to 3g/kg

Digestion and absorption

Proteins are a very important class of nutrients for the human body, acting as structural proteins,
enzymes, hormones, transporting substances, among other functions. In order for proteins to be
absorbed, they need to be broken down into smaller molecules, amino acids and some peptides
(which are amino acids linked together). The liver can convert one amino acid into another,
however, the body cannot produce or convert some specific amino acids, such as essential amino
acids, and must be acquired through diet.

For protein absorption to occur, the nutrient must go through three digestive phases, which are
mediated by different enzymes (proteases) capable of degrading proteins. The first phase is
mediated by pepsin, which is released by glands present in different parts of the stomach along with
its inactive precursor, pepsinogen. Due to the acidic pH of the stomach, pepsinogen is activated into
pepsin.

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Once activated, pepsin breaks down proteins, releasing a mixture of intact proteins, larger peptides
and a few free amino acids, as it is not capable of digesting proteins completely, and from there
they go to the intestine.

The second phase occurs in the intestine, where protein residues encounter inactive proteases from
the pancreas. These are activated by enterokinase, an enzyme located in the brush border of
intestinal cells (enterocytes). Enterokinase cleaves trypsinogen into trypsin (activating it). Trypsin is
then able to activate other proteases from the pancreas, resulting in a set of enzymes capable of
digesting dietary proteins almost completely.

The final phase is absorption, which occurs in enterocytes, which contain several peptidases in their
brush borders, releasing free amino acids and some dipeptides and tripeptides that are resistant to
digestion. These peptides, after being absorbed by the enterocyte, are degraded by peptidases and
release free amino acids into the bloodstream. Some peptides can be absorbed by transcytosis, that
is, they are transported intact into the bloodstream and then distributed throughout the body.

3.1.3 Fats – Overview

Lipids (fats) are substances that are insoluble in water and are essential nutrients for the body. They
provide more calories than carbohydrates and proteins. Their excessive consumption is directly
associated with weight gain, the development of obesity and related diseases.

Most of the lipids present in the human diet are in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids and
cholesterol. It is worth noting that triglycerides are a combination of three fatty acid molecules with
one glycerol molecule.

The body has a large capacity to store triglycerides in adipose tissue, so fat constitutes a more
efficient source of energy reserve than other nutrients.

The oxidation (burning) of fats provides 9 calories per gram of the nutrient, accounting for
approximately 15 to 35% of the daily caloric intake in adults.

During periods of low or no energy intake, such as between meals or during an overnight fast, fat is
oxidized to produce energy to maintain the body's vital functions.

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Fat performs other functions besides providing and storing energy, such as:

• Structural component of cells, such as membrane phospholipid;

• Protects the body against sudden changes in temperature, like a thermal insulator;

• Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K);

• Protects against impacts;

• Serves as a basis for hormone production;

• Transport of substances, such as lipoproteins (HDL and LDL, for example)

Fat is also important for the composition of food, as it improves parameters such as texture and
flavor. Fatty acids are simple fats and can be classified as saturated and unsaturated, depending on
their carbon structure.
Saturated fatty acids have a carbon structure formed by simple bonds, which are characteristic of
animal fat. At room temperature, this type of fat is found in solid form.

In the case of unsaturated fatty acids, the carbon chain contains one or more double bonds
(monounsaturated or polyunsaturated). This type of fat is characteristic of plant sources and is
always found in liquid form.

Unsaturation in carbon chains can give rise to fatty acids in cis or trans forms. An unsaturated fatty
acid in the cis configuration can be converted to a trans fatty acid by factors such as prolonged
heating or by hydrogenation, as occurs in the food industry. In humans, trans fatty acids are
obtained through the diet through the consumption of fried foods, stuffed cookies, breaded foods
and fast food, for example. It is important to mention that excessive consumption of saturated and
trans fats is directly related to the worsening of the lipid panel and increased cardiovascular risk,
mainly due to the decrease in HDL cholesterol and increase in LDL concentrations.

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Most of the fat ingested in the human diet should
come from foods such as avocado, oilseeds, extra
virgin olive oil and vegetable oils, as these foods
are sources of unsaturated fats, which can have a
protective effect on the cardiovascular system.

Digestion and absorption

Fat digestion is limited in the mouth and stomach due to its low solubility in aqueous media, with
most of the digestion of this macronutrient occurring in the intestine. In the stomach, the fat
“melts” into large droplets, which are dispersed throughout the stomach contents, the chyme.

When the chyme passes into the intestine, the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) comes into action,
stimulating the gallbladder and pancreas, which release bile acids and pancreatic juice containing
digestive enzymes so that the digestion of fat can continue. The bile acids exert an emulsifying
action (like a detergent) on the large fat droplets, forming smaller droplets with a larger surface area
for the digestive enzymes to work on.

Pancreatic enzymes (lipase and colipase) break down these fat droplets that have been emulsified
by bile salts, forming micelles, which are small discs containing fatty acids, glycerol,
lysophospholipids and cholesterol. The micelles interact with intestinal cells (enterocytes), thus
releasing the products of enzymatic digestion of fats, which then cross the enterocyte membrane.

Bile acids are reabsorbed in another part of the

intestine and sent to the liver to be reused at a later
time. In the enterocyte, triglycerides are
reassembled from fatty acids and glycerol.
Triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids and
proteins (apo-B) are also “packaged” to form a
lipoprotein called chylomicron. Chylomicrons are
too large to be absorbed into the blood capillaries
(very thin vessels), so they are absorbed by the
lymphatic vessels and transported to the vena cava
to finally be released into the bloodstream.

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3.1.4 Dietary fiber – Overview

Dietary fibers are mostly made up of carbohydrates that are not digested or absorbed in the
intestine. They can be classified as soluble or insoluble. However, this characterization does not
reflect their physiological effects. It is important to consider aspects such as the fiber's water
retention and fermentation capacity. The intake of dietary fibers provides some properties such as:

• Reduction of intestinal transit;

• Increased fecal mass;

• Reduction of total and LDL cholesterol levels;

• Control of blood glucose levels;

• Improved satiety

Because they provide beneficial effects on health and are related to reducing the risk of some
diseases, fibers are considered functional foods. Some types of fiber can be considered prebiotics
due to their ability to stimulate the growth of intestinal bacteria that are beneficial to the host.

Fiber is normally found in vegetables, fruits, cereals and whole grains, and can be found in some
plants, seaweed and tuberous roots such as beets, carrots, cassava, among others. Some substances
such as phytates and oxalates present in the cell walls of vegetables can alter the chemical structure
of the fiber, interfering with its physiological effects.

The presence of fiber in the diet, such as pectin and guar gum, increases the chewing time of food,
leaving the fiber hydrated by saliva, increasing stomach volume and decreasing the time for
stomach emptying, causing a feeling of satiety for prolonged periods.

Carbohydrates not digested in the small intestine are subsequently fermented in the large intestine,
generating gases, organic acids and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). Most of the SCFA are oxidized and
converted to ketone bodies for metabolism. They can also be sent to muscle tissue or used as an
energy substrate for the mucosa of the large intestine.

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3.1.5 Bioactive compounds

Plant-based foods, in addition to being sources of macro and micronutrients, are rich in fiber and
bioactive compounds (CBAs), the so-called “functional foods”.

These CBAs are found in small amounts in foods and have health-beneficial properties. Insufficient
intake of such compounds associated with diets with excess calories and saturated fats combined
with a sedentary lifestyle are factors that increase the risk of chronic non-communicable diseases
(NCDs) such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

There are several bioactive compounds with different chemical forms and biological functions, with
effects such as antioxidant, enzyme modulation, immune system stimulation, reduction of platelet
aggregation, reduction of blood pressure, control of hormonal metabolism, antibacterial and
antiviral activity. They can be divided into classes, such as:

Polyphenols:
A vast and numerous groups of compounds found in vegetables, fruits, cereals, teas, coffee, cocoa,
wine, fruit juice and soy. They can be divided into four families: flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans
and stilbenes. They exert several biological effects, such as antioxidant action, enzymatic
modulation, potential antibiotic, anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory agents.

The number of polyphenols present in foods may decrease depending on the preparation method,
such as cooking. Other factors such as pH, intestinal fermentation, biliary excretion and intestinal
transit time may interfere with the absorption of polyphenols. To maintain plasma levels of phenolic
compounds, it is important to regularly consume foods that are sources of phenols, such as onions
and black tea.

Glucosinolates:
It is a group of inactive biological compounds, which, in order to perform a biological function, must
undergo hydrolysis mediated by the enzyme myrosinase and by the action of β-glucosidase, found
in the intestinal microflora, thus releasing isothiocyanates, nitriles and thiocyanates.

They are generally found in brassica vegetables such as cauliflower, broccoli and cabbage. They have
an antioxidant function by inducing phase II enzymes such as glutathione S-transferase, and are
considered compounds with potent anticancer action and other effects. The glucosinolate content
in foods may be reduced by processing or storage.

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Cooking inactivates the plant's myrosinase, reducing the hydrolysis of these compounds. Chewing
plays an important role in breaking down the cell wall of foods, releasing glucosinolates and
myrosinase, facilitating the hydrolysis of glucosinolates.

Carotenoids:
Also known as precursors of vitamin A, however, current research focuses on other biological
activities that these compounds can perform in the body. There are approximately 600 carotenoids
in nature, of which only 30 to 40 are found in the diet. These include ɑ-carotene, β-carotene, β-
cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene.

They are generally found in fruits and vegetables with a yellow to red hue, such as tomatoes,
watermelons and guavas. They have pro-vitamin A and antioxidant functions, prevent LDL oxidation
(reducing the risk of atherosclerosis), and have an anticarcinogenic effect, as well as improving the
immune system. Carotenoids are commonly associated with proteins and other plant structures,
and their release through cooking, chewing and gastric hydrolysis of the food is necessary for
subsequent absorption of the active compounds.

Some factors such as the presence of pectin in the diet, low fat intake and inadequate bile
production can reduce the bioavailability of carotenoids. The maintenance of serum carotenoid
levels depends on both the intake of source foods and the efficiency of intestinal absorption.

3.2 MICRONUTRIENTS

Food provides energy and nutrients to keep the body functioning properly. The “larger” nutrients
are called macronutrients, represented by carbohydrates, proteins and fats. As previously seen,
macronutrients participate in energy production, tissue synthesis, hormones and other functions.

Small elements called micronutrients are also present in the composition of foods. Micronutrients
include vitamins and minerals, compounds that are extremely important for the proper functioning
of the body. Unlike macronutrients, small amounts of vitamins and minerals are needed daily in the
diet to meet the demand for these compounds in an adult individual. It is worth mentioning that
the daily requirement of vitamins and minerals is easily met through a balanced diet with a good
variety of foods.

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3.3 Vitamins

Vitamins are small compounds found in food and are essential for the proper functioning of the
body. Insufficient or excessive intake of these compounds can cause health problems in the medium
and long term. These compounds can be classified as water-soluble (vitamin B complex and vitamin
C) and fat-soluble (vitamin A, D, E and K). Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed in an aqueous
medium, while fat-soluble vitamins require fat to be absorbed. Here we will discuss the functions of
vitamins and problems caused by low micronutrient intake as well as toxicity due to the
consumption of these compounds in high doses.

3.3.1 Vitamin A

This vitamin is part of the group of light-sensitive proteins in the retina, in the function of the
testicles, uterus and bone formation. A lack of Vitamin A is a major public health problem and can
lead to serious problems such as dry eye (xerophthalmia) and blindness.

This compound can be found in various forms such as retinol in foods of animal origin and some
bacteria, vitamin A2 found in freshwater fish and can also be found as carotenoids in foods with
yellow to red hues, the latter being called pro-vitamin A.

Vitamin A2 and carotenoids are fat-soluble, meaning they depend on the intake of fats to be
absorbed efficiently. Vitamin A is stored mainly in the liver, between 50% and 80% of the total
amount, and can serve as a reserve for a few months. Therefore, signs of deficiency appear after
long periods of insufficient intake of the micronutrient.

For vitamin A to be excreted from the liver, retinol must bind to a protein called apo-RBP (retinol-
binding protein), which transports the vitamin to peripheral tissues. Malnutrition and zinc
deficiency can impair the synthesis of RBP in the liver, leading to functional vitamin A deficiency
even with adequate reserves.

In conditions of increased consumption of vitamin A and liver reserves already at values higher than
the reference (above 70μmol/kg), a pathway responsible for increasing retinol catabolism is
activated, transforming it into metabolites such as 4-hydroxyretinol, which will be excreted through
urine or bile. However, if intake is too high, this system becomes saturated, leading to vitamin A
toxicity.

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Retinol can be toxic in high doses for prolonged periods, such as the usual intake of 7.5 to 9 mg/day,
and can affect the central nervous system, liver, bones and skin. Some signs of vitamin A deficiency
are headaches, nausea, anorexia, enlarged liver (hepatomegaly), joint pain, excessive dryness and
cracking of the skin.

3.3.2 Vitamin D

Vitamin D (calciferol) is considered a prohormone and can be synthesized in the skin by ultraviolet
rays or obtained from dietary sources such as fish liver oils, dairy products, eggs and meat. This
vitamin can be found in the forms of ergocalciferol (D2) and cholecalciferol (D3), but in order to
perform its function it needs to be in its active form, 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferols (calcitriol).

The main function of vitamin D is to control the concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in the
bloodstream by improving the absorption of these micronutrients in the intestine, in addition to
regulating the activity of bone cells. Vitamin D is also related to insulin secretion and the synthesis
and secretion of thyroid and parathyroid hormones. As it is a fat-soluble vitamin, the individual must
have a diet with adequate amounts of fat to improve the absorption of vitamin D present in food.

Both vitamin D formed in the skin and that which comes from food sources will be metabolized in
the liver, transforming into calcidiol, the main storage form of this vitamin, and later in the kidneys
where it will change to its active form, calcitriol.

When the concentration of calcium in the blood decreases, the parathyroid hormone is released,
causing the kidneys to increase the activity of the enzyme responsible for transforming calcidiol into
calcitriol. The form of vitamin D active in the small intestine increases the absorption of calcium and
phosphorus, increases the activity of the enzyme alkaline phosphatase and the phosphate transport
system (sodium-dependent), and is related to the synthesis of calbindin (calcium-binding protein),
which allows the accumulation and transport of calcium in the body.

It is worth mentioning that the mineral magnesium also participates in the absorption of calcium
(by the enzyme ATPase Ca-Mg). Vitamin D deficiency can result from little exposure to the sun and
in individuals with problems in fat metabolism, it can cause osteocalcin (weak and sensitive bones)
muscle weakness, leading to a higher frequency of fractures. A deficiency of this vitamin is also
related to the onset of diabetes, hypertension and some types of cancer. Excessive consumption,
whether through food or supplementation, can cause symptoms such as weakness, nausea, loss of
appetite, headaches, abdominal pain, cramps and diarrhea. It can also lead to the development of
hypercalcemia (which can cause hypertensive encephalopathy) and hypercalciuria (causing urinary
stones).

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3.3.3 Vitamin E

A powerful antioxidant and cell protector, it is naturally synthesized by plants in the forms of
tocopherols and tocotrienols (alpha, beta, gamma and delta). There is also a synthetic form of
vitamin E, which consists of a mixture of isomers of natural tocopherols and tocotrienols, such as
synthetic α-tocopherol.

The most important forms of vitamin E for the human body are those derived from natural α-
tocopherol, as the beta, gamma and delta forms are not converted to α-tocopherol and have little
affinity with the protein responsible for transporting vitamin E in the liver.

This vitamin is absorbed mainly in the small intestine, depending on good pancreatic function and
adequate fat intake. In the intestine, tocopherol is broken down (hydrolyzed) and absorbed, while in
the liver, a specific protein selects α-tocopherol and incorporates it into one of the cholesterol
lipoproteins (VLDLs) so that it can be transported. The alpha form accumulates in tissues where
there is a large production of free radicals, such as in the membranes of mitochondria, the heart
and the lungs.

The main function of vitamin E is to combat damage caused by oxidative stress from reactive oxygen
species (ROS) that are formed during normal oxidative metabolism. ROS can cause damage to the
cell membrane, leading to serious problems such as the development of autoimmune diseases.

The enzyme glutathione peroxidase (dependent on the mineral selenium) acts to reduce the
amount of free radical precursors, while vitamin E is involved in removing the products resulting
from the action of free radicals on lipids. In addition, the amino acids methionine and cysteine act
as “savers” of selenium and vitamin E.

Vitamin E deficiency is very rare, and it takes several months of inadequate consumption for
symptoms to appear. Symptoms of vitamin E deficiency are usually neurological, such as problems
with digestion (dysarthria) and mental retardation. Its antioxidant power can have beneficial effects
on chronic non-communicable diseases such as atherosclerosis and diabetes, in addition to
improving immune function. The most common sources of vitamin E are whole grains and vegetable
oils such as wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, and olive oil.

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3.3.4 Vitamin K

Vitamin K can be found in two biologically active forms, phylloquinone (K1) and menaquinone (K2).
Vitamin K1 is found in leafy greens and vegetable oils, while vitamin K2 can be found in animal
foods such as meat and eggs. Both active forms of the vitamin are important for blood clotting and
bone metabolism.

Blood coagulation factors (II, VII, IX and X) are produced in the liver and activated by the
carboxylation of glutamic acid residues present in these proteins; this reaction is mediated by
vitamin K. The carboxylation of glutamic acid enables the binding of calcium to the coagulation
factors, allowing the interaction of platelet membrane phospholipids with blood vessel cells, thus
enabling normal clot formation. During the bone formation process, osteocalcin, a vitamin K-
dependent protein, is produced. The exact role of osteocalcin in bone metabolism is still not known,
however, this protein participates in the regulation of bone maturation.

Gamma-carboxylation of osteocalcin's glutamic acid enables calcium to bind to this protein,

promoting normal bone calcification. It is worth mentioning that osteocalcin synthesis is regulated
by vitamin D. It is transported by chylomicrons and cholesterol (VLDL), and when there is low
vitamin K intake, liver reserves of the vitamin decrease rapidly, which can lead to problems in the
blood clotting process and bone calcification.

3.3.5 Vitamin B1 – Thiamine

Thiamine (Vitamin B1) is one of the water-soluble vitamins and is very important for the proper
functioning of the brain and metabolism in general. This vitamin acts as a substrate necessary for
the functioning of enzymes that react to form acetate and acetyl-CoA, and is of great importance for
energy metabolism. It is part of the metabolism of carbohydrates via the pentose phosphate
pathway, leading to the production of substrates used in the synthesis of DNA and RNA.

This compound is absorbed in the intestine, however, not all of the ingested quantity will be
absorbed if the intake is high. This happens because its transport becomes saturated with small
amounts of the vitamin. Thiamine absorption can be impaired by alcohol consumption. High
diuresis increases the excretion of thiamine through sweat and urine. Its deficiency is associated
with some syndromes such as Chronic Peripheral Neuritis, a disease that attacks the nerves
responsible for carrying signals from the brain to the rest of the body, which can cause loss of
sensitivity and muscle atrophy.

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Another pathology related to vitamin B1 deficiency is Beriberi, a disease that causes muscle
weakness, which may or may not be associated with heart failure. Excessive carbohydrate intake
and physical inactivity can worsen vitamin B1 deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to the
development of lactic acidosis due to reduced conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, increasing the
levels of lactate and pyruvate in the bloodstream, causing a risk of death.

Sulfites in processed foods break down thiamine, reducing its bioavailability. There is no evidence
that there is an excess of this vitamin, since its absorption is limited, and free thiamine is filtered
and excreted quickly by the kidneys. Some dietary sources of this vitamin are pork, cashews, peas,
black beans, peanuts, white bread, watermelon, among other foods.

3.3.6 Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin

Riboflavin plays a fundamental role in energy metabolism, as it is part of the enzymes Flavin
Mononucleotide (FMN) and Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD), which participate in the production
of energy in the electron transport chain and are also involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates
and fats.

Other functions of vitamin B2 are related to the production of red blood cells, hepatic glucose
synthesis (gluconeogenesis), regulation of thyroid enzymes and the activation of vitamin B6. This
vitamin can be found in foods such as milk, eggs, cereals, fruits and vegetables, and can also be
produced in the intestine. As its intestinal absorption is limited, it ends up not causing toxic doses.

Its absorption mechanism is saturable, meaning that any higher dose ends up being excreted in
urine or feces. Regular exercise can increase the daily requirement of vitamins B2 and B6. It is worth
mentioning that exposing milk to sunlight can lead to loss of vitamin B2 through the photolysis
process, which leads to the formation of lumiflavin and lumicrome, which can catalyze the oxidation
of lipids and methionine, giving the food an unpleasant taste.

Its deficiency is common and can cause symptoms such as angular stomatitis (lesions in the corners
of the mouth), cheilosis (lip lesions) and glossitis (painful flaking of the tongue). Vitamin B2
deficiency can be associated with anemia, since iron transport requires the action of an enzyme
dependent on vitamin B2.

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3.3.7 Niacin

This vitamin is usually placed between B2 and B6, but it is not correct to call it B3. The metabolic
function of this vitamin is to serve as a source of nicotinamide for the formation of very important
coenzymes in energy metabolism, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). Other functions of the vitamin are related to
the replication, repair and differentiation of DNA molecules.

Niacin can be synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan or obtained from foods such as red meat,
liver, milk, eggs, fish, yeast, legumes and corn. Red meat is a prominent dietary source of the
vitamin and the amino acid tryptophan. Some vegetables are also sources of niacin, found in the
form of nicotinic acid, which is converted to NAD in the liver or intestine by the enzyme NAD
glycohydrolase. In cereals, niacin is found as niacitin, a non-bioavailable form.

When niacin is present in high concentrations in the intestine, absorption occurs by passive
diffusion. However, in low concentrations, the vitamin is absorbed by sodium-dependent facilitated
diffusion (saturable mechanism). The NAD and NADP forms need to be broken down, releasing free
nicotinamide, for intestinal absorption to occur.

Both nicotinic acid and niacin pass through the bloodstream and are taken up by tissues, where
they are converted to NAD and NADP. Excess nicotinamide can be converted to NAD and stored in
the liver or excreted in the urine. Niacin deficiency can cause pellagra, a disease that causes a
dermatitis similar to severe sunburn in a butterfly-shaped rash on the face.

This disease can also cause gastrointestinal and psychological disorders, and can be fatal if left
untreated. One biochemical alteration found in patients with pellagra is the increased catabolism of
the amino acid histidine, which reduces the concentration of urocanic acid, a compound responsible
for absorbing ultraviolet rays in the skin.

Pellagra that results in psychotic disorders may be related to tryptophan deficiency, which results in
reduced serotonin production. A lack of the vitamins riboflavin (B2) and pyridoxine (B6) may be
involved in niacin deficiency, as they participate in the process of converting tryptophan to nicotinic
acid. Due to the dietary habits of most of the Brazilian population, niacin and tryptophan deficiency
is unlikely. Nicotinic acid can be used as a hypolipidemic agent (lowers cholesterol) in doses of 1 to
3g per day, however, its use should be done under medical supervision due to the possible side
effects of improper use. Niacin can also help reduce LDL cholesterol and increase HDL cholesterol by
expressing genes that reduce lipolysis, thus decreasing the release of fatty acids by adipose tissue.

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Nicotinamide, on the other hand, does not have the same effect and can cause toxicity at doses
above 1g/day. Higher doses of nicotinic acid can cause vasodilation sufficient to lower blood
pressure, and can also lead to redness, burning and itching of the skin.

Some symptoms of toxicity are hypotension, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting and worsening of
peptic ulcers. It is worth mentioning that niacin and tryptophan deficiency, with consequent onset
of pellagra, can be found in alcoholics, as these individuals have decreased intestinal absorption in
addition to low food intake.

3.3.8 Vitamin B5 – Pantothenic acid

This vitamin cannot be synthesized by the body, however, it is present in several foods, with cases of
deficiency being rare or there simply being no reports of its deficiency.

Pantothenic acid needs to be phosphorylated and transformed into its enzymatically active form,
coenzyme A (CoA). It is directly linked to energy metabolism and can also act as a carrier for acyl
groups, being important in the metabolism of fats and generation of compounds such as
cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid hormones, among others. Pantothenic acid is absorbed by
simple diffusion throughout the small intestine, but in tissues such as the heart, muscles, and liver,
it occurs by an active sodium-dependent mechanism.

Its deficiency has only been reported in cases of severe malnutrition, presenting some symptoms
such as neuromotor alterations (paresthesia and muscle weakness) due to the lack of acetylcholine
and reduction in the production of myelin in neurons, mental depression, gastrointestinal problems
(vomiting, pain, ulcers), decreased cholesterol, reduced immune response, among others. It is a
vitamin with little toxicity, is distributed in a wide range of foods and its availability is increased by
the contribution of intestinal bacterial synthesis. Some examples of foods that are sources of
vitamin C are eggs, peanuts, broccoli, avocado, chicken liver, pork, among many others.

3.3.9 Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine

Vitamin B6 exists in several forms, and is most commonly used for food fortification and medicinal
preparations in the form of pyridoxine. Its biologically active enzymatic forms are pyridoxal
5'phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine 5'phosphate (PMP), with PLP being the most interesting, as it
participates in approximately 100 different enzymatic reactions in the body.

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This vitamin is present in most foods and is easily absorbed. However, in many plant-based foods it
is found in its glycosylated form, which is less effective than other forms. It is worth mentioning that
large amounts of B6 can be lost during cooking and processing (canned) foods. Freezing vegetables
also leads to a loss of approximately 55% of the available vitamin.

Some drugs such as isoniazid, oral contraceptives and alcohol can reduce the bioavailability of
vitamin B6. This vitamin can be synthesized in the large intestine, but it must be obtained through
diet to meet the body's demand. It is absorbed in the intestinal lumen and almost all of the
absorbed vitamin goes to the liver in the form of pyridoxal, where it is transformed into pyridoxal
phosphate by the action of the enzyme pyridoxine phosphate oxidase, a reaction sensitive to the
lack of vitamin B2.

Free pyridoxal in the liver can be released into the circulation bound to albumin or transformed into
4-pyridoxic acid, an excretion product of vitamin B6. Much of the excess pyridoxine ingested will be
excreted in the urine or feces. Vitamin B6 is directly related to the metabolism of amino acids,
carbohydrates, neurotransmitters and fats. It is involved in the synthesis of the heme group of
hemoglobin and may be related to anemia. Another function of vitamin B6 is to participate in the
process of converting homocysteine into cysteine, which may be related to cardiovascular events in
the event of a deficiency of the vitamin.

Its deficiency is rare, however, in cases of acute vitamin B6 deficiency, symptoms such as seborrheic
dermatitis, microcytic anemia, convulsions, depression and mental confusion may occur. Its
mechanism of toxicity is not known, however, very high doses of vitamin B6 can lead to neural
damage.

3.3.10 Biotin

Also known as vitamin H, biotin is not synthesized in the body and must therefore be obtained
through diet. It is widely distributed in foods such as peanuts, boiled eggs, oat bran, papaya, among
others. Because it is present in several foods, the effects of its deficiency are not so well known. This
vitamin can be present in foods bound to proteins or in its free form. When bound to proteins, it
must undergo enzymatic action in order to be absorbed in the small intestine by sodium-dependent
active transport. Free biotin filtered in the urine can be reabsorbed in the kidneys.

Biotin acts as an enzymatic cofactor in carboxylases, enzymes involved in the processes of fat
synthesis and oxidation, protein degradation and hepatic glucose synthesis. Biotin deficiency is rare,
but it can occur in cases of metabolic errors where there is a reduction in the activity of biotinidase,
the enzyme responsible for reusing biotin through biocytin.

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Individuals who are malnourished or who consume a lot of raw eggs may also suffer from biotin
deficiency. It is worth mentioning that avidin, a glycoprotein found in eggs, binds strongly to biotin,
making it unavailable. Some of the symptoms of biotin deficiency include exfoliative dermatitis (skin
inflammation), alopecia (hair loss), neurological disorders, and developmental delay in babies and
children. Bowel resections and prolonged anticonvulsant therapy may also result in decreased biotin
absorption. The deficiency can be reversed with biotin supplementation.

3.3.11 Vitamin B9 – Folic acid

Folate is a water-soluble vitamin that participates in several reactions for the formation of DNA and
RNA. Its active form is tetrahydrofolic acid (THF), which is metabolically related to vitamin B12. Folic
acid is present in several foods such as broccoli, spinach, grains, beef liver, eggs, and milk, and can
be synthesized by the intestinal microbiota.

Folate absorption occurs in the small intestine and must undergo a hydrolysis process, which is
performed by the enzyme pteroylpolyglutamate hydrolase, a zinc-dependent enzyme. It is worth
mentioning that zinc deficiency can interfere with the absorption of vitamin B9. After the hydrolysis
process, free folate will be absorbed mainly in the duodenum and jejunum. Most of the absorbed
folate will undergo the methylation process in the intestinal mucosa, entering the portal circulation
as 5-methyltetrahydrofolate. In order for it to remain in its active form, the action of the enzyme
methionine synthetase (vitamin B12-dependent) is necessary.

Folate bioavailability may be reduced by low intake, malabsorption, malignant diseases, and the use
of certain medications (chemotherapeutic, antibacterial, antiepileptic and antimalarial). Alcoholism
and the use of supplements of other forms of the vitamin may lead to folate deficiency. On the
other hand, gastric pH and the presence of vitamin C may positively influence the bioavailability of
folic acid.

Folate deficiency can lead to anemia (similar to B12 deficiency), mucosal lesions, neural tube
defects or hyperhomocysteinemia, causing vascular damage. Folate deficiency can also be
associated with problems during pregnancy such as spontaneous abortions, bleeding and pre-
eclampsia. Folate and B12 deficiencies can also be associated with diseases such as Alzheimer's and
depression. The vitamin is not toxic; however, high doses can mask pernicious anemia.

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3.3.12 Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin

This is the only vitamin that, in addition to being a complex molecule, also contains a trace element,
cobalt. It can also be called Cobalamin, and is found in some forms such as methylcobalamin and
cyanocobalamin, depending on the compound linked to it. Vitamin B12 is essential for the
functioning of the enzymes methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and methionine synthetase. These enzymes
participate in fat metabolism, DNA synthesis and methylation reactions.

The cyanocobalamin form is found in small amounts in the bloodstream and must be converted to
aquo or hydroxycobalamin, since cyanocobalamin can have an antivitamin effect and be involved in
neural damage caused by chronic cyanide poisoning. Foods of animal origin such as meat, eggs, milk
and dairy products are the only natural sources of vitamin B12. Vegetarians should consume cereals
and other foods fortified with the vitamin to avoid deficiency.

Cobalamin absorption requires intrinsic factor, stomach, pancreatic enzymes and a properly
functioning intestine. In the stomach, vitamin B12 is separated from ingested protein and binds to
an R protein secreted in saliva. In the intestine, this R protein is broken down by pancreatic enzymes
and the free vitamin binds to the intrinsic factor and is then absorbed.

Cobalamin circulates in the blood bound to a protein called transcobalamin II, which is produced in
the liver. Excess B12 is eliminated in urine and feces. Deficiency is very rare, but it can occur in diets
low in animal-based foods, due to absorption problems (bariatric, for example) and problems in the
metabolism of the vitamin, leading to megaloblastic anemia and neuropathy.

Another problem related to B12 deficiency is the impairment of the function of methionine
synthetase, an enzyme involved in the methylation process of folic acid, which can lead to vitamin
B9 deficiency. Folic acid deficiency can also influence homocysteine levels, since the enzyme that
converts homocysteine into methionine depends on this vitamin.

3.3.13 Vitamin C

Vitamin C or ascorbic acid has an antioxidant function, is involved in the synthesis of collagen, the
functioning of carnitine, the production of norepinephrine (a neurotransmitter that regulates mood
and alertness), and aids in the absorption and metabolism of iron. Vitamin C also inhibits the
formation of nitrosamines (carcinogenic products) produced in the stomach, and also has a vitamin
E-sparing effect through its interaction with the tocopheroxyl radical.

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Ascorbic acid is rapidly absorbed in low concentrations, but its absorption decreases as the
concentration increases. Excess unabsorbed ascorbate (the active form of vitamin C) is used in the
metabolism of intestinal bacteria and can lead to diarrhea.

This vitamin can circulate through the bloodstream free or bound to albumin, being carried by the
glucose transport system. It is worth mentioning that in cases of hyperglycemia, the uptake of
vitamin C by the tissues may be reduced. Symptoms of ascorbic acid deficiency in well-nourished
individuals are observed after four months of low intake of ascorbic acid, and may lead to the
development of scurvy. The first symptoms of vitamin C deficiency are ecchymosis (rupture of blood
capillaries causing purple spots) and petechiae (small bruises).

Prolonged deficiency can lead to psychological abnormalities such as depression. Fatigue and
lethargy are also symptoms of vitamin C deficiency. Excessive intake can cause diarrhea, kidney
stones, and excess iron, in addition to hindering the availability of vitamin B12. Plant-based foods
such as citrus fruits are the main sources of vitamin C. The availability of ascorbic acid in foods can
be affected by climate, preparation method, and storage.

3.4 MINERALS

3.4.1 Hill

An important element for human health, it can be synthesized in the body in small quantities, and
must be obtained through diet to meet the individual's needs. During pregnancy and lactation,
choline requirements increase. Choline synthesis occurs through the methylation of
phosphatidylethanolamine into phosphatidylcholine, a reaction that is mediated by two
magnesium-dependent enzymes.

This micronutrient is found in various foods, mainly in the form of phospholipids such as
phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, compounds that are part of the structure of cell
membranes. The most common food sources are eggs, milk, meat, cauliflower, peanuts, soybeans,
among others. Choline is essential for cell signaling, as it participates in the synthesis of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. During neurotransmission, acetylcholine is broken down by the
enzyme cholinesterase, releasing choline and acetate in the process, which can then be reused.

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It is important to mention that phosphatidylcholine is a component of very low-density lipoproteins
(VLDL), responsible for transporting triglycerides from the liver through the bloodstream. Renal
glomerular cells utilize betaine as an osmolytic agent to adapt to the stress caused by osmotic
pressure. Much of the choline is oxidized to form betaine in the liver and kidneys; the methyl groups
of betaines can be utilized in the process of converting homocysteine to methionine, thus providing
methionine for protein synthesis and other reactions.

Elevated homocysteine levels limit the vitamin B9-mediated homocysteine-to-methionine

conversion pathway, thus increasing the contribution of the choline-betaine pathway to convert
homocysteine to methionine. It is worth noting that elevated homocysteine levels are related to
increased cardiovascular risk. The choline absorption process occurs along the small intestine and
its availability depends on the efficiency of the absorptive process.

Since choline is involved in the formation of VLDL and the subsequent transport of triglycerides out
of the liver, low choline intake can result in liver damage due to the accumulation of hepatic fat.
Choline deficiency can also lead to damage to neuronal, muscular, cardiac and renal function.
Women do not develop choline deficiency as much as men, since estrogen enhances the body's
own synthesis of choline.

Special attention should be paid to choline intake during pregnancy and lactation, as the demand
for choline is greater during these phases and a deficiency of this element is associated with a
higher risk of neural tube defects and changes in brain development in babies. Excessive choline
intake can cause adverse effects such as low blood pressure, excessive sweating, strong body odor,
and hepatotoxicity.

3.4.2 Sodium, chlorine and potassium

Sodium is the mineral with the highest concentration in extracellular fluid, while potassium is found
in the highest concentration inside cells. Sodium and potassium work together with other
electrolytes to control the body's water levels and are directly related to blood pressure regulation.
Other functions of sodium in the body include its participation in the transmission of nerve
impulses, muscle contraction, and the transport and absorption of substances such as glucose, for
example.

Much of the sodium in the diet comes from the addition of sodium chloride (table salt) in food
preparation, and can also be found as an additive in processed foods. The sodium used as an
additive in processed foods is found in the forms of glutamate, carbonate, sodium phosphate,
among others.

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Excessive sodium consumption for prolonged periods is directly related to the development of
diseases such as high blood pressure, stroke and kidney disease. Sodium and chloride deficiencies
are rare, but can occur in cases of vomiting, diarrhea or excessive sweating. Chlorine can combine
with sodium outside the cell and with potassium inside the cell to help maintain the balance of
osmotic pressure and pH. Another important role of chloride is its role in the digestive process, as it
is an anion used in the gastric glands to synthesize hydrochloric acid, which is secreted into the
stomach to maintain acidity and activate digestive enzymes.

Sodium chloride is mostly absorbed in the small intestine, while its excretion is done by the kidneys,
with some losses through urine, sweat and feces. Some systems and hormones can influence the
intra and extracellular concentrations of sodium and chloride. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system, for example, is activated in response to drops in blood pressure, reduced sodium intake or
loss of blood volume.

Activation of this system leads to vasoconstriction and increased sodium and chloride retention due
to the action of angiotensin II in the kidneys. Angiotensin II also stimulates the release of
aldosterone, a hormone responsible for increasing sodium reabsorption in the kidneys in order to
raise blood pressure and thus restore balance.

Potassium is necessary to maintain normal cellular functions and is involved in the transmission of
nerve impulses, muscle action, cellular activation and secretion of biologically active molecules. This
element is found in various foods such as plums, avocados, potatoes, Swiss chard, bananas, cooked
fish, milk and others. Most of the potassium ingested is absorbed and excreted in urine and feces,
with little loss through sweat. High amounts of potassium in the blood stimulate the release of the
hormone aldosterone, thus increasing potassium excretion in the urine.

In unprocessed foods, potassium is usually in the form of potassium salts, which are absorbed in the
upper digestive tract and metabolized in tissues such as the liver, leading to the production of CO2
and water, also serving as precursors of potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3), which acts in the kidney as
a neutralizer of non-carbonic acids from the metabolization of sulfur-containing amino acids.

In the absence of bicarbonate precursors, the buffers in the bone matrix neutralize these acids.
Consequently, there is an increase in calcium excretion and a decrease in citrate excretion in the
urine, leading to a greater risk of osteoporosis and kidney stones. Excess potassium can lead to
hyperkalemia, causing symptoms such as arrhythmias and muscle weakness. Some antihypertensive
drugs and also diseases such as diabetes and chronic renal failure can reduce potassium excretion in
the urine, increasing the concentration of the micronutrient. Potassium deficiency can cause
hypokalemia, leading to increased blood pressure, glucose intolerance, and a greater risk of
developing osteoporosis and kidney stones.

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3.4.3 Calcium

An essential ion for the correct functioning of the body, it is present in several foods such as milk
and dairy products, spinach, beans, cabbage, sweet potatoes, cereals, nuts, among others. However,
it is worth noting that the bioavailability of calcium in some foods is reduced due to the presence of
oxalic acid (spinach, sweet potatoes, beans, among others) and phytic acid (beans, seeds, nuts,
among others).

Most of the body's calcium is found in the bones, which, in addition to their structural function, also
act as a reservoir of calcium and phosphorus. Bones are constantly renewed through a process
called bone turnover. During this process, osteoblasts capture calcium for bone formation, while
osteoclasts are responsible for releasing (resorbing) calcium from the bones, aiming to maintain the
balance of plasma concentrations of the mineral.

In children, bone formation is greater than calcium release; in adults, the process is balanced, while
in the elderly and women in menopause, bone resorption is greater than formation. Calcium has
functions beyond the maintenance of bone tissue, such as participating in the activation of
enzymes, muscle contraction, cell adhesion, secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters, and
acting as a second messenger in the immune system, among others. Mineral absorption is more
effective in acidic gastric pH and with the presence of food in the stomach. Some nutrients can
cause interference in calcium balance, such as sodium, which occupies the same transport system in
the proximal renal tubule. Therefore, high sodium intake increases sodium absorption and calcium
loss in the urine.

Women with low estrogen production, such as amenorrhea and menopause, experience
accelerated bone loss and a reduced capacity to absorb calcium, increasing the rate of bone
turnover. It is worth mentioning that pregnant teenagers have increased calcium needs, as the
mineral is necessary for the development of the baby's and mother's bodies.

Individuals who are lactose intolerant have a low intake of dairy products, making them a group at
high risk of developing problems resulting from a lack of calcium. Vegetarians may have low calcium
levels due to the high concentration of phytate and oxalate in plant-based foods, compounds that
reduce the bioavailability of the mineral.

Plasma calcium levels remain constant even with low intake of the mineral. The ionized form of
calcium is basically regulated by three hormones: Parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitriol (active
vitamin D) and calcitonin, which respond to a negative feedback process, that is, their action
depends on the levels of calcium intake.

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When calcium is in low concentrations, PTH and calcitriol act to remove the mineral from the bones,
increasing intestinal absorption or reabsorption in the kidneys. When calcium is ingested in high
concentrations, calcitonin causes the mineral to return to the bones or be excreted in the urine,
ensuring a balance in plasma concentration.

If there is a failure in the hormonal system that regulates calcium levels, problems such as
hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia may occur. Hypocalcemia may also occur due to
hypoparathyroidism, which can lead to calcification of soft tissues due to increased phosphate in
the plasma, chronic renal failure, vitamin D deficiency or magnesium deficiency.

The amount of phosphate in cow's milk is higher than in human milk, which can cause
hyperphosphatemia and consequently hypocalcemia in newborns fed cow's milk, since excess
phosphate can bind to calcium and reduce plasma calcium concentrations. Hypercalcemia can occur
due to hyperparathyroidism, excessive intake of vitamin D or prolonged immobilization. This
condition can result in vomiting, formation of kidney stones, tissue calcification, coma and death.

3.4.4 Phosphorus

Found primarily in the form of phosphate, in its free form it is known as inorganic phosphate (Pi)
and when bound to sugars, proteins or other cell components, it is called organic phosphate.

This mineral makes up about 1% of an adult's body, with 85% of this phosphate being stored in the
bones and teeth. Phosphorus is present in most foods such as milk and dairy products, meat, eggs,
peanuts, cashews, nuts, among others. Foods containing phytic acid such as beans, nuts, and peas
are not fully hydrolyzed in the intestine, so phytic acid tends to be excreted in the feces, reducing
the availability of phosphorus present in these foods.

Phosphorus is also present in processed foods, used in the form of phosphate salts as a food
additive to retain moisture in the food, for example, and is also found in soft drinks. Phosphorus
from food sources is used more efficiently than in the form of phosphate salts.

This mineral is an extremely important structural element, present in the composition of bones and
teeth, cell membranes, DNA and RNA. Phosphorus also acts as an enzyme activator
(phosphorylation), in the storage and transfer of energy, and as a pH regulator, among other
functions. The breakdown (hydrolysis) of organic phosphate results in the release of energy, either
in the form of heat or to form high-energy bonds such as ATP.

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Phosphorus must be ingested in adequate amounts through diet, as it participates in tissue growth
and must replace the mineral lost through the skin. Phosphorus present in food is normally found in
both organic and inorganic forms.

Organic phosphate will be hydrolyzed by intestinal enzymes, and thus most of the mineral will be
absorbed in its free form (inorganic phosphate). The phosphate transport mechanism in the
duodenum is sodium-dependent and increased by vitamin D. In the jejunum and ileum, the mineral
transport occurs passively, depending on the phosphate concentration in the intestine.

Its absorption may be reduced by the use of antacids containing aluminum, glucocorticoids, high
doses of calcium carbonate or in cases of hypoparathyroidism, however, there is no significant
interference in phosphorus absorption if calcium intake is adequate. Several hormones can
influence phosphorus balance, altering absorption in the intestine or reabsorption in the kidneys,
for example, a high concentration of vitamin D can increase both absorption and reabsorption of
the mineral.

The kidneys are responsible for controlling phosphorus concentrations in the blood. Almost all of
the phosphorus that reaches the kidneys can be reabsorbed, and excretion in the urine can vary
from 0.1% to 20%. High phosphorus intake, especially in the form of phosphate salts such as those
found in carbonated beverages, can cause problems such as decreased calcium absorption in the
bones, increased bone porosity, calcification of the kidneys, and is related to an increased risk of
cardiovascular disease.

Phosphorus deficiency is rare, as the mineral is present in large quantities in food and is easily
absorbed. Phosphate deficiency may occur in individuals who chronically use antacids containing
aluminum, glucocorticoids, or in cases of malnutrition, diabetes, or hyperparathyroidism. Signs of
severe phosphorus depletion include anorexia, immunological depression, muscle weakness, loss of
coordination, and numbness, which can lead to death.

3.4.5 Magnesium

Magnesium (Mg) is a mineral that affects several cellular functions and is also an enzymatic cofactor
for more than one hundred reactions in the body. It is present in a variety of foods of plant and
animal origin, with green leafy vegetables being the best sources of magnesium in the diet. Some of
the functions of the mineral are the transport of calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) ions, modulation of
transduction signals, participation in energy metabolism, among many others.

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One of the enzymatic reactions in which magnesium participates as a cofactor is the conversion of
glucose into glucose-6-phosphate, a reaction mediated by the enzyme glucokinase/hexokinase. As
already mentioned in the topic on carbohydrate metabolism, this reaction is necessary for glucose
to be used by the cell to produce energy.

Because it is necessary for the transport of calcium and potassium, magnesium is essential for
controlling cardiac excitability, vascular tone, blood pressure and neuromuscular transmission. In
cases of magnesium deficiency, hypokalemia (potassium deficiency) may occur, and is also related
to the secretion of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), which is one of the key hormones for regulating
calcium, magnesium and phosphorus levels.

Some symptoms of magnesium deficiency include cardiac arrhythmias, nausea, vomiting, weakness,
lethargy, mental confusion, irritability and paresthesia (burning/numbness of the skin). Magnesium
absorption decreases as intake increases, and there is no competition with calcium for absorption.
The balance of its concentration is controlled by urinary excretion. Some factors can influence the
increase in magnesium excretion, such as thyroid hormones, acidosis, aldosterone, caffeine, alcohol,
phosphorus and potassium deficiency. However, vitamin D, PTH and glucagon increase its
reabsorption in the kidneys.

It is worth mentioning that approximately 65% of magnesium is found in the bones and a large part
can migrate to the bloodstream to maintain adequate plasma levels. The absorption of the mineral
can be reduced in the presence of phytates, fiber, alcohol, excess calcium and phosphorus. On the
other hand, lactose and other carbohydrates can increase the absorption of magnesium in the
intestine.

Brazilian diets have magnesium intake that is considered below the recommended level, which can
be worsened by the presence of kidney disease and diabetes, which lead to greater loss of the
mineral through urine. The development of magnesium deficiency is normally related to problems
in absorption or increased excretion of the mineral, and is not a rare problem.

Hypomagnesemia may also be related to ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, high blood
pressure and asthma. Low magnesium intake or deficiency may also be related to the onset of
osteoporosis in menopausal women, since, in addition to being essential in the transport of calcium
and potassium, magnesium participates in the activation of vitamin D, which could cause reduced
calcium absorption.

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Since magnesium is related to the transport of glucose to cells, its deficiency may be related to
increased peripheral insulin resistance, favoring the onset of diabetes. The most common symptoms
in cases of toxicity due to excess magnesium are nausea, vomiting, hypotension, bradycardia,
double vision, weakness and drowsiness. In more severe cases, cardiac arrest may occur, where the
effects of magnesium toxicity can be antagonized by intravenous calcium infusion.

3.4.6 Iron

Iron is a mineral found in foods of both animal and plant origin. Some examples of foods that are
sources of iron are beef, fish, poultry, peas, nuts, peanuts, spinach, potatoes, oatmeal and avocado.
It is worth mentioning that iron from animal sources is better absorbed than that obtained from
vegetables, since the iron present in vegetables is in the form of non-heme iron.

The main functions of iron are linked to the functioning of proteins that contain heme, such as
hemoglobin/myoglobin, which are responsible for transporting oxygen in the bloodstream. Iron is
also related to the functioning of cytochromes, enzymes and transport and storage proteins, such as
transferrin and ferritin.

It is worth mentioning that the iron present in hemoglobin and myoglobin is in the form of Fe2+ and
when oxidized, it changes to the form of Fe3+, transforming them into methemoglobin and thus
losing the ability to carry oxygen. Iron also participates in oxidation and reduction reactions,
alternating between the forms Fe2+ and Fe3+. It is involved with enzymes such as catalase, which
neutralizes the toxic action of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the body.

Iron absorption can be divided into three phases, where the mineral is captured by intestinal cells
through specific receptors and absorbed as metalloporphyrin, subsequently undergoing the action
of the enzyme heme oxygenase, releasing the iron for incorporation into functional or storage
proteins such as hemoglobin and ferritin, finally, the mineral is transported to the plasma.

Absorbed iron will only accumulate in the intestinal cell as long as there is free ferritin. If there is no
free ferritin, the uptake of the mineral in the intestinal mucosa will be interrupted. For iron to be
transferred into the circulation, there must be free apotransferrin in the plasma and the mediation
of ferroportin1 (membrane protein) must occur. The binding of iron to transferrin is facilitated by a
copper-dependent protein, ceruloplasmin.

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The individual's nutritional status is a determining factor for iron absorption, which will be greater in
cases of deficiency of the mineral, while in the presence of excess of the mineral, absorption is
reduced, thus composing a system of iron homeostasis in the body. Iron deficiency can lead to a
decrease in the size of red blood cells, thus reducing their capacity to transport oxygen to the
tissues, which can trigger a microcytic anemia.

Hypochromic anemia may also occur, which is characterized by a reduced amount of hemoglobin in
red blood cells, in addition to the reduced size and number of red blood cells. This condition may
also develop due to vitamin B6 deficiency, as there is a decrease in the synthesis of the heme group.
It is worth mentioning that vitamin C helps in the absorption and transportation of iron.

Iron deficiency can cause cognitive damage due to its participation in metabolic processes in nerve
cells, in addition to being involved in the synthesis of enzymes involved in the myelination of nerve
fibers and the synthesis of neurotransmitters.

Excess iron causes an increase in the concentrations of hemosiderin (iron pigment) in the tissues,
which can lead to liver enlargement, diabetes, hypogonadism, cancer, among other problems.
Excess iron can occur due to hemochromatosis (a genetic disease), high iron intake mainly
associated with alcohol consumption, a factor that increases the absorption of the mineral.

The most widely available sources of iron are meats, since most of the mineral is present in the form
of heme iron. In foods of plant origin, iron is found as non-heme and has lower bioavailability, that
is, its absorption and use are lower.

Vegetarians need to pay special attention to some factors that can influence the absorption of iron
from plant-based foods, as this way it is possible to maintain adequate intake of the mineral. The
absorption of heme iron has little interference from facilitating or inhibiting factors, while the
absorption of non-heme iron is influenced by factors such as:

• Adequate gastric secretion for the solubilization of iron salts and maintenance of iron in the
ferrous form (Fe+2);

• The presence of vitamin C directly increases the absorption of non-heme iron, as it allows
the exchange of electrons, converting the ferric form (Fe+3) to ferrous form (Fe+2), allowing
it to be captured and absorbed in the intestine. It is also possible that it is involved in the
synthesis of ferritin, also acting in the storage of the mineral;

• Vitamin A deficiency can cause problems with iron transport and blood cell production, so
adequate vitamin A intake can help with iron transport and utilization;

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• Calcium has an inhibitory effect on iron absorption, so care must be taken when taking
calcium and iron sources at the same time. Obviously, the overall context must be analyzed
and not just one meal.

3.4.7 Copper

An important mineral for the functioning of enzymes involved in oxidation and reduction reactions
such as copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, dopamine ß-hydroxylase, ceruloplasmin, among others.
It is an element with important involvement in bone metabolism, the immune system and
cardiovascular health.

Copper is found in various foods, but its best sources are liver, oysters, whole grains, nuts and
chocolate. Most fruits, vegetables and meats contain intermediate amounts of copper, while cow's
milk has little copper. Its bioavailability can be affected by chemical and thermal treatments.
Grinding whole grains with removal of the bran can reduce the amount of the mineral by more than
45%.

Among the copper salts added to foods, the most bioavailable are acetate, sulfate, chloride and
carbonate. Their bioavailability can be reduced by excessive intake of zinc, iron and calcium, due to
competition for the binding protein, greater retention of copper in the intestine and increased
intestinal pH.

Copper absorption occurs in the intestine, where the mineral binds to metallothionein to be
absorbed. The proportion of absorbed copper increases in deficiency. The mineral is transported to
the cells by the Ctr1 transporter without energy expenditure, while the release of copper from the
cell requires the breakdown of ATP (energy) carried out mainly by two ATPases, ATP7A (absent in
Menkes syndrome) and ATP7B, which is mainly involved in the release of copper present in the liver.

ATP7B also appears to be involved in the transfer of copper to ceruloplasmin. After absorption,
copper binds reversibly to albumin and amino acids, thus distributing the mineral to the tissues.
Copper balance is maintained almost entirely by biliary excretion, but this copper excreted in bile is
not biologically available for reabsorption.

To assess the nutritional status related to copper, some biochemical biomarkers can be used, such
as the metallochaperone CCS, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in red blood cells, cytochrome-c
oxidase activity in platelets or, to obtain more effective results, the CCS/SOD ratio.

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Copper deficiency and excess occur due to two congenital errors in metabolism, Menkes syndrome
and Wilson's disease. In the first case, intestinal absorption and uptake of copper by the tissues
decrease, causing a functional copper deficiency. In Wilson's disease, there is an accumulation of
copper in the tissues due to a defect in the excretion of the mineral through the bile.

Copper deficiency can affect specific groups such as premature babies, individuals who have
received parenteral nutrition for a long time, prolonged treatment with zinc, individuals with
malabsorption syndromes such as Crohn's disease, celiac disease or short bowel syndrome.

Individuals with copper deficiency may develop a functional iron deficiency, leading to anemia. This
functional iron deficiency occurs due to decreased activity of ceruloplasmin ferroxidase, which acts
in the oxidation of Iron+2 to Iron+3 in ferritin, thus enabling the transfer of iron from ferritin to
transferrin.

Copper deficiency can also lead to neurological damage due to reduced catecholamine synthesis,
reduced dopamine ß-hydroxylase and amino oxidase activity. It can also lead to increased bone
fragility, which occurs due to defects in collagen cross-linking due to impaired activity of the copper-
dependent enzyme lysyl oxidase (which catalyzes the oxidation of lysine to allysine).

Copper acts as a protector against damage caused by oxygen radicals, since the enzyme superoxide
dismutase that catalyzes the dismutation of the superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide is copper-
dependent. It may also be involved in the onset of cardiovascular diseases due to a possible
participation in the modulation and metabolism of LDL cholesterol and in the activity of methionine
synthase, an enzyme that converts homocysteine into methionine.

Acute copper poisoning can occur through excessive ingestion of copper salts, usually through acidic
foods that have been left in copper containers for a long time. The most common symptoms of
copper poisoning are a metallic taste in the mouth, excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, burning,
gastrointestinal bleeding, diarrhea, and may also lead to hemolysis (breakdown of red blood cells),
liver necrosis, tachycardia, convulsions, and coma.

In conditions where there is an excess of the mineral, free copper increases, leading to increased
production of oxygen radicals and lipid damage. Chronic copper poisoning occurs more due to
problems in the excretion of the mineral than due to excessive intake, as in Wilson's disease.

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Problems in copper excretion can lead to an accumulation of the mineral in the liver, leading to the
development of cirrhosis, particularly in Wilson's disease. Copper can also accumulate in the brain,
kidneys and corneas, leading to neurological problems and blindness.

3.4.8 Zinc

It is a trace element abundant in the human body and was recognized as essential for humans in
1955. The main sources of zinc are shrimp, oysters, beef, chicken, fish, liver, whole grains, nuts,
tubers, vegetables, among other foods.

This mineral has structural functions, such as a determinant in the shape and spatial arrangement of
enzymes and proteins, where many of these proteins form the so-called “zinc fingers”. Zinc fingers
participate in the regulation of gene expression, such as the retinoic acid receptor and vitamin D. It
also acts as a structural factor in some enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (antioxidant).

Zinc acts as an electron receptor, aiding in the action of several enzymes. Zinc-dependent enzymes
have functions such as participating in the process of energy production (malate dehydrogenase),
gene transcription (RNA polymerase), protein digestion (carboxypeptidases), among others.

The mineral is also very important for the immune system, as it is essential for the intracellular
connections of cell receptors responsible for activating T lymphocytes. It is a necessary element for
protein synthesis, somatomedin metabolism (IGF-1), DNA/RNA replication, and acts on the action of
hormones such as insulin, thyroid hormones, adrenal gland, thymus and testicles, thus having an
important regulatory function.

Zinc can be present in the diet associated with proteins, phytates and carbohydrates or through
supplementation or food fortification. During the digestive process, food is broken down and zinc
dissociates, thus releasing it for absorption, which occurs mainly in the small intestine.

It is worth mentioning that zinc uptake is greater in the presence of glucose. Free zinc can bind to
compounds from digestion, such as amino acids, peptides, phosphates, among others. During
digestion, zinc is uptaken by metallothionein, so that the mineral can be used by intestinal cells or
enter the portal circulation to be transported by albumin. However, zinc can be lost in feces along
with desquamated intestinal cells.

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There is no “store” of zinc in the body, so levels of the mineral must be controlled through dietary
intake or supplementation. Some factors such as the presence of phytates in the diet, low protein
intake and low intake of zinc sources can impair the bioavailability of the mineral.

Interactions may occur between zinc and other elements such as iron, calcium, copper and vitamin
A. Iron and zinc may compete for the same absorption site, which influences the bioavailability of
the mineral. When zinc is ingested in excess, copper deficiency may occur, which can lead to anemia
and neutropenia. Low zinc intake may decrease the synthesis of retinol transport protein, leading to
accumulation of vitamin A in the liver.

The most common symptoms of zinc deficiency are anorexia, changes in taste and behavior, glucose
intolerance, hypogonadism, immune dysfunction, growth retardation, and delayed sexual
maturation. It is worth mentioning that the body reduces zinc excretion to avoid deficiency of the
mineral.

3.4.9 Selenium

A mineral essential to humans in small quantities, it has antioxidant and anticancer action, acts to
improve the immune system, participates in the metabolism of thyroid hormones, has protective
action against heavy metals, anti-inflammatory action and is related to a reduced risk of chronic
non-communicable diseases.

Selenium is obtained through diet, supplementation, water and air, with food being the most
important source. Selenium concentrations in food and water depend on the concentration of the
mineral in the soil, differing from region to region. Among the foods with the highest amounts of
selenium are Brazil nuts, which are also found in foods such as mushrooms, alfalfa, seafood, liver,
kidneys, yeast, cereals and cruciferous vegetables (cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, among others).
Meat, milk, eggs, fruits and other vegetables are low in selenium.

The recommended intake of Brazil nuts to meet selenium requirements is one unit per day for
healthy adults, pregnant women and infants. The antioxidant function of selenium is related to
selenium-dependent proteins such as selenoprotein P, a hepatic protein with antioxidant action
associated with vascular tissue.

Glutathione peroxidase also depends on selenium. This protein is capable of reducing peroxides and
hydroperoxides, protecting the body from oxidative damage to DNA and other cellular structures.
Selenium is also considered a preventive element against atherogenesis.

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Deiodinases are selenium-dependent proteins involved in human development. One of them, 1-
iodothyronine 5-deiodinase (IDI), is responsible for converting thyroxine (T4) into triiodothyronine
(T3). Therefore, in the absence of selenium, T4 is elevated while T3 has its concentration reduced,
causing thyroid dysfunction.

Selenium can protect against poisoning by heavy metals (such as cadmium, arsenic, mercury, among
others) and xenobiotics (such as drugs, pesticides, among others) by interacting with these toxic
elements and possibly inactivating them. Some of the mechanisms proposed by selenium's action
as a protector against cancer are:

• Reduction of DNA hypermethylation;

• Regulation of DNA hypomethylation;

• Antioxidant protection for DNA and cellular structures;

• Inhibitory effect of protein kinases (PCK) regulating cell differentiation and growth.

Adequate selenium intake is correlated with lower rates of thyroid, skin, breast, ovarian, prostate,
and gastrointestinal tract cancer, especially colorectal cancer. It can also lead to a reduction in the
inflammatory response by inhibiting NF-KB transcription, and also acts to optimize the immune
response by improving phagocytosis, T lymphocyte proliferation, and immunoglobulin production.

Selenium deficiency can occur when there is low intake of the mineral or in risk groups such as
individuals with chronic diseases and high levels of stress, smokers, the elderly, pregnant women
and populations living in areas with soil poor in the mineral.

The clinical symptoms of chronic deficiency are nonspecific, such as muscle weakness, fatigue, joint
pain, lack of concentration, weak nails and weak/brittle hair. Selenium deficiency can also lead to
the development of pathologies such as Keshan disease and Kashin-Beck disease. Keshan disease
presents with symptoms such as arrhythmia, rapid pulse, generalized muscle pain and inability to
stand. Kashin-Beck disease can lead to enlargement and deformity of the joints.

Acute selenium poisoning can occur in high doses (above 1g) of the mineral, leading to symptoms
such as severe gastrointestinal disturbances, metallic taste in the mouth, garlic odor when
breathing, neurological disorders, heart attack, kidney failure and death. In the case of chronic
selenium poisoning, which can occur in doses above 800ug/day over a long period, the
characteristic symptoms are loss of nails and hair, skin lesions mainly on the palms of the hands and
feet, neck, elbows and back of the legs.

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3.4.10 Iodine

Iodine is a key mineral for thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). It is an extremely important element in
the diet due to the function of these hormones, which are directly involved in human growth and
development. When there is insufficient iodine intake, there is a decrease in the production and
secretion of thyroid hormones, stimulating greater release of thyrotropic hormone (TSH), which
increases the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland.

If the intake of the mineral remains insufficient for prolonged periods, hypertrophy of the thyroid
gland occurs, leading to the development of endemic goiter and hypothyroidism. Common
symptoms of hypothyroidism are mental apathy, low body temperature, reduced basal energy
metabolism and body weight gain.

The term goiter has been used for a long time; however, the most appropriate term is IDD (Iodine
Deficiency Disorder). Among these disorders, the most prevalent are irreversible mental
retardation, goiter, disorders associated with the reproductive system and increased infant
mortality.

The effects of IDDs can be observed at all stages of development, with greater emphasis on the
stages in which development is faster, such as the intrauterine period, newborns and children. If the
mother has reduced T4 levels due to an intake of less than 25% of the recommended iodine intake,
this can lead to problems in the brain development of both the fetus and the newborn. An intake of
less than 50% of the iodine requirement is associated with the development of goiter.

Dietary iodine is rapidly absorbed and has high bioavailability (about 90%). About 70 to 80% of the
body's total iodine is stored in the thyroid gland, and when the thyroid glands needs for the
production of thyroid hormones are met, the gland stops accumulating iodine and excretes the
excess in the urine.

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Some substances, such as glucosinolates, are considered “goitrogenic” because they can prevent
the transfer of iodine in the process of producing thyroid hormones. These substances can be found
in foods such as cassava, corn, sweet potatoes, among others. However, it is not known exactly how
many of these vegetables would be sufficient to trigger the goitrogenic effect.

An increased consumption of up to 50% of the recommended iodine intake is recommended when

these foods are present in significant quantities, as in the case of vegetarian diets. The correct use
of iodine may also depend on the nutritional status regarding selenium and zinc, since, for the
mineral to be used, the participation of a selenium-dependent enzyme, type I deiodinase, is
necessary, and zinc must participate in the binding of T3 to its receptor.

The amount of iodine in foods may vary from region to region, and cooking and frying can reduce
the bioavailability of the mineral in foods. The main dietary sources of iodine are seafood, iodized
salt, milk and eggs. Excessive iodine intake can lead to the development of symptoms such as
gastrointestinal irritation, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiovascular symptoms and
cyanosis. In the case of a sudden increase in the intake of the mineral, hyperthyroidism may
develop.

3.4.11 Manganese

Manganese is involved in the functioning of several enzymes such as superoxide dismutase

(antioxidant), enzymes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids and gluconeogenesis (acetyl COA,
pyruvate carboxylases), among others. The mineral is also related to the formation of tissues and
bones, amino acid metabolism and reproductive processes.

Some sources of the mineral are whole grains, nuts, green leaves, teas, meats and dairy products. It
is not known for sure whether manganese is really necessary in the diet, since magnesium has a
chemical similarity to manganese and can replace its role in several processes. Some enzymes are
maintained specifically by manganese, such as glycosyltransferases and xylosyltransferases (binding
of carbohydrates to proteins) and also in the metabolism of vitamin K (epoxidase).

The total manganese content in the body is between 10 and 20 mg and the normal intake of the
mineral is around 2 to 4 mg daily, however, only a small part is absorbed (between 2 and 5% of the
intake) and endogenous excretion is not influenced by the intake or nutritional status regarding the
mineral. Manganese absorption is reduced in the presence of iron, as they compete for the same
transport protein (DMT1). Its absorption can also be inhibited by calcium, cobalt, fiber, phytate,
vitamin C and phosphorus. Alcohol intake and chelation of manganese with histidine or citrate can
increase the absorption of the mineral.

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Most of the absorbed manganese is excreted in bile and pancreatic juice with little or no excretion
in urine. Manganese can reach toxic concentrations when biliary excretion is reduced. Manganese
deficiency can present signs such as impaired growth and reproductive function, changes in
carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and may lead to disorders such as epilepsy.

In cases of manganese toxicity, a psychotic illness affecting the central nervous system may develop,
with effects similar to Parkinson's disease, leading to neuronal degeneration. Manganese poisoning
can occur through inhalation of manganese oxide (industrial exposure) or in some cases in patients
with liver disease or those receiving parenteral nutrition and neonates.

3.4.12 Boron

A trace element, essential for plant growth. The importance of this element in human nutrition is
not yet recognized, however, studies suggest that the mineral plays a role in the process of
embryogenesis, bone growth and maintenance, and immunological and cognitive functions.

Sources of boron include fruits (especially non-citrus fruits), leafy vegetables, nuts, legumes, and
also water, depending on the region in which the individual lives. Little is known about boron
homeostasis in animal cells, but it is recognized as beneficial or essential through studies with
animal models, with no conclusive data to establish specific functions for it.

Boron binds to organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups (more efficiently when they are in
the cis configuration), which can bind to the membrane and act as calcium chelators or modifiers of
redox metabolism, thus participating in the integrity of the membrane. Therefore, a low boron
status could affect hormone receptors and signal transduction in the cell. In animal tissues, the
compound with the greatest affinity for boron is S-adenosylmethionine, which is converted to S-
adenosylhomocysteine, an important substance for DNA methylation, hormones and
neurotransmitters.

Studies with rats have shown that boron deficiency results in an increase in plasma homocysteine
and a reduction in S-adenosylhomocysteine in the liver, which suggests the possible involvement of
boron in the use and synthesis of S-adenosylhomocysteine. It is known that increased homocysteine
is related to the risk of atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, cancer, among other problems. The mineral
has a high absorption rate (approximately 90%), being easily absorbed and transported by intestinal
cells. Most of the excretion is done in the urine.

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This element has low toxicity when administered orally; the initial symptoms are nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, and gastric discomfort. Higher doses can lead to seizures, depression, and vascular
collapse. Doses above 100 mg/kg of body weight can cause chronic poisoning, leading to loss of
appetite, decreased body mass, nausea, testicular atrophy, reduced testosterone levels, among
other problems. Boron deficiency can lead to impaired energy and calcium metabolism, and impair
brain and immune functions.

3.4.13 Chrome

Chromium is a trace element that exists in several forms, with trivalent and hexavalent being the
most common forms of the mineral. The hexavalent form is considered toxic because it has a high
oxidizing power and when inhaled it becomes carcinogenic, potentially causing cellular damage and
increased oxidative stress. The trivalent form is more stable and is normally found in plants.
Chromium enhances the action of insulin, causing a reducing effect on hyperglycemia and
hyperlipidemia, and is essential for the normal functioning of carbohydrate and fat metabolism, also
participating in the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines.

The main sources of chromium in food are oysters, meat, liver, cheese, whole grains, fruits, spinach
and broccoli. The amounts of the element can vary according to the region, and the chromium
content in the food can be lost during processing.

Unlike other trace elements such as copper, iron and zinc, which have a relatively high absorption
(10 to 40%), chromium has absorption in the range of 0.5 to 2% depending on the amount ingested,
and can still be impaired by excessive intake of phytates in the diet and routine use of some
medications such as antacids and prostaglandin analogues.

Some vegetables and grains containing oxalates can increase the absorption of the mineral. Organic
chromium compounds, such as picolinate, have better absorption. It is worth mentioning that
chromium picolinate supplementation in healthy individuals does not generate improvements in
insulin sensitivity or inhibit the desire to eat sweets.

Unabsorbed chromium is excreted in the feces, while absorbed chromium is rapidly excreted in the
urine. Diabetics after insulin administration have an increase in the excretion of the mineral. Acute
and chronic resistance exercise can increase the absorption of chromium, while aerobic exercise can
increase the urinary excretion of the element.

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Plasma levels of chromium are higher when ingested with vitamin C and complex carbohydrates.
Ingesting chromium with simple carbohydrates, high levels of stress and trauma can increase
urinary excretion of the element.

Because this mineral enhances the action of insulin, chromium deficiency can cause decreased
glucose tolerance and lead to the development of type II diabetes. The risk groups are the elderly,
pregnant women and people with high levels of stress, such as during physical trauma and
infections. Trivalent chromium, the form found in food, has low levels of toxicity, while the
hexavalent form has high levels of toxicity, but is not found in food and can cause pulmonary
toxicity, bronchial asthma and hepatotoxicity.

3.4.14 Molybdenum

The mineral was demonstrated as a necessary element for humans in 1953, with the identification
of the essentiality of molybdenum for the functioning of the enzyme xanthine oxidase, however, in
recent years not much attention has been given to the consequences arising from a deficiency of
the mineral.

Its main sources are vegetables, grains and nuts. The amounts may vary depending on the soil
where the food is grown. This element is found in small quantities in all tissues and body fluids, with
the greatest quantity in the kidneys, liver, intestine and adrenal glands. Molybdenum present in
food is rapidly absorbed in the stomach and along the small intestine, with a high absorption rate,
and is eliminated from the body mainly through urine.

Some factors may interfere with the absorption of the mineral, such as the presence of tungsten
and copper, however, this interference does not appear to be significant in human nutrition. The
element acts as a cofactor for some enzymes such as sulfite oxidase, which is involved in the
metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. This enzyme catalyzes the
reaction of sulfite to sulfate. The lack of the enzyme sulfite oxidase, either due to a specific defect in
the enzyme or due to the absence of molybdenum, is a rare genetic disease that can lead to severe
neurological damage and death in childhood.

Molybdenum deficiency is rarely found in healthy individuals; in the case of a severe deficiency, the
enzymes that use it as a cofactor may lose their function. In a study on humans about molybdenum
deficiency, symptoms such as tachycardia, night blindness, tachypnea, irritability and coma were
found.

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The effects of molybdenum toxicity are more significant in animals than in humans, leading to
symptoms such as kidney failure, reproductive changes, reduced growth and reduced hemoglobin
and hematocrit values, in addition to interfering with copper metabolism in ruminants. In human
studies, after the administration of high doses of molybdenum for 18 days, clinical signs such as
acute psychosis with hallucinations and general malaise were demonstrated.

3.4.15 Minerals and obesity

Overweight and obesity increase every year, and with them, the risk of diseases such as diabetes,
high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, among others. The causes of obesity are
related to factors such as the environment, genetics, poor eating habits and a sedentary lifestyle.

Obesity is considered a chronic disease and can be defined in a simplified way as “excess body
fat/adiposity”. The body mass index (BMI) is widely used as an index (weight/height x height) of
adiposity, with a BMI greater than 25 being classified as overweight and a BMI above 30 as obesity.
Caution should be taken when using BMI for people who practice physical activities, as they
generally have a greater volume of muscle mass than sedentary and obese individuals.

One genetic factor to consider is related to leptin, a hormone produced in adipose tissue that acts
to signal a decrease in food consumption and an increase in energy expenditure. Obese individuals
have high levels of plasma leptin, without the hormone functioning properly, data that suggests that
obesity is related to leptin resistance and not a deficiency.

Excessive caloric intake, whether from carbohydrates, proteins or fats, associated with physical
inactivity are factors directly related to the development of obesity, which leads to a reduction in
the concentration of minerals such as iron and zinc in various body tissues.

Some minerals such as calcium and zinc in adequate concentrations may be related to weight loss.
Dietary calcium can form salts with fatty acids or bind to them, causing fat absorption to decrease
while fecal excretion increases, reducing the total calories absorbed, favoring a caloric deficit and
weight loss.

Low-calcium diets can increase the concentration of calcitropic hormones such as vitamin D and
parathyroid hormone, increasing the intracellular calcium concentration in fat cells. Increased
calcium in fat cells is associated with increased lipogenesis and inhibition of lipolysis.

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It is worth mentioning that foods such as dairy products, cabbage and cereals are excellent sources
of calcium for the diet. Obesity is usually accompanied by insulin resistance, a syndrome
characterized by a reduction in the ability of insulin to stimulate the use of glucose by cells, leading
to greater release of insulin by the pancreas, thus developing a condition of hyperinsulinemia,
which can lead to the development of diabetes, dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, among other
problems.

In obese individuals, the plasma concentration of zinc is reduced. When these individuals undergo a
weight loss process, there is an increase in the concentration of the mineral, which is believed to be
a redistribution of zinc from adipose tissue to other body tissues, leading to an increase in serum
zinc concentrations and a decrease in insulin resistance through the modulation of hormone
receptors.

There are also impairments in the action of the enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

dehydrogenase (zinc-dependent) in obese individuals, resulting in an increase in the production of
triglycerides in adipose tissue. Zinc is also related to leptin, and a drop in hormone levels may occur
with deficient zinc intake.

Leptin binds to its receptor and causes a decrease in the expression of neuropeptides that stimulate
food intake (NPY and AgPR) and induces an increase in the expression of peptides responsible for
decreasing appetite, such as α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). Some foods that contain
good amounts of zinc are shrimp, beef, chicken, fish, whole grains, tubers, and legumes.

3.5 PREDICTIVE EQUATIONS

After learning a little about the macronutrients and micronutrients that make up the diet, it will be
necessary to estimate the individual's energy needs so that it is possible to adequately distribute
the calories of each macronutrient in the planning. It is important to mention that the equations
serve to estimate the student's caloric expenditure, therefore, the results are only estimates to
guide the preparation of the initial planning.

The formulas are created through studies with specific groups of people, which is why each
equation provides different values for estimating the total calorie expenditure of the same
individual. It is worth mentioning that the factor with the greatest impact on the difference
between the energy expenditure of different individuals is the physical activity factor, which
considers both exercise and daily activities.

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As mentioned in the bioenergetics and metabolism module, total caloric expenditure (TEE) is
composed of the basal metabolic rate (BMR or BEE), thermic effect of food (TEF) and physical
activity factor (PAF). It is important to note that PAF is composed of energy expenditure from
physical exercise and energy expenditure from daily activities such as sitting down and standing up,
walking, washing dishes, etc.

BMR accounts for approximately 60 to 70% of an individual's total daily caloric expenditure, while
approximately 20 to 30% of energy expenditure comes from physical activity and exercise.
Approximately 15% of total caloric expenditure can be attributed to heat production to maintain
body temperature at adequate levels, while approximately 5% of total expenditure can be
attributed to the thermic effect of food.

FAO/WHO (1985) equation for estimating basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Age in years Men Women
10 to 18 (17.686 x weight) + 658.2 (13.384 x weight) + 692.6
18 to 30 (15.057 x weight) + 692.2 (14.818 x weight) + 486.6
30 to 60 (11.472 x weight) + 873.1 (8.126 x weight) + 845.6
>60 (11.711 x weight) + 587.7 (9.082 x weight) + 658.5

To perform the calculations, data such as gender, age, height and body weight will be required. It
will also be necessary to consider the individual's GAF, and a physical activity factor value that
corresponds to the student's daily energy expenditure can be used as a basis.

Physical activity factor – FAO/WHO (1985)

Activity level Men and women Average
Light 1.40 to 1.69 1.55
Moderate 1.70 to 1.99 1.85
Intense 2.0 to 2.4 2.2

After estimating the basal metabolic rate, the value obtained should be multiplied by the physical
activity factor corresponding to the individual's routine, thus reaching the estimated value of the
total caloric expenditure (TEE). There are several equations to estimate caloric expenditure, such as
the Harris and Benedict, Cunningham, Mifflin formulas, among others.

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Examples of equations for estimating basal metabolic rate and total calorie expenditure
Equation Public to use
Harris and Benedict Men: It can be used in physically
GEB = 66.47 + (13.75 x weight) + (5.00 x height in cm) – (6.76 x age) active individuals, normally
with the aim of increasing
Women: muscle mass.
GEB = 655.1 + (9.56 x weight) + (1.85 x height in cm) – (4.68 x age)

Cunningham BMR = 581.6 + (21 x FFM) This equation is typically

used in individuals with
greater muscle volume and a
low percentage of body fat.
*MLG:fat free dough

Mifflin St. Jeor Men: Recommended equation for

GEB = (10 x weight) + (6.25 x height in cm) – (5 x age) + 5 use with obese or
overweight individuals.
Women:
GEB = (10 x weight) + (6.25 x height in cm) – (5 x age) - 161

It is worth remembering that regardless of the formula used, the values are only estimates and may
overestimate or underestimate the individual's actual expenditure, making it extremely important
that the professional has the feeling to interpret the responses presented by the individual when
following the prescribed diet. As described in the bioenergetics chapter, “energy cannot be created
or destroyed, only transformed”, with this in mind it is possible to understand that the relationship
between caloric intake and daily energy expenditure will be the preponderant factor for gaining or
losing body weight.

The energy deficit causes the body to use its body reserves to form ATP molecules (the main energy
currency) and thus meet the individual's caloric expenditure. On the other hand, calories ingested
above total energy expenditure generate a caloric surplus and favor the replenishment of energy
stores and fat accumulation in the long term.

3.5.1 Practical examples

Below we will demonstrate how to estimate the basal metabolic rate and total caloric expenditure
of individuals of both sexes using different estimating equations. To perform the calculations, we
will consider a 23-year-old man, 1.75m tall, with a body weight of approximately 70kg, fat-free mass
of approximately 62kg and 12% body fat percentage. The woman considered in the calculations is
20 years old, 1.50m tall, weighs around 52kg, has a fat-free mass of approximately 45kg and a body
fat percentage of 14%. Both individuals have a very active routine, spend the day walking, and do
weight training and aerobics around 5 to 6 times a week. Therefore, it can be considered that the
individuals in the example have a moderate physical activity factor (1.85).

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Estimation of basal and total caloric expenditure by different equations
Equation Men Women
FAO/WHO Basal energy expenditure (BEE) Basal energy expenditure (BEE)
(15.057 x 70) + 692.2 (14.818 x 52kg) + 486.6 GEB =
GEB = 1,746.2kcal 1,257.1kcal

Total expenditure = GEB x FA Total expenditure = GEB x FA

1,746.2 x 1.85 = 3,230kcal 1,257.1 x 1.85 = 2,325.4kcal

Harris and Benedict Basal metabolic rate (BMR) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
66.47 + (13.75 x 70) + (5.00 x 175) – (6.76 x 23) BMR 655.1 + (9.56 x 52) + (1.85 x 150) – (4.68 x 20)
= 1,748.5kcal BMR = 1,336.1kcal

Total expenditure = TMB x FA Total expenditure = TMB x FA

1,748.5 x 1.85 = 3,234.7kcal 1,336.1 x 1.85 = 2,471.8kcal

Cunningham Basal metabolic rate (BMR) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

581.6 + (21 x 62) BMR= 581.6 + (21 x 45) BMR=
1,883.6kcal 1,526.6kcal

Total expenditure = TMB x FA Total expenditure = TMB x FA

1,883.6 x 1.85 = 3,484.7kcal 1,526.6 x 1.85 = 2824.2kcal

Mifflin St. Jeor Basal metabolic rate (BMR) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
(10 x 70) + (6.25 x 175) – (5 x 23) + 5 (10 x 52) + (6.25 x 150) – (5 x 20) – 161 BMR =
BMR = 1,683.7 1,196.5kcal

Total expenditure = TMB x FA Total expenditure = TMB x FA

1,683.7 x 1.85 = 3,114.9kcal 1196.5 x 1.85 = 2213.5kcal

3.5.2 How calorie deficit works

To encourage a reduction in body fat percentage and weight loss, it will be necessary to create an
environment where the individual consumes fewer calories than they expend daily, thus achieving a
calorie deficit.

The calorie deficit can be assessed by the daily, weekly or monthly total. It is interesting to have an
estimate of the weekly or monthly energy deficit, as this way it is possible to free up free calories so
that the student can consume foods of their choice without deviating from the plan, improving
flexibility and adherence to the diet.

Relationship between intake

and expenditure

3000kcal

2500kcal 97
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Assuming that the individual has a daily expenditure of 3000kcal and is ingesting 2500kcal through
diet, there will be a gradual loss of fat and body weight due to the daily caloric deficit of 500kcal. As
can be seen in the chapter on energy metabolism, the body uses fat as its main energy fuel in low-
intensity activities, prolonged exercise and during fasting.

In high-intensity activities such as weight training, the main fuel used to produce energy is muscle
glycogen. It is important to note that the metabolism is constantly alternating between anabolism
and catabolism, using fat, carbohydrates and proteins in different proportions to produce energy
and synthesize substances and tissues.

Food intake replenishes the energy and substrates used up during the day and thus maintains stable
weight and body composition. However, during a caloric deficit, not all energy will be replenished,
resulting in a loss of fat and body weight over the course of the days/weeks in a caloric deficit. It is
worth mentioning that not all weight lost during the cutting period will be fat, as there is a loss of
water (water retention), a decrease in muscle glycogen stores, a smaller volume of food in the
intestinal tract and a loss of fat.

A caloric deficit of approximately 7500kcal will be needed to lose 1kg of body fat, the equivalent of
15 days with a deficit of 500kcal per day. For individuals seeking weight loss without competitive
purposes, a deficit of approximately 500 to 700kcal per day will be enough to achieve good results.
Bodybuilders, individuals who use anabolic steroids and obese people may have a more
pronounced calorie deficit, reaching around 500 to 1000kcal daily (or more).

A good weekly weight loss margin is around 100g to 1kg, depending on the student's current body
composition. If the weight is dropping too quickly and the individual is losing performance in
training, it may be necessary to increase the calories in the diet or allow free meals, thus favoring
adherence to the plan and maintaining performance in training.

Body weight can be monitored weekly to check whether the calorie deficit has actually been
achieved with the diet. If body weight has not reduced by more than 100g after 7 to 10 days
following the plan, it is a sign that the deficit has not been achieved, either due to diet deviations or
the professional having overestimated the predictive equations.

Caution should be exercised when applying a caloric deficit to individuals with a low percentage of
body fat, since the individual does not have much fat to be used as energy fuel, there will be an
increase in the participation of proteins in energy production, thus increasing muscle catabolism.

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Obese individuals endure a more pronounced caloric deficit due to excess body fat, which generates
a certain protein-sparing effect. Anabolic steroid users have an increased capacity for protein
synthesis, which also causes them to endure more pronounced caloric deficits for longer periods.

3.5.3 How caloric surplus works

Relationship between intake

and expenditure

3000kcal

2500kcal

Ingestio Spent
n

To promote increased protein synthesis, muscle hypertrophy and consequent weight gain, the
individual will need to consume more calories than they expend daily on most days (calorie
surplus). It is important to mention that not all of the weight gained will be muscle mass, as the
caloric surplus favors the storage of nutrients and energy, leading to fat gain.

During periods of caloric surplus, all the energy and nutrients expended will be replaced by food,
however, when muscle and liver glycogen stores are already replenished, the excess calories end up
being stored in the form of fat in adipose tissue. The increase in caloric intake favors the activation
of anabolic pathways responsible for protein synthesis (such as mTOR), in addition to generating an
anti-catabolic effect by reducing protein catabolism.

During a caloric surplus, muscle glycogen stores are normally replenished due to the increased
carbohydrate intake. Consequently, the individual is able to perform better in training and generate
more powerful stimuli, thus favoring muscle hypertrophy and strength gain. To make the most of
the caloric surplus, it should be applied when the individual has a lower body fat percentage,
somewhere between 12% or less for men and 15% or less for women.

With weight gain and an increase in body fat percentage, the insulin response tends to be impaired,
thus leading to insulin resistance that favors fat gain and increased water retention. One way to
avoid gaining too much fat and maintain good insulin sensitivity during this phase of planning would
be to alternate between periods of high and low-calorie intake.

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During the weight gain (bulking) phases, a good time to reduce calorie consumption is when men
reach 15% and women 18% body fat percentage. If the caloric surplus is too high or is forced
beyond the recommended fat percentage, rapid fat gain and worsening of insulin sensitivity occur,
making it difficult to start the weight loss phase (cutting). Body weight can be monitored weekly to
assess whether the caloric surplus has actually been achieved, where the weight should increase by
up to 1 kg every 7 to 10 days. If the individual is not gaining weight during this period, it is a sign
that the surplus was not achieved due to dietary failures. It may also be that the professional
underestimates the individual's caloric expenditure with the predictive equations.

3.5.4 Calculating free meals

Free meals on the diet serve to relieve the psychological state and recharge energy reserves during
periods of calorie restriction, while during periods of weight gain, free meals are used to
supplement the calorie surplus without excessively increasing the volume of food in the diet. A very
common mistake is to attribute the free meals of the diet only to high-calorie foods such as sweets,
pizza, snacks and fast food. This category of foods usually offers low nutritional value and reduced
volume of food when compared to foods such as rice, potatoes, cassava, bread, eggs and fruits,
which can harm satiety during more restricted periods of the diet.

Free calories can be made using foods according to the individual's preference, which may or may
not be foods that are already in the diet. It is worth mentioning that free meals should prioritize
carbohydrate intake, especially during the weight loss and body fat reduction phases (cutting). It is
necessary to have the weekly or monthly value of the caloric intake x expenditure ratio to then
determine how many free calories can be released in the planning in order to optimize the results
and keep the individual psychologically well.

A simple way to determine the free calories during cutting would be to multiply the daily calorie
deficit by the seven days of the week, thus obtaining the weekly calorie deficit. From this value, it is
possible to subtract a certain number of calories so that the individual can have their weekly free
meals without affecting the planning.

Example of calculating weekly free calories during the cutting process

Daily calorie Daily calorie Daily calorie Weekly calorie Weekly Free
intake expenditure deficit deficit Calories
2500kcal 3000kcal 500kcal 500 x 7 days = 500kcal
3500kcal

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In the example above, the individual will be able to do 500kcal free per week and still maintain a
weekly calorie deficit of 3000kcal, which is already enough to generate good weight loss and a
reduction in the percentage of body fat over the weeks. During bulking, free calories can be used to
help the individual achieve a caloric surplus, enhancing muscle hypertrophy and increasing body
weight. If the student is having difficulty consuming larger amounts of food in their daily diet, it
would be a good idea to use foods with a higher caloric density such as pasta, rice, cassava, farofa,
cereal, whole grape juice, among others. Free calories are included in the planning to help achieve a
weekly caloric surplus.

Example of calculating weekly free calories in the bulking process

Daily calorie Daily calorie Daily calorie Weekly calorie Weekly Free
intake expenditure deficit deficit Calories
3500kcal 3000kcal 500kcal 500 x 7 days = 1000kcal
3500kcal

In the example above, the individual reached a weekly caloric surplus of 3500kcal with the daily
diet, where 1000 free calories were added to increase the weekly caloric surplus, thus enhancing
training performance and generating more powerful hypertrophic stimuli. If the individual is having
difficulty consuming more food in the daily diet, it may be necessary to increase the free calories for
the week to favor the caloric surplus.

3.6 DIET STRATEGIES

After estimating the student/athlete's total caloric expenditure, it will be necessary to evaluate the
entire context, where the objective, current needs, preferences, availability and financial condition
must be considered, to then determine the best dietary strategy to be used. This analysis is
extremely important because it makes the plan easier to follow and improves adherence, resulting
in superior results in the long term. This chapter will cover several dietary strategies and their
practical considerations, providing professionals with the knowledge they need to choose the best
strategy to use in each case, always respecting the student's preferences and needs.

3.6.1 Low carb

Before discussing the low-carb diet, it is necessary to understand how macronutrients are
distributed in a regular diet. According to the FAO/WHO, the distribution of calories in a diet aimed
at maintaining body weight and controlling chronic non-communicable diseases (hypertension,
diabetes, heart attack) should be made in the order of 10 to 15% of proteins, between 55 and 75%
of carbohydrates and fats between 15 and 30% of total daily calories.

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Low-carb diets generally have a low carbohydrate and relatively high protein and fat distribution,
such as Dr. Atikins' diet, with the calories in the diet distributed as 55 to 65% fat, 25 to 30% protein,
and less than 26% carbohydrate. It is important to note that a diet containing 40% of its calories
from carbohydrates can already be considered low-carb.

Distribution of macronutrients in the low carb diet

Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 20 to 40%
Proteins 20 to 50%
Fats 15 to 35%

Weight loss within the standards of the World Health Organization (WHO) should be slow and
gradual, carried out with a negative daily energy balance (calorie deficit), well-distributed macro
and micronutrients, combined with regular physical activity. As an “advantage” of the low carb diet,
we can see the rapid initial weight loss, which can be explained by the caloric deficit generated by
the reduction of total calories in the diet, depletion of glycogen stores, reduced water retention,
improved insulin sensitivity and increased satiety due to the greater consumption of fats and
proteins.

It is worth mentioning that in bodybuilding, depending on the athlete's body composition at the
beginning of preparation, weight loss may occur more quickly than the WHO recommendations,
however, the loss of body fat should always be advocated while maintaining muscle mass
and the athlete's performance in training and daily activities.

With a caloric deficit and reduced carbohydrates in the diet, muscle glycogen stores
used up during weight training will not be fully replenished, which can lead to reduced
performance in training and daily activities. If there is a loss of performance for several
days, caloric expenditure decreases considerably and attenuates the caloric deficit,
leading to stagnation in weight loss.

Diets with very low or no carbohydrate intake and severe caloric deficit for
prolonged periods can increase protein catabolism, make it difficult to
maintain muscle mass, reduce caloric expenditure with daily activities and
training, and make it difficult to follow the diet due to increased hunger and
reduced satiety.

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As the low carb diet advocates low or no carbohydrate intake, fruits are also on the list of foods
consumed in small quantities, reducing the intake of vitamins, minerals and fiber, which are
essential for the proper functioning of the body.

During the fat percentage reduction phase (cutting) and finishing of bodybuilding athletes,
practically every diet falls into a low carb category, as carbohydrates are the most abundant
macronutrient in the diet and are present in a wide variety of foods, facilitating the manipulation of
calories by increasing or decreasing the macronutrient in the diet.

It is important to mention that the minimum fat intake is 15% of the total calories in the diet, where
at least half of these calories must come from sources of unsaturated fats such as avocado, oilseeds
and extra virgin olive oil.

Since carbohydrates have a protein-sparing effect, as carbohydrate and calorie intake decrease
during the cutting process, this effect is reduced, making it necessary to increase protein
consumption to mitigate protein degradation and thus favor the maintenance of muscle mass
during the fat loss and finishing phase.

3.6.2 High Carb

This diet strategy is based on using lower proportions of fats and proteins to favor greater
carbohydrate intake. It can be used during bulking or cutting periods, as long as the caloric balance
is consistent with the goal of the phase the athlete is in, however, it is most commonly used during
bulking periods. The macronutrient breakdown in a high-carb diet is 15 to 30% protein, 50 to 70%
carbohydrates, and 15 to 25% of total calories from fat intake. It is worth mentioning that many
athletes consume the minimum recommended amount of fat in their diet to encourage greater
carbohydrate intake.

Distribution of macronutrients in the high carb diet

Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 50 to 70%
Proteins 15 to 25%
Fats 15 to 30%

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Using this diet strategy increases insulin levels, as carbohydrates are the main signaling factors for
the release of this hormone. There will be an increase in glucose oxidation to produce energy, as
carbohydrates are the most abundant macronutrients in this diet strategy. The greater availability of
carbohydrates favors the synthesis of glycogen, which directly influences improved performance
during training, as this is the main energy substrate used in high-intensity activities such as weight
training.

Increased insulin levels promote protein synthesis, as insulin generates an anti-catabolic effect by
activating anabolic pathways while inhibiting catabolic pathways, thus aiding in the process of
muscle hypertrophy. An important fact to mention is that even with insulin activating mTOR
(responsible for protein synthesis), protein synthesis itself will only occur if all the necessary amino
acids are available, which means adequate daily protein intake. Care must be taken not to exceed
the maximum percentage of each macronutrient in the diet, as this would compromise the intake of
other macronutrients. Even though carbohydrates cause a protein-sparing effect, caloric restriction
during cutting accentuates protein catabolism, making it necessary to increase protein intake to
overcome the problem. This is why the high-carb diet is most commonly used during periods of
higher caloric intake.

3.6.3 Ketogenic diet

In this type of dietary strategy, carbohydrate consumption is extremely low to favor greater use of
fat as energy fuel. The distribution of macronutrients is around 15 to 20% protein, 5 to 25%
carbohydrates and 60 to 80% fat. The goal of this strategy is to make the individual enter ketosis, a
state in which the metabolism begins to use ketone bodies as the main source of energy due to the
very low intake of carbohydrates.

Ketone bodies are produced through the accumulation of acetyl-CoA, mainly from the large amount
of fat being oxidized (burned), since fat is the most abundant nutrient in this type of strategy, and it
will be the substrate most used to produce energy in the body. This strategy can be used both
during the cutting and bulking periods, since what determines whether there will be weight gain or
loss is whether the energy balance is positive or negative.

It is worth mentioning that adequate carbohydrate consumption is directly related to performance

in high-intensity activities, therefore, the ketogenic diet is not such an interesting alternative when
working towards muscle hypertrophy and strength gains.

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Distribution of macronutrients in the ketogenic diet
Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 5 to 25%
Proteins 15 to 20%
Fats 60 to 80%

Most of the fat consumed in the diet should come from foods that are sources of unsaturated fats,
such as olive oil, nuts, chestnuts, peanuts and avocado, to avoid the increased cardiovascular risk
caused by excessive consumption of saturated fats. Since carbohydrate consumption is extremely
low in this diet, it is necessary to distribute fruits, vegetables and whole grains in the percentage of
calories allocated to carbohydrates, thus providing good nutritional value to the planning and
adequate consumption of fiber.

The main energy fuel in this dietary strategy is fatty acids from increased lipolysis, since fat is the
most abundant macronutrient in this strategy. It is important to mention that increasing fat
oxidation does not mean greater weight loss, since if there is a caloric surplus, all the fat burned will
be replaced by the diet, which can produce even more fat if the surplus is maintained for several
days.

On the ketogenic diet, carbohydrate consumption is extremely low, which reduces insulin release
and improves sensitivity to the hormone (in the event of a calorie deficit). Training performance
may be impaired, as muscle glycogen reserves are not replenished properly.

Some tissues, such as the brain and red blood cells, work exclusively with glucose. Therefore, when
carbohydrates are low, the metabolism increases the production of ketone bodies, which act as
energy fuels that replace glucose so that the body can function properly. It is
important to mention that muscles do not produce energy efficiently with ketone
bodies, since this tissue prefers to use glucose.

As with any diet strategy, the ketogenic diet needs to

generate a calorie deficit in order to lose fat and body
weight. If the calorie intake exceeds the individual's energy
expenditure for prolonged periods, there will be fat and body weight
gain. With the ketogenic diet, the body begins to preferentially use
ketone bodies and fatty acids as energy fuel, sparing the use of glucose to
avoid drops in blood glucose, thus reducing metabolic flexibility.

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Blood glucose levels will be maintained by liver glycogen and glucose production through glycerol,
lactate and amino acids (gluconeogenesis). It is worth mentioning that the high fat intake in the
ketogenic diet makes this strategy less palatable and more expensive due to the smaller variety of
fat-rich foods and the low carbohydrate intake.

A well-planned ketogenic diet should contain fruits and vegetables in its composition so that there is
a good supply of vitamins, minerals, fiber and bioactive compounds that are beneficial to the
individual. This way, it is possible to keep the intestine functioning properly and avoid nutritional
deficiencies.

3.6.4 Carbohydrate cycling

This strategy basically consists of alternating the diet on days or weeks with low, medium and high
carbohydrate menus. It is important to mention that the consumption of proteins and fats must be
kept fixed, since the alternation of the amounts of carbohydrates in the diet throughout the weeks
will be the main reason for generating the caloric deficit in the cutting phases or the caloric surplus
during bulking. For practicality, it is much easier to distribute the calories from medium carb days
into low or high carb menus, avoiding the need to create three different menus and creating
confusion when following the plan.

The distribution of macronutrients in this strategy can follow the high carb, low carb or ketogenic
diet models depending on the carbohydrate intake on the day or week in question, and can also be
combined with the intermittent fasting strategy if the individual prefers to eat fewer meals
throughout the day.

Distribution of macronutrients in the carbohydrate cycle

Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 5 to 70%
Proteins 15 to 50%
Fats 15 to 80%

In this diet strategy, the individual can spend a few days or weeks on a low carb or ketogenic diet,
usually followed by days or weeks on a high carb diet to replenish energy stores and thus improve
training performance.

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Example of a diet using daily carb cycling
Day of the week Diet strategy Daily calorie balance Weekly calorie balance
Second High carb 300kcal (surplus) Caloric deficit of 1100kcal per
Third Low carb -500kcal (deficit) week, which is enough for
body weight to gradually
Fourth Low carb -500kcal (deficit)
reduce over the weeks.
Fifth Low carb -500kcal (deficit)
Friday High carb 300kcal (surplus)
Saturday Low carb -500kcal (deficit)
Sunday High carb 300kcal (surplus)

If an individual is losing weight faster than necessary due to a high weekly calorie deficit, it may be
necessary to replace one or two low-carb days with one or two high-carb days per week. This diet
strategy can be used for both bulking and cutting. During bulking phases, carb cycling can help
maintain insulin sensitivity and body fat percentage due to the calorie deficit generated on low-carb
days. During cutting, the carb cycling strategy aims to create a calorie deficit with low-carb days and
provide specific energy refills on high-carb days, which helps improve training performance.
Another way to use carb cycling is to alternate between weeks with higher or lower carbohydrate
intake in the diet.

Example of a diet using the weekly carb cycle

Day of the week Diet strategy Weekly deficit Monthly calorie balance
Week 1 High carb 2100kcal (surplus) There was a caloric deficit of
Week 2 Low carb -3500kcal (deficit) 2,800kcal at the end of one
month using the weekly carb
Week 3 Low carb -3500kcal (deficit) cycle.
Week 4 High carb 2100kcal (surplus)

It is worth mentioning that during bulking periods, where the goal is to gain maximum muscle mass
with minimum fat gain, carb cycling can be used to improve insulin sensitivity and help maintain
body fat percentage. What will determine whether the individual will gain or lose weight with the
diet is not the presence or absence of carbohydrates in the plan, but the constancy of the
weekly/monthly caloric balance.

3.6.5 INTERMITTENT FASTING

Just like carbohydrate cycling, intermittent fasting can be done using a low carb, high carb,
ketogenic diet or even carbohydrate cycling itself, as intermittent fasting defines the feeding
window and period in which the individual will go without food intake (fasting).

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Macronutrient distribution in intermittent fasting
Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 5 to 70%
Proteins 15 to 50%
Fats 15 to 80%

A widely used intermittent fasting protocol is 16 hours of fasting with an 8-hour window so that the
individual can eat and meet their nutritional and energy needs daily.

Intermittent Fasting Protocol 16/8

Time Snack Calories
11:00 Lunch 1000kcal
16:00 Afternoon snack 500kcal
19:00 To have lunch 1000kcal
Total balance:2500kcal

The creators of the strategy claim that by fasting for prolonged periods, fat burning would be
enhanced due to increased levels of growth hormone (GH) and low levels of insulin, a hormone that
has as one of its functions to inhibit fat burning and signal fat synthesis, mainly due to excess
calories.

It is important to mention that during periods of fasting, the metabolism is burning fat and glucose
(to a lesser extent) to maintain the basal metabolic rate and proper functioning of the entire
organism. However, energy expenditure at rest will not be influenced by whether the individual is
fasting or fed. The increase in GH levels during fasting serves the purpose of helping to maintain
blood glucose levels, without generating a significant effect on increasing fat burning. It is worth
mentioning that GH levels increase much more significantly during weight training.

What will determine whether an individual will gain or lose weight with the diet is not the length of
time they fast, but the consistency of their weekly/monthly caloric balance. If an individual
consumes more calories than they burn daily, they will gain fat in the long term, even using
intermittent fasting, a low-carb diet or any other dietary strategy.

The fasting strategy can be applied to individuals who do not feel hungry at a certain time of the day
or are unable to eat many meals due to a busy routine. This strategy may not be very interesting
during bulking periods due to the high caloric intake during this period, since the fewer meals you
eat during the day, the greater the amount of food and calories in each meal, which can make the
diet difficult to follow due to the large amount of food to be eaten in short periods.

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3.6.6 Refeed and free meals

The term refeed basically refers to carbohydrate reloading to promote the resynthesis of muscle
glycogen during periods of caloric or carbohydrate restriction, thus allowing training performance to
be maintained or improved. Refeeding is usually done using foods from the diet itself or other foods
that are mostly composed of carbohydrates.

Free meals can be made up of foods from your own diet or foods that are not included in your plan.
Free meals are usually made using high-energy-density foods such as sweets, pizza, snacks, ice
cream, etc., without taking the composition of the food/meal into account. The main purpose of
refeeds and free meals is to alleviate psychological stress and promote the maintenance of training
performance during cutting periods. During bulking periods, free meals and refeeds are designed to
help the individual achieve a caloric surplus with foods with a higher energy density, avoiding the
need to consume an extremely high volume of food in the daily diet.

It is important to mention that these meals must be planned and calculated in such a way as not to
exceed the calories stipulated in the plan. During cutting, free meals or refeeds must be made in
such a way that it is possible to maintain the caloric deficit at the end of the week, so the reduction
in fat percentage will not be compromised and it will be possible to maintain excellent performance
in training.

Considering that the individual is making a daily caloric deficit of 500kcal, at the end of the week a
deficit of 3500kcal would be generated. In this example, the individual could consume around 500
to 1000kcal free during the week and still maintain a caloric deficit of 2500 to 3000 calories, enough
to gradually reduce the percentage of fat and body weight.

Free meals or refeeds can be eaten in place of a meal from the diet during cutting. During bulking,
free meals can be eaten without the need to replace any meal from the diet, and are usually
additional calories to the daily energy intake.

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3.7 Supplementation

Something very common in the bodybuilding world and frequently seen in weight rooms is the use
of food supplements for various purposes, from complementing nutrition to increasing performance
and burning body fat.

Many of the supplements available on the market do not work for their intended purpose, which
leads to frustration and unnecessary expenses. Few supplements actually work for their intended
purpose and have good scientific support. However, any and all supplements or complements
should be added to the plan if there is a real need to use the substance. Here, information will be
provided about some of the supplements available on the market, classifying them as useful,
dispensable and used in specific contexts.

3.7.1 Useful supplements

This topic will cover information about supplements with good scientific support, which are useful
in the different stages of preparation for athletes and bodybuilders in general.

3.7.1.1 Protein powders

This class of supplements includes whey protein, albumin, casein, soy protein, among others. They
are used to supplement daily protein requirements, especially when an individual is unable to
consume all the protein they need through foods in their diet. Whey undergoes several processes to
produce whey protein, which can be made available in the forms of whey concentrate, isolate, and
hydrolysate.

Whey protein concentrate has a higher carbohydrate content and is contraindicated for individuals
who are lactose intolerant. Individuals who are lactose intolerant can use whey isolate or
hydrolyzed whey. The proteins in hydrolyzed whey are “pre-digested”, making them more quickly
absorbed in the intestine.

The difference between the types of whey lies in the filtration method, which determines the
protein concentration in the product. Whey concentrate has around 30 to 80% protein per serving,
while the isolate and hydrolyzed forms reach around 90% of their protein concentration.

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Protein concentration in Whey protein – 30g serving
Type % protein Protein per serving (g)
Concentrated 30 to 80% 9 to 24g of protein
Isolated 90% 27g of protein
Hydrolyzed 90% 27g of protein

The results will not be affected by using whey concentrate, isolate or hydrolysate, because, in
practical terms, the biggest difference between the types of whey protein is the price of the
product. The three versions of the supplement can be included in the diet without any problems as
long as it meets the individual's needs.

If the individual chooses to use whey protein concentrate, the ideal is for the product to have at
least 70% protein in its composition, around 21g of protein in 30g of whey. Hydrolyzed whey can be
used by individuals with gastrointestinal problems due to its rapid absorption, however, the results
will be the same as using whey concentrate or isolate. The biggest difference between this type of
whey protein and the others is its absorption speed and the price, which is usually much more
expensive than concentrate or isolate.

Individuals who cannot meet their protein needs through their diet or who do not have much time
to eat can make good use of the supplement, as it is very practical and quick to consume. Whey
protein can be considered a protein of high biological value, that is, it contains all the essential
amino acids in its composition.

3.7.1.2 Creatine

One of the most studied supplements in relation to improving performance in short-term, high-
intensity activities. The usual dosage varies between 3 and 10g daily, depending on the individual's
body weight. As can be seen in the topic on exercise metabolism, the initial seconds of high-
intensity muscle contraction have their energy demand met by residual ATP and creatine
phosphate, which regenerates the ATP used for contraction.

The purpose of creatine supplementation is basically to saturate intramuscular creatine stores,

which improves the ability to generate strength and keeps the muscles hydrated. The effects of
creatine are not seen through immediate use; it usually takes 3 or 4 weeks of continuous use for the
supplement to have the desired effect, as it takes time to saturate creatine stores. Creatine
absorption is more efficient when ingested together with carbohydrates, and the time at which the
supplement is used does not interfere with its results or effects.

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Some individuals use higher doses of creatine for short periods (7 to 15 days) in order to saturate
creatine stores more quickly. The saturation dose is usually around 10 to 20g daily. After the
saturation period, the doses return to the maintenance dosage.

3.7.1.3 Beta alanine

This supplement is basically an amino acid that does not participate in protein synthesis. Its function
is to form carnosine in muscle tissue, a compound with a buffering action that improves muscle
contractility. Beta alanine combines with the amino acid histidine to form carnosine, a substance
that buffers hydrogen ions produced during muscle contraction and thus reduces local acidity
caused by the accumulation of hydrogen in the cell.

As a result of beta alanine supplementation, greater resistance to fatigue during training

can be expected, which can improve performance in the modality practiced. It is normally
indicated for individuals who practice moderate to high intensity exercises such as weight
training, crossfit, cycling and fighting.

The effective dosage is around 2 to 6g of beta alanine daily, and the supplement should be
used even on days when the individual does not train, since the effects come from
chronic use of the supplement. Its bioavailability is increased when ingested with
carbohydrates. A very common side effect is the appearance of itching,
which can be overcome by dividing the dose of the supplement
throughout the day.

3.7.1.4 Caffeine

A substance present in many drinks and foods, it is a very

cheap and easily accessible stimulant option. It can have
effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS), skeletal
muscle, heart, kidneys, lungs and gastrointestinal tract.
Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors, a substance with a
calming effect, and inhibits the action of the enzyme
phosphodiesterase (which reduces the degradation of
cAMP), thus increasing the action of the Sympathetic
Nervous System, leading to greater release of
adrenaline and noradrenaline.

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Adrenaline can then bind to the fat cell, generating an increase in the substrate (cAMP) used to
activate protein kinase A, thus enhancing the activity of perilipin and Hormone Sensitive Lipase
(HSL), stimulating the lipolysis process. With increased lipolysis, greater release and oxidation of
fatty acids, a “glycogen-sparing” effect occurs, supposedly reducing fatigue and making exercise
more efficient and longer lasting.

Caffeine doses starting at 2mg x kg of body weight already cause the effect of reducing drowsiness,
increasing the state of alertness, increasing the release of catecholamines and relieving fatigue. Very
high doses (15mg x kg of body weight) can cause side effects such as insomnia, tremors and
dehydration. It is worth mentioning that the body can adapt to the substance with chronic ingestion
in doses starting at 100mg per day, equivalent to two cups of coffee. Some individuals may have
increased sensitivity to caffeine and have problems with supplementation. These individuals may
use teacrine to achieve an effect similar to caffeine use.

3.7.2 Supplements used in specific contexts

Here we will discuss supplements that may be useful depending on the context in which they are
applied.

3.7.2.1 Multivitamins, isolated vitamins and minerals

Supplementation with isolated vitamins or minerals may be useful in cases of deficiency of the
vitamin or mineral in question. Deficiency of these compounds can be diagnosed based on specific
symptoms and tests. It is worth mentioning that some vitamins and minerals can cause toxicity if
ingested in high doses for long periods. The vitamins present in multivitamin supplements have low
bioavailability, in addition to interference in absorption due to interactions between nutrients.

Individuals with very high training volumes, especially during periods of caloric restriction, may
benefit from supplementing with 100 to 500 mg of vitamin C daily to reduce the incidence of
respiratory tract infections. A balanced diet containing a good variety of fruits and vegetables is
sufficient to meet most of the body's vitamin and mineral needs, making micronutrient
supplementation unnecessary in most cases.

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3.7.2.2 Glycerol

Typically used to increase the “pump” during training by causing greater water retention in the
muscles and reducing diuresis. The recommended dosage is around 1g of glycerol for every kg of
body weight, using a dilution of 1g for every 25ml of water or preferred beverage. The supplement
has an acute effect and does not improve performance for bodybuilders and bodybuilders. Caution
is needed, as glycerol supplementation in high doses can cause diarrhea.

3.7.2.3 Taurine

An amino acid commonly found in energy drinks along with caffeine. It acts as an antioxidant and
can increase calcium binding in muscle cells, thus improving muscle contractility. It is typically
supplemented in doses of 500 to 6000mg combined with caffeine to enhance its effects.

3.7.2.4 Omega-3

Omega-3 supplementation is usually done to improve HDL levels and thus reduce cardiovascular
risk. However, to reduce cardiovascular risk, caution must also be taken with total cholesterol, LDL
and triglyceride levels. LDL cholesterol levels above 150 mg/dL already represent a high
cardiovascular risk, regardless of HDL levels. HDL levels may often be below the reference limits, but
cardiovascular risk can be controlled if LDL levels are not high.

This supplement can be used to reduce triglyceride levels (if they are high) and treat joint pain. One
of the effects of omega-3 supplementation is that it acts as an anti-inflammatory, which can be
beneficial in cases of insulin resistance and diabetes. The recommended dose is around 2 to 5g of
EPA+DHA daily.

Omega-3 supplements are usually found in capsules with low doses of EPA+DHA, and it is necessary
to consume several capsules to achieve an efficient dosage. This supplement can also be used by
elderly individuals or those in highly catabolic states (trauma, sepsis, burns) to mitigate protein
catabolism.

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3.7.3 Dispensable supplements

This topic will cover information about supplements that do not have good scientific support
regarding their functioning or that do not fulfill the purpose for which they were proposed.

3.7.3.1 BCAA

BCAAs are basically a combination of the essential amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine. These
amino acids must be obtained from the diet and are directly related to the activation of protein
synthesis. Like other essential amino acids, BCAAs are also obtained from dietary protein sources,
especially those with high biological value such as meat, milk, eggs, whey protein and other protein
powders. Eating 100g of chicken results in approximately 32g of protein, and for every 30g of
protein, approximately 3 to 5g of BCAAs can be found.

It is postulated that BCAA supplementation improves muscle recovery, protein synthesis and
reduces fatigue during training, however, there is no evidence of such effects through BCAA
supplementation in healthy individuals with adequate daily protein intake. Even though BCAAs,
especially leucine, are related to the activation of mTOR and protein synthesis, there will only be
protein synthesis if the other amino acids are also present.

It is quite common to find athletes in more restrictive phases of their diet consuming BCAAs during
training, however, the amino acids ingested beyond the requirements will be oxidized to produce
energy or used by the liver to produce glucose.

3.7.3.2 Glutamine

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body, especially in muscle tissue. It is worth
mentioning that this amino acid is not considered essential, as the body itself already produces it in
sufficient quantities to perform its functions. It is postulated that glutamine supplementation
improves the immune response, intestinal function and even muscle hypertrophy, however, there is
no proof of these effects in healthy individuals. This supplement can be used in specific cases such
as cancer, sepsis, burns or severe trauma, thus helping to improve the immune response.

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3.7.3.3 L-Carnitine

A substance found in foods of animal origin such as red meat, however, it is not considered an
essential compound to be obtained through diet, since the liver and kidneys can synthesize
carnitine from the amino acids lysine and methionine. It is worth mentioning that 98% of this
compound is stored in the muscles.

As seen in the topic on energy metabolism, carnitine acts by transporting fatty acids from lipolysis
into the mitochondria, enabling them to be used as energy fuel. The supplement is sold with the
promise of increasing the transport of fatty acids to the muscles and thereby enhancing fat burning
and improving training performance, since the greater oxidation of fatty acids would save the use of
glycogen by the muscles.

It is important to note that the body produces a sufficient amount of carnitine to perform its
function, and there is no evidence that supplementation of this compound improves fat burning or
physical performance.

3.7.3.4 Thermogenics

Supplements with thermogenic action are divided between those that act on the central nervous
system, such as caffeine, and thermogenics that do not act on the central nervous system, such as
synephrine, epigallocatechin (green tea) and capsinoids (pepper).

Synephrine supplementation increases basal expenditure by approximately 50kcal, without

generating a significant effect on fat loss. Typically found in green tea, epigallocatechin is a
thermogenic substance without central action that also does not result in a significant thermogenic
effect for body fat loss.

Capsinoids are substances found in pepper, they do not have an effect on alertness and have little
effect on increasing basal calorie expenditure, therefore, they do not have significant effects on the
loss of body fat.

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4. ANABOLIC STEROIDS

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The use of steroids is quite common in sports and weight rooms; however, these substances are
often used without knowledge and proper medical supervision, which ends up causing serious
health risks to individuals in the medium and long term. In the sports and aesthetic fields, anabolic
steroids are used to increase muscle protein synthesis, improve recovery, increase muscle strength
and burn fat. The effects of steroids are generally dose-response, that is, the higher the dosage, the
greater the response and the risk of side effects.

In men, testosterone is produced in the testes by the action of luteinizing hormone (LH) on Leydig
cells. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates Sertoli cells to increase spermatogenesis. In
women, approximately 50% of all testosterone is produced in the adrenal gland, while the
remainder comes from the ovaries. It is important to note that in women, estrogen is produced by
the ovaries, while in men, estrogen is obtained through the conversion of testosterone to estradiol.
All DHT produced in women comes from the conversion of testosterone by 5-alpha reductase.

The use of anabolic steroids suppresses the testosterone production axis in men, while in women
the hormonal axis is not completely suppressed, since the adrenal gland continues to synthesize the
hormone. The use of steroids by women can impair hormonal production and deregulate the
menstrual cycle, however, this will only be a problem if the woman has a lot of cramps and
excessive bleeding. In these cases, the ideal would be to remove the cause of the problem
(steroids).

These substances should be used under specialized medical supervision and with frequent analysis
of specific biochemical markers to avoid complications. In short, all anabolic steroids are derived
from the testosterone molecule and therefore have great anabolic and lipolytic power. These
substances are divided into distinct classes, each with its own particularities.

4.1 Classes of anabolic steroids

Steroids are divided into direct testosterone derivatives, DHT derivatives and 19-NOR. Among these
classes there are also 17-alpha alkylated drugs. Synthetic testosterone and its direct derivatives
have great anabolic and lipolytic power, some examples of these substances are dianabol,
boldenone and synthetic testosterone itself.

17-alpha alkylated steroids undergo a change in carbon 17 of the molecule so that they are more
resistant to hepatic metabolism, allowing the use of these substances orally. Some examples of 17-
alpha alkylated steroids are dianabol, halotestin, hemogenin, oxandrolone stanozolol and turinabol.

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It is worth mentioning that there are oral steroids with structural modifications different from the
17-alpha alkylated ones that are also more resistant to the inactivation mechanism in the liver, such
as proviron and primobolan. One problem with the use of oral steroids is the greater stress on the
liver and worsening of the lipid panel, thus increasing cardiovascular risk.

17-Alpha alkylated testosterone derivatives

19-NOR DHT derivatives

Testosterone derivatives 17-alpha alkylated 19-NOR DHT derivatives

Synthetic testosterone Dianabol(methandrostenolone) Nandrolone (Deca) Oxymetholone(hemogenin)

Dianabol(methandrostenolone) Halotestin Trenbolone Oxandrolone

Boldenone Oxymetholone (Hemogenin) Masteron

Halotestin Oxandrolone Primobolan

Turinabol Stanozolol Stanozolol

Turinabol Proviron

Steroids of the 19-NOR class are basically the testosterone molecule with alterations in its chemical
structure, more specifically the removal of the carbon in position 19 of the molecule, giving rise to
nandrolone (deca). As a derivative of nandrolone, trenbolone arises, a drug considered to be highly
androgenic and anabolic. Trenbolone does not undergo aromatization or conversion into DHT,
however, it has a great similarity to the estrogen molecule, and can be detected as estrogen in
laboratory tests.

It is worth mentioning that trenbolone and nandrolone can act as progestins, increasing prolactin
levels and thus enhancing the effects of estrogen on breast tissue, which can lead to the appearance
of gynecomastia. Many users of trenbolone and nandrolone use cabergoline to reduce prolactin
levels. Cabergoline acts by generating the same effects as dopamine, leading to the inhibition of
prolactin production and a decrease in hormone levels.

Steroid users often associate elevated prolactin levels with libido and erection problems. However,
prolactin only interferes with libido and erection in natural individuals, since high levels of the
hormone can negatively regulate testosterone production and cause hypogonadism in these
individuals. Men who use anabolic steroids already have their testosterone production axis
inhibited, so prolactin is not related to worsening libido and erection.

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Many users of trenbolone and nandrolone report improved libido and erection when using
cabergoline, however, this effect is due to the increased effect of dopamine and not to a decrease in
prolactin. It is necessary to investigate the elevation of prolactin if the individual has hormone levels
above 100ng/mL and related side effects.

Testosterone can be converted into DHT (dihydrotestosterone), a metabolite that is much more
anabolic than testosterone itself. There is also a class of steroids derived from the DHT molecule,
such as oxymetholone, oxandrolone and primobolan. Individuals who are more sensitive to the
effects of DHT should avoid using steroids of this class due to their high androgenicity.

Some steroids such as testosterone, Dianabol, nadrolone and boldenone can be converted to
estrogen by the action of the aromatase enzyme. Individuals who are sensitive to changes in
estrogen levels should stay away from these steroids. Due to its similarity to testosterone,
boldenone can be detected as testosterone in blood tests. Hemogenin can enhance the effects of
estrogen, which can lead to the appearance of gynecomastia if the levels of this hormone are high.

4.2 Expected and side effects

Anabolic steroids were initially created for therapeutic purposes, mainly for pathologies involving
severe loss of muscle mass and protein catabolism or to treat hormonal deficiencies in men with
hypogonadism. Due to their anabolic and lipolytic effects, these substances began to be used in
sports and beauty. As these substances are derived from testosterone, their effects occur due to the
drug binding to androgen receptors. These receptors are nuclear and act by leading to the
transcription of mRNA due to their binding to the cell nucleus. The mRNA can then go to the
ribosomes and be translated into new proteins.

Androgen receptors are present in various tissues such as muscle, skin, scalp, clitoris and prostate,
and therefore steroids can cause effects in various parts of the human body. DHT is more potent
than testosterone itself. Steroids derived from DHT also bind to androgen receptors more potently
and for a longer period of time, which can enhance the androgenic action of the steroid. It is worth
mentioning that the longer binding time of DHT derivatives does not impair the binding of other
hormones to androgen receptors, since the use of anabolic steroids increases the expression and
proliferation of these receptors in cells. The ability to express these receptors is individual.

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The use of anabolic steroids increases protein synthesis by activating the mTOR pathway, generating
a powerful and prolonged stimulus in this pathway. The increase in protein synthesis leads to
greater synthesis of actin and myosin, the main contractile proteins in muscle tissue, in addition to
other proteins and enzymes related to muscle cells. There is also inhibition of a transcription factor
related to protein catabolism and muscle atrophy, FOXO, culminating in less protein degradation.

There is also an increase in the production of myosin heavy chains in type II muscle fibers,
enhancing the muscle tissue's ability to generate force. Training and the use of anabolic steroids
increase the proliferation of satellite cells in muscle fibers. Satellite cells act mainly in the recovery
of trained muscle and form new myonuclei in muscle tissue.

With a greater number of myonuclei in the muscle cell, the stimuli from hormones, nutrients and
training are enhanced, making the hypertrophic response more efficient. Individuals who have had
a large muscle volume and stop training for a few years, when they return to training, have a faster
and more efficient hypertrophic response. This happens due to “muscle memory”, which is related
to the greater number of myonuclei in the muscle cells.

Many individuals are able to maintain much of the gains obtained during years of training after
stopping steroids. This is also due to the improved hypertrophic response due to the greater
number of myonuclei in the muscle cells of these individuals. It is important to mention that the
increase in muscle tissue occurs as a result of years of well-executed training and diet, even when
using steroids. The use of anabolic steroids improves bone mineral density and increases the
density of beta-adrenergic receptors. In this way, steroids enhance lipolysis and decrease
lipogenesis, thus contributing to the improvement of body composition.

Steroid users may have their basal metabolic rate increased by up to 10%, increased oxidation of
glycogen and fats. There is also an increase in glucose uptake by cells due to increased translocation
of GLUT4 to the cell membranes, favoring the reestablishment of muscle glycogen reserves. The use
of steroids by women can lead to increased insulin resistance, thus worsening glucose uptake and
fat burning by cells, in addition to increasing the risk of virilizing effects. Basically, all anabolic
steroids increase the response of protein synthesis, promote strength gain and enhance fat burning.
The degree of effect depends on the substance used, dosage, duration of use and mainly on the
individual response.

It is worth noting that the effects of steroids are usually dose-dependent, which applies to both
expected and side effects. The use of steroids inhibits the natural production of testosterone in men
and can cause adverse effects even at low doses. Dosages of 200 to 300 mg per week are already
capable of enhancing muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, improving training performance and
body aesthetics in men.

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Women should avoid using more than 100 mg of steroids weekly, because the higher the dosage
and the longer the exposure, the greater the risk of virilization. It should not be forgotten that
steroids enhance the hypertrophic and lipolytic response, and the objective of diet and training is to
generate these stimuli adequately, which means that even when using steroids, the individual must
follow the diet correctly and train with volume and intensity appropriate to their needs to achieve
satisfactory results.

The most common side effects of anabolic steroid use include hair loss, worsening of the lipid panel,
gynecomastia, worsening of cardiovascular risk, acne, prostate hypertrophy, virilization in women,
clitoral hypertrophy, deepening of the voice, increased hair growth, among others. Another side
effect related to the use of anabolic steroids is the worsening of anxiety and depression. These
drugs can have a central action and deregulate the production of monoamines (adrenaline,
dopamine, serotonin, and others), worsening anxiety and depression. Increased adrenergic activity
can also increase blood pressure and cause cardiac overload, in addition to accentuating anxiety
and depression.

Users of DHT-derived steroids often make the mistake of trying to combat the side effects of these
hormones by using 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (the enzyme that converts testosterone into DHT).
This is a mistake because DHT derivatives are DHT itself transformed into another molecule; they do
not undergo the 5-alpha reductase conversion nor are they converted to estrogen. Oral steroids
such as Hemogenin, Dianabol, Stanozolol and Oxandrolone can lead to liver damage. Some people
use medications to “prevent” liver damage caused by oral steroids, but the only way to prevent the
problem would be to not use steroids, follow a balanced diet and exercise well.

4.2.1 Side effects related to estradiol and DHT

In men, estradiol is directly related to libido, erection, fluid retention and several other factors.
When an individual uses exogenous testosterone or derivatives, estradiol levels are expected to rise,
as there will be a greater conversion of testosterone into estradiol through the action of the
aromatase enzyme.

This is because the body needs to maintain a certain balance between testosterone and estradiol
levels. Many individuals use aromatase inhibitors to reduce estradiol levels even without related
symptoms, however, problems related to fluctuating estradiol concentrations can occur due to both
high and low levels of the hormone. If the individual is not experiencing any side effects, there is no
reason to change estradiol levels. The testosterone/estradiol ratio depends on the individual's
sensitivity to the hormone. When estradiol levels are too high, symptoms such as loss of libido,
erectile dysfunction, gynecomastia, increased water retention and blood pressure, malaise and
mood swings may occur.

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Since estradiol is involved in regulating the body's water and sodium balance, the use of anabolic
steroids may increase blood pressure due to increased water and sodium retention caused by the
higher estradiol concentration. Low estradiol levels in individuals with normal/high testosterone
levels can cause problems such as loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, worsening of mood, decreased
bone mineral density and consequent damage to joint health, increased cardiovascular risk and
greater neurodegeneration. Erectile dysfunction and loss of libido occur more pronounced when
estradiol levels are low.

When estradiol levels are too high and causing side effects, it may be necessary to use aromatase
inhibitors such as anastrozole, letrozole or exametane. It is worth mentioning that the best way to
reduce side effects would be to reduce the dosage or stop using steroids that are affected by
aromatase. Very low levels of estradiol can also harm the lipid panel, as the hormone is involved in
the production of HDL cholesterol and the reduction of total and LDL cholesterol levels.

It is important to mention that gynecomastia is treated with the use of tamoxifen, a medication that
works by basically decreasing the binding of estradiol in the mammary gland, thus preventing the
tissue from growing and gynecomastia from developing. If the individual is experiencing recurrent
cases of gynecomastia, it may be wiser to stop using steroids that convert to estradiol or stop using
them altogether, since, apparently, the sensitivity to the hormone is quite high and the use of
steroids can cause more side effects than expected.

The side effects of fluctuating DHT levels depend on the individual's sensitivity. Some people
experience side effects even with low DHT levels, while others would need extremely high levels of
the hormone to experience the same effects. Typically, the most common side effects related to
high DHT levels are hair loss, increased hair growth, prostate hypertrophy, acne, and clitoral
hypertrophy. Low DHT levels can lead to loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, and premature
ejaculation.

In situations where the individual is suffering from side effects related to high levels of DHT, it may
be necessary to use 5-alpha reductase enzyme inhibitors such as finasteride. If the sensitivity to
DHT is high, it would be best not to use steroids derived from DHT or that do not undergo
conversion by 5-alpha reductase. In any case, the best option would be to reduce the dosage or stop
using steroids instead of using several drugs to combat the side effects.

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4.3 Esters and half-life of anabolic steroids

Esters are basically a chain formed by carbon and hydrogen that, when attached to the steroid
molecule, increases the time the substance is active in the body, a change that directly influences
the drug's half-life. After entering the bloodstream, the ester chain is gradually removed by
enzymatic action, releasing the hormone into the circulation. The longer the carbon chain of the
ester, the slower the release of the steroid. On the other hand, shorter chain esters release the
hormone more quickly into the bloodstream.

Main steroid esters and their respective half-lives

Ester Approximate half life Approximate amount of hormone per
100mg
Enanthate 5 to 6 days 72mg
Cypionate 5 to 6 days 70mg
Decanoate 6 to 7 days 64mg
Undecilinate 7 days 60mg
Propionate 2 days 83mg
Acetate 2 days 87mg

It is important to mention that the molecular weight of the ester is proportional to its carbon chain,
which is a limiting factor for how much hormone can be bound to an ester, directly affecting the
bioavailability of the substance. Oral steroids have a shorter half-life, usually expressed in hours.

Half-life of oral steroids

Substance Approximate half life
Stanozolol 7 to 9 hours
Oxandrolone 4 to 6 hours
Methandrostenolone (dianabol) 4 to 6 hours
Oxymetholone (hemogenin) 5 to 6 hours

The half-life of the substance is an important factor to consider, as it ensures that the drug is
administered at intervals that allow for a certain stability in the plasma concentrations of the
substances. It is worth mentioning that the ester used does not influence the results regarding fat
burning, muscle mass gain or water retention, as the ester basically determines the speed of
hormone release and how much of the substance is bioavailable in the dosage used.

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The administration of shorter esters, consequently with a shorter half-life, requires more frequent
applications to maintain the stability of the concentrations of the administered steroid, such as
propionate, which should be used every day (tsd) or every other day (dsdn). Drugs with longer
esters can be administered at longer intervals, such as enanthate, which can be used every 3 days.
When the individual makes the applications within the half-life of the substance, the steroid stacks
until it reaches its stable concentration in the plasma. If the individual occasionally makes the
applications outside the half-life of the substance, small fluctuations in the plasma concentrations of
the steroid may occur, however, this does not influence the results.

It is important to keep in mind that the effects of the drug come from the hormone used and not
from the ester associated with the steroid, and it is necessary to maintain consistency in
applications so that the plasma concentration of the substance reaches stable values and generates
its effects in the medium and long term.

4.4 Laboratory tests

Some basic precautions are necessary to prevent the worsening of side effects resulting from the
use of steroids. Among the necessary precautions are frequent measurement of blood pressure,
resting heart rate and carrying out some laboratory tests with a certain periodicity to monitor the
general health condition. If any marker undergoes a significant change and the individual is
experiencing related symptoms, the necessary interventions will be required to treat the problem.
The altered markers should be requested again after one or two months to assess the evolution of
the condition.

Most common laboratory tests for anabolic steroid users

Marker Main function
Complete blood count Assessment of a possible case of anemia or increased hematocrit
values due to increased
blood cell synthesis.

Fasting blood glucose Assessment of a possible resistance framework to

insulin or diabetes.

Total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides Analysis of lipid panel and cardiovascular risk.
Creatinine and urea Initial assessment of renal function, analysis of intake
protein and protein catabolism.

TGO, TGP and GT range Initial analysis of liver function and muscle damage.
TSH Initial assessment of thyroid function

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The most common changes in anabolic steroid users are in hematocrit, lipid panel, creatinine, urea
and liver enzymes (mainly with the use of oral steroids). The use of steroids favors the production of
blood cells (hematopoiesis) and generates changes in hematocrit values, making the blood
“thicker”, which is related to an increase in blood pressure and cardiovascular risk. This condition
can usually be treated with therapeutic bloodletting, by reducing the dosage or stopping the use of
steroids. Bloodletting can favor the onset of anemia. Normally, changes in the lipid panel are due to
a reduction in HDL levels with an increase in LDL, total cholesterol and triglyceride values, thus
increasing cardiovascular risk.

This condition can be treated by creating a caloric deficit through diet, reducing the consumption of
fast foods, sources of saturated fat and ultra-processed foods, and consuming adequate amounts of
fruits, vegetables, lean meats, whole grains, sources of unsaturated fat and other foods with good
nutritional value.

As with other changes related to steroid use, reducing the dosage or stopping the use of the
substances will be necessary if the problem is not being resolved. Fasting blood glucose levels may
be altered when the individual has insulin resistance or diabetes, and this situation can usually be
improved with adjustments to diet and training. A good treatment option would be to create a
slight calorie deficit by reducing the consumption of carbohydrates in the diet and increasing the
volume of training and/or aerobics. Creatinine and urea levels may be requested for an initial
assessment of kidney health and to determine whether protein intake is adequate for the
individual's needs.

It is important to note that creatinine levels may rise and remain slightly above the reference level
in individuals with large muscle mass and who perform intense and voluminous training, however,
this is not a sign that kidney function is impaired. If creatinine levels are rising with each laboratory
test, it is best to seek medical help, as kidney function may be impaired. Liver enzymes (SGOT and
SGPT) may rise as a result of intense and voluminous training; however, they also serve as markers
of liver damage, especially in users of 17 alpha-alkylated steroids (oral).

The assessment of the gamma GT enzyme helps to distinguish between liver problems in users of
oral steroids with elevated levels of other liver enzymes such as alkaline phosphatase, creatine
kinase and lactate dehydrogenase. In cases where hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism is suspected,
the assessment of TSH levels may be necessary. Women with severe hair loss and symptoms of
virilization may need to request levels of total testosterone, DHT and estradiol. If the problem is
hormonal, it will be necessary to use some drug to combat the androgenic effects or to withdraw
the administered steroid.

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It is expected that testosterone and estradiol levels are elevated in men using steroids, however,
these markers may be requested if the individual is presenting symptoms related to estradiol
fluctuations. Lack of libido may be related to external factors such as anxiety, excessive stress,
lifestyle and environment, therefore, low libido is not always caused by hormonal fluctuations. In
short, if the individual is not presenting any complaints or side effects, there is no reason to request
numerous laboratory tests, this will only harm the student/athlete's pocket.

4.5 Post Cycle Therapy (PCT)

The use of anabolic steroids inhibits the natural hormonal axis, so when you stop using these
substances, you may need to undergo post-cycle therapy (PCT) to help your hormonal axis recover
more quickly and combat the side effects of steroid use. The post-cycle hormonal environment
favors the loss of muscle mass and fat gain, which can harm your libido and leave you feeling unwell
due to low testosterone levels. After your hormonal axis recovers, you can recover part of your
gains, but your body will only sustain what your natural testosterone can handle. It is worth
mentioning that testosterone levels in young men can reach values close to 900ng/dL, while the use
of 200mg of testosterone weekly can easily raise these values to over 1500ng/dL.

In men, PCT is usually performed using drugs such as human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), clomid,
tamoxifen and medications to combat other side effects presented by the individual. HCG and
clomid stimulate the hypothalamus, culminating in the release of the hormone GnRH, which then
signals the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH). LH and FSH act on the Leydig cells and Sertoli cells in the testicles, causing testosterone and
sperm production to regulate.

Testosterone itself generates negative feedback in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to reduce
the stimulus for hormone production. Sertoli cells also produce inhibins, which act on the pituitary
gland to reduce FSH pulses. Individuals who experience nipple sensitivity or gland growth can use
tamoxifen to reduce estrogen binding to breast tissue and thus treat the problem.

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After the cycle, it is important to maintain control over your diet and training, even if your
performance decreases. This way, you can avoid a large accumulation of fat and a significant loss of
muscle mass. Women do not normally need to do PCT, because the hormonal axis regulates itself
naturally. It is worth mentioning that the menstrual cycle may be irregular for a few months until it
returns to normal.

Androgenic side effects such as hair loss, acne and deepening of the voice in women can be
alleviated by the use of contraceptives such as cyproterone, a medication with anti-androgenic
action. Some contraceptives have androgenic effects and can worsen the side effects resulting from
the use of steroids by women.

It is important to note that the use of anabolic steroids by women can result in insulin resistance. In
these cases, the use of metformin can alleviate the problem and even help in the treatment of
other side effects after the cycle due to its mild anti-androgenic effect. If the individual is
experiencing androgenic side effects due to the increased conversion of testosterone or another
steroid into DHT, it may be worth using finasteride or saw palmetto to reduce the conversion of the
substance into DHT and thus control the androgenic side effects. However, if the individual needs to
use several drugs to combat various side effects, the best option would be to reduce the dosages or
stop using steroids.

Finasteride and saw palmetto are also treatment options for women with polycystic ovary syndrome
(POS) who suffer from androgenic effects. Another important point is that even while using steroids,
the man can fertilize the woman and pregnancy can occur. This can occur even with both using
steroids, but the chances are low.

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5. TRAINING VARIABLES

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This chapter will describe the main training variables, concepts and periodization models, subjects
of extreme importance so that the professional can understand how to plan and adjust the training
program of their students/athletes, enabling them to achieve the best results with assertive and
intelligent planning.

5.1 Training principles

These principles will basically serve as a guide for the prescription and adjustments of training
periodization to be safe and efficient. The principles of progressive overload, adaptation and
specificity must be respected for the athlete to have good results with training periodization. It is
worth mentioning that the principles of awareness, variation, maintenance, accommodation and
reversibility are also related to the success of periodization and, consequently, to the results of the
student/athlete.

5.1.1 Progressive overload

This principle is based on the gradual increase in training overload, causing the body to evolve when
using a workload to which it is not adapted. It is worth noting that the progression of overload
should be gradual, respecting the current physical and psychological capacities of the individual. The
increase in workload should be carried out whenever the student is adapted to the stimulus
generated by the training being performed. It is important to mention that it is necessary to respect
the recovery time between each training session, avoiding the accumulation of fatigue and
impairment in training performance.

The simplest ways to increase workload would be to increase the weight (load) used in the exercise,
the number of repetitions with the same load or by increasing the number of sets per muscle group
per week. These are some of the most common examples of how to increase workload, especially
with muscle hypertrophy, fat loss and strength gain in mind.

Example of application of progressive overload in the training program

Period Exercise Repetitions per series Number of series Load used in the exercise
Week 1 12 4 80kg
Week 2 12 4 80kg
Bench press
Week 3 14 4 80kg
Week 4 12 4 84kg
Week 5 12 4 88kg

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In the example above, the individual performed 4 sets of bench presses for 5 weeks using the
training zone between 10 and 12 maximum repetitions. By the third week, the student was able to
perform two more repetitions than in the previous weeks using the same weight in the exercise,
suggesting that the individual has already adapted to the weight used for the established repetition
zone.

After adaptation, it is recommended to increase the weight used by around 2 to 10% so that the
student is back in the target repetition zone, generating more powerful stimuli for hypertrophy,
muscle strength gain and increased calorie expenditure during exercise.

5.1.2 Adaptation

The principle of adaptation can be seen as the body's ability to adjust to training stimuli and
generate adaptations that make that stimulus less costly. Basically, the body adapts to the exercise,
load used, volume of sets and other training variables, making it easier to perform the same
exercise in future sessions due to the gain in strength, motor coordination, resistance, etc.

During training, cellular structures and energy reserves are depleted, leaving the body weaker than
at the beginning of the training session. Adaptations or effects of training occur chronically, that is,
the sum of the stress generated by each training session over weeks, months and years will result in
adaptations that will make the body stronger and more resilient for future training sessions.

5.1.3 Specificity

The adaptations generated by bodybuilding, as with other sports, are specific to the sport, type of
muscle action, predominant energy system, speed of execution and range of motion performed.
Therefore, it is clear that to achieve specific results, specific actions will be necessary. In
bodybuilding, for example, training needs to stimulate muscle hypertrophy, increased strength and
reduction of body fat (depending on the phase of preparation). Each phase of training for
bodybuilding athletes aims at a main objective, such as in bulking where the idea is to gain as much
muscle mass as possible with the least amount of fat, while in cutting the main objective is to
reduce the percentage of fat while maintaining as much muscle mass as possible.

It is worth remembering that bodybuilding is divided into categories and each category has a
specific physical standard, requiring more or less muscle volume and different levels of conditioning
(muscle definition).

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5.1.4 Individuality

The principle of individuality is based on prescribing training in such a way as to consider the
characteristics, objectives and real needs of the individual, as there are great differences between
one person and another, so it is possible to say that the stimulus generated by an exercise can cause
different responses among different individuals.

Training programs can be based on standard models, however, they must be adapted to the needs,
objectives and individual characteristics of the student to whom the training will be prescribed.

To enable individualized training periodization, it is necessary to evaluate the entire context of the
student/athlete, in relation to biological, psychological, social and cultural issues. When it comes to
periodization for bodybuilders, it will also be necessary to evaluate the structural pattern of the
athlete's physique, proportion of muscle volume, symmetry, current fitness level, desired category,
among other variables.

5.1.5 Awareness

This concept basically refers to the fact that the individual needs to understand the reasons for
performing a certain exercise, and it is the professional's role to transmit scientifically based
information so that the student can perform the exercises correctly and safely, thus enabling good
adherence to the training program, which favors the achievement of superior results in the long
term.

5.1.6 Variation

Every training program needs to vary the stimuli in a periodic and intelligent way, because,
regardless of the effectiveness of the training protocol, sooner or later the body adapts to the
stimuli generated, which takes the individual back to the principle of accommodation that will be
discussed later.

For the evolution to be “continuous” and for there to be no stagnation in training progress, it will be
necessary to do periods with higher and lower volume of sets, high and low intensities, different
repetition zones, add or remove exercises from the training program, among other variables that
can be alternated in order to generate different stimuli and avoid stagnation of results.

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Training periodization basically consists of planning the variation of stimuli in an intelligent way,
respecting the individual's current capacity and response presented in each training period.
Bodybuilding athletes often need to work different angles of certain exercises to improve the filling
of the physique or muscle group to be worked. This is another way of varying stimuli and should be
used depending on the individual's needs and objectives.

5.1.7 Maintenance

The central idea of this principle is to maintain results when the individual is satisfied with the
progress made. To maintain the adaptations achieved, it will be necessary to reduce the volume of
work, either by reducing the number of sets for each muscle group per week or by reducing the
frequency of training. It is worth mentioning that the intensity of the work must be maintained for
the results to be sustained. In bodybuilding, some athletes may need to reduce the number of
weekly sets or even stop training certain muscle groups for long periods of time to maintain muscle
volume in that region, thus avoiding deviating from the standard of the category in which the
athlete competes. Maintenance periods can also be carried out when the student does not have
much time available to train due to travel, a busy schedule or even when the psychological state is
not very favorable for regular practice of the sport.

5.1.8 Accommodation

This principle reflects the decrease in the speed at which an individual evolves while applying a
stimulus constantly, such as years of weight training, for example. Through this principle, it is
possible to observe that the more trained an individual is, the lower the proportion of gains over
time. Beginners achieve “quick gains” when starting a training program, as these are new stimuli to
which the body is not adapted. However, the speed of evolution decreases as the level of training of
those individual increases.

5.1.9 Reversibility

This principle basically refers to the body's ability to "de-adapt" due to a drastic decrease in work
volume or interruption of training, so that the results obtained gradually regress until they reach a
level similar to the state in which the individual was when he/she started training. Basically, the
adaptations obtained by the training program are gradually lost, so that the body will be able to
degrade the structures (muscles, enzymes, proteins in general) that are no longer necessary and use
them for other purposes, in addition to reducing energy expenditure on tissues that are no longer
necessary.

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5.2 Training volume

This variable basically consists of the amount of work that will be performed for each muscle group
or per training session. The total work volume (volume load) can be obtained by multiplying the
number of sets by the repetitions performed and the load used in each set of the exercise. In
practice, the volume load can be used to monitor progress in a specific exercise.

Accounting for the total work volume (volume load) in the exercise
Sets x reps x weight used

An efficient and practical way to calculate the work volume would be to count the number of sets
per muscle group per week. The total number of sets to be performed per week for each muscle
group depends mainly on the training level, recovery capacity and goals of the student/athlete.

As seen in the accommodation principle, beginners need fewer sets per muscle group to generate
good responses while those with a higher level of training need a greater number of sets per muscle
group per week to generate good stimuli.

Weekly volume recommendation per muscle group according to training level

Beginners Intermediaries Advanced
4 to 5 sets 10 to 15 sets 15 to 30 sets

These recommendations serve to guide the professional when planning the training periodization
efficiently and thus extracting the most from the student/athlete. According to the principle of
progressive overload, it will be necessary to increase the work volume gradually to achieve better
results in the long term.

Some individuals can tolerate a workload higher than the recommendations, however, it is
necessary to check whether the individual is performing the exercises with good technique and
range of motion, in addition to considering the student's recovery capacity so that there is no
accumulation of fatigue and loss of performance in training.

It is important to mention that multi-joint exercises work several muscle groups together due to the
participation of more than one joint in the movement, and this fact must be taken into account
when calculating the work volume in the training periodization.

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Accounting for series volume in multi-joint exercises
Exercise Primary agonist Synergists
Bench press and variations Chest Triceps and front deltoid

Rows and pulls Dorsals Biceps and posterior deltoid

Squats and variations Quadriceps Adductors and glutes

For each series of the multi-joint exercise, 1 series can be counted for the primary agonist muscle
and ½ series for the synergist muscle group.

Example of how to count the volume of sets in multi-joint exercises

Exercise Series per exercise Series for the agonist Series for synergists
Bench press 4 series 4 sets for chest 2 sets for triceps
2 sets for front deltoid
Bent over row 4 series 4 sets for back 2 sets for biceps
2 sets for rear deltoid
Free squat 4 series 4 sets for quadriceps 2 sets for glutes

This way, it is possible to have greater control over the volume of series performed per week for
each muscle group, making it possible to adapt the work to the specific physical needs and recovery
capacity of the athlete.

5.3 Intensity

In strength training, intensity can be prescribed by the percentage of one repetition maximum (RM)
or by target repetition ranges. It is important to mention that 1 RM tests take time to be performed,
in addition to the fact that the athlete with well-periodized training can evolve in a “constant” way,
which would make 1 RM tests frequent and could disrupt the progress of the training sessions.

In a practical sense, intensity in bodybuilding can be defined by the relationship between the weight
used in the exercise and the number of repetitions that can be performed with the same load. In
this way, it is possible to understand that different individuals can work at the same intensity even if
they use different loads in the exercise.

Load percentage Maximum repetition range (RM) Intensity

100% 1 RM
90 to 95% 6 to 2 RM High
80 to 90% 10 to 6 RM

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70 to 80% 15 to 10 RM Moderate
60 to 70% 25 to 15 RM
50 to 60% 35 to 25 RM
40 to 50% 45 to 35 RM Low
30 to 40% 60 to 45 RM

Many people mistakenly believe that intensity in weight training refers to being out of breath,
sweating excessively and feeling the muscles burn. This can be defined as perceived exertion, which
is usually high when exercises are performed with short intervals between sets, when the individual
performs a large number of repetitions in a single set or when using excessively advanced
techniques.

The central idea in bodybuilding training is to stimulate muscle mass gain, strength and increased
calorie expenditure to generate body fat loss. Obviously, the objectives are different in each phase
of preparation, however, these adaptations are acquired more efficiently with training at moderate
to high intensities. Using loads for up to 15 maximum repetitions ensures maximum activation of
type II muscle fibers from the first repetitions of the exercise, thus generating excellent hypertrophic
stimuli and calorie expenditure

The fact that high intensities generate maximum muscle activation from the first repetitions allows
the individual to achieve maximum hypertrophic stimulus in the exercise without the need to reach
failure. It is normally recommended to work leaving 1 to 3 repetitions before failure in most sets.

Working with loads that allow for more than 15 repetitions requires the individual to reach
concentric failure or beyond to achieve maximum muscle activation and good hypertrophic
stimulation, since the first repetitions would be very light and would not require as much “strength”.
It is worth noting that using failure too frequently can limit performance due to the accumulation of
fatigue and accentuated muscle damage.

It is important to mention that the concept of maximum repetitions considers that the individual
would be reaching failure in a certain number of repetitions performed with the weight used in the
exercise. To better exemplify, training in the range of 6 to 10 RM would be the same as performing
the exercise with a load that would allow for at least 6 and a maximum of 10 repetitions while
maintaining a good movement pattern and without external help.

The choice of the repetition range, and consequently the intensity of the work, determines which
adaptation will be stimulated more pronouncedly.

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Strength Hypertrophy Resistance
1 to 6 RM 8 to 12 RM 15 to 25+ RM

The recommendations are different for strength gain, hypertrophy and muscular endurance,
however, this does not mean that a repetition range does not generate stimuli for other
adaptations. It is worth mentioning that the intensity to be applied in training is related to other
variables such as work volume, interval between sets and exercises, order of exercises, nutritional
status, among others.

Adjusting exercise loads using repetition ranges is a simple way to adjust training intensity to the
individual's needs, and is also an alternative for adjusting exercise loads according to the athlete's
psychological and physical state on the day in question. If the student is unable to perform the
minimum value of the stipulated repetition range with good technique and without external help, it
will be necessary to reduce approximately 2 to 10% of the weight used in the exercise to adjust the
intensity to the chosen repetition range.

When the individual is able to perform the stipulated maximum number of repetitions and is able to
perform between 3 and 5 more repetitions with good technique and without external help, it is
interesting to increase the weight of the exercise by approximately 2 to 10%, which refers to the
principle of progressive overload.

In short, working with intensity between 10 and 15 maximum repetitions generates excellent
hypertrophic stimuli and caloric expenditure without the need to reach concentric failure. However,
the intensity can vary depending on the phase of preparation in which the athlete is, either to favor
recovery in regenerative periods or to generate specific adaptations such as localized muscular
strength or resistance.

5.4 Quantifying intensity in aerobic exercise

In aerobic exercise, intensity can be easily measured by the individual's maximum heart rate
(HRmax). This value can be obtained using the following equation:

Maximum heart rate formula

FCmax = 220 – age in years

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With the obtained HRmax value, it is possible to adjust the intensity of the aerobic exercise
according to the individual's needs. Using a 20-year-old individual as an example, the HRmax would
be 200 bpm, a value that represents 100% of that individual's heart rate.

Aerobic exercise can be considered high intensity when performed above 75% of the individual's
HRmax, while percentages between 60 and 75% refer to exercise performed at moderate intensity.
It can be considered low intensity when aerobic exercise is performed at heartbeats per minute
(bpm) values below 60% of the individual's HRmax.

Intensity percentage FCmax Intensity classification

>75% >150bpm High
60 to 75% 120 to 150bpm Moderate
<60% < 120bpm Low

The percentage of energy spent from fat oxidation will depend on the intensity of the exercise. This
value decreases as the intensity of the exercise increases due to the greater participation of glucose
and glycogen in providing energy for the activity.

1 hour of aerobics at different intensities, based on individuals between 70 and 90kg of body weight
Low Moderate High
Total kcal 150 to 200kcal 280 to 330kcal 400 to 500kcal

% fat oxidation 90% 70% 60%

Total kcal in fats 135 to 180kcal 196 to 231kcal 240 to 300kcal

It is important to mention that the percentage of fat burning in low and moderate intensity aerobics
is higher than in exercise performed at high intensity, however, the gross caloric expenditure in high
intensity aerobics and consequently the fat expenditure in the activity are higher compared to
exercise performed at low and moderate intensity.

To equal the caloric expenditure of 1 hour of high-intensity aerobics, approximately 2 hours of

activity performed at low intensity would be required. When the exercise is performed at moderate
and high intensities, the advantage is not only in the greater caloric expenditure, but also in the
power of the adaptations generated by the exercise. Doing aerobics at moderate to high intensity
favors mitochondrial biogenesis more powerfully compared to low-intensity exercise. This
adaptation is related to the improvement of energy metabolism and greater efficiency in fat
oxidation.

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Many people believe that doing aerobics on an empty stomach would oxidize more fats, but as long
as the student can achieve a good intensity during the exercise, there will be no significant
difference in doing aerobics while fed or fasting. In order to burn more fat at the end of the day
than replenish macronutrients, it will be necessary to create a caloric deficit through diet and
physical exercise.

5.5 Subjective perception of effort

This variable can be defined as the ability to measure the effort, tension or fatigue perceived during
the execution of physical activities and exercises. The subjective perception of effort is a practical
and safe way to help adjust the intensity of training.

It is important to mention that larger loads generate a high perception of effort regardless of the
number of repetitions performed in the exercise, just as performing a high volume of repetitions
using smaller loads also increases the subjective perception of effort.

Factors that influence the subjective perception of effort in bodybuilding

Load used in the exercise The more weight used in the exercise, the greater the perception of effort.

Number of repetitions performed in the same The greater the number of repetitions in the same series, the greater the
series perception of effort.

Movement execution speed (cadence) The lower the cadence of movement, the greater the perceived effort.

Rest time between sets and exercises The shorter the interval time, the greater the perception of effort.

Use of advanced techniques Advanced techniques typically increase training density (more volume in the
same session time), and thus also increase the perception of effort.

Drop in pH in exercised muscle The high volume of repetitions and short rest periods between sets lead to
the accumulation of hydrogen ions in the muscle tissue, causing the pH to
decrease and the muscle to “burn” and the perception of effort to increase.

The subjective perception of effort is closely related to high-intensity muscular work, the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems. When the perception of effort increases, the individual
normally feels an increase in body temperature, the heart rate increases, the student becomes
breathless and fatigued. It is worth mentioning that the external environment, level of training and
psychological factors also directly influences the perception of effort.

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Many individuals work with low loads, perform exercises with short rest intervals and countless
repetitions per series, thus the perception of effort increases and the student believes he is doing
an extremely intense workout, when in fact the perception of effort has only increased due to the
increase in volume and greater metabolic stress generated by the short intervals between series.

It is important to note that very short intervals impair the maintenance and progression of loads,
which can significantly reduce training intensity, which can limit muscle hypertrophy and exercise
calorie expenditure. The Borg scale of perceived exertion can be used to assist in adjusting exercise
intensity.

Modified Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion

Effort level Classification
0 None
0.5 Very, very light
1 Very light
2 Light
3 Moderate
4 Not very intense
5 Intense
6
7 Very intense
8
9 Very, very intense
10 Maximum

One way to use this scale to adjust the intensity of the exercise would be to ask the student to
perform a certain number of repetitions with the load stipulated in the exercise. After performing
the requested repetitions, the professional can ask the student to rate from 0 to 10 how difficult it
was to perform that series.

By classifying the student's subjective effort, it would be possible to increase or reduce the load
used and then make the necessary adjustments to the intensity of the exercise, leaving the training
session at the planned intensity. A common problem with using the perceived effort scale in
practice is that beginners tend to overestimate the effort made, in addition to the fact that the
emotional state and external factors can directly influence the subjective perception of effort and
make it difficult to adjust the intensity.

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5.6 Total workload (Volume load)

The volume load or total workload is basically obtained by multiplying the sets, repetitions and
weights used in the exercise. This way, it is possible to count the total work performed in a specific
exercise or training session.

Accounting for the total work volume (volume load) in the exercise
Sets x reps x weight used

Calculating the volume load can be useful for assessing the progress of a given exercise in isolation.
It is worth mentioning that the volume load can be influenced by the increase or reduction in the
number of sets, exercises, repetitions or the load used in the training session.

Example of using volume load to account for work in the exercise

Exercise Series Repetitions Load Volume load

Bench press 1 15 80kg 1200

2 12 90kg 1080

3 10 94kg 940

4 8 92kg 736

TOTAL:3.956kg

This way, it is possible to monitor the progression of the exercises in isolation and evaluate the
performance of each of the exercises performed during the planning process.

5.7 Training to failure

Many individuals, especially bodybuilders and enthusiasts, believe that it is necessary to always
train to failure in order to achieve good results in terms of muscle hypertrophy. First, it is necessary
to clarify what “training to failure” means in order to later address the topic. Strength training
basically consists of performing different types of muscle contraction, with varying intensity and
volume depending on the individual’s needs and goals. Muscle contraction can be concentric,
eccentric and isometric; therefore, failure can occur in all three types of muscle contraction. First,
concentric failure occurs, which is when the individual is unable to shorten the muscle fibers to
contract the target muscle in order to perform the complete movement with good execution
technique.

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Eccentric failure occurs after concentric failure and requires external help or “cheated repetitions”
to complete the concentric phase of the movement. Basically, eccentric failure occurs when the
individual can no longer sustain the load while the muscle fibers of the target muscle are stretching.

After concentric and eccentric failure, again with external assistance (training partner), the
individual can keep the muscles contracted isometrically at some point of the movement until they
can no longer sustain the contraction, thus reaching isometric and total failure, since they have
failed in all phases of the movement. It is worth mentioning that using failure frequently in any
phase of the movement can generate fatigue accumulation, impairing performance in subsequent
sets and muscle recovery, limiting long-term results.

Hypertrophic stimuli are generated by increased recruitment of muscle fibers during moderate to
high intensity muscle contraction. When using loads for up to 15 maximum repetitions, there is no
need to reach concentric failure, as maximum activation of muscle fibers occurs from the first
repetitions, thus generating greater time under tension (at high intensity) and optimal hypertrophic
stimuli.

Concentric failure can be used at specific moments during periodization, such as during shock
phases or on days when the athlete is more motivated/energized and wants to push a little harder
during training. For most periodization, the individual should train by leaving repetitions in reserve,
that is, using loads for a certain number of maximum repetitions and stopping the exercise just
before reaching concentric failure. This way, it is possible to achieve optimal hypertrophic
stimulation and energy expenditure without generating unnecessary accumulation of fatigue,
metabolic stress and muscle damage.

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5.8 Interval between sets

A frequently overlooked variable, however, of extreme importance for maintaining training

performance and long-term results. Muscle hypertrophy initially depends on the stimuli arising from
high-intensity training and, as can be seen in the section on exercise metabolism, the energy
expended at the beginning of weight training comes from residual ATP in muscle tissue and from
the creatine phosphate system, therefore, these substrates are the first to be expended in moderate
to high-intensity weight training.

In order to maintain exercise intensity from the beginning to the end of the training session, it is
necessary to adjust the intervals between sets and exercises, allowing for partial recovery of
intracellular creatine phosphate and ATP reserves. With the recovery of energy reserves, it is
possible to work on a new set with the same load used in the previous set or even do the exercise
with more load, generating higher calorie expenditure and more powerful hypertrophic stimuli.

Intervals can vary from 1 to 5 minutes between sets and exercises depending on the intensity used,
nutritional status, recovery capacity, emotional state and time available to train. Basically, the
greater the intensity and perceived effort in the exercise, the longer it will take for the individual to
recover for the next set. Using very short intervals limits the maintenance and evolution of the loads
in the exercise, which reduces the intensity of the load used and can end up limiting the results in
the long term.

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6. TRAINING PERIODISATION

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Periodization basically refers to the organization and distribution of training variables over planned
periods to obtain specific results with maximum efficiency. There are different periodization models
such as linear, reverse linear, and undulating, in blocks, etc. It is important to mention that
periodization should not be rigid; training variables should be adjusted taking into account the
individual's responses, even if following a model.

6.1 Phases of periodization

Each phase of periodization has a specific objective and can be divided into previously planned
periods called base, shock and deload. It is worth noting that the training phases can be modified
depending on the response and needs of the student/athlete.

Phases of training periodization

Phase Average duration
Base Up to 30 weeks
Shock 2 to 10 weeks
Deload 1 to 8 weeks

The base phase is a period focused on training progression. Normally, the work volume and/or
intensity increase gradually to promote increased hypertrophic stimulus and caloric expenditure.
During the base periods, training is performed with the aim of generating maximum stimulus while
accumulating minimum fatigue. In these phases, concentric failure and advanced techniques are
used only in the last series of some exercises in which the student has good command of the
movement.

In this phase, the work volume can be increased by about 10 to 20% every 4 to 6 weeks, depending
on the individual's recovery capacity and availability. Training can be done by leaving 1 to 3
repetitions in reserve in most sets, avoiding using failure or overly advanced techniques. After
achieving good progress in the base periods, the shock phases can be increased, where the work
volume can be increased by around 20 to 30% for about 2 to 10 weeks, depending on the
individual's recovery capacity and availability.

In these phases, training can be done by leaving 1 to 3 repetitions in reserve in the first series,
however, concentric failure and advanced techniques can be used more frequently and in more
exercises. Deload is one of the extremely important phases of periodization, as it aims to favor both
the physical and psychological recovery of the student. Deload is normally performed after the
shock phases, where the stress generated by training is very high.

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During the deload periods, concentric failure or advanced techniques should not be used. Training is
normally performed leaving 1 to 5 repetitions in reserve in each series. The volume of work is
reduced by approximately 50% of what was being performed in the previous phases. The intensity
can be maintained or reduced depending on the recovery capacity and psychological state of the
student at the end of the shock phase.

6.2 Training cycles

Training periodization is usually divided into cycles called microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle.
Each training session or each week can be considered a microcycle, the set of several training weeks
forms a mesocycle while the union of several mesocycles forms the macrocycle.

A macrocycle basically represents the “final” goal through the combination of smaller goals, such as
an individual who needs to gain muscle mass and subsequently reduce the percentage of body fat
to go on stage. In this case, a certain number of mesocycles would be performed seeking to gain
muscle mass followed by mesocycles focused on reducing the percentage of body fat.

Each microcycle can be defined as a training session or a week of training, while a mesocycle can
last between 4 and 6 weeks. The macrocycle is the combination of several mesocycles and can last
from 6 months to 4 years depending on the sport practiced or the athlete's competitive calendar.

The deload, base and shock periods are distributed throughout the macrocycle depending on the
response and needs of the student/athlete. As seen previously, the base phases constitute an
evolutionary period of training, where the progression of stimuli is sought through the increase in
the volume of work and/or intensity of training depending on the periodization model used.

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After a certain period of base training, if the individual's progress is slowing down, it may be
necessary to apply a shock period, where the workload and/or training intensity tend to increase
more significantly for short periods, extracting maximum performance from the athlete. The shock
phases generate great stress both physically and psychologically on the individual, and it is
extremely important to end the shock and enter a deload phase when necessary. This way, it is
possible to favor physical and psychological recovery, leaving the individual ready to return to base
training and continue progressing.

If the individual has a competition in mind or a specific goal such as a photo shoot or trip, the base,
shock and deload periods can be programmed in advance, however, they must be applied and
adjusted according to the individual's response and needs.

In cases where the individual is approaching the shock period and is not feeling well psychologically
or is experiencing frequent muscle and joint pain, it may be necessary to postpone the shock and
apply a deload to promote recovery. Assuming that the scheduled deload period is approaching,
however, the individual continues to evolve well in training and is not feeling pain or losing
performance, it may be necessary to apply a shock period or extend the base training for a few
more weeks, postponing the deload.

As can be seen, training cycles and phases must be adjusted according to the individual's response
and needs, which makes periodization an organized way of controlling training variables while
maintaining flexibility that allows adaptation according to the individual's response and needs. In
this way, the student/athlete can evolve constantly and reduce the risk of injury.

6.3 Periodization models

There are several types of periodization, however, in this topic we will address the linear
periodization models, reverse linear periodization models and non-linear periodization models such
as wave periodization.

6.3.1 Linear periodization

Linear periodization basically aims to increase the intensity of the work while the volume gradually
decreases in each mesocycle. The main objective of this type of periodization is to increase strength
and muscle hypertrophy. As can be seen in the graph below, linear periodization starts with a high
volume of sets and repetitions, but the intensity is low.

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During the microcycles or mesocycles, the intensity gradually increases while the volume decreases,
which allows the use of higher loads. For better visualization, the volume of sets and intensity will
be presented in a table showing an example of a 6-week linear periodization.

It is important to mention that the interval time between sets should increase as the intensity
increases, as more time will be needed to recover intracellular ATP and creatine phosphate reserves
and thus enable the progression of loads and consequent evolution in training.

It may be necessary to apply a deload period at the end of the training cycle if the student is
showing signs of overtraining such as sudden loss of performance, insomnia, severe muscle and/or
joint pain, irritability, etc. The deload period can be applied by reducing the intensity and volume of
training, and may also take a period of active rest or cease training for a few days.

Example of a 6-week MESOCYCLE in linear periodization

Period Weekly volume by muscle group Rep range (intensity)
Week 1 29 series 15 to 20 repetitions
Week 2 24 series 12 to 15 repetitions
Week 3 20 series 10 to 12 repetitions
Week 4 17 series 8 to 10 repetitions
Week 5 14 series 6 to 8 repetitions
Week 6 Active rest or deload -

6.3.2 Reverse linear periodization

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This periodization model basically occurs in reverse to the linear periodization model, since the
intensity decreases as the volume increases with each microcycle or mesocycle. Periodization
usually begins using higher loads with a lower number of sets and repetitions. As the stipulated
microcycles or mesocycles pass, the load intensity decreases and the number of sets and repetitions
increases.

Example of a 6-week MESOCYCLE in reverse linear periodization

Period Weekly volume by muscle group Rep range (intensity)
Week 1 14 series 6 to 8 repetitions
Week 2 17 series 8 to 10 repetitions
Week 3 20 series 10 to 12 repetitions
Week 4 24 series 12 to 15 repetitions
Week 5 29 series 15 to 20 repetitions
Week 6 Active rest or deload -

A deload period may be necessary during training, where the volume can be reduced or the
intensity maintained, favoring both the physical and psychological recovery of the individual. Deload
periods should only be used when they are really necessary, avoiding the accumulation of fatigue
and reducing the risk of injuries. This periodization model tends to be more interesting for
individuals seeking to improve localized muscular endurance, however, there is also some gain in
strength and muscular hypertrophy. It is worth mentioning that linear and reverse linear
periodization can be alternated with each other, as one begins where the other ends.

6.3.3 Wave periodization

The undulating or non-linear periodization model consists of more frequent changes in training
variables, with adjustments to intensity and volume normally being made in the same week or
approximately every 10 days. In daily undulating periodization, the student can work with different
intensities and volumes in the same week, as long as the changes are for the same muscle group. As
an example, an individual who works quadriceps on Monday and Thursday can perform a workout
with more weight and fewer sets and repetitions on Monday while performing a quadriceps
workout using less weight and a greater number of sets and repetitions on Thursday.

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When using the weekly undulating periodization model, each week or training microcycle each
muscle group would be worked with a different volume and intensity than what was done the
previous week.

Example of a 6-week MESOCYCLE in weekly undulating periodization

Period Weekly volume by muscle group Rep range (intensity)
Week 1 14 series 6 to 8 repetitions
Week 2 17 series 10 to 12 repetitions
Week 3 20 series 15 to 20 repetitions
Week 4 14 series 6 to 8 repetitions
Week 5 17 series 10 to 12 repetitions
Week 6 20 series 15 to 20 repetitions

6.3.4 Adapted linear periodization

This periodization model follows the same pattern as classic linear periodization, however, both
volume and intensity are gradually increased in each mesocycle depending on the student/athlete's
response. This periodization model is usually used by bodybuilders, where the volume of sets per
muscle group increases every 4 to 6 weeks and the aim is to maintain or progress the loads within
the same repetition range, working based on the principle of progressive overload.

It is worth mentioning that the repetition range may decrease depending on the preparation phase.
During bulking phases, where the aim is to maximize muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, it is
possible to work with lower repetition zones to allow the use of greater load intensity in some
exercises, thus generating powerful stimuli for strength gain and muscle hypertrophy.

Example of a 19-week MACROCYCLE in adapted linear periodization

Period Training phase Weekly volume by muscle group Rep range (intensity)
Weeks 1 to 4 Base I 14 series 12 to 15 repetitions
Weeks 5 to 9 Base II 17 series 10 to 12 repetitions
Weeks 10 to 13 Base III 20 series 8 to 10 repetitions
Week 14 to 17 Shock 24 series 6 to 8 repetitions
Week 18 and 19 Deload 12 series 12 to 15 repetitions

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It will often be necessary to apply a deload period after a few mesocycles depending on the
individual's response and recovery capacity. The need for a deload period is usually accompanied by
typical signs such as insomnia, irritability, significant loss of performance in training, and frequent
muscle and joint pain.

As previously described, during deload periods the work volume is reduced by approximately 50%
of what was being performed during the shock or base period. The intensity can be reduced or even
maintained if the individual is not so weakened at the end of the shock phase.

In deload, failure or advanced techniques are not used. It is a period whose objective is to promote
physical and psychological recovery, allowing the athlete to restart the base period at full capacity,
thus reducing the need for a new deload.

6.4 Advanced techniques

Work volume and load intensity are the main variables manipulated in the training of bodybuilders
and people who aim to gain muscle mass and lose body fat. Some advanced techniques or training
systems help to manipulate these and other training variables in order to ensure a greater volume
of work in less time and even to work with higher intensities than usual.

As the name suggests, these techniques should be used by advanced individuals when necessary.
Most advanced techniques aim to increase the volume of work without prolonging the training
session too much, which is very interesting for individuals who do not have much time to train, or to
be used when the volume of work is already at the limit of the individual's availability, as normally
occurs during periods of shock in periodization.

Many of the advanced techniques excessively increase the perception of effort due to the greater
volume of work performed in a short space of time. With all this volume of work being performed in
short periods, a large accumulation of metabolites occurs, leading to muscle acidity and premature
fatigue.

Some professionals act in bad faith or simply do not have the proper knowledge about exercise
physiology and training prescription, so they end up prescribing training with short intervals, an
excess of advanced techniques and sets until failure to impress the student with a “killer” workout
that is almost impossible to finish.

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It is worth mentioning that the accumulation of fatigue, pain and excessive muscle burning are signs
that the work volume is above the recovery capacity, which hinders physical development and
increases the risk of injuries. Below are some of the advanced techniques that can be useful in
working towards muscle hypertrophy, gaining strength and increasing the training volume during
periods of shock.

6.4.1 Load progression

A very useful technique for building strength and muscle mass, it basically consists of increasing the
intensity of the load in the exercises. There are different ways to progress the loads: Increasing the
overload with each set of the exercise, like a growing pyramid:

Example of bench press load progression

Series Load lifted Repetitions performed Repetitions in reserve
1 90kg 12 reps 2 to 3
2 100kg 10 repetitions 2 to 3
3 104kg 8 repetitions 2 to 3
4 108kg 6 repetitions 0 (failure) to 1

Increasing the number of repetitions for the same weight used in the exercise:

Example of squat load progression (weekly)

Week Load lifted Repetitions performed Repetitions in reserve
1 100kg 8 repetitions 1 to 3
2 100kg 10 repetitions 1 to 3
3 100kg 11 repetitions 1 to 3
4 100kg 12 reps 1 to 3

Decreasing reps in reserve/getting closer to concentric failure:

Example of load progression in deadlift

Series Load lifted Repetitions performed Repetitions in reserve
1 130kg 10 repetitions 3 to 5
2 140kg 10 repetitions 2 to 3
3 148kg 10 repetitions 2 to 3
4 152kg 10 repetitions 0 (failure) to 1

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It is important to mention that increasing the loads must respect the individual's capacity, and the
overload can be increased by increasing the weight by 1 kg in the exercise. Using only 5, 10 or 20 kg
plates to increase the loads ends up being a mistake, as it makes it difficult to adjust the loads when
the weight used in the exercises is close to failure.

The repetitions in reserve are extremely useful to adjust the load in the exercise more precisely.
Taking as an example an individual who performed 10 repetitions on the bench press using 100kg
and had 2 to 3 repetitions in reserve (before failure), it would be much more prudent to add 4kg
total (2kg each side) to the bar to perform the 10 repetitions again than to add two more 5kg plates
(10kg total) and do 6 repetitions or less.

Another way to adjust the load in exercises would be by perception of effort, in this way the
“harder/heavier” the previous series is, the less weight can be added in the next series.

6.4.2 Cluster set

This method basically consists of breaking the series into smaller blocks, normally using a higher
overload than would be possible for a given number of repetitions. The repetition blocks are
normally broken into 2 to 4 repetitions, with intervals of 5 and 20 seconds between each block
without changing the load (weight) used in the exercise. The process should be repeated until the
previously established number of repetitions is completed.

It is important to mention that after completing the full set of repetitions, it will be necessary to
take a break of 1 to 5 minutes before moving on to the next set. This technique is normally applied
during cutting when the individual is losing strength due to the caloric restriction imposed at this
stage of the planning, thus it is possible to maintain high intensity even during periods of low
energy intake.

Example of practical application of cluster set in bent over rowing

Series Load lifted Repetitions performed Repetitions in reserve
1 100kg 10 repetitions 1 to 2
2 100kg 10 repetitions 1 to 2
3 100kg 10 repetitions 1 to 2
120kg Block 1 - 4 repetitions 0 (failure) to 1
4 120kg Block 2 - 3 repetitions 0 (failure) to 1
120kg Block 3 - 3 repetitions 0 (failure) to 1

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Cluster sets can also be performed during bulking periods in some exercises where the individual
wants to gain more strength and has good movement control. Since the technique breaks the main
sets into smaller blocks, the training session time ends up being extended. The technique is
generally used in the last two sets of some exercises. It is worth mentioning that the repetition
blocks do not need to be the same.

6.4.3 Bisset

**May be useful depending on the application**

This technique basically consists of performing two exercises in a row without breaks, resting only
after performing the second exercise and then starting the next series. It can be performed in
exercises for the same muscle group or for agonist x antagonist groups of the movement.

It is important to mention that using the biset for the same muscle group results in early
accumulation of fatigue and can impair training performance for the muscle group in question,
reducing the hypertrophic stimulus when compared to performing both exercises separately with
adequate rest intervals (1 to 5 minutes).

The bisset can be useful in training biceps and triceps, as they are muscles with opposing actions
(antagonists) and do not generate as much fatigue as training for larger muscle groups such as the
back or chest, for example.

This technique can also be applied when the individual does not have much time to train, however,
in this case it ends up being more productive to reduce the volume of the training session to allow
the individual to rest well between sets and be able to maintain or progress the loads in the
exercises.

Practical application of Bisset in a biceps and triceps workout

Exercises Series 1 Interval Series 2 Interval Series 3

Direct thread 10 to 12 RM 1 to 3 minutes 10 to 12 RM 1 to 3 minutes 10 to 12 RM

Triceps pulley 10 to 12 RM 10 to 12 RM 10 to 12 RM

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In the example above, the individual performed a series of barbell curls followed by a series of
triceps pulleys and then took a break of 1 to 3 minutes before moving on to the second series of the
set of exercises. The process should be repeated until the proposed number of series has been
completed.

Techniques such as triset, superset, giant set and circuits are similar to biset, differing only in the
number of exercises performed in sequence without breaks. These techniques can be useful for
improving localized muscular resistance, but they are not very productive when it comes to muscle
hypertrophy and strength gains, which are the main objectives of the training program.

6.4.4 Drop set

A technique often seen in weight rooms, where the individual performs a set to failure, immediately
after failure reduces the load by about 20% and without resting, performs more repetitions until
reaching failure again. Up to three drop sets can be done in the same series. The objective of this
technique is to increase the volume of work without prolonging the training session, however, there
will be a reduction in the intensity of the load in the exercise. It can be used in the last set of one or
more exercises in periods of shock or when the individual does not have much time to train.

Practical application example of drop set

Series Repetitions Repetitions in reserve Interval
1 12 4 1 to 2 minutes
2 10 3 1 to 3 minutes
3 8 1 or fail 1 to 5 minutes
4 8 Failure No break
Reduces 20% of the load 4 to 6 Failure No break
Reduces 20% of the load 2 to 4 Failure

As it was possible to observe, when reducing the overload, it was not possible to perform such a
large number of repetitions, since the individual had already come close to failure in the last two
sets of the exercise, leading the muscles to momentary fatigue.

Reducing the load in the drop set encourages the performance of a few more repetitions beyond
failure, thus increasing the time under maximum tension and hypertrophic signaling. It is worth
mentioning that if the individual is able to perform the same number of repetitions (or more) as
before reducing the load in the drop set, it is a sign that the load was light and far from failure for
the intended repetition zone. It is interesting to count every 2 drop sets performed as one series for
the target muscle group of the exercise in which the technique was applied.

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6.4.5 Rest Pause

Method similar to drop set, however, after reaching concentric failure in the determined number of
repetitions, a pause of up to 20 seconds is taken and then some extra repetitions are performed
until failure again.

In the case of the drop set, when failure is reached, the weight used in the exercise is reduced, while
in the rest pause, the load used is not changed. This technique can be used to increase the volume
of work in a shorter training session; however, it generates a large accumulation of fatigue and can
impair performance in other exercises if performed at the beginning of the workout.

Example of practical application of the rest pause technique

Series Repetitions Repetitions in reserve Interval
1 12 1 or fail 20 seconds
2 10 Failure 20 seconds
3 8 Failure 20 seconds
4 6 Failure 1 to 5 minutes

It can be used during periods of periodization shock or when the individual has little time to train.
As repetitions are performed beyond concentric failure, there will be an increase in time under
maximum tension and hypertrophic stimulus.

6.4.6 Forced repetitions

In this technique, the student/athlete works until concentric failure and receives external help to
complete a few more repetitions without breaks or reducing the load used in the exercise. It can be
used to increase the volume of work without prolonging the training session too much, and is useful
during periods of shock, normally in the last series of exercises in which the individual has good
control.

Example of practical application of forced repetitions

Series Repetitions Repetitions in reserve Interval
1 12 4 1 to 2 minutes
2 10 3 1 to 3 minutes
3 8 1 or fail 1 to 5 minutes
4 8 Failure

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Repetitions with external help 3 to 4

As repetitions are performed beyond concentric failure, there will be increased time under
maximum tension and hypertrophic stimulus.

6.4.7 Partial repetitions

This technique basically consists of performing only a portion of the movement. It can be useful in
cases where there is a need to improve a specific part of the movement in question. Another way to
use partial repetitions would be in the shock phases of periodization, phases in which the individual
can reach concentric failure in the exercise and perform some partial repetitions. Normally, the
amplitude will be reduced with each partial repetition performed due to muscle fatigue at that
moment.

Example of practical application of partial repetitions

Series Repetitions Repetitions in reserve Interval
1 12 4 1 to 2 minutes
2 10 3 1 to 3 minutes
3 8 1 or fail 1 to 5 minutes
4 8 Failure No break
Partial repetitions 3 to 4

As repetitions are performed beyond concentric failure, there will be increased time under
maximum tension and hypertrophic stimulus.

6.4.8 Flow restriction (vascular occlusion)

A method created by Yoshiaki Sato in 1980. This technique consists of restricting blood flow to the
lower and/or upper limbs using pressures ranging from 100 to 200 mmHg. It is worth mentioning
that the pressure exerted will be greater on the lower limbs and less on the upper limbs, normally
using tourniquets or pressure cuffs.

The rest interval between sets and exercises using flow restriction is around 30 to 90 seconds. The
intensity varies between 20 and 50% of the weight for 1 maximum repetition in the exercise in
which the method will be applied, remembering to always take the sets to failure (somewhere
between 30 and 50 maximum repetitions).

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To perform the occlusion, it will be necessary to use a sphygmomanometer, which will be positioned
on the proximal portion of the limb and pressure applied until the pulse in the artery can no longer
be heard. The appropriate pressure is around 50% of the value necessary to prevent the hearing of
arterial flow, therefore, each individual will have an appropriate pressure value for the technique to
be performed safely.

It is important to note that occlusion only significantly affects venous circulation in the limb, thus
generating an environment without oxygen (ischemia/hypoxia) that activates pathways related to
muscle hypertrophy. All the metabolic stress caused by ischemia, accumulation of metabolites, high
number of repetitions and short intervals activate growth factors that are also related to muscle
hypertrophy. This technique can be used for individuals in conditions where they cannot use high
loads such as trauma, injuries, rehabilitation, hemodialysis and even for the elderly, since the
conditions generated by ischemia and metabolic stress generate an effect similar to using higher
intensities.

6.4.9 Stretching between sets

Many people believe that stretching muscles during training can reduce strength and impair muscle
hypertrophy, however, stretching the antagonist muscles of the group being trained can reduce the
activation of the antagonist during the movement and allow better activation of the main muscle
group (agonist) in the exercise being performed.

A good example would be stretching the pectoral muscles between sets of back exercises, which
would result in slightly more back work compared to the condition without stretching the pectorals
between sets. It is important to mention that stretching shortened muscles can also improve the
performance of both the agonist and antagonist of the movement, in addition to helping to improve
posture.

6.4.10 Dispensable techniques for muscle hypertrophy

Something very common in the media are training videos using different techniques to increase
metabolic stress and perception of effort, causing the performer to feel a lot of pain, muscle
burning, and even vomiting in some cases. Some of the techniques that are dispensable for
hypertrophy include circuit training, bisset, trisset, giant set, super set, fascia stretch training (FST-
7), German volume training (GVT), sarcoplasma stimulating training (SST), and isometrics. Many of
these techniques are summarized in short rest intervals, countless repetitions per set, and
repetitions performed slowly (on purpose).

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This leads to excessive accumulation of fatigue and metabolites, which hinders the evolution of
training, in addition to generating more muscle damage than necessary and limiting hypertrophy in
the long term. The super slow technique basically consists of reducing the weight that could be
used in the exercise so that the individual can perform repetitions at a slow speed (5 to 15 seconds)
in each phase of the movement. The aim would be to increase the time under tension and thus
stimulate muscle hypertrophy.

It is important to mention that the mechanical stimulus (tension) needs to be at high intensity to
generate good hypertrophic stimuli, as in super slow the individual reduces 50% of the weight that
would be used in the exercise and thus reduces the activation of type II muscle fibers, resulting in
less hypertrophic stimulus than if the movement were being performed with more load at “normal”
speed.

6.4.11 Considerations on advanced techniques

These techniques should be used intelligently, and are usually applied during periods of stress or
when the individual has little time to train. When seeking muscle hypertrophy and strength gains,
most of the periodization will be performed using load progression, either by increasing the weight
used in the exercise or by performing more repetitions with the same weight. This will provide
greater hypertrophic stimulation and calorie expenditure without accumulating unnecessary
fatigue. Using too many advanced techniques can lead to the accumulation of fatigue, which can
harm muscle recovery and the student/athlete's performance in the long term.

6.5 Training splits

The most important aspect regarding training division is that the training performed on one day
should not harm the performance of the muscle group that will be worked on the next day.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider the recovery capacity and preferences of the student/athlete
before planning the training division. Before specifically addressing training divisions, it will be
necessary to review some concepts such as muscle actions in exercises, thus allowing us to
understand how training divisions are structured.

Types of muscle action:

• Agonists: perform the main work in movement;

• Antagonists: lengthen while the movement agonist contracts;
• Synergists: assist the work of the agonist;

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• Stabilizers: act on the stability of structures;

Examples of muscle function

Exercise Agonist Synergist Antagonist
Bench press and variations Chest Triceps / Deltoids Dorsals
Squats and variations Quadriceps Glutes / adductors Hamstrings
Rows and pulls Dorsals Biceps / Deltoids Chest

When considering muscle actions to divide training sessions, the synergistic muscles of the
movement can be worked in the same training session as the agonist or in separate sessions, usually
leaving a one- or two-day interval in relation to the agonist. This way, it is possible to have a good
recovery of the trained muscles and not to harm the performance of the group that will be worked
the following day.

Another way to work on dividing up your workouts would be to consider body segments, so that the
individual would alternate work between muscle groups in the lower and upper body. It is
important to mention that the volume of work for abdominals can be distributed throughout the
week according to the individual's needs and preferences.

6.5.1 Division AB

In this training division, the individual alternates between training the lower and upper body,
normally used in cases where the student has availability for only two workouts per week. This
division is normally used by beginners, as they do not need such a high training volume.

AB split example for men and women

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Completed higher education
Tuesday -
Wednesday Full legs / calves
Thursday -
Friday -
Saturday -
Sunday -

There is also the possibility of using this training division by carrying out more weekly sessions
depending on the student's availability and needs, being able to divide the training into the AB-AB
or ABABAB sequence, for example.

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AB-AB split example for men and women
Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Completed higher education
Tuesday Full legs / calves
Wednesday -
Thursday Completed higher education
Friday Full legs / calves
Saturday -
Sunday -

6.5.2 ABC Division

Recommended for individuals who are only available to train 3 days a week. It can be used by
beginners and intermediates, as these individuals do not have such a high demand for weekly series
volume per muscle group.
Advanced students can use this training division during deload periods or at times when they
cannot train every day due to routine, work, preferences or whatever the reason.

ABC Division Example for Men

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Pectoral / front deltoid / triceps
Tuesday -
Wednesday Full legs / calves
Thursday -
Friday Lats / medial deltoid / biceps
Saturday -
Sunday -

The ABC split can also be used by women, especially beginners and intermediates. Since the main
focus of the work for most women is on the lower body, two complete leg workouts can be
performed, differing in the muscle group that will be emphasized in the training session; the
complete upper body workout can be performed between the two leg workouts.

This way, it is possible to work the entire body without training one muscle group compromising the
performance of the group that will be worked on the next day. This training division can also be
adapted for individuals who can train more times a week, and can repeat the order of training at
the end of each weekly cycle.

ABCABC Division Example for Women

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Full legs (focus on quadriceps) / glutes / calves

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Tuesday Completed higher education
Wednesday Full legs (focus on hamstrings) / glutes / calves
Thursday -
Friday Full legs (focus on quadriceps) / glutes / calves
Saturday Completed higher education
Sunday Full legs (focus on hamstrings) / glutes / calves

In this case, it would be a good idea to leave at least one day of rest between lower body workouts
so that recovery is not impaired.

6.5.3 ABCD Division

This way of dividing training can be used by individuals who can only train four times a week,
whether male or female.

ABCD Division Example for Men and Women

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Quadriceps / glutes / calves
Tuesday Pectoral / front deltoid / triceps
Wednesday -
Thursday Hamstrings / glutes / calves
Friday Lats / posterior and medial deltoid / biceps
Saturday -
Sunday -

The ABCD division can be used by beginners, intermediate and advanced individuals depending on
the need, preference and phase of periodization.

6.5.4 ABCDE Division

Individuals who have greater availability to train can benefit from this division of training sessions,
as it is possible to distribute the work volume throughout the week to prevent training sessions
from lasting too long.

ABCDE Division Example for Men

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Chest / triceps
Tuesday Quadriceps / glutes / calves

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Wednesday Back / biceps
Thursday Full deltoid
Friday Hamstrings / glutes / calves
Saturday -
Sunday -

This division can be adapted for women, making it possible to distribute the work of the lower limbs
and glutes more frequently each week.

ABCDE Division Example for Women

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Quadriceps / glutes / calves
Tuesday Pectoral / dorsal
Wednesday Glutes
Thursday Deltoids / biceps / triceps
Friday Hamstrings / glutes / calves
Saturday -
Sunday -

The ABCDE division is more suitable for intermediate and advanced individuals due to the greater
need for work volume compared to beginners, so it is possible to distribute the training throughout
the week without compromising performance and recovery.

6.5.5 ABCDEF Division

This training division model can be used by men and women, and is more suitable for intermediate
and advanced individuals, as it allows for a greater dilution of the work volume throughout the
week. This division is normally used by students who have more time available to train.

ABCDEF Division Example for Men

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Chest
Tuesday Quadriceps / glutes / calves
Wednesday Dorsals
Thursday Full deltoid
Friday Hamstrings / glutes / calves
Saturday Biceps / Triceps
Sunday -

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With this division of training, women can experience a greater frequency of work for the lower
limbs and glutes, which are normally the muscle groups most worked by this audience.

ABCDE Division Example for Women

Day of the week Muscle group worked
Monday Pectoral / dorsal
Tuesday Quadriceps / glutes / calves
Wednesday Deltoids
Thursday Full legs / glutes
Friday Biceps / Triceps
Saturday Hamstrings / glutes / calves
Sunday -

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7. OFFSEASON – BULKING

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The main objective of this phase of planning is to correct weak points in the body, add more muscle
volume with as little fat as possible, and also to relieve the stress caused by the more restrictive
phases of planning. During bulking, the daily caloric intake must be greater than the individual's
daily energy expenditure, thus generating a caloric surplus to stimulate muscle hypertrophy and
strength gain.

During this planning phase, calorie and carbohydrate intake increases gradually, and protein and fat
intake can be reduced to encourage greater carbohydrate consumption and thus enhance training
performance. A very common mistake during the bulking phase is to consume too many foods with
high calorie density and low nutritional value, such as pizza, ice cream, sweets, etc. It is important
that 80% of the daily calories in the diet are made up of foods with high nutritional value, leaving
20% for the consumption of “off-diet” foods, such as those mentioned above.

Strength tends to increase considerably during bulking, so it is important to work on improving the
loads (weight) used in exercises to gain even more strength, generate more powerful hypertrophic
stimuli and high energy expenditure. Bulking usually begins when the individual has a reduced body
fat percentage, somewhere between 8 and 10% for men and 12 to 15% for women. This way, it is
possible to sustain the bulking for longer and generate greater gains in muscle mass and strength.
The bulking phase should last between 6 and 24 months, and can be extended if necessary. It will
often be necessary to have short periods of low-calorie intake in the middle of the bulking, like a
“mini cut”, thus making it possible to extend the bulking for longer.

Periods of lower calorie intake improve insulin sensitivity, reduce body fat percentage and water
retention, making the metabolic environment more favorable to muscle mass gain. Weight gain
during bulking should be taken into account, and weekly weight gain can be maintained between
100g and 1kg, depending on the current condition and needs of the student/athlete. It is worth
mentioning that a large part of the weight gained in a year of bulking will be glycogen, water, fat and
a small portion of contractile proteins, the muscle mass itself. Muscle mass gain can be more than
5kg in the first 2 to 3 years of training for beginners, and can reach less than 1kg per year for
individuals with a high level of training, such as experienced bodybuilders.

As seen in the accommodation principle, the more trained an individual is, the less trainable he
becomes, making it increasingly difficult to build muscle mass and generate more powerful training
adaptations. The bulking phase should be stopped when the body fat percentage is rising rapidly,
leaving the body looking hazy and with excessive water retention. If the individual is unable to
follow the diet and/or training plan due to external problems or an impaired emotional state, it may
be necessary to reduce the calorie intake and work volume to give the student more flexibility until
the problems are resolved and they can return to bulking.

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7.1 What to analyze to periodize the bulking diet?

Before starting the dietary planning for the bulking phase, it is necessary to consider some
important factors that directly influence adherence to the plan. This prior analysis will help the
professional to put together the initial diet more assertively.

7.1.1 Objective

In the case of bulking, the main objective is to gain muscle mass or maintain previously built muscle
volume, gaining as little fat as possible in the process. As previously mentioned, bulking should be
started when the individual has a low body fat percentage (10% for men and 15% for women). This
way, it is possible to maintain the bulking for longer and generate good muscle mass gain in this
phase. If the student has a high body fat percentage, even if the goal is to gain muscle mass, the
best option would be to start a cutting process to initially reduce the body fat percentage and then
start bulking. This way, the professional can align the goal with the student's current needs.

7.1.2 Current needs

Here, calorie and nutrient needs are assessed using predictive equations for calorie expenditure,
and a food record can also be used to estimate the individual's current intake. The food record is a
very useful tool for understanding the student's eating pattern, routine and preferences, which
makes it easier to set up the initial plan. The diet should consist mainly of foods with higher
nutritional value such as rice, pasta, potatoes, bread, lean cuts of red meat, chicken, fish, eggs,
fruits, vegetables, cereals, etc. You can set aside 20% of your calories in your diet to use on foods
with a higher caloric density, such as sweets, pizza, snacks, ice cream, sandwiches and soft drinks,
even if the nutritional value of these foods is not as good.

To achieve the proposed objective, the diet will need to generate a caloric surplus, that is, the
calorie intake must be greater than the daily caloric expenditure. In this way, muscle glycogen stores
will always be replenished, which allows the individual to evolve in training and thus generate more
powerful hypertrophic stimuli. As previously mentioned, for the process of gaining muscle mass to
be more efficient, the ideal would be to start bulking with a reduced fat percentage, around 10% or
less for men and 15% or less for women. If the individual's fat percentage is above these values, it
may be more beneficial to restrict the calories in the diet to start a cutting process, thus adapting
the plan to the individual's current needs.

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It is important to mention that there are large variations in actual caloric expenditure between
individuals, because even if body composition, height and age are similar, caloric expenditure with
daily activities and training will be different, this being the factor with the greatest influence on
caloric expenditure in physically active individuals.

7.1.3 Body composition

Some anthropometric measurements such as circumferences, skin folds, body weight and height
can be used for this assessment. With this data, it is possible to assess body composition in general
and for specific areas, without the need to use specific equations. All these parameters will be used
as comparisons and as a guide for subsequent adjustments in diet and training planning according
to the student's response, needs and goals.

Example of body composition assessment in bulking

Parameters evaluated December/2021 January/2022 February/2022 March/2022

Body weight 75.8 kg 81.5 kg 83kg 85kg

Waist circumference 82 cm 85.4 cm 84.7 cm 84.3 cm

Abdominal circumference 81.3 cm 83.6 cm 86 cm 85.2 cm

Arm circumference 35.3 cm 36.1 cm 37 cm 38 cm

Skin folds

Suprailiac fold 5 mm 6 mm 5 mm 6 mm

Bicep curl 2 mm 3 mm 3 mm 2 mm

Subscapular fold 9 mm 10 mm 10 mm 9 mm

Triceps fold 6 mm 6 mm 6 mm 6 mm

Sum of folds 22mm 25mm 24mm 23mm

The data used as an example are from a student who finished cutting in December, transitioned to
bulking until January and then started bulking properly. As can be seen, body weight increased
significantly in the first month (December to January) due to the recovery of muscle glycogen stores
and increased water retention. Central measurements increased due to the greater volume of food
and abdominal expansion, which is why there was some variation from one month to the next. The
fat percentage remained well controlled, as can be seen by the skin folds assessed individually or by
the sum of the folds measured. This way, it is possible to monitor the student's progress and make
the necessary adjustments to the diet and training so that the individual continues to progress in
bulking without losing control of the body fat percentage.

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7.1.4 Health status and clinical history

The professional must assess the student's current health status and clinical history to better
understand the overall picture. Some pathologies such as high blood pressure, diabetes,
dyslipidemia, chronic renal failure, anemia and hypothyroidism may require specific approaches in
managing the diet, and it is extremely important to investigate the overall picture before starting
planning.

If necessary, it may be interesting to request some tests to assess the initial situation and monitor
the evolution of the condition.

Laboratory tests that may be requested

Marker Function
Complete blood count Checking for possible anemia, changes in hematocrit and immune system.

Fasting blood glucose Glucose tolerance.

Total cholesterol Assessment of lipid panel and cardiovascular risk.

LDL
HDL
Triglycerides
TSH Thyroid function.

Urea Analysis of kidney function.

Creatinine

Often, the student may have altered markers such as cholesterol, fasting glucose and liver enzymes.
In these cases, it is necessary to seek to correct these conditions before forcing an increase in
caloric intake during bulking. Fasting blood glucose can be measured to check for possible insulin
resistance or diabetes. In cases where the lipid panel is altered, it will be necessary to reduce the
consumption of calories and saturated fats, and it is extremely important to combine regular
physical exercise to aid in treatment. Depending on the condition, pharmacological intervention
may be necessary in conjunction with adjustments to diet and training.

Regarding thyroid function, requesting a TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) test from the beginning
is more than enough to assess thyroid function. If TSH levels are altered (9mIU/L or below), T3 and
T4 levels will need to be requested to aid in the diagnosis. Training and improving body composition
can help to normalize the condition, sometimes requiring treatment with pharmacological
resources.

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Markers such as creatinine and urea may be requested to assess kidney function. Creatinine levels
above 1.8 mg/dL and urea levels above 60 mg/dL may indicate impaired kidney function, and
medical help should be sought to assess the condition in more detail. It is important to mention that
protein intake beyond requirements may increase urea levels due to increased protein metabolism.

The evaluation of liver markers such as TGO, TGP, gamma GT and bilirubin may be necessary if the
individual reports symptoms related to liver disorders or in cases where the student is using oral
steroids such as oxandrolone or hemogenin. It is important to mention that the use of steroids has a
direct influence on the worsening of markers such as cholesterol and fractions, blood count and
liver function. If the individual is experiencing many side effects and significant changes in
laboratory tests, the ideal would be to reduce the dosage of steroids or stop using the substances,
thus enabling the treatment of the problems developed.

7.1.5 Routine, preferences and experience with diets

The meals of the diet should be distributed throughout the day, respecting the individual's routine
and preferences. It is the professional's role to assess how many meals the student can eat during
the day, what times they have more time to eat, what foods are preferred, and whether there is any
aversion or food intolerance.

It is a good idea to distribute most of the protein in your diet across at least three meals throughout
the day, thus helping to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Meals can be eaten at times that the
student is already used to. Food choices should take into account the nutritional value of the foods,
and the individual's preferences and aversions. It is a good idea to leave some of the calories free to
be used according to the student's preference, thus making the plan easier to follow. The
professional should also find out whether the individual has previous experience with other diets,
and which strategies were the easiest and most difficult to follow. It is a good idea to use a strategy
that the individual is already familiar with to generate greater adherence to the plan.

7.1.6 Level of training and expenditure on daily activities

This variable is very important during the preliminary assessment to periodize the diet, since
individuals with a higher level of training have greater metabolic flexibility and can consume more
calories due to the high daily caloric expenditure. People who are more active throughout the day
tend to have a higher caloric expenditure, which also contributes to the flexibility of the diet.
Individuals who are less active throughout the day and beginners should have their daily caloric
intake increased more controlled during bulking because their energy expenditure is not as high.

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By knowing more about the daily activity routine, training frequency and training level, it is possible
to adjust the caloric intake of the initial diet more assertively.

7.1.7 Use of drugs, anabolic steroids and supplements

It is necessary to have knowledge about the drugs that the individual uses, whether for controlling
pathologies, improving performance or aesthetics. Many individuals use metformin during bulking
in order to improve insulin sensitivity and thus enhance results, however, this drug generates the
expected effect on the action of insulin in individuals resistant to the action of the hormone,
bringing no benefit to healthy people.

If the student is using anabolic steroids, it will be necessary to check for any side effects and treat
them appropriately. In most cases, it will be necessary to reduce the dosage of steroids or stop
using them, as it is better to reduce exposure to what is causing the problem than to take more
drugs to combat the side effects.

It is worth mentioning that individuals with a high body fat percentage may experience more side
effects than expected from the use of anabolic steroids, and it is more feasible to reduce the body
fat percentage before exposing oneself to these drugs. The use of dietary and compounded
supplements should be evaluated, since many of the products available in this segment provide
little or no benefit to the individual. Some supplements such as creatine, caffeine, protein powder
and beta-alanine can be used depending on the individual's needs and preferences.

Protein powders can be used if the individual has difficulty meeting their daily protein needs
through foods in their diet. Creatine supplementation is very useful, mainly because it helps to
increase strength and performance during training. Another supplement that can be useful during
bulking is caffeine, as it improves alertness and inhibits fatigue, enhancing performance during
training.

Supplements such as vitamins and minerals can be used in cases where there is a deficiency of the
micronutrient in question. The use of BCAA, glutamine, multivitamins, collagen and several other
supplements should be discouraged, preventing the student from spending money on inefficient
products.

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7.1.8 Financial condition

Last but not least, it is necessary to assess the individual's financial situation before starting to
prepare the plan. The foods included in the diet should be easily accessible and commonly used by
the individual, thus favoring adherence to the plan without harming the financial situation. It may
be interesting to prepare a list of substitutions with easily accessible foods and according to the
student's preferences, because this way the individual can alternate foods according to availability
and follow the plan more easily.

7.2 Diet periodization

After analyzing the entire context in which the individual is inserted, it is time to estimate the total
caloric expenditure and needs of the student to then prepare the initial diet plan. An equation such
as Harris and Benedict or FAO can be used to estimate the basal metabolic rate (BMR). It is worth
mentioning that the other equations and other related information can be found in chapter 3.

Age in years Men Women

10 to 18 (17.686 x weight) + 658.2 (13.384 x weight) + 692.6
18 to 30 (15.057 x weight) + 692.2 (14.818 x weight) + 486.6
30 to 60 (11.472 x weight) + 873.1 (8.126 x weight) + 845.6
>60 (11.711 x weight) + 587.7 (9.082 x weight) + 658.5

The value obtained in the BMR calculation must be multiplied by the activity factor corresponding
to the level of physical activity reported by the student, thus obtaining an estimate of the total
calories burned daily.

Physical activity factor – FAO/WHO (1985)

Activity level Men and women Average

Light 1.40 to 1.69 1.55

Moderate 1.70 to 1.99 1.85

Intense 2.0 to 2.4 2.2

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To facilitate understanding, data from a real student who, after finishing a cutting diet, went through
the transition phase to start the bulking period will be used. Student MD, male, 32 years old, height
1.73m, body weight at the end of the cutting diet 75.8kg. The individual spends most of the day
sitting due to the nature of the job.

At the current stage, MD trains weight training 5 times a week and does an average of 2 to 3 hours
of aerobics per week at moderate to high intensity, and can consider his activity factor as moderate
(FA 1.85).

Calculating the daily energy requirement of the MD student

Basal metabolic rate (11.472 x 75.8) + 873.1 = 1743kcal

Total calorie expenditure 1743 x 1.85 = 3224kcal

Weekly calorie expenditure 3224 x 7 = 22,568kcal

After calculating daily and weekly calorie expenditure, you will have a basis for creating your initial
diet, which will include considering the number of meals you will eat each day and the foods you
will eat according to your preferences. Most of the foods you eat should be of good nutritional
value and easy to buy.

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The order and number of meals will depend exclusively on the student's routine, availability and
preferences. It is worth mentioning that the most important thing is for the individual to eat all the
prescribed foods on the day, regardless of the order in which the meals are consumed. Since the
MD student came from a cutting diet, where the volume of food is normally reduced, it would not
be interesting to start with a diet with a caloric surplus due to the gastric discomfort that the larger
volume of food could cause at that time.

In this case, the initial diet was designed with 2,668 calories in order to generate a slight daily
calorie deficit. However, approximately 1,000 free calories were left per week so that the student
could consume foods outside the diet, recharge their energy reserves and relieve the psychological
state that is normally shaken at the end of more restrictive phases such as cutting. The diet was
planned using foods already present in the individual's routine, giving preference to foods with
higher nutritional value such as rice, beans, lean meats, vegetables, fruits, bread, oats, milk, eggs,
etc. As for the free meal, the student was advised to give preference to foods with a higher
carbohydrate content to favor energy recharge.

Regarding the supplementation protocol, we used only 5g of creatine daily, standardizing that the
intake was done at the first meal of the day to avoid forgetting, since the effect of creatine comes
from chronic use. Since protein intake was supplied entirely by the foods in the diet, there was no
need to use whey protein. Due to the high nutritional value of the foods present in the plan, it was
not necessary to supplement vitamins or minerals.

Aiming to improve recovery capacity, protein synthesis and muscle strength, 200mg of testosterone
enanthate were introduced, divided into two weekly applications according to the half-life of the
substance to keep the drug concentrations stable. This dosage was maintained from the beginning
to the end of the bulking.

It is important to mention that the student underwent a general check-up and did not present any
changes or problems that would prevent the student from having first contact with steroids.
Considering the weekly expenditure of 22,568 calories, the daily diet and free meals provided
19,676 calories at the end of the week, resulting in a weekly calorie deficit of 2,892kcal when
evaluating only by the equations. This number of calories would be enough to recover energy
reserves without leading to fat gain. In this phase of the diet, it is important that the macronutrients
are distributed in a way that guarantees the replenishment of energy reserves and good satiety, in
addition to providing enough protein to maintain protein synthesis at optimal levels.

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To distribute macronutrients in the diet, you can follow the percentage of calories that will be
allocated to each macronutrient. The choice of distribution depends on the dietary strategy to be
applied, and the individual's needs and preferences. Since the goal in this phase is to achieve
maximum muscle hypertrophy, it will be necessary to maximize training performance, so the diet
must contain large amounts of carbohydrates. As a consequence, the choice of dietary strategy
tends towards the High Carb diet.

Distribution of macronutrients in the high carb diet

Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet

Carbohydrates 50 to 70%

Proteins 15 to 25%

Fats 15 to 30%

More recommendations on the macronutrient division of the diet can be found in Chapter 3.

After determining which dietary strategy will be used, the professional can then easily distribute the
macronutrients of the diet, remembering that in this case the diet must have more than 50% of its
calories coming from carbohydrates, leaving 15 to 25% for proteins and 15 to 30% for fats,
classifying the diet as a High Carb strategy. It is important to mention that the distribution of
macronutrients can also be done using the values in g/kg. The value in g/kg can be multiplied by the
individual's body weight, thus arriving at the total in grams of each macronutrient.

Value in grams of each macronutrient

Macronutrient Total per gram
Carbohydrates Equation
g/kg x body weight

5 x 75.8kg = 379g
Proteins Equation
g/kg x body weight

2 x 75.8kg = 151.6g
Fats Equation
g/kg x body weight

0.8 x 75.8kg = 60.6g

To find out the total calories of each macronutrient in the diet, simply multiply the total in grams by
the caloric value of the nutrient in question.

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Caloric value of each macronutrient
Macronutrient Caloric value per gram
Carbohydrates 4kcal
Proteins 4kcal
Fats 9kcal

With the total caloric value of each macronutrient in the diet, it is possible to use the rule of three
to obtain the percentage of calories that each nutrient occupies in the diet.

Percentage of calories from each macronutrient in the diet

Macronutrient Calorie percentage
Carbohydrates Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of the diet
1516 x 100 / 2668 = 56.8%

Proteins Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of diet 606.4 x
100 / 2668 = 22.7%

Fats Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of diet 545, x
100 / 2668 = 20.5%

For the MD student, the initial diet will consist of 5g/kg of carbohydrates (56.8%), 2g/kg of proteins
(22.7%) and 0.8g/kg of fats (20.5%). It is worth mentioning that during periods of higher calorie and
carbohydrate intake, protein consumption may be lower, ranging from 1.6 to 2g/kg daily, since
carbohydrates and caloric surplus generate a protein-sparing effect.

Distribution of macronutrients in the initial diet – 75.8 kg

Macronutrient Amountin Amountin grams Calories per Quantity in
grams/kg macronutrient % of calories

Carbohydrates 5g/kg 379g 1,516kcal 56.8%

Proteins 2g/kg 151.6g 606.4kcal 22.7%
Fats 0.8g/kg 60.6g 545.8kcal 20.5%
Total calories 2668kcal

With the distribution of macronutrients ready, foods can be distributed in the diet according to the
individual's preference and availability.

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MEAL 1 - BREAKFAST
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Wheat bread 4 Slices 100g Tapioca (80g) or Sweet Potato (280g).
Whole chicken egg, fried 12 Units 90g Chicken (50g) or Lean Red Meat (50g)
Oatmeal flakes 4 Tablespoons 40g Granola (40g) or Chia (30g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (150g)
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200ml Yogurt (170g) or White Cheese (40g)
CREATINE 5G (2 SCOOPS) EVERY DAY, EVEN WHEN NOT TRAINING

MEAL 2 - LUNCH
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 12 Tablespoons 250g Pasta (200g) or Cassava (200g)
Cooked carioca beans 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g
100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

MEAL 3 - AFTERNOON SNACK

FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200g White cheese (40g) or yogurt (170g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (200g)
Oat flakes 4 Tablespoons 40g Granola (40g) or Chia (30g)
Wheat bread 2 Slices 150g Tapioca (40g) or Sweet potato (140g)
Whole chicken egg, cooked/10 minutes 1 Unit 45g Red meat (30g) or Chicken (30g)

MEAL 4 - DINNER
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 15 Tablespoons 300g Pasta (250g) or Cassava (300g)
Fried, carioca, cooked 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g 100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

For the MD student, the food was

distributed into four meals throughout the
day, and any meal could be used as a post-
workout meal. The order of meals can be
changed, but large meals should be
avoided very close to training time or
before bed to avoid discomfort. As can be
seen, the menu has a list of substitutions
to facilitate individual adherence, in
addition to favoring greater flexibility in
planning.

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The initial diet was maintained for five weeks. Body weight increased in the first few weeks due to
the replenishment of energy stores and increased water retention. However, the weight stagnated
in the last two weeks. The individual reported being able to increase the weights in the exercises,
and also felt a little hungry due to the increase in energy expenditure due to the progress in
training. In order to alleviate the increase in hunger and provide nutritional support so that the
student could continue to progress in training (in addition to adjusting the diet to the new body
weight), the calories in the daily diet were increased by 10%, reaching 2,883.7 kcal, while free
calories were maintained at 1,000 kcal per week. It is important to mention that calorie adjustments
can be made by adding foods to the diet or simply by increasing the quantities of foods already
present in the plan. With the adjustment in the calories in the diet, the division of macronutrients
also changes.

MEAL 1 - BREAKFAST
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Wheat bread 4 Slices 100g Tapioca (80g) or Sweet Potato (280g).
Whole chicken egg, fried 12 Units 90g Chicken (50g) or Lean Red Meat (50g)
Oatmeal flakes 4 Tablespoons 40g Granola (40g) or Chia (30g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (150g)
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200ml Yogurt (170g) or White Cheese (40g)
CREATINE 5G (2 SCOOPS) EVERY DAY, EVEN WHEN NOT TRAINING

MEAL 2 - LUNCH
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 12 Tablespoons 300g Pasta (200g) or Cassava (200g)
Cooked carioca beans 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g
100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

MEAL 3 - AFTERNOON SNACK

FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200g White cheese (40g) or yogurt (170g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (200g)
Oat flakes 5 Tablespoons 60g Granola (40g) or Chia (30g)
Wheat bread 2 Slices 50g Tapioca (40g) or Sweet potato (140g)
Whole chicken egg, cooked/10 minutes 1 Unit 45g Red meat (30g) or Chicken (30g)

MEAL 4 - DINNER
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 17 Tablespoons 350g Pasta (250g) or Cassava (300g)
Fried, carioca, cooked 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g 100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

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During bulking, it is important to prioritize increasing carbohydrate intake to promote improved
training performance through greater synthesis of muscle glycogen, thus generating more powerful
hypertrophic stimuli.

Distribution of macronutrients in the diet – first update – 80.1kg

Macronutrient Amount Amount Calories per Quantity in

in grams/kg in grams macronutrient % of calories
Carbohydrates 5.2g/kg 416.5g 1,666kcal 57.8%
Proteins 2g/kg 160.2g 640.8kcal 22.2%
Fats 0.8g/kg 64.1g 576.9kcal 20%
Total calories 2883.7kcal

The diet was followed for four weeks, resulting in a controlled increase in body weight, peripheral
and central measurements. The MD student reported being able to evolve well in the loads during
training, in addition to feeling a good level of satiety with the current diet.

In this case, the diet was maintained for another

four weeks until body weight stagnation was
achieved and hunger increased due to increased
caloric expenditure due to increased training
performance and body weight gain. It is
important to mention that body weight gain is
also related to daily caloric expenditure, as there
is more tissue for the body to support and more
mass to be displaced in daily movements.

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With body weight stagnant and body fat percentage controlled after three months of bulking, if the
individual is able to eat more, it would be interesting to increase the calories in the diet again so
that body weight increases again. In this case, calories were increased by approximately 13%,
always favoring greater consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods already present in the diet. Free
calories were maintained at 1,000 kcal per week.

MEAL 1 - BREAKFAST
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Wheat bread 4 Slices 100g Tapioca (80g) or Sweet Potato (280g).
Whole chicken egg, fried 12 Units 90g Chicken (50g) or Lean Red Meat (50g)
Oatmeal flakes 4 Tablespoons 40g Granola (40g) or Chia (30g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (150g)
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200ml Yogurt (170g) or White Cheese (40g)
CREATINE 5G (2 SCOOPS) EVERY DAY, EVEN WHEN NOT TRAINING

MEAL 2 - LUNCH
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 15 Tablespoons 300g Pasta (250g) or Cassava (200g)
Cooked carioca beans 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g
100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

MEAL 3 - AFTERNOON SNACK

FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200g White cheese (40g) or yogurt (170g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (200g)
Oat flakes 5 Tablespoons 60g Granola (60g) or Chia (30g)
Wheat bread 2 Slices 50g Tapioca (40g) or Sweet potato (140g)
Whole chicken egg, cooked/10 minutes 1 Unit 45g Red meat (30g) or Chicken (30g)

MEAL 4 - DINNER
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 4 Skimmer 450g Pasta (250g) or Cassava (300g)
Fried, carioca, cooked 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (80g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g 100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

The division of macronutrients was changed to 2g/kg of proteins, 6.2g/kg of carbohydrates and
0.8g/kg of fats, remembering to maintain at least half of the fat intake through foods that are
sources of unsaturated fats such as extra virgin olive oil, oilseeds, avocado, etc.

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Distribution of macronutrients in the diet – third update (81,8 kg)
Macronutrient Amountin Amountin grams Calories per Quantity in
grams/kg macronutrient % of calories
Carbohydrates 6.2g/kg 509,9g 2024kcal 62%
Proteins 2g/kg 163.2g 652,8kcal 20%
Fats 0.8g/kg 65,3g 587,7kcal 18%
Total calories 3264,5kcal

The diet was followed for another four weeks, resulting in increased body weight, central and
peripheral measurements, and increased skin fold thickness.

The student reported difficulty in consuming

all the food in the plan, in addition to some
dissatisfaction with the appearance of his
body due to the increase in body fat
percentage. To make it easier to follow the
diet, help reduce hunger and control body fat
percentage, it is a good idea to do a period of
reduced calories, like a “mini cut”. This way, it
is possible to improve adherence to the plan,
control the increase in body fat percentage
and thus prolong the bulking period. The
calories in the diet were reduced by
approximately 5%, consequently changing the
macronutrient division, to reduce the volume
of food and favor adherence to the diet.

Free calories were maintained at 1000kcal per week.

Distribution of macronutrients in the diet – third update (84.8 kg)

Macronutrient Amountin Amountin grams Calories per Quantity in
grams/kg macronutrient % of calories

Carbohydrates 5.5g/kg 466.4g 1865.6kcal 59.2%

Proteins 2g/kg 169.6g 678.4kcal 21.5%
Fats 0.8g/kg 67.8g 610.2kcal 19.3%
Total calories 3154kcal

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The calories in the diet were reduced by reducing carbohydrate-rich foods, as these are the foods
that are present in the highest quantity in the current diet. Protein intake did not need to be
changed because the high calorie and carbohydrate intake has a protein-sparing effect. It is worth
mentioning that during bulking, insulin sensitivity may be impaired by the increased consumption of
calories and carbohydrates; however, periods with reduced calories in the diet can improve insulin
sensitivity and prolong the bulking period.

MEAL 1 - BREAKFAST
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Wheat bread 4 Slices 100g Tapioca (80g) or Sweet Potato (280g).
Whole chicken egg, fried 2 Units 90g Chicken (50g) or Lean Red Meat (50g)
Oatmeal flakes 5 Tablespoons 60g Granola (60g) or Chia (40g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (150g)
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200ml Yogurt (170g) or White Cheese (40g)
CREATINE 5G (2 SCOOPS) EVERY DAY, EVEN WHEN NOT TRAINING

MEAL 2 - LUNCH
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 3 Skimmer 300g Pasta (240g) or Cassava (300g)
Cooked carioca beans 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (70g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g
100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

MEAL 3 - AFTERNOON SNACK

FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whole cow's milk 1 Cup 200g White cheese (40g) or yogurt (170g)
Cavendish Banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Papaya (200g)
Oat flakes 5 Tablespoons 60g Granola (60g) or Chia (40g)
Wheat bread 2 Slices 50g Tapioca (80g) or Sweet potato (280g)
Whole chicken egg, cooked/10 minutes 1 Unit 45g Red meat (30g) or Chicken (30g)

MEAL 4 - DINNER
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 4 Skimmer 400g Pasta (320g) or Cassava (400g)
Fried, carioca, cooked 1 Medium ladle 100g Peas (100g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, grilled 1 Medium fillet 100g Red meat (70g) or Fish (110g)
Kale salad 2 Medium leaves 50g 100g of vegetables of your choice
Cooked Italian zucchini 4 Tablespoons 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

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After this period of reduced calorie intake, the individual can be directed to a cutting diet or
increase calories again to return to bulking if the body fat percentage is already under control. As
can be seen, the diet should be designed considering the student's routine, preferences, needs and
financial situation, adjusting the plan according to the individual's response to the plan.

Periodic assessment of body weight, circumferences and skin folds is extremely important to help
understand what changes need to be made to the plan, so that the student can follow the diet
without difficulty and progress gradually.

7.3 Supplements used in bulking

The market is full of supplements promising better results in terms of muscle hypertrophy, fat loss
and improved performance, however, the vast majority of these products do not bring the expected
effects and end up causing frustration and unnecessary expense. Many of the supplements are
produced based on the function of a certain compound, however, just because compound x results
in a certain action does not mean that supplementing this substance will lead to the same effect. It
is worth mentioning that supplementation should be used as a complement to the diet, supplying
something that is lacking or helping with the consumption of a certain nutrient or calories.
Supplements that are useful for bulking include whey protein, caffeine, creatine, beta alanine and
hypercaloric supplements.

Supplements used in bulking

Useful Expendable/useless
Creatine BCAA
Hypercaloric Glutamine
Whey protein L-Carnitine
Caffeine Tribullus terrestrialus
Beta alanine Arginine

Creatine is a great supplement option for both bulking and cutting, as it improves performance by
keeping intramuscular creatine stores “charged” at all times, allowing the individual to train with
greater intensity. It is worth noting that creatine should be used every day, as its effects come from
chronic use.

During the bulking phase, the volume of food gradually increases as caloric intake increases, often
reaching a point where the individual no longer has enough appetite to consume everything
prescribed in the diet. In these cases, hypercaloric foods can be useful to add calories to the diet
without increasing the volume of the meal too much, so the student can stick to the plan and
continue bulking.

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Whey protein can be used to help with daily protein intake if the individual is unable to consume all
of their protein needs through the foods in their diet. It is worth mentioning that during bulking
periods, protein intake tends to be lower, as a result of which the protein requirement is easily met
through the foods in the diet, and there is no need to use whey protein.

Caffeine can be useful for maintaining alertness during training, in addition to having a certain effect
on inhibiting fatigue and increasing glucose uptake by muscles, thus favoring improved training
performance. Another supplement that can be useful during bulking periods is beta alanine. This
supplement acts by buffering the acidity caused by the accumulation of hydrogen ions during
muscle contraction for prolonged periods, in addition to improving muscle contractility, allowing for
improved performance.

Supplements such as BCAA, glutamine and arginine are of no use to people who eat reasonably
well, since the need for these amino acids is easily met through diet or by the body's natural
synthesis of the substance. Some supplements such as tribulus terrestris promise to increase
testosterone, but this effect is not seen in healthy individuals, and small increases within normal
testosterone levels do not result in aesthetic or strength effects.

As you can see, there are some supplements that can complement your diet or improve your
performance during training, while others are just a waste of money. It is the professional's role to
guide the student/athlete to avoid unnecessary expenses, especially with supplements that do not
work.

7.4 Drugs used in bulking

Many individuals use drugs such as metformin, thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and clenbuterol in the
hope of controlling the increase in body fat percentage during bulking, which is a big mistake. With
the increase in body fat percentage and weight during bulking, insulin sensitivity tends to be
impaired, which ends up favoring fat gain. Some individuals use metformin during bulking in an
attempt to improve insulin sensitivity and thus control fat gain.

Metformin is a drug developed to improve insulin sensitivity and increase glucose uptake by tissues,
thus controlling high blood glucose levels. Its effects occur by increasing the activity of the enzyme
AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), thus leading to increased translocation of glucose receptors
(GLUTs) to the muscle cell membrane.

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There is also inhibition of the breakdown (glycogenolysis) and synthesis of hepatic glycogen by
gluconeogenesis, in addition to a decrease in intestinal glucose absorption. All of these combined
effects culminate in the control of blood glucose in individuals resistant to the action of insulin, such
as pre-diabetics and type II diabetics. Some women use metformin in an attempt to control the
androgenic effects of anabolic steroid use, however, the anti-androgenic effect of metformin is not
very significant in these cases, making it more viable to reduce the dosage of steroids or discontinue
use.

The usual dosage of metformin is around 500 to 1200mg daily, however, metformin was created to
act on individuals with resistance to the action of insulin, having no effect on healthy individuals.
Metformin can cause side effects such as taste disturbances, nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite,
lactic acidosis, decreased absorption of vitamin B12, and other problems. The use of T3 and T4 is
very common in bulking, as these drugs act on energy metabolism and increase the basal metabolic
rate, which leads the individual to believe that they will avoid gaining fat by using T3 and T4
frequently, even during periods of caloric surplus.

T4 is a drug used to treat hypothyroidism, allowing the individual's metabolism to function

“normally”. The increase in basal metabolic rate through the use of T4 in healthy individuals does
not significantly influence the aesthetic results during bulking. It is worth mentioning that frequent
use of this drug can increase the density of beta-adrenergic receptors, enhancing energy
metabolism. However, it can cause side effects such as irritability, insomnia, tachycardia, anxiety and
other problems, impairing performance in training and daily activities.

Clenbuterol is a beta agonist drug, normally used during cutting to enhance fat burning in the weeks
leading up to a competition. During bulking, it makes no sense to use clenbuterol, ephedrine or
other stimulants, since the caloric surplus from the diet will replace all the fat burned during the
day. During most of the bulking, the caloric intake should be higher than the individual's daily
energy expenditure to stimulate maximum protein synthesis and provide energy for training and
daily activities. As can be seen in chapter 2, the energy burned throughout the day, whether from
carbohydrates, proteins or fats, will be replaced by the diet due to the caloric surplus. With the
reserves replenished, the caloric surplus can be stored as fat, thus increasing the body fat
percentage during bulking.

The most efficient way to control the increase in body fat percentage during bulking is to avoid
having a very high weekly caloric surplus and alternate between periods of high and low caloric
intake, which can even lead to a caloric deficit.

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This way, the body fat percentage does not increase uncontrollably, insulin sensitivity will not be
impaired and the individual can prolong the bulking period. Typically, drugs useful for the bulking
phase are intended to improve appetite and digestion, such as Cobavital, megestrol acetate,
buclizine and digestive enzymes. Serotonin and histamine can act on the hypothalamus, leading to a
decrease in hunger. Cobavital is a drug that acts as a histamine and serotonin blocker, which can
help food intake during periods when the volume of food is very high, such as at the end of bulking.
The drug most responsible for the effect of Cobavital on appetite is cyproheptadine hydrochloride.

The recommended dosage is 12 mg per day, and the dose can be divided into two or three times a
day. Megestrol acetate increases signaling for neuropeptide Y and decreases the release of
inflammatory cytokines that can impair appetite, such as IL-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α
(TNF-α). Neuropeptide Y acts by increasing hunger and can be used in the final stages of bulking
when it is very difficult to consume large amounts of food. The usual dosage of the drug is around
200 to 800 mg per day. It is important to mention that megestrol acetate is a potent drug and
should only be used under medical prescription, as it can lead to the formation of clots and cause
thromboembolic events.

Another drug with antihistamine action used to improve appetite is buclizine, however, this
medication can also cause hypoglycemia so it should be used with caution. The usual dosage is
between 50 and 200 mg per day. Buclizine can cause some side effects such as drowsiness,
sedation, nausea, headaches, vomiting and others. Digestive enzymes can facilitate the process of
digestion and absorption of food, reducing possible discomfort from the high volume of food
ingested during bulking, in addition to relieving some of the work of the gastrointestinal system.

It is worth mentioning that foods such as papaya and pineapple contain papain and bromelain in
their composition, making it an interesting option to add pineapple or papaya after large meals to
aid in the digestive process.

7.5 Most used steroids in bulking

All anabolic steroids are derived from testosterone, and therefore bind to the androgen receptor to
produce their effects. It is worth mentioning that some steroids can be converted into DHT or
estradiol and cause various side effects depending on the individual's response. The hormonal
protocol is usually done with only one base substance for most of the bulking, with testosterone
being the first choice substance for men. If the individual is responding well, without the presence
of many side effects and there is a need to enhance the anabolic stimulus, it may be interesting to
increase the dose of the base substance or add a second substance.

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Some steroids such as nandrolone or trenbolone can be combined with testosterone during the
bulking period due to their high anabolic power and strength gain. Other combination options for
this phase are hemogenin, dianabol and oxandrolone.

It is worth mentioning that Hemogenin and Dianabol can be used as pre-workout on the day of
working the priority muscles, since they are steroids with a certain hepatotoxicity. The dosage of
oxandrolone can be divided throughout the day. The substances and dosage to be used depend on
the need, objective, level of training, response capacity and tolerance of the individual. Men who
are sensitive to elevations of estradiol should avoid combining testosterone with Dianabol, since
both steroids are greatly affected by the aromatase enzyme and are converted to estradiol.

It is important to mention that the effects of steroids are dose-dependent, that is, the higher the
dosage, the greater the stimulus and side effects. It is worth noting that just because there is
anabolic stimulus with the increase in dosage or combination of other substances, it does not mean
that there will actually be an increase in muscle hypertrophy and fat burning. If the stimulus is
above the individual's response capacity, there will be more side effects than expected.

Dosage typically used by male bodybuilders

Substance Usual dosage
Testosterone >200mg/week
Nandrolone >200mg/week
Trenbolone >150mg/week
Hemogenin 20 to 40mg/day
Dianabol 5 to 20mg/day
Oxandrolone 40 to 100mg/day

For women, the first-choice substance is usually primobolan, normally used in doses of up to 90mg
divided into two or three weekly administrations to maintain the stability of the substance. Another
steroid that is well tolerated by women is oxandrolone, normally used in doses of 2.5 to 10mg/day
to avoid a high risk of virilization. A combination of primobolan and oxandrolone can be used as
long as the total dosage does not exceed 100mg/week.

Boldenone can be used by individuals who respond well and tolerate the drug, as it can lead to
changes in the functioning of the neurotransmitter GABA and monoamines such as serotonin and
dopamine, which can lead to problems with anxiety and depression. Some women do well with
nandrolone, which is generally used when the athlete needs to gain large muscle volume. The usual
dosage is between 20 and 50 mg per week.

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Another steroid option with great potential for strength gain that can be used by women is
Hemogenin. It is important to mention that Hemogenin generates less androgenic and hepatotoxic
effects than oxandrolone. The usual dosage is up to 10mg daily as a pre-workout. More experienced
athletes who compete in categories where virilizing effects are not so important can use
trenbolone, a steroid with great androgenic power. The most common androgenic side effects of
steroid use by women are hair loss, acne, oily skin, a more masculine facial appearance, clitoral
hypertrophy, increased hair growth, deepening of the voice, among others.

Steroids such as nandrolone, trenbolone and hemogenin have great virilizing potential in women.
Primobolan, oxandrolone and boldenone are less virilizing options, however, abusive doses and long
periods of exposure can also bring androgenic effects and virilization even when using less
androgenic drugs.

Dosage typically used by female bodybuilders

Substance Usual dosage
Primobolan Up to 90mg/week
Oxandrolone 2.5 to 10 mg/day
Boldenone <100mg/week
Nandrolone 20 to 50mg/day
Hemogenin 10mg/day
Trenbolone Depending on the response, need, tolerance and desired category

Men have good tolerance to the combination of up to 3 substances, as long as the dosage does not
exceed 1g per week. For women, up to two substances can be combined, as long as the weekly
dosage does not exceed 100mg. The dosages and combinations can remain constant throughout the
bulking, and it is interesting to increase the dose of the base substance or add another substance if
there is a need to enhance the anabolic stimulus and the individual is showing an excellent
response, without the presence of many side effects and changes in laboratory tests.

It is important to be very careful when choosing the substance and dosage to be used, and it is
extremely important to have specialized medical monitoring to avoid problems. Laboratory tests
should be performed with a certain frequency, at least once a year, to monitor the main markers.

Most common laboratory tests for anabolic steroid users

Marker Main function
Complete blood count Assessment of a possible case of anemia or increased hematocrit
values due to increased
blood cell synthesis.
Fasting blood glucose Assessment of a possible resistance framework to
insulin or diabetes.

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Total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides Analysis of lipid panel and cardiovascular risk.
Creatinine and urea Initial assessment of renal function, analysis of protein intake and
protein catabolism.

TGO, TGP and GT range Initial analysis of liver function and muscle damage.
TSH Initial assessment of thyroid function

7.6 Analysis to periodize training

Before starting to develop the training periodization, it will be necessary to carry out a complete
analysis of the individual's needs, objectives, preferences and current capabilities. Through the
results of this analysis, it will be possible to start periodizing the training in an individualized way,
allowing the professional to optimize the results of the work.

At the time of analysis/evaluation, the professional must consider variables such as physical
condition, body composition, level of training, objectives, needs, presence of injuries or any
limitations, availability of time to train, preferences, nutritional support, use of anabolic steroids,
among others. It is also necessary to consider the need to prioritize a specific muscle group or
whether the work will be focused on gaining strength and muscle mass in general.

Training planning should also consider the exercises/equipment available at the gym where the
individual will train. Obviously, the training may be similar to that of other students, since the
equipment to be used will be the same; it is not the professional's role to invent exercises for the
student.

7.6.1 Physical condition and body composition

The initial analysis requires an assessment of the individual's current physical condition in relation
to postural patterns, physical fitness and body composition. Posture assessment can be done
through specific tests and visual comparisons, either in person, through videos or photos.

Most postural deviations occur due to poor posture in everyday life, weakening of some muscles
and shortening of others. Postural deviations can cause imbalances in the muscular and joint
structure, which increases the risk of injury, in addition to impairing the proper activation of the
target muscle during exercise, harming long-term results.

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>>Recommended reading
Muscles: Tests and Functions with Posture and Pain

Body composition can be assessed using

information such as body weight, circumferences,
skin folds, as well as the visual assessment of the
physique, either in person, through photos or
videos. Normally, at the end of a cut, the body fat
percentage will be reduced, with men below 10%
and women below 15%. Visually, it is possible to
notice that the body fat percentage is low through
the appearance of the physique, because the less
body fat, the more apparent the muscle cuts will
be and the thinner the measured skin folds will
be. The folds mentioned above are from the
preparation for the first championship of the
Classic Physique athlete Rodrigo Ferreira in the
four weeks prior to the Montalvão Classic 2022
competition.

It is worth mentioning that the sum of the four folds on the day of the workout usually falls well
below 15 mm due to the release of water retention during the dehydration process. At the end of a
cut, the physique usually presents very clear muscle separation in the abdomen, back, arms, legs,
thin skin and with apparent vasodilation in several parts of the body. This is usually a visual
indication that the body fat percentage is below 15% in women and below 10% in men. It is
important that the body fat percentage is low to start bulking, because this way it is possible to
prolong the work in this phase and optimize muscle mass gain. It will also be necessary to evaluate
the individual's physical capabilities such as strength, endurance and cardiorespiratory capacity to
start the training periodization more assertively, avoiding prescribing a workout above the current
capabilities.

7.6.2 Current training level

An important point to evaluate before starting training periodization is the individual's current
training level, as this is a determining factor in the volume of work and intensity to be prescribed at
the beginning of the work.

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Advanced students usually have good muscle volume, strength, endurance and greater recovery
capacity, which usually allows them to work with greater volumes and intensity. A student who has
been training for more than 1 or 2 years, has reasonable muscle volume and strength, good control
of movements, real awareness of the perception of effort in exercises, knows how to control some
variables of their own training, etc. can be considered advanced. Beginners usually tolerate low
work volume and intensity, since their recovery capacity, strength, endurance and cardiorespiratory
capacity are usually lower.

In general, beginners are those who are just starting to train, have low muscle volume, strength and
general conditioning, and do not have good command of the movements or real perception of the
effort required in the exercises. It is worth mentioning that there are individuals who have been
training for several years and can still be classified as beginners.

7.6.3 Purpose and needs

The primary goal during bulking is to build muscle mass and gain strength, while avoiding excessive
fat gain. As previously stated, for the bulking period to be carried out for longer and more efficiently,
the body fat percentage at the beginning of this phase should be below 10% for men and below
15% for women.

If there is a muscle group that is visibly asymmetrical or outside the standard for the desired
category, it will be necessary to prioritize the work of this group or even detrain this muscle if it is
above the standard for the athlete's category. It is worth mentioning that correcting specific points
of the physique takes months or years; two or three months of bulking will not correct the problem.

Some people may have altered postural patterns due to muscle shortening, weakness in certain
groups or lack of joint mobility, which impairs the execution of movements and activation of the
muscle groups involved. These problems should be identified through specific tests and observation
of the execution of movements. Mobility work and specific stretching for each condition help to
improve the movement pattern and better activate the muscles involved, enhancing muscle
development in the long term. It is worth mentioning that the individual should not perform the
movements in a robotic manner; the exercises should be adapted to the student's structural
pattern, always maintaining an appropriate movement pattern to avoid injuries and generate
maximum activation of the exercised muscles.

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Common problems of lack of flexibility and mobility in gyms
Gender Common problems Correction
Masculine Hamstring shortening; Pectoral shortening; Hamstring stretch; Chest
Weakness of the middle bundles of the trapezius stretch;
and rhomboids; Low hip mobility; Work on scapula retraction exercises;
Shoulder anteriorization; Hip and ankle mobility exercises;
Use a supinated grip in some exercises,
work on shoulder mobility and stretch the
chest;

Feminine Shortening and lack of mobility of calves; Stretch and mobilize the calves;
Shortening of pectorals; Stretch the chest;
Weakness of the middle bundles of the trapezius Work on scapula retraction exercises;
and rhomboids; Weakness of the glutes; Work on isolated exercises for the glutes;
Shortening of adductors; Stretch adductors and mobilize hips;

Before setting up the initial periodization training for bulking, it is also necessary to assess whether
the individual has any injuries, limitations or difficulties in executing a certain movement.

This initial phase of bulking is the perfect time to work on correcting exercise techniques and
postural patterns due to the low volume of work. Some limitations are due to inadequate
techniques, muscle shortening, muscle weakness or lack of mobility (in some cases all of these
problems combined). These limitations must be worked on to avoid joint wear and tear and reduce
the risk of injury.

7.6.4 Routine, availability and preferences

Before preparing the initial training prescription, the individual's routine should be assessed,
including how many days per week they can train, how long they can spend at the gym, and
exercises that the student enjoys performing and has good movement control over. When the
student trains at times when the gym is full, the training schedule should be divided up to include
different muscle groups than most individuals train on each day of the week.

Most men train their chest on Mondays, so it would be a good idea to split the workout so that the
student works their back or legs on Monday, so that they can do the entire workout without wasting
too much time switching or looking for available equipment. Women usually start their weekly
workout with their quadriceps, so it might be a good idea to schedule a workout split so that they
start the week with their hamstrings or upper back.

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Another important point to consider is the amount of time the individual has available to spend in
the weight room. If the student only has an hour to train, it would not make sense to prescribe a
workout with more than 25~30 sets, which will certainly take more than an hour to complete.

When an individual has little time to train, it is interesting to work with low volume or use advanced
techniques that allow for increased training volume without prolonging the training session too
much, such as drop sets and rest pauses. It is worth mentioning that bulking begins with a low
volume of work, so that the individual can rest well between sets, build strength and enhance
hypertrophic stimulation by increasing the intensity of the training.

The individual's preferences should be taken into consideration when dividing up training sessions
and selecting exercises. It is important to choose exercises that the student enjoys performing and
has good movement control to improve adherence to the plan. It is important to note that if there is
an exercise that is necessary to correct a physical deficiency, this exercise should be worked on even
if the athlete does not like it, since in bodybuilding it is necessary for the physique to have harmony
and symmetry appropriate for each category.

7.6.5 Nutritional support and ergogenic aids

Another very important point to be evaluated before starting to plan your training is nutritional
support and the use of anabolic steroids. The diet should normally follow the training demands to
enable improved performance and provide nutrients for muscle hypertrophy to occur in the
medium and long term.

Often, the student hires different professionals to take care of the diet and training periodization. In
these cases, it is essential that both professionals have good communication, because if the trainer
needs to increase the work volume and the nutritionist reduces the calories in the diet,
performance would probably be impaired, reducing body weight and stimulating hypertrophy,
which is not the goal of bulking.

It may happen that the nutritionist increases the calories in the diet while the trainer reduces the
training volume for a deloading phase, for example. In this case, fat and body weight gain may occur
beyond what is expected, hindering the progress of the bulking. For these reasons, communication
between the two professionals is extremely important and makes all the difference in the use of
each phase of the planning.

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The use of ergogenic resources such as anabolic steroids should be considered, as such resources
improve strength and recovery capacity, resulting in a greater ability to train and recover. Therefore,
individuals who use steroids normally tolerate a greater volume of work.

Often, the athlete is using high doses of steroids or a combination of several substances, even if the
physique is not consistent with the entire hormonal load being administered. In these cases, the
professional must advise the athlete to reduce the doses and combination of steroids, perform a
general check-up to evaluate some markers such as blood count, lipid panel, liver enzymes, kidney
function and correct any abnormalities.

It is worth remembering that the expected and side effects of steroids are dose-dependent,
however, if the individual does not show a good response, he or she will have more side effects than
expected, and it will be necessary to reduce the dosage to be consistent with tolerance. More is not
always better.

7.7 Training periodization in bulking

After thoroughly evaluating all the variables related to the context in which the individual is inserted
and the training planning, it is necessary to determine and distribute the initial work volume,
choose the exercises, the division and frequency of training, intensity to be used in the exercises,
among other factors.

7.7.1 Work volume, frequency and training division

The workload can be considered as the entire workload performed during training, that is, the
volume load (sets x repetitions x weight lifted in each set) of each training session. The volume load
can be used to evaluate the progression in an exercise, specific training session or mesocycle, as
long as the exercises used are the same. Some exercises allow for more overload than others, so
using the 45º leg press results in greater tonnage or volume load than the leg extension, for
example.

A simple and efficient way to account for the volume of work would be by the number of sets
performed for each muscle group in the week. This way, the professional can monitor the
student/athlete's progress and adjust the volume of work according to the individual's response.

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In the example to the side, the MD student
started bulking right after finishing the
cutting process, where it was necessary to go
through a five-week deload period to favor
both physical and psychological recovery
from the stress generated by the end of the
cutting.

During the deload, the volume of weekly sets

per muscle group was reduced by
approximately 50% of what was being
performed at the end of the cutting phase.
Since the goal of the deload is to promote
recovery, we did not use advanced
techniques or sets to failure. During the
bulking period, it was decided to prioritize
the lower limbs, as this was necessary to give
more harmony to the student's physique.
After the five weeks of deload, the individual
was already fully recovered, so the training
moved to a base period that lasted four
weeks.

During the first base period, the same number of sets per muscle group as in the deload was used,
but we increased the intensity to improve hypertrophic stimulation, gain strength and increase
calorie expenditure. Since the individual had a significant gain in strength after the four weeks of the
first base period (base 1), the number of sets per muscle group was increased by approximately 10
to 20% to begin the second base period (base 2) in order to generate even more powerful
hypertrophic stimulation, especially for the lower limbs, dorsal muscles and shoulders.

The student continued to improve his training loads well during base period 2, so the weekly series
volume was increased again by 10 to 20% to start the third base period (base 3) to enhance the
hypertrophic stimulus, gain even more strength and increase caloric expenditure. This phase lasted
another four weeks. During the third base period, there was a slight improvement in training
performance, with no reports of pain or unusual fatigue. In this case, the series volume was
increased by up to 30% to start the fifth mesocycle, which would be a shock period, aiming to
extract maximum performance from the student. At the end of the shock period, the student had
already shown great progress in terms of both muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, and could
direct the work towards a deload phase or base training with reduced volume if the individual was
reporting pain or impaired recovery, and could even transition to cutting or prolong bulking.

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To increase the volume of weekly sets, sets can be added to the exercises already in the training
plan or different exercises can be added if there is a need to stimulate the muscles at different
angles, which favors greater recruitment of certain portions of the muscle group in question.
Recommended weekly volume per muscle group according to training level

Weekly volume recommendation per muscle group according to training level

Beginners Intermediaries Advanced

4 to 5 sets 10 to 15 sets 15 to 30 sets

The weekly volume of sets for each muscle group must respect the student's recovery capacity and
training level, allowing the individual to recover adequately and gradually evolve as they adapt and
improve their physical capabilities. Working beyond the recovery capacity results in delayed muscle
soreness, which can reduce training performance and increase the risk of injury.

The frequency of training is directly related to the individual's availability and weekly work volume.
Considering that the individual needs to perform 15 weekly sets for each muscle group and has
availability for five workouts per week, this volume of 15 sets can be performed in a single training
session or divided into two or three workouts throughout the week. If the individual is able to
maintain good performance from the beginning to the end of the workout, the volume of sets can
be performed in just one session. However, if performance begins to decline before the end of the
workout, it may be necessary to divide this volume of sets into more sessions throughout the week.

The training division is also related to the weekly frequency, as it determines the order in which the
muscle groups will be worked throughout the days. The most important point to be highlighted
about the training division is that the muscle group worked on one day should not harm the
performance of the muscles that will be trained the next day. An example of how the training
division can harm performance would be working the biceps on Monday and the back on Tuesday.
Since the biceps act as an aid in most back exercises, tiring the biceps the day before training the
back can make it difficult to perform the back exercises and thus reduce the performance and
stimulus of the training.

7.7.2 Training division

ABCDE training division, used for intermediate and advanced individuals

Day of the week Training Muscle group worked
Second THE Chest, triceps and biceps
Third B Quadriceps, glutes and calves
Fourth W Back, biceps

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Fifth D Shoulders and calves
Friday AND Hamstrings, glutes and calves
Saturday Rest
Sunday Rest

It is worth mentioning that the training division took into account what the athlete had already
been doing, respecting the individual's preferences and availability. The chosen division was an
ABCDE to achieve the weekly volume required for each muscle group. As you can see, the training
was divided in such a way that the muscle group worked on one day does not harm the muscles
that will be trained the next day.

7.7.3 Choosing exercises

Exercises should be chosen based on what is available at the gym where the athlete will train.
However, it is necessary to work with basic exercises such as bench presses, squats, rows, overhead
presses and deadlifts to build a strong base. Isolated exercises should be used to complement the
work of each muscle group, directing the stimulus in a more specific way.

Choosing exercises for MD student training – Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps
Exercise
Push-up
Incline dumbbell bench press
Incline Barbell Bench Press
Triceps pulley
French triceps
Dumbbell Hammer Curl

It was not necessary to work with a lot of volume on the chest, since it was one of the athlete's
strong points, so only three exercises were used to perform general work on the pectoral muscles.
The push-up was chosen to improve localized muscular resistance, in addition to serving as a warm-
up and pre-activation of the chest for bench presses.

Incline bench presses were chosen to place greater emphasis on the clavicular portion of the chest,
a point that generally requires greater attention in men. Since the arms needed more muscle
volume, two isolated triceps exercises were used, complementing the triceps work in the chest
exercises, in addition to an exercise for the biceps to increase the frequency and volume of sets for
this group. It is important to mention that exercises should not be changed frequently, as this
hinders adaptation to the workloads imposed by the exercise, limiting the evolution of the training
and the results in the medium and long term.

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7.7.4 Order of exercises

It is usually recommended that training begins with multi-joint exercises, as these exercises require
a lot of energy and can be better utilized at the beginning of the training, when the student's energy
reserves are not depleted. Isolated exercises are used to complement the work and direct the
stimulus to the target muscle. The athlete can start the training with the highest priority muscle
group, thus taking advantage of the higher energy and motivation levels at the beginning of the
training to generate excellent stimuli for the priority group.

The order of the exercises must be respected so that the individual can increase the loads in
training. Changing the order of the exercises frequently hinders the athlete's adaptation to the
overload and the volume of work used in the exercises, limiting the evolution of the training. If the
individual has difficulty activating a certain muscle, it is a good idea to start the training with an
isolated exercise for the target muscle, thus generating pre-activation that improves the perception
of work of this group in the other exercises.

As an example, we can mention an individual who has difficulty activating/developing the pectorals.
In this case, the student can start the training with an isolated exercise for the pectorals, such as the
crucifix, thus leaving the pectoral muscles pre-activated and then moving on to the bench press
exercises.

7.7.5 Choosing the intensity and interval between sets

The intensity of resistance training (weight training) can be prescribed by the percentage of 1
repetition maximum (1RM) used in the exercise, that is, by the sufficient overload to perform a
determined number of repetitions until fatigue or concentric failure. It is worth mentioning that
performing 1RM tests to determine the overload to use in each exercise may not be so interesting,
as it takes time and strength gains occur during training, thus changing the load to that same
percentage of 1 RM.
In this case, it ends up being more interesting to use repetition ranges or target repetition zones,
allowing fine adjustment of the overload to be applied in each exercise even if the individual gains
strength or is having a bad day.

Load percentage Maximum repetition range (RM) Intensity

100% 1 RM
90 to 95% 6 to 2 RM High

80 to 90% 10 to 6 RM

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70 to 80% 15 to 10 RM Moderate
60 to 70% 25 to 15 RM
50 to 60% 35 to 25 RM
40 to 50% 45 to 35 RM Low

30 to 40% 60 to 45 RM

Some factors such as interval time between sets, movement speed (cadence), range of motion,
number of sets and psychological state can influence the intensity of the training. Working with
loads that allow for 1 to 6 maximum repetitions with good technique and range of motion generates
greater stimulus for strength gain. Loads for the range of 8 to 12 maximum repetitions are more
indicated to promote muscle hypertrophy, while using loads for 15 to 25 maximum repetitions or
above is indicated for more accentuated gains in localized muscle resistance.

Strength Hypertrophy Resistance

1 to 6 RM 8 to 12 RM 15 to 25+ RM

It is worth mentioning that the less overload used in the exercise, the greater the number of
repetitions that can be performed, and the greater the overload, the fewer repetitions that can be
performed before reaching concentric failure/momentary fatigue. For bodybuilding training, the
primary objective in most cases will be to gain muscle mass and strength, referring to the choice of
intensities that allow for somewhere between 4 and 12 maximum repetitions in the chosen
exercises, thus stimulating greater hypertrophic stimuli and strength gains. It is important to
mention that using loads for more than 15 maximum repetitions also generates good hypertrophic
stimuli, however, it would be necessary to reach concentric failure in all sets to cause this stimulus
due to the low recruitment of muscle fibers in the initial repetitions. Loads that allow for 4 to 12
maximum repetitions generate maximum recruitment of muscle fibers and hypertrophic signaling
from the first repetitions, and it is not necessary to reach concentric failure for this.

By using loads for 8 to 12 maximum repetitions, it is possible to generate an excellent hypertrophic

stimulus and high caloric expenditure even leaving 1 to 3 repetitions in reserve, that is, a load that
allows the performance of 12 repetitions until concentric failure, however, the student can finish
the series with something between 9 and 11 repetitions. This way, the unnecessary accumulation of
fatigue and drop in performance during the training is avoided.

Choosing exercises for MD student training – Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes

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Incline dumbbell bench press 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

In the first exercise, a high number of repetitions were used to direct the stimulus towards
improving localized muscular resistance. This first exercise was used as a “preparation” for the rest
of the workout, warming up and pre-activating the muscles efficiently. The second exercise was
performed using a load for up to 12 maximum repetitions, however, the sets were finished with a
maximum of 11 repetitions. The same logic is repeated for all exercises.

The exercises performed with fewer repetitions were aimed at gaining strength without sacrificing a
good hypertrophic stimulus, as this was a necessity for the athlete. Since the student was in deload,
all sets of all exercises were performed leaving 1 to 5 repetitions in reserve to avoid the
accumulation of fatigue and excessive muscle damage. It is important to use intervals of 1 to 5
minutes to allow partial recovery of energy reserves (intracellular ATP and creatine phosphate), thus
favoring the maintenance/increase of intensity in the following sets. The more intense the set
performed, the longer the time needed for recovery. Aerobic exercise was performed with a volume
of 2 to 3 hours per week at moderate to high intensity throughout the bulking.

Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Training A was carried out on Mondays.

Workout B: Quadriceps, glutes and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Unilateral hip abduction (cable) 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Pelvic elevation 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Free squat with barbell 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Leg press 45º 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Rack squat 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

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Training B was held on Tuesdays.

Workout C: Back and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
High pull-up, front, supinated grip 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Low row, neutral grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pull Down 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread with w bar 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Training C was performed on Wednesdays.

Workout D: Shoulders and Calves
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Shoulder development 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Inverse crucifix 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Front Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Training D was carried out on Thursdays.

Workout E: Hamstrings, Glutes, and Calves
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Unilateral hip abduction 3 12 to 15 1 minute
Deadlift 3 6 to 8 2 to 3 minutes
Lying flexor 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 4 15 to 20 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Standing calf 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Training E was performed on Fridays.

Base 1
Below is the complete training of the MD student during the second mesocycle (Base 1) of bulking.

Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

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French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training A was maintained, however, the load intensity was increased to
enhance the hypertrophic stimulus and strength gain.

Workout B: Quadriceps, glutes and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Unilateral hip abduction (cable) 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pelvic elevation 3 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Free squat with barbell 3 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Leg press 45º 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Rack squat 3 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Workout C: Back and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
High pull-up, front, supinated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Low row, neutral grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Pull Down 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread with w bar 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training C was maintained, however, the load intensity was increased to
enhance the hypertrophic stimulus and strength gain.

Workout D: Shoulders and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval

Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute

Shoulder development 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Dumbbell Lateral Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Inverse crucifix 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Dumbbell Front Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Seated calf raise 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training D was maintained, however, the load intensity was increased to
enhance the hypertrophic stimulus and strength gain.

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Workout E: Hamstrings, Glutes, and Calves
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Unilateral hip abduction 3 12 to 15 1 minute
Deadlift 3 8/6/4 2 to 5 minutes
Lying flexor 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 4 15 to 20 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Standing calf 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training E was maintained, however, the load intensity was
increased to enhance the hypertrophic stimulus and strength gain. In the deadlift, it was
necessary to increase the interval time between sets, allowing for load progression.

Base 2
Below is the complete training of the MD student during the third mesocycle (Base 2) of
bulking.

Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval

Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes

Incline dumbbell bench press 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Incline Barbell Bench Press 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

Triceps pulley 6 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in workout A was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus
and strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used
to increase the number of sets in some exercises.

Workout B: Quadriceps, glutes and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Unilateral hip abduction (cable) 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pelvic elevation 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Free squat with barbell 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Leg press 45º 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Rack squat 5 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

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The number of sets in training B was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. The isometric technique was used at the peak contraction of the pelvic elevation
exercise to help improve gluteal activation. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set
technique was used to increase the number of sets in some exercises.

Workout C: Back and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
High pull-up, front, supinated grip 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Low row, neutral grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Pull Down 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread with w bar 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in workout C was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout D: Shoulders and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Shoulder development 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Inverse crucifix 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Front Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in workout D was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout E: Hamstrings, Glutes, and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Unilateral hip abduction 3 12 to 15 1 minute
Deadlift 4 8/6/4/2 2 to 5 minutes
Lying flexor 6 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 4 15 to 20 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Standing calf 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

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The number of sets in training E was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It was necessary to increase the rest interval between sets in the deadlift to favor the
progression of loads. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to
increase the number of sets in some exercises.

Base 3

Below is the complete training of the MD student during the fourth mesocycle (Base 3) of bulking.

Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in workout A was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gains. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase
the number of sets in some exercises, in addition to adding a triceps exercise

Workout B: Quadriceps, glutes and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Unilateral hip abduction (cable) 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pelvic elevation 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Free squat with barbell 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Leg press 45º 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Rack squat 5 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in training B was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. The isometric technique was used at the peak contraction of the pelvic elevation
exercise to help improve gluteal activation. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set
technique was used to increase the number of sets in some exercises.

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Workout C: Back and biceps
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
High pull-up, front, supinated grip 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Low row, neutral grip 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Pull Down 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread with w bar 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in workout C was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout D: Shoulders and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Shoulder development 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Inverse crucifix 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Front Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in workout D was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout E: Hamstrings, Glutes, and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Unilateral hip abduction 3 12 to 15 1 minute
Deadlift 5 8/6/4/4/2 2 to 5 minutes
Lying flexor 6 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 5 15 to 20 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Standing calf 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in training E was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It was necessary to increase the rest interval between sets in the deadlift to favor the
progression of loads. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to
increase the number of sets in some exercises.

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Shock

Below is the complete training of the MD student during the fifth mesocycle (Shock) of bulking.

Workout A: Chest, triceps and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Push-up 2 20 to 30 1 to 2 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
French triceps 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in workout A was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
number of sets in some exercises.

Workout B: Quadriceps, glutes and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Unilateral hip abduction (cable) 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pelvic elevation 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Free squat with barbell 5 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Leg press 45º 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Rack squat 6 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in training B was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. The isometric technique was used at the peak contraction of the pelvic elevation
exercise to help improve gluteal activation. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set
technique was used to increase the number of sets in some exercises.

Workout C: Back and biceps

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
High pull-up, front, supinated grip 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Low row, neutral grip 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Pull Down 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 6 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread with w bar 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

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The volume of sets in workout C was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout D: Shoulders and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Shoulder development 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 6 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Inverse crucifix 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Front Raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in workout D was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the
volume of sets in some exercises.

Workout E: Hamstrings, Glutes, and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Unilateral hip abduction 4 12 to 15 1 minute
Deadlift 6 8/6/4/4/2/1 2 to 5 minutes
Lying flexor 7 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 6 15 to 20 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 6 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training E was increased to generate greater hypertrophic stimulus and
strength gain. It was necessary to increase the rest interval between sets in the deadlift to favor the
progression of loads.

It is worth mentioning that the advanced drop set technique was used to increase the number of
sets in some exercises. The calf exercise was removed to allow for a greater number of sets in the
other exercises of the workout. From this point on, the student could be directed to a deload phase
if they were losing performance or experiencing recovery problems, or they could move on to a
base workout with reduced volume to relieve the stress caused by the shock phase, and could start
the transition to cutting or return to bulking.

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7.8 Transition from bulking to cutting

The main objective of the bulking phase is to help the athlete gain as much muscle mass with as
little fat gain as possible, while the goal of cutting is to reduce the percentage of body fat while
maintaining the muscle mass built during the bulking period. The transition phase is designed to
consolidate the gains and begin to shed the extra weight gained during the bulking phase, with
much of the weight lost during this phase being due to water retention and a decrease in the
volume of food in the gastrointestinal tract. This phase typically lasts between 4 and 8 weeks.

7.8.1 Dietary adjustments in the transition phase to cutting

Calorie intake should be reduced by approximately 20 to 40% of what was being ingested at the end
of the bulking period, and the diet may be normocaloric (intake equal to expenditure) or with a
slight caloric deficit depending on the individual's response, time available for cutting and how
much weight the individual needs to lose. Individuals with a higher body fat percentage may need a
more pronounced caloric deficit at the beginning to improve insulin sensitivity and remove residual
weight from water retention and fat gained at the end of the bulking period. When the athlete
finishes the bulking period with a more controlled body fat percentage (up to 15% for men and 18%
for women) the transition diet may be normocaloric or with a slight caloric deficit.

Typically, at the end of the bulking phase, the individual is consuming a large amount of calories
both in their daily diet and in their weekly free meals, mainly through the intake of high-calorie
foods. The caloric density of a food is directly related to the water content of the food in question.
To find the caloric density of a food, simply divide the total calories in a 100g portion by 100, thus
obtaining the value corresponding to the calorie density of the food.

Classification of caloric density of foods

Energy density Calories per gram
Very low 0 to 0.7 kcal/g
Low 0.7 to 1.5 kcal/g
Average 1.5 to 4 kcal/g
High 4 to 9 kcal/g

A simple way to adjust your diet to transition to cutting would be to replace some foods with higher
calorie density with foods with lower calorie density. When adjusting your diet, you should also
consider the macronutrient and micronutrient composition of the foods, not just the calorie
content. Typically, by the end of bulking, you are consuming a lot of hyperpalatable foods like pizza,
snacks, and sweets to help achieve a caloric surplus.

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One way to work on the transition to cutting would be to initially reduce the amount and frequency
of hyperpalatable food intake, since these foods typically have a high calorie density and low
nutritional value.

Caloric density of some foods

Food Calories in 100g Calories per gram of food
Carbohydrate sources
Cooked pasta 158kcal 158/100 = 1.58 kcal/g
Cooked rice 128kcal 128/100 = 1.28 kcal/g
cooked cassava 125kcal 125/100 = 1.25 kcal/g
Cooked sweet potato 77kcal 77/100 = 0.77 kcal/g
Boiled English Potato 52kcal 52/100 = 0.52 kcal/g
Cooked pumpkin 48kcal 48/100 = 0.48 kcal/g
Cooked Italian Zucchini 19kcal 19/100 = 0.19 kcal/g
Fruits
Cavendish banana 91kcal 91/100 = 0.91 kcal/g
Argentine apple 62kcal 62/100 = 0.62 kcal/g
Pineapple 48kcal 48/100 = 0.48 kcal/g
Strawberry 30kcal 30/100 = 0.30 kcal/g
Protein sources
Whey protein 373kcal 373/100 = 3.73 kcal/g
Cooked red meat (shoulder) 215kcal 215/100 = 2.15 kcal/g
Cooked chicken breast 163kcal 163/100 = 1.63 kcal/g
boiled egg 146kcal 146/100 = 1.46 kcal/g
Whole milk 58kcal 58/100 = 0.58 kcal/g
Hyperpalatable foods
Brigadier 315kcal 315/100 = 3.15 kcal/g
Pizza 266kcal 266/100 = 2.66 kcal/g
Ice cream 207kcal 207/100 = 2.07 kcal/g

It is important that the diet is composed mainly of foods with medium to very low caloric density,
thus maintaining the planning with a good nutritional value and volume of food per meal, which
allows for the adequate supply of vitamins, minerals, fibers, bioactive compounds, in addition to
maintaining satiety due to the greater volume of food in each meal. Considering that the athlete has
finished bulking with 85 kg, ingesting 3340.5 kcal per day plus 2000 free calories during the week
and the fat percentage remained controlled.

Example of diet at the end of bulking – 3340.5kcal total

Macronutrient Nutrients in grams Calories per nutrient Nutrients in g/kg Nutrients in percentage
Proteins 153g 612kcal 1.8g/kg 18.3%
Carbohydrates 510g 2040kcal 6g/kg 61.1%
Fats 76.5g 688.5kcal 0.9g/kg 20.6%
Total in calories 3340.5kcal

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The transition to cutting could be done by reducing calories by approximately 20%, mainly reducing
the amount of foods that are sources of carbohydrates and/or fats with a higher caloric density. In
this case, free calories can be maintained at 2000kcal per week to help maintain energy reserves
and maintain adherence to the diet.

Example of a diet in transition to cutting – 2652kcal total

Macronutrient Nutrients in grams Calories per nutrient Nutrients in g/kg Nutrients in percentage
Proteins 170g 680kcal 2g/kg 25.6%
Carbohydrates 340g 1360kcal 4g/kg 51.3%
Fats 68g 612kcal 0.8g/kg 23.1%
Total in calories 2652kcal

The transition phase usually lasts from 1 to 8 weeks, depending on the individual's response and
availability. In cases where there is little time to work on cutting, the transition is done more quickly,
starting cutting after 1 or 2 weeks of transition. During this period, protein intake can be between
1.8 and 2.5 g/kg daily to mitigate protein catabolism and maintain good satiety.

Fat consumption should be between 15 and 35% of total calories, always prioritizing the intake of
foods that are sources of unsaturated fat such as oilseeds, avocado, extra virgin olive oil, etc.
Carbohydrate intake can be maintained between 40 and 60% of total calories depending on the
individual's needs and the intake of other macronutrients.

Typically, calories in the diet are reduced by reducing the amount of carbohydrate-rich foods, as
carbohydrates are typically the most abundant macronutrient in the diet during bulking.
After this phase, calories can be gradually reduced according to the individual's response. It may be
interesting to reduce the calories in free meals to maintain a daily diet with a higher volume of food
and calories, favoring satiety and performance in training during the cutting process.

7.8.2 Training adjustments in the transition phase to cutting

Typically, training volume and intensity are extremely high at the end of bulking, often requiring a
deload period if the individual is weakened, experiencing joint pain or other signs of overtraining.
Training in this phase basically consists of reducing work volume and intensity to promote recovery,
in addition to reducing the physical and mental stress generated by the extremely high volume and
intensity used in the final phases of bulking.

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The number of sets per muscle group per week can be reduced by up to 50% of what was being
performed at the end of bulking, and advanced techniques and sets to failure can be stopped. The
intensity can vary for loads between 4 and 12 RM, but the student should work leaving between 1
and 5 repetitions in reserve to avoid stress accumulation, favoring recovery and improved
performance even with a low volume of work. Assuming that at the end of bulking the athlete was
performing 20 to 25 sets per muscle group per week, the number of sets can be reduced by up to
50% of what was being done. This makes it possible to work on improving movement technique,
increasing the intervals between sets and gaining more strength.

Example of training volume at the end of bulking

Muscle group worked Number of series per week Intensity used Repetitions in reserve
Chest and triceps 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Quadriceps and glutes 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Back and biceps 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Shoulders and trapezius 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Hamstrings and calves 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3

After reducing the number of sets per muscle group, training sessions become shorter, allowing the
individual to train with greater concentration, which favors better activation of the exercised
muscles and better results in the long term. Below is an example of a chest workout with 20 sets per
week in the final phase of bulking.

Example of chest workout at the end of bulking

Exercise Series Intensity Repetitions in reserve Break time
Push-up 3 15 to 20 RM 1 to 5 1 minute
Incline Barbell Bench Press 5 6 to 8 RM 0 to 3 2 to 3 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 4 10 to 12 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes
Barbell bench press 4 10 to 12 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes
Crucifix (machine) 4 12 to 15 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes

In the example above, the individual performed the entire chest volume in just one training session
per week. When transitioning to cutting, the individual was showing signs of fatigue beyond the
norm, loss of performance in training and frequent muscle/joint pain. The training volume was
reduced by 50% to promote recovery. In the transition phase, it is not advisable to work to failure,
and you can stop the sets, leaving 1 to 5 repetitions in reserve.

Example of chest workout in transition to cutting

Exercise Series Intensity Repetitions in reserve Break time

Push-up 2 15 to 20 RM 1 to 5 1 minute

Incline Barbell Bench Press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes

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Incline dumbbell bench press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes

Barbell bench press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes

Crucifix (machine) 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes

In the previous example, the individual performed the entire chest volume in a single training
session per week. During the transition phase, some exercises may be removed to reduce the
number of sets or simply reduce the number of sets for some exercises. After the student has
recovered from the physical and psychological stress generated by the bulking phase, the transition
can be completed and the cutting phase itself can begin. At this point, the work volume and
intensity increase again in order to increase caloric expenditure and hypertrophic stimulation, since
it will be necessary to reduce the percentage of body fat while maintaining the muscle mass built
during bulking. It is worth mentioning that the aerobic volume can also begin to increase after the
transition to cutting, since, in addition to increasing mitochondrial biogenesis, it improves the
recovery capacity between sets and favors the execution of workouts without as much fatigue.

7.8.3 Drugs and steroids

During the transition phase to cutting, you should avoid using stimulants or thermogenics such as
clenbuterol, ephedrine or salbutamol, as these drugs can lead to saturation of adrenergic receptors
and hinder fat loss at the beginning of cutting. It is worth mentioning that these drugs can also
cause side effects such as tachycardia, insomnia, headaches, dizziness, tremors, among others.

If the individual is using caffeine during bulking, it may be interesting to remove the substance for a
few weeks or reduce the dosages to sensitize the receptors and improve the effects of caffeine for
when it is necessary to increase the stimuli in training.

The steroid protocol should also be reviewed during the transition phase to cutting. In this case, the
athlete can maintain only the base substance in lower doses, since such a high hormonal load will
not be necessary to maintain what was built during bulking.

For women, it may even be interesting to maintain a period of “off steroids” to reduce the
androgenic load and control the side effects resulting from prolonged steroid use. It is important to
mention that doing this “deload” in the hormonal protocol also reduces the physical and
psychological overload, in addition to being necessary to help control possible side effects.

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8. PRE-CONTEST - CUTTING

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The main objective in this phase of planning is to reduce the percentage of body fat as much as
possible while maintaining the muscle mass built during bulking. During cutting, the daily caloric
intake should be lower than the individual's daily energy expenditure, thus creating a caloric deficit
to enhance fat burning. It is worth mentioning that maintaining muscle mass is mainly done by
stimulating high-intensity resistance training (weight training), adequate protein consumption,
balancing periods of lower and higher caloric intake, getting a good night's sleep, and using anabolic
steroids.

During this phase of the plan, calorie intake is gradually reduced to promote a calorie deficit and
thus optimize fat breakdown and burning. Most of the calories in the diet usually come from
carbohydrates (depending on the diet strategy used), and calorie reduction is achieved by reducing
the macronutrient that is present in the greatest quantity in the diet. As calorie and carbohydrate
intake decreases, during the cutting process it may be necessary to increase protein consumption to
mitigate protein catabolism. It is important to mention that carbohydrates have a protein-sparing
effect, so when you reduce the intake of this macronutrient in your diet during the cutting process,
protein catabolism increases so that amino acids can contribute to energy production. One way to
mitigate protein catabolism during the cutting process would be to increase protein intake.

At certain times, it will be necessary to replenish carbohydrates to help maintain/improve training

performance. It is important that 80% of the calories in your daily diet come from foods with high
nutritional value, leaving 20% for “off-diet” foods such as pizza, ice cream, sweets, snacks, etc.

Examples of foods for the cutting diet

Carbohydrate sources Protein sources Fat sources Fruits Vegetables Fibers
Rice Chicken Avocado Strawberry Carrot Oat
Noodle Fish Extra virgin olive oil Watermelo Beet Granola
n
Cassava Red meat Oilseeds Melon Chayote Psyllium
Couscous Pork Vegetable oils Pineapple Zucchini Chia
Tapioca Eggs Acerola English potato Cocoa powder
Breads Whey protein Grape Broccoli
cabotian pumpkin Skimmed milk Kiwi Lettuce
Sweet potato Soy Banana Cabbage
Honey Orange Cabbage
Milk cream Litter Chicory

During the cutting process, performance and strength may decrease, so it is important to replenish
energy with foods that are mainly composed of carbohydrates, such as bread, rice, cassava, honey,
dulce de leche, fruits, etc. With energy replenishment, muscle glycogen stores are partially
recovered, which allows performance to be maintained/improved even during the most restricted
periods of the cutting process.

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Cutting can be started when the individual already has a higher body fat percentage, normally
above 10% for men and above 15% for women. Bodybuilding athletes aim to achieve extremely low
body fat percentages, generally reaching something between 4 and 6% for men and something
between 8 and 12% for women.

The cutting phase can last from 4 to 20 weeks or more, depending on the current physical condition,
how much weight the individual needs to lose, the time available to achieve the goal (competition,
travel, photo shoot, etc.), among other factors. It is worth mentioning that the higher the body fat
percentage is at the beginning of the cutting phase, the more weight the student will have to lose.
During the cutting phase, it will often be necessary to have periods of higher calorie intake to help
replenish energy stores, which makes it possible to extend the cutting phase if necessary. In the final
phases of the cutting phase, it may be necessary to use drugs such as clenbuterol, salbutamol or
ephedrine to help reduce the body fat percentage, since, as the cutting phase progresses, fat loss
becomes increasingly difficult, mainly due to increased hunger and decreased satiety, which makes
it difficult to follow the diet.

It is worth mentioning that total energy expenditure may decrease in the final stages of cutting due
to reduced energy levels for daily activities and loss of performance during training, reducing the
calorie deficit. It is important to schedule energy supplements to prevent performance during
training and daily activities from decreasing. Weight loss can be assessed weekly, with a good
average weight loss being between 100g and 1kg every 7 to 10 days. If the weight does not
decrease during this period, it is a sign that the individual has not reached the necessary calorie
deficit, and it is important to assess whether there were gaps in the diet, whether the student
completed all the training and aerobic exercises, whether there was a drop in performance during
training and daily activities, or whether the professional overestimated the individual's energy
needs when planning the diet.

If your weight is dropping by more than 1 kg per week, it is a sign that your calorie deficit is too
high, which can hinder your adherence to the diet and increase protein catabolism. In situations
where your body weight has been stagnant for more than 10 days, it may be necessary to adjust
your plan, either by recharging your energy, reducing your calorie intake from your diet or
increasing your energy expenditure during training.

For most of the cutting process, it will be more interesting to increase calorie expenditure than to
decrease intake, which allows the individual to have greater flexibility in planning and continue
reducing weight and body fat percentage. If the individual is unable to follow the diet and/or
training plan due to external problems or an impaired emotional state, it may be necessary to
increase caloric intake and reduce the workload to give the student more flexibility until the
problems are resolved and they can return to the plan.

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8.1 What should I analyze to periodize my cutting diet?

Before starting the dietary planning for the cutting phase, it is necessary to consider some
important factors that directly influence adherence to the plan. This prior analysis will help the
professional to put together the initial diet more assertively.

8.1.1 Objective

In the case of cutting, the main objective is to reduce the percentage of body fat while maintaining
the muscle mass built during bulking. As previously mentioned, cutting should be started when the
individual has a higher percentage of body fat, around 15% for men and 20% for women.

If the student has a low body fat percentage at the beginning of the cutting process, the reduction
in calories should be done more cautiously, since a calorie deficit increases catabolism and can
make it difficult to maintain muscle mass in these cases, after all, the individual does not have much
fat to lose. Individuals with a higher body fat percentage can withstand a higher calorie deficit
initially and greater weight loss, since they have a lot of fat to lose. After analyzing these factors, the
professional can align the objective with the student's real needs.

8.1.2 Current needs

Here, calorie and nutrient needs are assessed using predictive equations for calorie expenditure,
and a food record can also be used to estimate the individual's current intake. The food record is a
very useful tool for understanding the student's eating pattern, routine and preferences, which
makes it easier to set up the initial plan. The diet should consist mainly of foods with higher
nutritional value such as rice, pasta, potatoes, bread, lean cuts of red meat, chicken, fish, eggs,
fruits, vegetables, cereals, etc. 20% of the calories in the diet can be set aside for foods with higher
caloric density such as sweets, pizza, snacks, ice cream, snacks and soft drinks, even if the
nutritional value of these foods is not as good.

To achieve the proposed goal, the diet will need to generate a calorie deficit, that is, the calorie
intake must be lower than the daily calorie expenditure. This way, not all the fat burned during the
day will be replaced by the diet, leading to gradual weight loss and a reduction in the percentage of
body fat. It is worth mentioning that during the cutting process, muscle glycogen stores will also not
be fully replenished, which can impair performance in training and daily activities, making it
extremely important to schedule energy recharges to maintain performance.

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It is important to mention that there are large variations in actual caloric expenditure between
individuals, because even if body composition, height and age are similar, caloric expenditure with
daily activities and training will be different, this being the factor with the greatest influence on
caloric expenditure in physically active individuals.

8.1.3 Body composition

Some anthropometric measurements such as circumferences, skin folds, body weight and height
can be used for this assessment. With this data, it is possible to assess body composition in general
and in isolated areas, without the need to use specific equations. All these parameters will be used
as comparisons and as a guide for subsequent adjustments in diet and training planning according
to the student's response, needs and goals.

Example of body composition assessment during cutting

Parameters evaluated June/2022 July/2022 August/2022
Body weight 48kg 46.3 kg 45.7 kg
Waist circumference 63 cm 62 cm 59 cm
Abdominal circumference 65 cm 63.5 cm 62 cm
Arm circumference 25.2 cm 24.9 cm 24.5 cm
Skin folds
Suprailiac fold 4 mm 4 mm 3 mm
Bicep curl 3 mm 2 mm 2 mm
Subscapular fold 7 mm 6 mm 6 mm
Triceps fold 8 mm 7 mm 5 mm
Sum of folds 22 mm 19 mm 16 mm

The data used as an example is from an athlete who began a 12-week cutting process one month
after her first bodybuilding competition. The athlete in question wanted to participate in another
championship in the near future, so instead of transitioning to bulking, we simply did a cooling
period and then returned to cutting. As can be seen, body weight, circumferences and skinfold
thickness gradually reduced with each evaluation due to the reduction in fat percentage and
decreased water retention.

This way, it is possible to monitor the student's progress and make the necessary adjustments to the
diet and training so that the individual continues to progress in cutting, reducing the risk of losing
muscle mass in the process.

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8.1.4 Health status and clinical history

The professional must assess the student's current health status and clinical history to better
understand the general situation. Some pathologies such as high blood pressure, diabetes,
dyslipidemia, chronic renal failure, anemia and hypothyroidism may require specific approaches in
managing the diet, and it is extremely important to investigate the general situation before starting
the planning. If necessary, it may be interesting to request some tests to assess the initial situation
and monitor the evolution of the condition.

Laboratory tests that may be requested

Marker Function
Complete blood count Checking for possible anemia, changes in hematocrit and immune system.

Fasting blood glucose Glucose tolerance.

Total cholesterol Assessment of lipid panel and cardiovascular risk.

LDL
HDL
Triglycerides
TSH Thyroid function.

Urea Analysis of kidney function.

Creatinine

Often, the student may have some altered markers such as cholesterol, fasting glucose and liver
enzymes. In these cases, it is necessary to seek to correct this condition before forcing a stressful
environment such as cutting.

Fasting blood glucose levels can be measured to check for possible insulin resistance or diabetes. In
cases where the lipid panel is altered, it will be necessary to reduce the consumption of calories and
saturated fats, and it is extremely important to combine regular physical exercise to aid in
treatment. Pharmacological intervention may be necessary in conjunction with adjustments to diet
and training. As for thyroid function, requesting a TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) test at the
beginning is more than enough to assess thyroid function. If TSH levels are altered (9mIU/L or
below), T3 and T4 levels will need to be requested to aid in diagnosis. Training and improving body
composition can help to normalize the condition, sometimes requiring treatment with
pharmacological resources. Markers such as creatinine and urea may be requested to assess kidney
function.

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Creatinine levels above 1.8 mg/dL and urea levels above 60 mg/dL may indicate impaired kidney
function, and medical help should be sought to assess the condition in more detail. It is important
to mention that protein intake beyond requirements may increase urea levels due to increased
protein metabolism. Assessment of liver markers such as TGO, TGP, gamma GT and bilirubin may be
necessary if the individual reports symptoms related to liver disorders or in cases where the student
is using oral steroids such as oxandrolone or hemogenin. It is important to mention that the use of
steroids has a direct influence on the worsening of markers such as cholesterol and fractions, blood
count and liver function. If the individual is experiencing many side effects and significant changes in
laboratory tests, the ideal would be to reduce the dosage of steroids or stop using the substances,
thus enabling treatment of the problems developed.

8.1.5 Routine, preferences and experience with diets

The meals in the diet should be distributed throughout the day, respecting the individual's routine
and preferences. It is the professional's role to assess how many meals the student can eat during
the day, what times they have more time to eat, what times they feel hungrier, what foods they
prefer, and whether there is any aversion or food intolerance. It is a good idea to distribute most of
the proteins in the diet over at least three meals throughout the day, thus helping to maintain a
positive nitrogen balance. Meals can be eaten at the times that the student is already used to.

The choice of foods should take into account the nutritional value of the foods, preferences and
aversions of the individual, and it is interesting to leave some of the calories free to be used
according to the student's preference, thus making the plan easier to follow. The professional
should also find out if the individual has previous experience with other diets, which were the
easiest and most difficult strategies to follow, and it is interesting to use a strategy with which the
individual is already familiar to generate greater adherence to the plan.

8.1.6 Level of training and expenditure on daily activities

This variable is very important during the preliminary assessment to plan the diet, since individuals
with a higher level of training have greater metabolic flexibility and can consume more calories due
to their high daily caloric expenditure. People who are more active throughout the day tend to have
a higher caloric expenditure, which also contributes to the flexibility of the diet, even during cutting.
Individuals who are less active throughout the day and beginners should have their daily caloric
intake more controlled because their energy expenditure is not as high. By knowing more about the
daily activity routine, training frequency and training level, it is possible to adjust the caloric intake
of the initial diet more assertively.

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8.1.7 Use of drugs, anabolic steroids and supplements

It is necessary to have knowledge about the drugs that the individual uses, whether to control
pathologies, improve performance or aesthetics. Many individuals use metformin during cutting in
order to improve insulin sensitivity and thus enhance results, however, this drug generates the
expected effect on the action of insulin in individuals resistant to the action of the hormone,
bringing no benefit to healthy people. The caloric deficit itself and increased work volume in
training already improve insulin sensitivity, with no benefit from the use of metformin. The use of
stimulants and thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) is common during cutting, however, these resources
can be included in the planning at the appropriate time, that is, in the final weeks of cutting, when
the fat percentage is already low and it is difficult to continue losing fat.

When an individual starts taking thermogenics and stimulants too early in the cutting process,
adrenergic receptors may become saturated, which hinders the action of adrenaline and
noradrenaline in breaking down fat (lipolysis). Drugs such as clenbuterol, salbutamol or ephedrine
should only be taken in the last 4 weeks of the cutting process. It is worth mentioning that it will
often be necessary to gradually wean off stimulants at the end of the cutting process to avoid
rebound and aggressive weight regain. Caffeine can be used throughout the cutting process,
however, if the individual is adapted to the current dosage, it may be necessary to increase the
dosage or go one or two weeks without using the supplement to sensitize the receptors again. At
the end of the cutting process, caffeine can be combined with yohimbine if the individual has good
tolerance to the substance, thus enhancing the effect of caffeine on lipolysis.

If the student is using anabolic steroids, it will be necessary to check for any side effects and treat
them appropriately. In most cases, it will be necessary to reduce the dosage of steroids or stop
using them, since it is better to reduce exposure to what is causing the problem than to take more
drugs to combat the side effects. It is worth mentioning that individuals with a high body fat
percentage may have more side effects than expected from the use of anabolic steroids, and it is
more viable to reduce the body fat percentage before exposing themselves to these drugs. The use
of dietary supplements and compounded products should be evaluated, since many of the products
available in this segment bring little or no benefit to the individual.

Some supplements such as creatine, caffeine, protein powder and beta-alanine can be used
depending on the individual's needs and preferences. Protein powders can be used if the individual
has difficulty meeting their daily protein needs through foods in their diet. Creatine
supplementation is very useful, mainly because it helps to increase strength and performance
during training. Supplements such as vitamins and minerals can be used in cases where there is a
deficiency of the micronutrient in question.

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The use of BCAA, glutamine, multivitamins, collagen and various other supplements should be
discouraged, preventing the student from spending money on inefficient products.

8.1.8 Financial condition

Last but not least, it is necessary to assess the individual's financial situation before starting to
prepare the plan. The foods included in the diet should be easily accessible and commonly used by
the individual, thus favoring adherence to the plan without harming the financial situation. It may
be interesting to prepare a list of substitutions with easily accessible foods and according to the
student's preferences, because this way the individual can alternate foods according to availability
and follow the plan more easily.

8.2 Diet periodization

After analyzing the individual's entire context, it is time to estimate the student's total caloric
expenditure and needs in order to then prepare the initial diet plan. An equation such as Harris and
Benedict or FAO can be used to estimate the basal metabolic rate (BMR). It is worth mentioning that
the other equations and other related information can be found in chapter 3.

FAO/WHO (1985) equation for estimating basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Age in years Men Women
10 to 18 (17.686 x weight) + 658.2 (13.384 x weight) + 692.6
18 to 30 (15.057 x weight) + 692.2 (14.818 x weight) + 486.6
30 to 60 (11.472 x weight) + 873.1 (8.126 x weight) + 845.6
>60 (11.711 x weight) + 587.7 (9.082 x weight) + 658.5

The value obtained in the BMR calculation must be multiplied by the activity factor corresponding
to the level of physical activity reported by the student, thus obtaining an estimate of the total
calories burned daily.

Physical activity factor – FAO/WHO (1985)

Activity level Men and women Average
Light 1.40 to 1.69 1.55
Moderate 1.70 to 1.99 1.85
Intense 2.0 to 2.4 2.2

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To facilitate understanding, we will use data from a real student who decided to start a cutting diet
in order to participate in his first bodybuilding competition. The athlete Rodrigo Dias was already
training and had “cleaned up” his diet a few months before starting the work. The cutting phase
began in June 2022, with a 12-week deadline for the competition. To begin putting together the
plan, an anthropometric assessment was made, as well as other variables related to the routine of
activities and physical exercises to determine the individual's total caloric expenditure. Athlete
Rodrigo Dias, 1.70m tall, 25 years old, body weight at the beginning of the cutting 80.5kg.

The student works as an instructor/personal trainer during the morning and evening, does weight
training and aerobics 5 to 6 times a week, and can consider his activity factor as moderate (FA 1.85).

Calculating the daily energy requirement of athlete Rodrigo Dias

Basal metabolic rate (15.057 x 80.5) + 692.2 = 1904.3kcal

Total calorie expenditure 1904.3 x 1.85 = 3522.9kcal

Weekly calorie expenditure 3522.9 x 7 = 24,660.3kcal

After calculating daily and weekly calorie expenditure, you will have a basis for setting up your initial
diet, where you will need to consider the number of meals you will eat during the day and the foods
you will choose according to your preferences.

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Food should be mostly of good nutritional value and easy to obtain. The order and number of meals
will depend exclusively on the student's routine, availability and preferences. It is worth mentioning
that the most important thing is for the individual to eat all the foods prescribed for the day,
regardless of the order in which the meals are consumed.

Considering that the athlete was already on a “cleaner” diet, adjustments were only made to the
quantities of food that was being consumed to generate a greater initial caloric deficit, since the fat
percentage was high and there was little time left before the competition. In this case, the initial
diet was designed with approximately 2,143 calories per day, in order to generate a more
pronounced deficit, however, approximately 800 free calories were left per week so that the
student could consume foods outside the diet, recharge his energy reserves and relieve his
psychological state, which is normally shaken in more restrictive phases such as cutting.

The diet was planned using foods already present in the individual's routine, giving preference to
foods with higher nutritional value such as rice, beans, lean meats, vegetables, fruits, bread, oats,
milk, eggs, etc. As for the free meal, the student was instructed to give preference to foods with a
higher carbohydrate content to promote energy recharge. Regarding the supplementation protocol,
we used only 200 mg of caffeine daily, to maintain alertness and improve training performance.
Since the athlete was already using whey protein, the supplementation was maintained to facilitate
adherence since this was the individual's preference. Due to the high nutritional value of the foods
present in the plan, it was not necessary to supplement vitamins or minerals.

In order to improve recovery capacity, protein synthesis and muscle strength, 200mg of
testosterone enanthate were introduced, divided into two weekly applications according to the half-
life of the substance to maintain stable drug concentrations. It is important to mention that the
student underwent a general check-up and did not present any changes or problems that would
prevent the first contact with steroids. Considering the weekly expenditure of 24,660.3 calories, the
daily diet and free meals provided 16,014.5 calories at the end of the week, resulting in a weekly
caloric deficit of 8,645.8kcal when evaluating only by the equations.

This amount of calories would be enough to significantly reduce weight and body fat percentage
weekly without significantly affecting performance in daily activities and training. In this phase of
the diet, it is important that macronutrients are distributed in a way that ensures the replenishment
of energy stores and good satiety, in addition to providing enough protein to maintain protein
synthesis and satiety at optimal levels. To distribute macronutrients in the diet, it is possible to
follow the basis of the percentage of calories that will be allocated to each macronutrient. The
choice of distribution depends on the dietary strategy to be applied, the needs and preferences of
the individual.

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Since the goal in this phase is to reduce the percentage of body fat as much as possible, it will be
necessary to maintain training performance even with reduced calorie intake. Therefore, the diet
must contain adequate amounts of carbohydrates or well-planned energy supplements. As a result,
the choice of dietary strategy tends towards a low-carb diet or even a high-carb diet initially.

Distribution of macronutrients in the low carb diet

Macronutrient Percentage of calories in the diet
Carbohydrates 20 to 40%
Proteins 20 to 50%
Fats 15 to 35%

More recommendations on the division of macronutrients in the diet can be found in Chapter 3.
After determining which dietary strategy will be used, the professional can then distribute the
macronutrients in the diet easily, remembering that in this case the diet must have up to 40% of its
calories coming from carbohydrates, leaving 20 to 50% for proteins and 15 to 35% for fats,
classifying the diet as a low-carb strategy. It is important to mention that the distribution of
macronutrients can also be done using values in g/kg. The value in g/kg can be multiplied by the
individual's body weight, thus arriving at the total in grams of each macronutrient.

Value in grams of each macronutrient

Macronutrient Total per gram
Carbohydrates Equation
g/kg x body weight

3.4 x 80.5kg = 273.7g

Proteins Equation
g/kg x body weight

2 x 80.5kg = 161g
Fats Equation
g/kg x body weight

0.6 x 80.5kg = 48.3g

To find out the total calories of each macronutrient in the diet, simply multiply the total in grams by
the caloric value of the nutrient in question.

Caloric value of each macronutrient

Macronutrient Caloric value per gram
Carbohydrates 4kcal
Proteins 4kcal
Fats 9kcal

With the total caloric value of each macronutrient in the diet, it is possible to use the rule of three
to obtain the percentage of calories that each nutrient occupies in the diet.

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Percentage of calories from each macronutrient in the diet

Macronutrient Calorie percentage
Carbohydrates Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of the diet
1094.8 x 100 / 2173.5 = 50.4%

Proteins Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of the
diet 644 x 100 / 2173.5 = 29.6%

Fats Equation
Total calories from each macronutrient x 100 (total percentage) / Total Kcal of the diet
434.7 x 100 / 2173.5 = 20%

For athlete Rodrigo Dias, the initial diet will consist of 3.4g/kg of carbohydrates (50.4%), 2g/kg of
proteins (29.6%) and 0.6g/kg of fats (20%). It is worth mentioning that during periods of higher
calorie and carbohydrate intake, protein consumption may be lower, ranging from 1.6 to 2g/kg daily,
since carbohydrates have a protein-sparing effect. As calories and carbohydrates are reduced during
cutting, protein intake may increase to up to 2.5g/kg to mitigate protein catabolism. In this case, the
diet was framed within the High-Carb strategy, however, the tendency eventually is to go low-carb,
since carbohydrate-rich foods are the easiest to manipulate in the diet and are usually present in
greater quantities in the plan.

Distribution of macronutrients in the initial diet – 80.5 kg

Macronutrient Amount Amount Calories per Quantity in
in grams/kg in grams macronutrient % of calories
Carbohydrates 3.4g/kg 273.7g 1,094.8kcal 50.4%
Proteins 2g/kg 161g 644kcal 29.6%
Fats 0.6g/kg 48.3g 434.7kcal 20%
Total calories 2173.5kcal

With the distribution of macronutrients ready, foods can be distributed in the diet according to the
individual's preference and availability.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
French bread 1 Unit 50g Tapioca (40g) or Potato (240g)
Whole chicken egg, fried 2 Units 90g Chicken (50g) or Lean red meat (60g)
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 10 Tablespoon 200g Pasta (160g) or Cassava (200g)
Cooked canoca beans 2.5 Slices 50g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Chicken, skinless, cooked 1.2 Fillet 120g Lean red meat (10g) or Fish (130g)
Aface salad 5 Leaves 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice

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Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon 5g -
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Argentine Apple 0.9 Unit 140g Banana (100g) or Papaya (150g)
Bala Grape, raw 25 Units 100g Melon (160g) or Strawberry (150g)
Tangerine, Poncă, raw 1 Units 150g Orange (140g) or Pineapple (110g)
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whey Medium Growth 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Chicken (603)) or Fish (70g)
Oat flakes 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Granola (50g) or Chia (15g)
Cavendish banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Plea (140g)
MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 10 Tablespoons 200g Pasta (160g) or Cassava (200g)
Beans, carioca, cooked 2 Fillets 50g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Chicken, peto, skinless, condo 2.5 Tablespoons 200g Lean red meat (150g) or Fish (220g)
Avocado Salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

For athlete Rodrigo Dias, the food was distributed in five meals throughout the day, and he could
use any meal as a post-workout meal. The order of the meals can be changed, but he should avoid
eating very large meals very close to training time or before going to bed to avoid discomfort. As can
be seen, the menu has a list of substitutions to facilitate the individual's adherence, in addition to
favoring greater flexibility in planning. The initial diet was followed for four weeks, and there was a
significant reduction in body weight and measurements, however, hunger increased due to the
caloric restriction and the loss of body fat itself, a factor that directly influences the control of
hunger/satiety.

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The individual reported being able to increase the weights in the exercises, in addition to increased
hunger due to the calorie restriction and high calorie expenditure during training. In order to
alleviate hunger and maintain the calorie deficit, avoiding a significant loss of performance during
training (in addition to adjusting the diet to the new body weight), the total carbohydrate intake
was reduced and the protein intake increased, culminating in a slight decrease in daily calories. With
the adjustments to the diet, the total calories were reduced to approximately 2,129 kcal per day,
maintaining the 800-kcal free weekly to favor energy recharge and adherence to the plan. It is
important to mention that calorie adjustments can be made by replacing foods with higher caloric
density with foods with lower caloric density or by reducing the quantities of foods already present
in the plan. With the adjustment in the calories of the diet, the division of macronutrients also
changes.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
French bread 1 Unit 50g Tapioca (40g) or Potato (240g)
Whole chicken egg, fried 1 Unit 45g Chicken (50g) or Lean red meat (60g)
Italian grape raw 38 units 150g Melon (250g) or Strawberry (250g)
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 5 Tablespoon 100g Pasta (160g) or Cassava (200g)
Cooked canoca beans 2.5 Slices 50g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Chicken, skinless, cooked 2 Fillet 200g Lean red meat (10g) or Fish (130g)
Aface salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon 5g -
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Argentine Apple 0.9 Unit 140g Banana (100g) or Papaya (150g)
Bala Grape, raw 25 Units 100g Melon (180g) or Strawberry (180g)
Tangerine, Poncă, raw 1 Units 150g Orange (140g) or Pineapple (110g)
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whey Medium Growth 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Chicken (60g) or Fish (70g)
Oat flakes 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Granola (50g) or Chia (15g)
Cavendish banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Plea (140g)
MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 10 Tablespoons 100g Pasta (160g) or Cassava (200g)
Beans, carioca, cooked 2 Fillets 50g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Chicken, peto, skinless, condo 2.5 Tablespoons 250g Lean red meat (150g) or Fish (220g)
Avocado Salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g -

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During cutting, it is important to maintain a good carbohydrate intake to promote
improvement/maintenance of training performance. However, as calories and carbohydrates
decrease, it may be necessary to increase protein intake to reduce catabolism and improve satiety.

Dietary macronutrient distribution – first update – 77.7kg

Macronutrient Amount Amount Calories per Quantity in
in grams/kg in grams macronutrient % of calories
Carbohydrates 3g/kg 233.1g 932.4kcal 43.8%
Proteins 2.5g/kg 194.25g 777kcal 36.5%
Fats 0.6g/kg 46.62g 419.6kcal 19.7%
Total calories 2129kcal

The diet was followed for another week, resulting in weight loss, central and peripheral
measurements, and a reduction in the thickness of skin folds. It was necessary to tighten the diet
even further because the athlete's fitness was not in line with the time remaining until the
competition (7 weeks).

Some higher-calorie foods were replaced by lower-calorie foods. In this case, rice and beans were
replaced by zucchini. This made it possible to reduce the calories in the diet and increase the
volume of food, thus promoting satiety even with the increased calorie deficit.

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MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
French bread 1 Tablespoon 50g Tapioca (40g) or Potato (240g)
Egg, chicken, whole, fried 1 Unit 45g Chicken (50g) or Lean red meat (60g)
Grapes, Italian, raw 38 units 150g Melon (250g) or Strawberry (250g)
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked Italian zucchini 20 Tablespoon 400g Potato (120g) or Pumpkin (130g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 2 Fillet 200g Lean red meat (150g) or Fish (220g)
Lettuce salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slice 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon tea 5g -
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Argentine Apple 0.9 Unit 140g Banana (100g) or Papaya (150g)
Grape, Italy, raw 2.5 Units 100g Melon (180g) or Strawberry (180g)
Tangerine, Ponkan, raw 1 Unit 150g Orange (140g) or Pineapple (110g)
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whey Medium Growth 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Chicken (60g) or Fish (70g)
Oat flakes 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Granola (30g) or Chia (15g)
Cavendish banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Pear (140g)
MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked Italian zucchini 20 Tablespoon 400g Potato (120g) or Pumpkin (130g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 2.5 Fillet 250g Lean red meat (170g) or Fish (280g)
Lettuce salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon tea 5g -

With the adjustments to the diet, the total calories were reduced to around 1876.7kcal per day,
maintaining the 800kcal free per week to promote energy recharge and adherence to the plan.
Dietary macronutrient distribution – second update – 76.6kg
Macronutrient Amount Amount Calories per Quantity in
in grams/kg in grams macronutrient % of calories
Carbohydrates 2.5g/kg 191.5g 766kcal 40.8%
Proteins 2.5g/kg 191.5g 766kcal 40.8%
Fats 0.5g/kg 38.3g 344.7kcal 18.4%
Total calories 1876.7kcal

It is interesting to note that in the second update, the diet can now be classified as low carb due to
the reduced percentage of carbohydrates in the plan. The diet was followed for another three
weeks, resulting in weight loss, central and peripheral measurements, as well as a reduction in the
thickness of skin folds.

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It was again necessary to replace foods with higher energy density with foods with lower caloric
density, in this case the bread was replaced with Italian zucchini and there was an increase in the
number of grapes in the afternoon snack to promote satiety.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked zucchini 20 Tablespoons 400g Potato (120g) or Squash (130g)
Egg, chicken, whole, fried 1 Unit 45g Chicken (50g) or Lean Red Meat (60g)
Grapes, Italian, raw 38 units 150g Melon (250g) or Strawberry (250g)
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked Italian zucchini 20 Tablespoon 400g Potato (120g) or Pumpkin (130g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 2 Fillet 200g Lean red meat (150g) or Fish (220g)
Lettuce salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slice 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon tea 5g -
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Argentine Apple 0.9 Unit 140g Banana (100g) or Papaya (150g)
Grape, Italy, raw 50 units 200g Melon (360g) or Strawberry (360g)
Tangerine, Ponkan, raw 1 Unit 150g Orange (140g) or Pineapple (110g)
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Whey Medium Growth 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Chicken (60g) or Fish (70g)
Oat flakes 1.5 Tablespoon 30g Granola (30g) or Chia (15g)
Cavendish banana 1 Unit 100g Apple (140g) or Pear (140g)

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MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked Italian zucchini 20 Tablespoon 400g Potato (120g) or Pumpkin (130g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 2.5 Fillet 250g Lean red meat (170g) or Fish (280g)
Lettuce salad 5 Leaves 50g
Tomato, with seeds, raw 2.5 Slices 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon tea 5g -

With new adjustments to the diet, the total calories were reduced to around 1837.6kcal per day,
maintaining the 800kcal free per week to promote energy recharge and adherence to the plan.

Dietary macronutrient distribution – third update – 73.8kg

Macronutrient Amount Amount Calories per Quantity in
in grams/kg in grams macronutrient % of calories

Carbohydrates 2.5g/kg 184.5g 738kcal 40.2%

Proteins 2.6g/kg 191.9g 767.5kcal 41.8%
Fats 0.5g/kg 36.9g 332.1 18%
Total calories 1837.6kcal

The diet was followed for another three weeks, reaching the end of the cutting phase and then
entering the final week for the championship. There was weight loss, reduction of central and
peripheral measurements and a decrease in the thickness of skin folds.

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The goal was to place the athlete in the Bodybuilding and Classic Physique categories, with a weight
limit of 70 kg. The finishing week aims to dehydrate the athlete, removing all excess water retention
and reducing muscle glycogen stores to favor increased glucose uptake in the carb-up. At the weigh-
in, usually carried out the day before the competition, the athlete reached 68.1 kg. It is worth
mentioning that during the finishing week, athletes can lose up to 10 kg (or more) due to water
retention and depletion of muscle glycogen stores. The details of the strategies used in the finishing
will be covered later in the specific chapter on this phase.

As you can see, the diet should be designed taking into account the student's routine, preferences,
needs and financial situation, adjusting the plan according to the individual's response to the plan.
Periodic assessment of body weight, circumference and skin folds is extremely important to help
understand what changes need to be made to the plan, so that the student can follow the diet
without difficulty and gradually progress.

8.3 Supplements used in cutting

The market is full of supplements promising better results in terms of muscle hypertrophy, fat loss
and improved performance, however, the vast majority of these products do not bring the expected
effects and end up causing frustration and unnecessary expense. Many supplements are produced
based on the function of a certain compound, however, just because compound x results in a
certain action does not mean that supplementing this substance will lead to the same effect. It is
worth mentioning that supplementation should be used as a complement to the diet, supplying
something that is lacking or helping with the consumption of a certain nutrient or calories.
Supplements that are useful for cutting include whey protein, caffeine, creatine and beta alanine.

Supplements used in cutting

Useful Expendable/useless
Creatine BCAA
Whey protein Glutamine
Caffeine L-Carnitine
Beta alanine Tribullus terrestrialus
Arginine
Thermogenics

Creatine is a great supplement option for both cutting and bulking, as it improves performance by
keeping intramuscular creatine stores “charged” at all times, allowing the individual to train with
greater intensity. It is worth noting that creatine should be used every day, as its effects come from
chronic use. During the cutting phase, carbohydrate intake decreases to generate a caloric deficit,
while protein consumption increases to mitigate protein catabolism.

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In these cases, it may be interesting to supplement with whey protein to reduce meat consumption
and meet daily protein requirements, in addition to maintaining the sweet flavor of the supplement
in the diet.

Caffeine can be useful for maintaining alertness during training, in addition to having a certain effect
on inhibiting fatigue and increasing glucose uptake by muscles, thus favoring improved training
performance. Another supplement that can be useful during cutting periods is beta alanine, as this
supplement acts by buffering the acidity caused by the accumulation of hydrogen ions during
muscle contraction for prolonged periods, in addition to improving muscle contractility, allowing for
better performance during exercise. It is worth mentioning that the effect of beta alanine occurs
through chronic use, just like creatine, and it is necessary to supplement for several weeks to begin
reaping the benefits of the substance.

Supplements such as BCAA, glutamine and arginine are of no use to people who eat reasonably
well, since the need for these amino acids is easily met through diet or by the body's natural
synthesis of the substance. Some supplements such as tribulus terrestris and ZMA promise to
increase testosterone, but this effect is not seen in healthy individuals, and small increases in
testosterone within normal levels do not result in aesthetic effects or strength. During cutting, many
individuals seek to enhance fat burning and end up resorting to supplements such as L-carnitine,
pre-workouts and thermogenics.

Carnitine basically transports fat to be oxidized in the mitochondria, however, the body already
produces sufficient quantities of the substance, and there are no benefits from supplementation.
Pre-workouts are basically formulations based on caffeine and several other substances such as
arginine and beta alanine. These supplements basically promise to improve performance and inhibit
fatigue, effects normally obtained by ingesting the caffeine present in the supplement. It is worth
mentioning that it would be much more interesting and cheaper to supplement with caffeine alone,
since most pre-workout compounds do not work or are in inefficient doses.

Using thermogenics such as synephrine (extracted from orange peel), epigallocatechin gallate
(present in green tea), capsinoids and dihydrocapsiate (present in pepper) do not have a significant
effect on increasing the basal metabolic rate or significantly reflecting fat burning. As can be seen,
there are some supplements that can complement the diet or improve training performance while
others are just a waste of money. It is the professional's role to guide the student/athlete to avoid
unnecessary expenses, especially with supplements that do not work.

8.4 Drugs used in cutting

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During cutting, many individuals use drugs such as metformin, thyroid hormones (T3 and T4),
clenbuterol, salbutamol, ephedrine, yohimbine and anabolic steroids in order to maintain muscle
mass and accelerate the reduction of body fat percentage. However, it is necessary to consider
whether the drug will actually bring any benefit, what the side effects are, dosage, duration of use
and the ideal time to start taking the drug. Metformin is a drug developed to improve insulin
sensitivity and increase glucose uptake by tissues, thus controlling high blood glucose levels. Its
effects occur by increasing the activity of the enzyme AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), thus
leading to greater translocation of glucose receptors (GLUTs) to the muscle cell membrane.

There is also inhibition of glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) and hepatic glucose synthesis by
gluconeogenesis, in addition to a decrease in intestinal glucose absorption. All of these combined
effects culminate in blood glucose control in individuals who are resistant to the action of insulin,
such as pre-diabetics and type II diabetics. Some women use metformin in an attempt to control the
androgenic effects of anabolic steroid use, however, the anti-androgenic effect of metformin is not
very significant in these cases, making it more viable to reduce the dosage of steroids or discontinue
use of the substances.

The usual dosage of metformin is around 500 to 1200 mg daily, however, metformin was created to
act on individuals with insulin resistance, and has no effect on healthy individuals. During cutting,
there is a high level of AMPK activity due to the caloric deficit generated by diet and training,
consequently improving insulin sensitivity and increasing glucose uptake, so there is no benefit in
using metformin. This drug can cause some side effects such as taste disturbances, nausea,
diarrhea, loss of appetite, lactic acidosis, decreased absorption of vitamin B12 and other problems.

The use of T3 and T4 is very common in cutting, as these drugs act on energy metabolism and
increase the basal metabolic rate, which leads to a potent increase in fat oxidation. The increase in
the basal metabolic rate by the use of T4 in therapeutic doses (75 to 200 µg/day) in healthy
individuals does not significantly influence the aesthetic results during cutting, as it would only be
“overriding” the natural production of hormones.

Levothyroxine sodium (T4) is a drug used in the treatment of hypothyroidism, leaving the individual
with a “normal” metabolism, however, bodybuilders use T4 doses above the therapeutic dose (100
to 150 µg/day) in the last weeks of cutting in order to enhance energy metabolism and fat burning.
Liothyronine (T3) is not widely used to treat hypothyroidism because the drug has a short half-life, is
rapidly absorbed and is not very stable. Some athletes combine T3 and/or T4 with beta-adrenergic
drugs such as clenbuterol and salbutamol to enhance fat burning. It is important to note that the
use of T3 and T4 causes negative feedback on the normal production of thyroid hormones, and
consequently, rapid weight regain (rebound) occurs when the drug is discontinued.

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The hormones T3 and T4 inhibit the release of TRH (thyrotropin-

releasing hormone) in the hypothalamus and block TSH (thyroid-
stimulating hormone) in the pituitary gland, thus regulating the
synthesis of T3 and T4. After the withdrawal of the drugs (T3 and
T4), TSH remains suppressed for a few weeks, which negatively
affects energy metabolism and culminates in rapid weight gain
due to the rebound effect.

It is worth mentioning that frequent use of this drug can increase the density of beta adrenergic
receptors, enhancing energy metabolism. However, it can cause side effects such as irritability,
insomnia, tachycardia, anxiety and other problems, impairing performance in training and daily
activities.

Clenbuterol is a potent beta-2 agonist drug, normally used in cutting to enhance fat burning in the
weeks leading up to competition. This drug leads to a rapid desensitization of beta-2 adrenergic
receptors, which reduces the effectiveness of the substance. For this reason, the ideal would be to
use clenbuterol only in the last two or three weeks of cutting. Some athletes follow protocols where
they alternate between x days using the substance and x days without the drug, so that the
receptor concentrations return to normal and the individual can use clenbuterol for longer.

It is very common to find athletes using the combination of clenbuterol with T3 and/or T4, since
thyroid hormones increase the concentrations of adrenergic receptors, thus generating a synergy
with clenbuterol and other adrenergic receptor agonist drugs. Among the side effects of clenbuterol
use, the following can be highlighted: hand tremors, headaches, excessive sweating, insomnia,
tachycardia and cramps. Salbutamol acts on beta-2 adrenergic receptors like clenbuterol, but is less
potent for burning fat and increasing metabolism. This drug is normally used as a bronchodilator for
the treatment of asthma or other lung diseases. Like clenbuterol, salbutamol can desensitize beta-2
adrenergic receptors, an effect that can be attenuated by combining the drug with thyroid
hormones or ketotifen.

Salbutamol can also be combined with caffeine and yohimbine, enhancing the expected and side
effects. The usual dosages are around 2 to 16 mg daily, divided throughout the day. The protocol
usually starts with the lowest dosage and gradually increases each week. The most common side
effects of salbutamol are hand tremors, sweating, insomnia, tachycardia and cramps.

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Another drug commonly used in cutting is ephedrine, usually found as Franol (15mg) or Marax
(25mg). Ephedrine acts on adrenergic receptors, but without specificity for beta-2 receptors like
clenbuterol and salbutamol, it also acts on the central nervous system, increasing the release of
adrenaline and noradrenaline. Since ephedrine does not have as much affinity for beta-2 receptors,
its effects on fat burning are less potent, however, this drug can be used for longer than clenbuterol
and salbutamol, in addition to suppressing appetite. The usual dosage is around 15 to 30mg divided
throughout the day. Many athletes combine ephedrine with caffeine to enhance fat burning, and
should avoid using it close to bedtime to reduce the occurrence of insomnia.

The most common side effects of ephedrine use include insomnia, loss of appetite, headaches,
tachycardia and dizziness. Yohimbine is another drug widely used in cutting, as it inhibits alpha-2
adrenergic receptors, which increases the action of adrenaline and noradrenaline on beta
adrenergic receptors, enhancing fat breakdown (lipolysis). This drug is used to treat erectile
dysfunction and also in bodybuilding to enhance fat burning. It is normally used in doses of 15 to 20
mg daily for both therapeutic use and to increase lipolysis.

To make the most of the substance, it is advisable to consume it on an empty stomach. The most
common side effects include insomnia, tremors, anxiety, tachycardia and headaches. It is important
to be careful not to combine drugs with adrenergic receptor agonists, as this can lead to rapid
desensitization of these receptors, reducing the expected effects of the drug and increasing the side
effects. These drugs should be gradually withdrawn (weaned) over the course of a few weeks to
control the rebound effect and avoid rapid weight gain.

8.5 Most commonly used steroids for cutting

All anabolic steroids are derived from testosterone, and therefore bind to the androgen receptor to
exert their effects. It is worth mentioning that some steroids can be converted to DHT or estradiol
and cause different side effects depending on the individual's response. The hormonal protocol is
usually done with only one base substance for most of the cutting, with testosterone being the first-
choice substance for men. If the individual is responding well, without the presence of many side
effects and there is a need to enhance the anabolic stimulus and fat burning, it may be interesting
to increase the dose of the base substance or add a second drug.

Trenbolone can be combined with testosterone during the cutting period due to its high lipolytic
and anabolic power, which favors not only fat loss but also the maintenance of muscle mass. If the
individual does not respond well to trenbolone, stanozolol can be used as a substitute.

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It is worth mentioning that stanozolol is a very aggressive drug for the lipid panel and generates
many complaints regarding joint pain. Stanozolol can be used as a third option to increase the
protocol if there is a need to increase the stimulus. Oxandrolone enters as a fourth option for the
protocol if there is a need to add another drug or as a substitute for trenbolone or stanozolol if the
individual does not show a good response to these drugs. As a fifth option, oxymetholone
(hemogenin) can be used, a drug with good anabolic and lipolytic power.

Nandrolone (deca) is the sixth option for the cutting protocol because it has a good anabolic effect
and helps maintain strength even during periods of caloric restriction. However, it can cause
increased water retention and hinder proper assessment of the physique in the final weeks of
cutting. Primobolan can also be used by men during cutting, as it has a mild anabolic and lipolytic
effect. This steroid is slightly safer in terms of side effects in men, especially those related to the
central nervous system.

Trenbolone and nandrolone have great power of action on the central nervous system and can lead
to problems such as malaise, increased anxiety, insomnia and irritability. Masteron is a steroid
widely used in cutting, however, it is very androgenic and has low anabolic and lipolytic power. The
use of this steroid is not very recommended for both men and women. Some of the common side
effects of Masteron use include hair loss, acne and virilization in women. Another steroid that
should be used with caution is boldenone, as it can cause changes in the neurotransmitter GABA
and cause problems such as malaise, anxiety and depression.

Dianabol should also be used with caution during cutting, as it is a drug that causes a lot of water
retention and can cause liver damage due to its high hepatotoxicity. The substances and dosage to
be used depend on the individual's need, objective, level of training, response capacity and
tolerance. Men with sensitivity to estradiol elevations should avoid combining testosterone with
Dianabol, as both steroids are greatly affected by the aromatase enzyme and are converted to
estradiol.

It is important to mention that the effects of steroids are dose-dependent, that is, the higher the
dosage, the greater the stimulus and side effects. It is worth noting that just because there is
anabolic stimulus with the increase in dosage or combination of other substances, it does not mean
that there will actually be an increase in muscle hypertrophy and fat burning. If the stimulus is
above the individual's response capacity, there will be more side effects than expected.

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Dosage typically used by male bodybuilders
Substance Usual dosage
Testosterone >200mg/week
Nandrolone >200mg/week
Trenbolone >150mg/week
Hemogenin 20 to 40mg/day
Dianabol 5 to 20mg/day
Oxandrolone 40 to 100mg/day
Stanozolol (injectable) 50 to 100mg/day

For women, primobolan is usually the first choice, used in doses of up to 90 mg divided into two or
three times a week to maintain the stability of the substance. Another steroid that is well tolerated
by women is oxandrolone, used in doses of 2.5 to 10 mg/day to control virilizing effects. A
combination of primobolan and oxandrolone can be used as long as the total dosage does not
exceed 100 mg per week. Boldenone can be used by individuals who respond well and tolerate the
drug, since this steroid can lead to changes in the functionality of the neurotransmitter GABA and
monoamines such as serotonin and dopamine, which can cause problems such as anxiety and
depression.

Some women do well with nandrolone, which is generally used when the athlete needs to gain a lot
of muscle mass. The usual dosage is between 20 and 50 mg per week. Another steroid option with
great potential for strength gain that can be used by women is hemogenin. It is worth mentioning
that hemogenin generates less androgenic and hepatotoxic effects than oxandrolone. The usual
dosage is up to 10 mg daily as a pre-workout. More experienced athletes who compete in
categories where the virilizing aspect does not make much of a difference can use trenbolone, a
steroid with great androgenic power. The most common androgenic side effects of steroid use by
women are hair loss, acne, oily skin, a more masculine facial appearance, clitoral hypertrophy,
increased hair growth, deepening of the voice, among others.

Steroids such as nandrolone, trenbolone and hemogenin have great virilizing potential in women.
Primobolan, oxandrolone and boldenone are less virilizing options, however, abusive doses and long
periods of exposure can also bring androgenic and virilizing effects.

Dosage typically used by female bodybuilders

Substance Usual dosage
Primobolan Up to 90mg/week
Oxandrolone 2.5 to 10 mg/day
Boldenone <100mg/week
Nandrolone 20 to 50mg/day
Hemogenin 10mg/day
Trenbolone Depending on the response, need, tolerance and desired category

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Men have good tolerance to the combination of up to 3 substances, as long as the total dosage does
not exceed 1g per week. For women, up to two substances can be combined, as long as the weekly
dosage does not exceed 100mg. The dosages and combinations can remain constant throughout the
cutting process, and it is interesting to increase the dose of the base substance or add another
substance if there is a need to enhance the anabolic stimulus and the individual is showing an
excellent response, without the presence of many side effects and changes in laboratory tests.

It is important to be very careful when choosing the substance and dosage to be used, and it is
extremely important to have specialized medical monitoring to avoid problems. Laboratory tests
should be performed with a certain frequency, at least once a year, to monitor the main markers.

Most common laboratory tests for anabolic steroid users

Marker Main function
Complete blood count Assessment of a possible case of anemia or increased hematocrit
values due to increased
blood cell synthesis.

Fasting blood glucose Assessment of a possible resistance framework to

insulin or diabetes.
Total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides Analysis of lipid panel and cardiovascular risk.
Creatinine and urea Initial assessment of renal function, analysis of intake
protein and protein catabolism.
TGO, TGP and GT range Initial analysis of liver function and muscle damage.
TSH Initial assessment of thyroid function

Before starting to develop the training periodization, it will be necessary to carry out a complete
analysis of the individual's needs, objectives, preferences and current capabilities. Through the
results of this analysis, it will be possible to start to organize the training in an individualized
manner, allowing the professional to optimize the results of the work. At the time of the
analysis/evaluation, the professional must consider variables such as physical condition, body
composition, training level, objectives, needs, presence of injuries or any limitations, availability of
time to train, preferences, nutritional support, use of anabolic steroids, among others. It is also
necessary to consider the need to prioritize a specific muscle group.

Training planning should also consider the exercises/equipment available at the gym where the
individual will train. Obviously, the training may be similar to that of other students, since the
equipment to be used will be the same; it is not the professional's role to invent exercises for the
student.

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8.6.1 Physical condition and body composition

The initial analysis requires an assessment of the individual's current physical condition in relation
to postural patterns, physical fitness and body composition. Posture assessment can be done
through specific tests and visual comparisons, either in person, through videos or photos.

Most postural deviations occur due to poor posture in everyday life, weakening of some muscles
and shortening of others. Postural deviations can cause imbalances in the muscular and joint
structure, which increases the risk of injury, in addition to impairing the proper activation of the
target muscle during exercise, harming long-term results.

>>Recommended reading
Muscles: Tests and Functions with Posture and Pain

Body composition can be assessed using information such as body weight, circumferences, skin
folds, as well as the visual assessment of the physique, whether in person, through photos or
videos. Normally, at the end of a cutting process, the body fat percentage will be reduced, with men
below 10% and women below 15%.

Visually, it is possible to notice that the fat percentage is low through the appearance of the body,
because the less body fat, the more apparent the muscle cuts will be and the smaller the thickness
of the measured skin folds will be.

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The folds mentioned above are from the preparation for the third championship of the athlete
Bikini Lucienne Dias Ferreira in the four weeks prior to the Montalvão Classic 2022 competition. It is
worth mentioning that the sum of the four folds on the day of the stage usually ends up being well
below 15mm due to the release of water retention during the dehydration process. At the end of a
cutting, the physique usually presents very clear muscle separation in the abdomen, back, arms,
legs, thin skin and with apparent vasodilation in several points of the body.

This is usually a visual indication that the body fat percentage is below 15% in women and below
10% in men. It is important that the body fat percentage is not too high to start cutting, because this
way the individual can have greater flexibility in their diet and not suffer as much in the process. It
will also be necessary to evaluate the individual's physical capabilities such as strength, endurance
and cardiorespiratory capacity to start the training periodization more assertively, avoiding
prescribing a workout above the current capabilities.

8.6.2 Current training level

An important point to evaluate before starting the training periodization is the individual's current
training level, as this is a determining factor in the work volume and intensity to be prescribed at
the beginning of the work. Advanced students usually have good muscle volume, strength,
endurance and greater recovery capacity, which usually allows them to work with greater volumes
and intensity. A student who has been training for more than 1 or 2 years, has reasonable muscle
volume and strength, good command of movements, real awareness of the perception of effort in
exercises, knows how to control some variables of the training itself, etc. can be considered
advanced. Beginners usually tolerate low work volume and intensity, as their recovery capacity,
strength, endurance and cardiorespiratory capacity are usually lower. In general, beginners are
those who are just starting to train, have low muscle volume, strength and general conditioning, do
not have good command of movements or real perception of the effort made in the exercises. It is
worth mentioning that there are individuals who have several years of training and can still be
classified as beginners.

8.6.3 Purpose and needs

The primary goal during cutting is to reduce body fat percentage while maintaining as much muscle
mass as possible. As previously mentioned, in order for the cutting period to be carried out with
greater flexibility in the diet and without excessive restrictions, the body fat percentage at the
beginning of this phase should not be above 15% for men or above 20% for women. If there is any
muscle group that is visibly asymmetrical or outside the standard for the intended category, it will
be necessary to prioritize the work of this group or even detrain this muscle if it is above the
standard for the athlete's category.

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It is worth mentioning that correcting specific points of the physique takes months or years in well-
done bulking phases; during cutting it is unlikely that there will be any gain in muscle mass, much
less will asymmetrically points in the physique be corrected.

Some people may have altered postural patterns due to muscle shortening, weakness in certain
groups or lack of joint mobility, which impairs the execution of movements and activation of the
muscle groups involved. These problems should be identified through specific tests and observation
of the execution of movements. Mobility work and specific stretching for each condition help to
improve the movement pattern and better activate the muscles involved, enhancing muscle
development in the long term. It is worth mentioning that the individual should not perform the
movements in a robotic manner; the exercises should be adapted to the student's structural
pattern, always maintaining an appropriate movement pattern to avoid injuries and generate
maximum activation of the exercised muscles.

Common problems of lack of flexibility and mobility in gyms

Gender Common problems Correction
Masculine Hamstring shortening; Hamstring stretch; Chest stretch;

Pectoral shortening; Work on scapula retraction exercises;

Weakness of the middle bundles of the trapezius and Hip and ankle mobility exercises;

rhomboids; Low hip mobility; Use a supinated grip in some exercises, work on
shoulder mobility and stretch the chest;

Shoulder anteriorization;

Feminine Shortening and lack of mobility of calves; Shortening Stretch and mobilize the calves;

of pectorals; Stretch the chest;

Weakness of the middle bundles of the trapezius and Work on scapula retraction exercises;

rhomboids; Weakness of the glutes; Work on isolated exercises for the glutes; Stretch

Shortening of adductors; adductors and mobilize hips;

Before setting up the initial periodization training for cutting, it is also necessary to assess whether
the individual has any injuries, limitations or difficulties in performing a certain movement. This
initial phase of cutting is a good time to work on correcting exercise techniques and postural
patterns due to the low volume of work. Some limitations are due to inadequate techniques, muscle
shortening, muscle weakness or lack of mobility (in some cases all of these problems together).
These limitations must be worked on to avoid joint wear and tear and reduce the risk of injuries.

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8.6.4 Routine, availability and preferences

Before preparing the initial training prescription, the individual's routine should be assessed,
including how many days a week they can train, how long they can spend at the gym, and exercises
that the student likes to do and has good movement skills. When the student trains at times when
the gym is full, the training schedule should be divided into different muscle groups than most
individuals train on each day of the week. Most men train their chest on Mondays, so it would be a
good idea to divide the training so that the student works their backs or legs on Mondays. This way,
it would be possible to complete the entire workout without wasting too much time switching
between sessions or looking for available equipment.

Women usually start their weekly workouts with the quadriceps, so it may be interesting to plan the
workouts to start the week with the hamstrings or upper back. Another important point to consider
is the time the individual has available to spend in the weight room. If the student only has an hour
to train, it would not make sense to prescribe a workout with more than 25~30 sets, which will
certainly take more than an hour to complete. When the individual has little time to train, it is
interesting to work with low volume or use advanced techniques that allow for increased training
volume without prolonging the training session too much, such as drop sets and rest pauses.

It is worth mentioning that cutting begins with a low volume of work, usually after performing a
deload from the previous phase. This way, the individual can rest well between sets, build strength,
enhance hypertrophic stimulation and calorie expenditure by increasing the intensity of the
workout. The individual's preferences should be taken into consideration when dividing the
workouts and selecting the exercises, and it is interesting to choose exercises that the student likes
to perform and has good movement control to improve adherence to the plan. It is important to
note that if there is an exercise that is necessary to correct a deficiencies in the physique, this
exercise should be worked on even if the athlete does not like it, because in bodybuilding it is
necessary for the physique to have harmony and symmetry appropriate for each category.

8.6.5 Nutritional support and ergogenic aids

Another very important point to be evaluated before starting to plan the training is nutritional
support and the use of anabolic steroids. The diet should normally follow the training demands to
enable improved performance and provide nutrients to maintain muscle mass and maintain good
performance in training. Often, the student hires different professionals to take care of the diet and
training periodization. In these cases, it is essential that both professionals have good
communication, because if the trainer needs to increase the work volume and the nutritionist
reduces the calories in the diet too much, performance would probably be impaired, in addition to
increasing protein catabolism.

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It may happen that the nutritionist increases the calories in the diet while the trainer reduces the
training volume for a deloading phase, for example. In this case, more body weight may be regained
than expected, hindering the progress of the cutting, especially if there is a specific date to end this
phase. For these reasons, communication between the two professionals is extremely important
and makes all the difference in the use of each phase of the planning. The use of ergogenic
resources such as anabolic steroids should be considered, as these resources improve strength, fat
burning and recovery capacity, resulting in a greater capacity to train and recover. Therefore,
individuals who use steroids normally tolerate a greater volume of work.

Often, the athlete is using high doses of steroids or a combination of several substances, even if the
physique is not consistent with the entire hormonal load being administered. In these cases, the
professional must advise the athlete to reduce the doses and combination of steroids, perform a
general check-up to evaluate some markers such as blood count, lipid panel, liver enzymes, kidney
function and correct any abnormalities.

It is worth remembering that the expected and side effects of steroids are dose-dependent,
however, if the individual does not show a good response, he or she will have more side effects than
expected, and it will be necessary to reduce the dosage to be consistent with tolerance. More is not
always better.

8.7 Training periodization during cutting

After thoroughly evaluating all the variables related to the context in which the individual is inserted
and the training planning, it is necessary to determine and distribute the initial work volume,
choose the exercises, the division and frequency of training, intensity to be used in the exercises,
among other factors.

8.7.1 Work volume, frequency and training division

The workload can be considered as the entire workload performed during training, that is, the
volume load (sets x repetitions x weight lifted in each set) of each training session. The volume load
can be used to assess progression in an exercise, specific training session or mesocycle, as long as
the exercises used are the same. Some exercises allow for more overload than others, so using the
45º leg press results in greater tonnage or volume load than the leg extension machine, for
example. A simple and efficient way to calculate the workload would be by the number of sets
performed for each muscle group in the week, in this way the professional can monitor the
student/athlete's progress and adjust the workload according to the individual's response.

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In the example above, the athlete Rodrigo Dias began his preparation work for his stage debut with
a little less volume than he had been using, thus favoring longer intervals between sets to allow for
increased/maintained intensity in training, consequently generating more hypertrophic stimulus
and calorie expenditure. Since the athlete has good legs, we used less work volume for the lower
limbs so as not to wear them out too much and to allow for the use of a greater volume of sets for
the trunk and upper limbs (weak point). To take advantage of the strength gain that the athlete had
been showing and to avoid having to tighten his diet, the volume of sets was increased (up to 20%)
in each mesocycle. The mesocycles lasted an average of 4 to 6 weeks in the base 1 and base 2
periods.

The base, shock and finishing periods lasted a total of 4 weeks and can be considered a mesocycle.
In the shock phase, the volume increased more significantly (20 to 30%) to take advantage of the
energy recharge that had been achieved with the free meal and thus extract maximum performance
from the athlete. In the finishing week, the volume of work for the lower limbs was removed to
avoid unnecessary wear and tear, promote complete recovery of the lower limbs and reduce the
risk of injury, since, in the finishing week, the athletes are weakened and this makes it impossible to
perform leg training that week.

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It is worth mentioning that bodybuilding athletes usually stop training their lower limbs about 7 to
10 days before the competition, so that the leg muscles can recover completely, allowing the
divisions of the muscle bellies to be very evident on stage. Normally after the competition, athletes
go into deload (-50% of the volume of sets) to favor recovery, however, if the individual is not
weakened and is in good spirits, the training can be directed to a base period with less volume
and/or intensity.

In Rodrigo's case, base training 1 after finishing/competition was performed maintaining a relatively
high volume with reduced intensity, where lower limb work was reintroduced and the athlete
worked all sets keeping 2 to 5 repetitions in reserve to avoid causing so much fatigue. This phase
lasted approximately two weeks. In order to progress the stimuli again, in the second post-
competition mesocycle (base 2) there was a more significant reduction in the volume of sets,
however, the intensity increased to the range of 8 to 12 maximum repetitions, keeping 1 to 3
repetitions in reserve in most sets.

This phase is scheduled to last approximately 4 to 8 weeks, depending on the athlete's response,
thus beginning the transition to bulking. To increase the volume of weekly sets, sets can be added
to the exercises already present in the training plan or different exercises can be added if the
individual needs to stimulate the muscles at different angles, which favors greater recruitment of
certain portions of the muscle group in question.

Weekly volume recommendation per muscle group according to training level

Beginners Intermediaries Advanced

4 to 5 sets 10 to 15 sets 15 to 30 sets

The weekly volume of sets for each muscle group must respect the student's recovery capacity and
training level, allowing the individual to recover adequately and gradually evolve as they adapt and
improve their physical capabilities. Working beyond the recovery capacity results in delayed muscle
soreness, which can reduce training performance and increase the risk of injury.

The frequency of training is directly related to the individual's availability and weekly work volume.
Considering that the individual needs to perform 15 weekly sets for each muscle group and has
availability for five workouts per week, this volume of 15 sets can be performed in a single training
session or divided into two or three workouts throughout the week.

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If the individual is able to maintain good performance from the beginning to the end of the
workout, the volume of sets can be performed in just one session. However, if performance begins
to decline before the end of the workout, it may be necessary to divide this volume of sets into
more sessions throughout the week. The division of workouts also relates to the weekly frequency,
as it determines the order in which the muscle groups will be worked throughout the days. The
most important point to be highlighted about the division of workouts is that the muscle group
worked on one day should not harm the performance of the muscles that will be trained the next
day.

An example of how splitting your workouts can harm your performance would be working your
biceps on Monday and your back on Tuesday. Since your biceps assist in most back exercises, tiring
your biceps the day before training your back can make it harder to perform back exercises and thus
reduce your performance and training stimulus. Below is an example of a split training session used
by athlete Rodrigo Dias to prepare for his first bodybuilding competition.

ABC training split (2x), used for intermediate and advanced individuals
Day of the week Training Muscle group worked
Second THE Lats, biceps and posterior deltoid
Third B Full legs and calves
Fourth W Pectoral, triceps and medial deltoid
Fifth THE Lats, biceps and posterior deltoid
Friday B Full legs and calves
Saturday W Pectoral, triceps and medial deltoid
Sunday Rest

It is worth mentioning that the training division took into account what the athlete had already
been doing, while also respecting the individual's preferences. The chosen division was an ABC that
would be performed twice a week to achieve the necessary volume. As can be seen, the training
was divided so that the muscle group worked on one day would not harm the muscles that would
be trained the next day. In this case, the athlete has the option of taking a rest day after training C
so that the upper muscles have more recovery time, even if one group does not interfere with the
other.

8.7.2 Choosing exercises

Exercises should be chosen considering what is available at the gym where the athlete will train,
however, it is necessary to work with basic exercises such as bench presses, squats, rows,
developments and deadlifts to build a strong base.

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Isolated exercises should be used to complement the work of each muscle group, directing the
stimulus in a more specific way. Choosing exercises for the athlete Rodrigo Dias' training – Workout
A: Back, biceps and shoulders

Choosing exercises for athlete Rodrigo Dias’ training – Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders
Exercise
Low row, wide neutral grip
High pull, front, pronated grip
Horsey rowing
Dumbbell Hammer Curl
Direct barbell curl
Inverted crucifix (machine)
Lower abdominal

It was not necessary to work with a lot of volume for the back muscles since it was one of the
athlete's strong points, so only three exercises were used to perform general work for the back
muscles. Since the arms needed more muscle volume, two isolated exercises for the biceps were
used, complementing the synergistic work of the biceps in the back exercises.

The reverse crucifix was chosen to improve the visual appearance of the shoulders in back poses, as
it was a necessity for the student's physique. To finish the training, an exercise was prescribed for
the lower abdomen in order to strengthen the muscles, increase the caloric expenditure in the
training session without excessively weakening the athlete, in addition to improving the resistance
and hypertrophy of the region.

It is important to mention that exercises should not be changed frequently, as this hinders
adaptation to the workloads imposed by the exercise, limiting training progress and results in the
medium and long term.

8.7.3 Order of exercises

It is usually recommended that training begins with multi-joint exercises, as these exercises require
a lot of energy and can be better utilized at the beginning of the training, when the student's energy
reserves are not depleted. Isolated exercises are used to complement the work and direct the
stimulus to the target muscle.

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The athlete can start training with the muscle group with the highest priority, thus taking advantage
of the higher energy and motivation levels at the beginning of the training to generate optimal
stimuli for the priority group. The order of the exercises must be respected so that the individual
can increase the loads in training.

Changing the order of exercises frequently hinders the athlete's adaptation to the overload and
workload used in the exercises, limiting the evolution of the training. If the individual has difficulty
activating a certain muscle, it is a good idea to start the training with an isolated exercise for the
target muscle, thus generating preactivation that improves the perception of work of this group in
the other exercises. As an example, we can mention an individual who has difficulty
activating/developing the glutes. In this case, the student can start the training with an isolated
gluteal exercise such as the abductor chair, thus enabling better recruitment of the glutes during
multi-joint exercises such as squats and leg presses.

8.7.4 Choosing the intensity and interval between sets

The intensity of resistance training (weight training) can be prescribed by the percentage of 1
repetition maximum (1RM) used in the exercise, that is, by the sufficient overload to perform a
determined number of repetitions until fatigue or concentric failure. It is worth mentioning that
performing 1RM tests to determine the overload to use in each exercise may not be so interesting,
as it takes time and strength gains occur during training, thus changing the load to that same
percentage of 1 RM.

In this case, it ends up being more interesting to use repetition ranges or target repetition zones,
allowing fine adjustment of the overload to be applied in each exercise even if the individual gains
strength or is having a bad day.

Load percentage Maximum repetition range (RM) Intensity

100% 1 RM
90 to 95% 6 to 2 RM High
80 to 90% 10 to 6 RM
70 to 80% 15 to 10 RM Moderate
60 to 70% 25 to 15 RM
50 to 60% 35 to 25 RM
40 to 50% 45 to 35 RM Low
30 to 40% 60 to 45 RM

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Some factors such as interval time between sets, movement speed (cadence), range of motion,
number of sets, psychological state, among others, can influence the intensity of training. Working
with loads that allow for 1 to 6 maximum repetitions with good technique and range of motion
generates greater stimulus for strength gain. Loads for the range of 8 to 12 maximum repetitions are
more indicated to promote muscle hypertrophy, while using loads for 15 to 25 maximum repetitions
or above are indicated for more accentuated gains in localized muscle resistance.

Strength Hypertrophy Resistance

1 to 6 RM 8 to 12 RM 15 to 25+ RM

It is worth mentioning that the less overload used in the exercise, the greater the number of
repetitions that can be performed, and the greater the overload, the fewer repetitions that can be
performed before reaching concentric failure/momentary fatigue. For bodybuilders, the primary
objective in most cases will be to gain muscle mass and strength, referring to the choice of
intensities that allow for the performance of something between 4 and 12 maximum repetitions in
the chosen exercises, thus stimulating greater hypertrophic stimuli and strength gains.

It is important to mention that using loads for more than 15 maximum repetitions also generates
good hypertrophic stimuli, however, it would be necessary to reach concentric failure in all sets to
cause this stimulus due to the low recruitment of muscle fibers in the initial repetitions. Loads that
allow 4 to 12 maximum repetitions generate maximum recruitment of muscle fibers and
hypertrophic signaling from the first repetitions, and it is not necessary to reach concentric failure
for this.

By using loads for 8 to 12 maximum repetitions, it is possible to generate an excellent hypertrophic

stimulus and high caloric expenditure even leaving 1 to 3 repetitions in reserve, that is, a load that
allows the performance of 12 repetitions until concentric failure, however, the student can finish
the series with something between 9 and 11 repetitions. This way, the unnecessary accumulation of
fatigue and drop in performance during the training is avoided.

Choosing exercises for athlete Rodrigo Dias’ training – Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct barbell curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes

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Inverted crucifix (machine) 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

In the first exercise, the progression of loads from set to set was used, with the load used for the
first set allowing for up to 15 maximum repetitions, 12 maximum repetitions in the second set and
10 maximum repetitions in the third and final set of the exercise. This first exercise was used as a
“preparation” for the rest of the workout, warming up and pre-activating the muscles efficiently. All
sets were finished leaving 1 to 3 repetitions in reserve. The second exercise was performed using a
load for up to 12 maximum repetitions, however, the sets were finished with a maximum of 11
repetitions. The same logic is repeated for all exercises.

The exercises performed with fewer repetitions were aimed at gaining strength without sacrificing a
good hypertrophic stimulus, as this was a necessity for the athlete. The repetition range used in the
last two exercises was higher, aiming to improve the muscular resistance of the groups worked. It is
noted that in the horseback row, an exercise that allows the use of greater overloads, there was a
longer interval between sets compared to the others. It is important to use intervals of 1 to 5
minutes to allow partial recovery of energy reserves (intracellular ATP and creatine phosphate), thus
favoring the maintenance/increase of intensity in the following sets. The more intense the set
performed, the longer the time required for recovery.

Aerobic exercise was maintained between 8 and 10 hours per week, maintaining moderate to high
intensity throughout the preparation.

Base 1
Below is the complete training session of athlete Rodrigo Dias during the first mesocycle (base 1) of
the cutting for the competition.

Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct barbell curl 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Inverted crucifix (machine) 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

Training A was carried out on Mondays and Thursdays.

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Workout B: Full Legs and Calves
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abductor chair 4 12/15/10/8 1 to 2 minutes
Free Squat 4 12/10/8/6 3 to 5 minutes
Rack Squat 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Stiff with bar 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Training B was held on Tuesdays and Fridays.

Workout C: Chest, triceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Crucifix 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 4 12/10/8/6 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley with rope 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Shoulder development 3 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Training C was performed on Wednesdays and Saturdays.

Base 2

Below is the complete training session of athlete Rodrigo Dias during the second mesocycle (base 2)
of the cutting for the competition.

Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct barbell curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Inverted crucifix (machine) 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets in training A was increased for biceps exercises to increase the hypertrophic
stimulus and increase caloric expenditure, keeping the rest as in the previous mesocycle.

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Workout B: Full Legs and Calves
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abductor chair 4 12/15/10/8 1 to 2 minutes
Free Squat 4 12/10/8/6 3 to 5 minutes
Rack Squat 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Stiff with bar 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

In training B, the volume was maintained as in the previous mesocycle, as the athlete had been
progressing extremely well in training.

Workout C: Chest, triceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Crucifix 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 4 12/10/8/6 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley with rope 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Shoulder development 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Training C had its volume increased for the chest and shoulders, thus enabling an increase in
hypertrophic stimulus and calorie expenditure.

Base 3
Below is the complete training session of athlete Rodrigo Dias during the third mesocycle (base 3) of
the cutting for the competition.

Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 4 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct barbell curl 4 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Inverted crucifix (machine) 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in workout A was increased for biceps and back exercises to increase
hypertrophic stimulus and increase caloric expenditure, while maintaining the rest as in the
previous mesocycle.

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It is worth mentioning that the number of sets for biceps was increased by adding two drop sets in
the last set of the hammer curl. Sets to failure were also increased in some exercises.

Workout B: Full Legs and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abductor chair 4 12/15/10/8 1 to 2 minutes
Free Squat 4 12/10/8/6 3 to 5 minutes
Rack Squat 3 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

In training B, the volume of sets for quadriceps was increased with the addition of the leg extension
exercise, in addition to an increase of one set in the stiff exercise (hamstrings) and seated calf raise.
The volume of sets for calf raises was increased with the addition of two drop sets in the exercise.
Sets to failure were also used in some exercises.

Workout C: Chest, triceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Crucifix 3 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 5 12/10/8/6/6 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley with rope 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Shoulder development 4 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Workout C had an increased volume for the chest, triceps and shoulders, thus enabling an increase
in hypertrophic stimulus and caloric expenditure. One set was added to the incline bench press,
triceps pulley and lateral raise exercises. It is worth mentioning that the volume of sets for triceps
and shoulders was increased by adding two drop sets in the pulley and lateral raise. Sets to failure
were also used in some exercises.

Shock
Below is the complete training session of athlete Rodrigo Dias during the third mesocycle (shock) of
the cutting for the competition.

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Workout A: Back, biceps and shoulders
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 5 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Direct barbell curl 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Inverted crucifix (machine) 5 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

The number of sets in workout A was increased for biceps and back exercises to increase
hypertrophic stimulus and increase calorie expenditure. The repetition range of some exercises was
changed to also increase the intensity of the work. It is worth mentioning that the number of sets in
some exercises was increased with the addition of drop sets. More sets to failure were also added
to some exercises.

Workout B: Full Legs and Calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abductor chair 5 12/15/10/8 1 to 2 minutes
Free Squat 4 10 to 12 3 to 5 minutes
Rack Squat 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Extension chair 5 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Stiff with bar 4 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated flexor 3 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

In training B, the volume of sets was increased by adding traditional sets and drop sets to some
exercises. The repetition range of some exercises was changed to also increase the intensity of the
work.

Workout C: Chest, triceps and shoulders

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Crucifix 5 12/15/10 1 to 2 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps pulley with rope 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Shoulder development 3 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Dumbbell Lateral Raise 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Workout C had its volume increased by adding traditional sets and drop sets to some exercises. The
repetition range of some exercises was changed to also increase the intensity of the work.

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Finalization

Below is the complete training session of athlete Rodrigo Dias during the third mesocycle
(finalization) of the cutting for the competition. During the finalization, the training structure was
changed to distribute the training volume of the upper limbs, trunk and calves throughout the
week. It is important to mention that the greater training volume in this phase serves mainly to
deplete muscle glycogen stores, favoring greater glucose uptake during the carb-up. During this
phase, the athlete trained from Monday to Thursday using the ABCD division, taking Friday off to
rest, since the competition would take place on Saturday. During the finalization, it is interesting to
increase the work volume, especially in the areas where it will be necessary to fill more with
glycogen, leaving the muscle group fuller and leaner on stage.

Workout A: Back and abs

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, wide neutral grip 6 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 5 8 to 10 2 to 3 minutes
Pull Down 5 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Rowing saw 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 4 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes

The volume of sets for the back in training A was increased by adding the pull down exercise, in
addition to the increase in drop sets and sets to failure, aiming to increase the stimulus and caloric
expenditure. The biceps exercises were distributed in a separate training session.

Workout B: Chest and calves

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Abdominal plank 2 1 minute 1 minute
Crucifix 5 12/15/10/8 3 to 5 minutes
Incline Barbell Bench Press 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Pullover 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Seated calf raise 4 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Standing calf 4 25 to 30 1 to 2 minutes

In workout B, the number of sets was increased by adding traditional sets and drop sets to some
exercises, as well as adding a standing pullover exercise for the chest and calf. The repetition range
for some exercises was changed to also increase the intensity of the work. Triceps exercises were
moved to a separate training session.

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Workout C: Shoulders, trapezius, abs
Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Shoulder development 6 12/15/10/8/6 1 minute
Side raise 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Inverse crucifix 5 12 to 15 2 to 3 minutes
Front elevation 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Shrug 6 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Lower abdominal 5 12 to 15 1 to 2 minutes
Conventional abdominal 5 12 to 15 2 to 3 minutes

Workout C had its volume increased by increasing the number of traditional sets and drop sets in
some exercises, in addition to increasing exercises for the trapezius, shoulders and abdomen. The
repetition range of some exercises was changed to also increase the intensity of the work.

Workout D: Shoulders, trapezius, abs

Exercise Series Repetitions Interval
Low row, neutral grip 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
High pull, front, pronated grip 3 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Horsey rowing 3 8 to 10 1 to 2 minutes
Triceps dips with barbell 5 10 to 12 2 to 3 minutes
Triceps pulley with rope 6 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
French triceps on cable 5 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Dumbbell Hammer Curl 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread on the cable 4 10 to 12 1 to 2 minutes

Workout D had its volume increased by adding traditional sets and drop sets to some exercises. The
repetition range of some exercises was changed to also increase the intensity of the work.

8.8 Transition from cutting to bulking

The main objective of the cutting phase is to reduce the percentage of body fat as much as possible
while maintaining muscle mass. In the bulking period, the idea is to ensure that the athlete
maintains a controlled fat percentage while gaining as much muscle mass as possible. The transition
phase is carried out in order to control the initial weight gain through the rebound effect and to
avoid discomfort due to the increased volume of food. It is worth mentioning that much of the
weight gained in this phase comes from replenishing glycogen reserves, water retention and some
fat. The transition period lasts between 1 and 8 weeks and can be ended early if there is a
competition, photo shoot or trip planned.

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8.8.1 Dietary adjustments in the transition phase to bulking

Calorie intake should be increased by around 20 to 40% of what was being ingested at the end of
the cutting process, and the diet may be normocaloric (intake equal to expenditure) or with a slight
caloric deficit depending on the individual's response and time available for bulking.

If the individual has finished cutting with a high body fat percentage, it may be necessary to use the
transition as a period of energy recharge before returning to cutting and reducing the body fat
percentage to the desired level. It is necessary to control weight gain in the first two or three weeks
after finishing cutting, and it is important to avoid the individual gaining more than 10% of the body
weight shown at the end of cutting during this period. Normally, at the end of the cutting phase, the
individual is consuming a low amount of calories both in the daily diet and in weekly free meals,
mainly by eating low-calorie foods. The caloric density of the food is directly related to the water
content of the food in question. To find the caloric density of the food, simply divide the total
calories of a 100g portion by 100, thus obtaining the value corresponding to the calorie density of
the food.

Classification of caloric density of foods

Energy density Calories per gram
Very low 0 to 0.7 kcal/g
Low 0.7 to 1.5 kcal/g
Average 1.5 to 4 kcal/g
High 4 to 9 kcal/g

A simple way to adjust your diet to transition to bulking would be to replace some foods with lower
calorie density with foods with higher calorie density. When adjusting your diet, you should also
consider the macronutrient and micronutrient composition of the foods, not just the calorie
content. Typically, at the end of a cutting diet, you are consuming a high volume of food with lower
calorie density foods. It is a good idea to introduce some foods with higher energy density during
the transition phase to avoid gastric discomfort due to the increased volume of food and calories
during this period.

Caloric density of some foods

Food Calories in 100g Calories per gram of food
Carbohydrate sources
Cooked pasta 158kcal 158/100 = 1.58 kcal/g
Cooked rice 128kcal 128/100 = 1.28 kcal/g
cooked cassava 125kcal 125/100 = 1.25 kcal/g
Cooked sweet potato 77kcal 77/100 = 0.77 kcal/g
Boiled English Potato 52kcal 52/100 = 0.52 kcal/g
Cooked pumpkin 48kcal 48/100 = 0.48 kcal/g

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Cooked Italian Zucchini 19kcal 19/100 = 0.19 kcal/g
Fruits
Cavendish banana 91kcal 91/100 = 0.91 kcal/g
Argentine apple 62kcal 62/100 = 0.62 kcal/g
Pineapple 48kcal 48/100 = 0.48 kcal/g
Strawberry 30kcal 30/100 = 0.30 kcal/g
Protein sources
Whey protein 373kcal 373/100 = 3.73 kcal/g
Cooked red meat (shoulder) 215kcal 215/100 = 2.15 kcal/g
Cooked chicken breast 163kcal 163/100 = 1.63 kcal/g
boiled egg 146kcal 146/100 = 1.46 kcal/g
Whole milk 58kcal 58/100 = 0.58 kcal/g
Hyperpalatable foods
Brigadier 315kcal 315/100 = 3.15 kcal/g
Pizza 266kcal 266/100 = 2.66 kcal/g
Ice cream 207kcal 207/100 = 2.07 kcal/g

It is important that the diet is composed mainly of foods with medium to very low caloric density,
thus maintaining the planning with a good nutritional value and volume of food per meal, which
allows for the adequate supply of vitamins, minerals, fibers, bioactive compounds, in addition to
maintaining satiety due to the greater volume of food in each meal.

Approximately 20% of the calories in the diet can be used for high-calorie foods to promote
adherence and reduce the volume of food in meals. Assuming that the athlete has completed the
cutting process weighing 72.7 kg, ingesting 1809.5 kcal per day plus 800 free calories and has
reached a body fat percentage of approximately 8%.

Example of a diet at the end of cutting – 1881kcal total

Macronutrient Nutrients in grams Calories per nutrient Nutrients in g/kg Nutrients in percentage
Proteins 189g 756kcal 2.6g/kg 41.8%
Carbohydrates 181.7g 726.8kcal 2.5g/kg 40.2%
Fats 36.3 326.7kcal 0.5g/kg 18%
Total in calories 1809.5kcal

The transition to cutting could be done by reducing calories by approximately 20 to 40%, mainly
increasing the amount of carbohydrate-rich foods to promote energy recharge. In this case, free
calories can be maintained at 800kcal per week to promote the maintenance of energy reserves and
promote adherence to the diet.

Example diet for transitioning to bulking – 2428kcal total

Macronutrient Nutrients in grams Calories per nutrient Nutrients in g/kg Nutrients in percentage
Proteins 145.4g 581.6kcal 2g/kg 23.9%
Carbohydrates 363.5g 1454kcal 5g/kg 59.9%
Fats 43.6g 392.4kcal 0.6g/kg 16.2%
Total in calories 2428kcal

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The transition phase usually lasts from 1 to 8 weeks, depending on the individual's response and
availability. In cases where there is a competition in a few weeks, the transition can be used as an
energy recharge and to relieve the athlete's psychological state, returning to cutting after 1 or 2
weeks of transition. During this period, protein intake can be between 1.8 and 2.5g/kg daily to
reduce protein catabolism and maintain good satiety. Fat consumption should be between 15 and
35% of total calories, always prioritizing the intake of foods that are sources of unsaturated fat such
as nuts, avocado, extra virgin olive oil, etc.

Carbohydrate intake can be maintained between 40 and 60% of total calories, depending on the
individual's needs and the intake of other macronutrients. Normally, calories in the diet are
increased by increasing the amount of carbohydrate-rich foods or by increasing the amount of foods
already present in the diet, thus favoring the reestablishment of energy reserves, in addition to
improving the palatability of the diet. After this phase, calories can be gradually increased according
to the individual's response. It may be a good idea to increase the calories in free meals to prevent
meals in the daily diet from becoming too large and causing gastric discomfort.

8.8.2 Training adjustments in the transition phase to bulking

Typically, the volume of resistance and aerobic training is extremely high at the end of the cutting
phase, often requiring a deload period if the individual is weakened, experiencing joint pain or other
signs of overtraining. Training during this phase basically consists of reducing the volume of work
and intensity to promote recovery, in addition to reducing the physical and mental stress generated
by the extremely high volume of work used in the final phases of the cutting phase.

The number of sets per muscle group per week can be reduced by up to 50% of what was being
performed at the end of the cut, and advanced techniques and sets to failure can be stopped. The
intensity can vary for loads between 4 and 12 RM, however, the student should work leaving
between 1 and 5 repetitions in reserve to avoid the accumulation of stress, favoring recovery and
improved performance even with a low volume of work.

Assuming that at the end of the cut the athlete was performing 20 to 25 sets per muscle group per
week, the number of sets can be reduced by up to 50% of what was previously being done. This
makes it possible to work on improving movement technique, increasing the intervals between sets
and gaining more strength.

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Example of training volume at the end of cutting
Muscle group worked Number of series per week Intensity used Repetitions in reserve
Chest and triceps 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Quadriceps and glutes 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Back and biceps 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Shoulders and trapezius 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3
Hamstrings and calves 20 to 25 4 to 12 RM 0 to 3

After reducing the number of sets per muscle group, training sessions become shorter, allowing the
individual to train with greater concentration, which favors better activation of the exercised
muscles and better results in the long term. Below is an example of a chest workout with 20 sets per
week in the final phase of cutting.

Example of chest workout at the end of cutting

Exercise Series Intensity Repetitions in reserve Break time
Push-up 3 15 to 20 RM 1 to 5 1 minute
Incline Barbell Bench Press 5 6 to 8 RM 0 to 3 2 to 3 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 4 10 to 12 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes
Barbell bench press 4 10 to 12 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes
Crucifix (machine) 4 12 to 15 RM 0 to 3 1 to 2 minutes

In the example above, the individual performed the entire chest volume in just one training session
per week. When transitioning to bulking, the individual was showing signs of fatigue beyond the
norm, loss of performance in training and frequent muscle/joint pain. The training volume was
reduced by 50% to promote recovery. In the transition phase, it is not advisable to work to failure,
and you can stop the sets, leaving 1 to 5 repetitions in reserve.

Example of chest workout in transition to bulking

Exercise Series Intensity Repetitions in reserve Break time
Push-up 2 15 to 20 RM 1 to 5 1 minute
Incline Barbell Bench Press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes
Incline dumbbell bench press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes
Barbell bench press 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes
Crucifix (machine) 2 10 to 12 RM 1 to 5 2 to 3 minutes

In the previous example, the individual performed the entire chest volume in a single training
session per week. During the transition phase, some exercises may be removed to reduce the
number of sets or simply reduce the number of sets for some exercises. After the student has
recovered from the physical and psychological stress generated by the cutting phase, the transition
can be completed and the bulking phase itself can begin.

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At this point, the work volume and intensity increase again in order to increase caloric expenditure
and hypertrophic stimulation, since it will be necessary to control the increase in body fat
percentage while the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy increases. It is worth mentioning that the
aerobic volume may also increase again after the transition to bulking, since cardio improves
mitochondrial biogenesis, the recovery capacity between sets and favors the execution of workouts
without as much fatigue.

8.8.3 Drugs and steroids

During the transition phase to bulking, stimulants (such as clenbuterol and ephedrine) that were
used during cutting should be weaned off, as these drugs can lead to saturation of adrenergic
receptors and impair the maintenance of body fat percentage at the beginning of bulking. It is
worth mentioning that these drugs can also cause side effects such as tachycardia, insomnia,
headaches, dizziness, tremors, among others. If the individual is using caffeine during cutting, it may
be a good idea to stop using the substance for a few weeks or reduce the dosage to sensitize the
receptors and improve the effects of caffeine when it is necessary to increase the stimuli during
training.

The steroid protocol should also be reviewed during the transition phase to bulking. In this case, the
athlete can maintain only the base substance in lower doses, since such a high hormonal load will
not be necessary. It is interesting to use this period to treat side effects and reevaluate biochemical
markers through laboratory tests. For women, it may even be interesting to maintain a period “off
steroids” to reduce the androgenic load and control the side effects resulting from prolonged
steroid use. It is important to mention that doing this “deload” in the hormonal protocol also
reduces the overload on the athlete’s physical and psychological health, in addition to being
necessary to help control possible side effects.

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9. FINALIZATION

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This phase occurs right after the end of the cutting and aims to make the individual's physique as
full and dry as possible. To do this, individuals go through the process of dehydration, depletion of
glycogen stores and carb-up. Some drugs are often used to help bodybuilding athletes finish their
workouts, allowing the athlete to reach the weight required for the desired category and for the
presentation of their physique on stage to occur without problems. The finishing process is usually
done by bodybuilding athletes or individuals who have a low body fat percentage and intend to go
to the beach, water park, a party, a photo shoot or simply to see how their physique looks after
removing excess fat and water retention.

The finishing process begins approximately 7 to 10 days before the championship or the date on
which the athlete needs to be “ready”. It is worth mentioning that athletes can lose more than 5 kg
of body weight during the finishing week due to the depletion of glycogen stores and decreased
water retention. The following topics will cover all aspects involved in the finishing process, in
addition to presenting some practical examples of the finishing of real athletes.

9.1 Depletion of glycogen stores

After finishing the cut and entering the finishing process, it will be necessary to deplete muscle
glycogen reserves, which leaves the athlete looking flat or withered. This process improves glucose
uptake by the muscles and facilitates subsequent filling of the physique during the carb-up, which
occurs approximately 1 to 3 days before the championship or presentation. At the end of the cut,
the individual's carbohydrate intake is already extremely low, which prevents the complete
replenishment of glycogen reserves used during training. This happens due to the high activity of
AMPK and low levels of insulin in this phase of planning.

During the final week, the diet can have its carbohydrate intake reduced even further, and can only
contain carbohydrates from fruits and vegetables. Carbohydrate intake during this phase varies
between 1 and 3g/kg of body weight, depending on the athlete's condition at the end of the cutting
phase and whether or not there is a need to lose more weight to fit into a certain category. It is
worth noting that very well-conditioned athletes, who are not too weak and are already close to or
within the weight limit of the desired category, can usually tolerate a higher carbohydrate intake
during the final week.

As an example, the finishing diet of athlete Bikini Lucienne Dias Ferreira for her third bodybuilding
competition (09/03/2022) will be used.

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MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cow's milk, skimmed, UHT 1 American cup 200g Skimmed yogurt (200g)
Psillyum 1 Tablespoon 20g Chia (15g) or Flaxseed (15g)
Formosa papaya 0.7 Slice 100g Melon (150g) or Grape (90g)
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Rice cracker 5 units 11.6g Oats (15g)
Grape, Italian, raw 25 Unit 100g Melon (180g) or Papaya (120g)
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked kabocha squash 7.5 Tablespoon 150g Potato (140g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 1.5 Fillet 150g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Raw beetroot 0.3 Unit 50g Fish (160g) or Lean Red Meat (110g)
Raw carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Lettuce salad 5 Leaves 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Olive oil, extra virgin 1 Teaspoon 5g
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Formosa Papaya 0.7 Slice 100g Grapes (90g) or Papaya (150g)
Chia 0.5 Tablespoon 10g Psyllium (15g) or Flaxseed (15g)
MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked Squash 7.5 Tablespoon 150g Potato (140g)
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 1.5 Fillet 150g Peas (50g) or Corn (40g)
Raw Beetroot 0.3 Unit 50g Fish (160g) or Lean red meat (110g)
Raw Carrot 0.3 Unit 50g
Lettuce Salad 5 Leaves 50g 150g of vegetables of your choice
Olive Oil, extra virgin 1 Tablespoon of tea 5g

The diet was composed of foods already present in the athlete's routine, considering the use of
foods with lower caloric density such as lean meats, vegetables, fruits, rice crackers and skim milk.
Vegetables and fruits should not be removed from the diet at any stage of the planning, as these
foods are excellent sources of vitamins, minerals and fiber, in addition to providing a greater volume
of food without adding many calories to the diet, thus promoting a good level of satiety and
intestinal health.

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It is important to mention that the athlete's daily diet was maintained unchanged for the seven
weeks prior to the competition, with only increases in free calories being made when necessary to
promote training performance. Since the athlete was in very good physical condition and had little
water retention in the week prior to the competition, it was not necessary to restrict carbohydrate
intake too much or adjust the diet.

Finishing diet for athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira – 45.2kg

Macronutrient Amount in grams Calories Amount in g/kg Calorie percentage
Proteins 117.5g 470kcal 2.6g/kg 38%
Carbohydrates 131.1g 524.4kcal 2.9g/kg 42.3%
Fats 27.1g 243.9kcal 0.6g/kg 19.7%
Total calories 1238.3kcal

In order to maintain performance in training, on the Sunday before the competition (08/28/2022)
that would be held on 09/03/2022, 1000kcal free were used with cornstarch cookies and dulce de
leche. The amount of carbohydrates to use in the finishing diet depends on the current physical
condition at the end of the cutting and whether there is a need to reach a certain body weight to fit
into a specific category.

The main objective of training during the finishing week is to keep the athlete's caloric expenditure
high and to increase the depletion of muscle glycogen, since this energy reserve is only used by the
muscles. To promote the depletion of muscle glycogen reserves, the training volume was increased,
especially for the muscle groups that needed to be more filled on the day of the competition, such
as the shoulders and glutes. In this case, it was not necessary to further restrict the diet.

Athlete's training volume in the finishing week

Muscle group Total series in the week
Quadriceps 14
Hamstrings 24
Glutes 25
Calves 11
Abdomen 11
Chest 3
Triceps 4
Biceps 9
Shoulders 30
Dorsals 17

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It is worth mentioning that the athlete was performing an average of 8 to 10 hours of aerobic
exercise per week at moderate to high intensity, which was maintained in the final week, since the
athlete was not so weakened.

Training sheet for finishing by Bikini athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira

Exercise Number of series Rep range Technique used Interval

Ventral board 1 90 seconds - -

Extension chair 2 20 to 25 - 1 to 2 minutes
Workout A – Free squat 3 10 to 12 - 2 to 3 minutes
Monday
Leg press 45º 3 10 to 12 Miniband below the 2 to 3 minutes
knee
Advance 6 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes
Seated flexor 5 15 to 20 - 1 to 2 minutes
Seated calf raise 3 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes

After training, a 30-minute pose training session was performed, followed by approximately 60
minutes of moderate-intensity aerobics.

Training sheet for finishing by Bikini athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira

Exercise Number of series Rep range Technique used Interval

Side plank 2 50 seconds - 1 to 2 minutes

Inverse crucifix 3 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes
Workout B –
Development 5 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes
Tuesday
Side raise 6 10 to 12 Drop set on the last 1 to 2 minutes
series only
Lateral raise in 5 8 to 10 - 1 to 2 minutes
inclined bench
Triceps pulley 3 12 to 15 - 1 to 2 minutes
Direct thread 3 12 to 15 - 1 to 2 minutes

After training, a 30-minute pose training session was performed, followed by approximately 60
minutes of moderate to high intensity aerobics.

Training sheet for finishing by Bikini athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira

Exercise Number of series Rep range Technique used Interval

Ventral board 1 90 seconds - -

Deadlift 3 8 to 10 - 1 to 2 minutes
Workout C –
Pelvic elevation 5 8 to 10 Miniband below the 1 to 2 minutes
Wednesday knees
Hip abduction 5 12 to 15 - 1 to 2 minutes
(cable)
Hip extension 5 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes
(cable)
Seated flexor 3 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes

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After training, a 30-minute pose training session was performed, followed by approximately 60
minutes of moderate-intensity aerobics.

Training sheet for finishing by Bikini athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira

Exercise Number of series Rep range Technique used Interval

Side plank 2 50 seconds - 1 to 2 minutes

Abdominal supra 3 15 to 20 - 1 to 2 minutes
Workout D –
Push-up 3 30 - 1 to 2 minutes
Tuesday
High pull 4 10 to 12 Drop set on the last 1 to 2 minutes
series only
Rowing saw 3 12 to 15 - 1 to 2 minutes
Low row 4 10 to 12 - 1 to 2 minutes
Pull down 5 12 to 15 - 1 to 2 minutes

After the workout, a 30-minute pose workout was performed, followed by approximately 60
minutes of moderate to high-intensity aerobic exercise. During the week, low-intensity aerobic
exercises (zombie-style walking) were performed to complete the average of 8 to 10 hours of
aerobic exercise per week. As the athlete was feeling weak on Thursday due to reduced glycogen
stores and dehydration, it was necessary to rest on Friday and start the carb-up, since there was no
need to reach a specific weight for the category.

9.2 Dehydration

This is a complex process that aims to remove all excess water retention from the athlete, leaving
the physique with a withered appearance and extremely thin skin folds. The dehydration process
occurs through the manipulation of the balance of fluids and mineral salts in the plasma, which
affects hormones responsible for controlling water balance and blood pressure. The relationship
between solute and solvent is called osmolarity. The solute in this case can be seen with mineral
salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, etc.) while the solvent is nothing more than the liquid portion of
the blood.

To stimulate dehydration, it is necessary to increase water intake, forcing hyperhydration, leading to

increased diuresis and decreased plasma volume. When osmolarity increases, it is a sign that there
is more solute than there should be in a given amount of solvent. The opposite occurs when
osmolarity decreases, that is, there is less solute than there should be in that amount of solvent. In
the brain, more specifically in the hypothalamus, osmoreceptors identify the amount of solute
present in the blood plasma and trigger specific responses to regulate osmolarity and thus control
the balance between solute and solvent.

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With an increase in osmolarity, due to excessive sodium intake for example, there will be a decrease
in the stimuli for urination and an increase in thirst, so the plasma volume tends to increase and
reestablish the balance.

This balance can be reestablished either by increasing water intake or by transferring fluids from the
intracellular to the extracellular environment. When osmolarity decreases due to a reduction in the
amount of solute in the plasma, there will be a decrease in water reabsorption in the kidneys and
an increase in diuresis. In this way, the volume of fluid in the plasma decreases and the balance can
be reestablished. Dehydration begins with hyperhydration, a process in which the individual
increases water intake to approximately 100 to 150 ml per kg of body weight for a few days in order
to decrease plasma osmolarity and enhance diuresis.

A very important hormone in this process is Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). The main function of ADH is basically to increase water retention in the body by decreasing
water excretion in the kidneys. With the increase in water intake, there is a certain inhibition of
ADH, consequently the body begins to retain less fluids and excrete more water through urine in
order to reestablish osmolarity. The day before the competition, water consumption is restricted to
promote dehydration. Normally, water intake is around 1 to 2 liters on that day just to aid in the
digestion and absorption of food, in addition to maintaining high diuresis while the osmolarity
balance is not reestablished. Below is the dehydration protocol used by athlete Lucienne Dias
Ferreira in her third competition.

Tea consumption (horsetail or

Date Water consumption hibiscus)
Saturday - 08/27 4 liters 1 liter
Sunday - 08/28 5 liters 1 liter
Monday - 08/29 6 liters 1 liter
Tuesday - 08/30 7 liters 1 liter
Wednesday - 08/31 8 liters 1 liter
Thursday - 09/01 8 liters 1 liter
Friday - 09/02 2 liters 1 liter
Saturday - D-Day - 08/03 100 ml with each meal

In this case, the athlete weighed around 43 kg at the beginning of the dehydration. Her water intake
started with 90 ml of water per kg of weight, plus 1 liter of tea with diuretic action. Water
consumption increased day after day until it reached around 190 ml of water per kg of weight plus 1
liter of tea with diuretic action. Since the athlete already consumed a lot of water (around 3 to 4
liters daily), it was necessary to use a greater amount of liquid to force dehydration. Individuals who
drink little water can dehydrate with something between 100 and 150 ml of water per kg of weight.

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Drinking teas with diuretic effects, such as horsetail and hibiscus, helps with the dehydration
process and is a great way to increase the athlete's urine output. It is important that the individual
continues to drink about 50 to 100 ml of water sporadically or with each meal on the day of the
competition to maintain increased urine output and prevent activation of the braking system. Water
is also used to aid in the digestion of food and to fill the muscles during the carb-up. A very common
mistake is to stop drinking water the day before or on the day of the competition, because with
increased urine output, a lot of water will be excreted and if the individual is not consuming liquids,
the osmolarity will increase, leaving the individual feeling flat and withdrawn.

The braking system basically increases water and sodium retention through the action of
catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
When an individual stops drinking water or restricts water intake too early, the body continues to
excrete a lot of water through increased diuresis until it reaches the point where osmolarity
increases and it is necessary to transfer water from the intracellular medium to the plasma and thus
balance the osmolarity again. If this happens, the athlete becomes deflated due to the loss of
intracellular water and retained due to the accumulation of extracellular fluid.

9.2.1 Alcohol and dehydration

Many athletes use alcoholic beverages to help with dehydration and even to help them relax
minutes before going on stage. Alcohol inhibits the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and, as a result,
increases the excretion of water and sodium. This effect of alcohol lasts for about 3 hours and can
activate the braking system after about 6 to 12 hours of ingestion to compensate for all the water
and sodium that were eliminated and thus balance the osmolarity again. The use of alcohol for
dehydration should be done with great caution, because if the athlete overdoes it or misses the
moment to drink it, it can leave the athlete stranded on stage.

9.3 Sodium pump

During cutting, food intake tends to decrease, resulting in a decrease in sodium consumption. It is
also important to take into account all the sodium that will be excreted due to increased water
intake during dehydration. Many athletes and coaches “zero out sodium” during the final week in
order to promote dehydration, which often ends up leaving the individual limp and held back on
stage by activating the braking system, which acts to inhibit diuresis and increase water and sodium
retention to establish osmolarity balance.

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It is worth mentioning that salt can be used normally to season food during the final week. As
previously mentioned, sodium intake decreases by reducing food consumption and not by removing
salt from the diet. Salt from food will only be removed during the carb-up, as there will be a
significant increase in food and sodium consumption. During the carb-up, there will be a lot of
glucose being directed to the resynthesis of muscle glycogen. This glucose ends up taking water and
sodium with it to the interior of the muscles, thus increasing muscle volume, removing even more
water from the extracellular environment.

The sodium pump basically consists of ingesting a large amount of sodium a few hours before the
athlete goes on stage. This strategy aims to promote dehydration and fill the intramuscular volume,
leaving the individual looking dry and full on stage. With the sudden increase in sodium intake,
there is a certain inhibition of aldosterone and ADH, which increases dehydration. This strategy
should be used by individuals who are in good physical condition, are filling out their physique well,
but still have some water retention.

The sodium pump is usually administered about 6 to 12 hours before the athlete goes on stage, and
is commonly consumed with foods such as pizza, snacks or chips. It is important to be careful not to
consume more sodium than necessary, as excess can activate the braking system and leave the
individual feeling sluggish and deflated. Individuals who are not very fit and have greater water
retention should avoid using the sodium pump, as this strategy can leave them feeling even more
sluggish. This strategy is generally used more often by athletes who are taking diuretics, as these
drugs increase the elimination of sodium and water.

Examples of foods to use in the sodium bomb (100g portions)

Food Calories Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Sodium
Doritos 480kcal 5.2g 56g 25.2g 492mg
Drop of gold 360kcal 4g 30g 24g 1516mg
Ruffles 564kcal 6.4g 48g 38.8g 516mg
Pizza 266kcal 11g 33g 10g 598mg
Cheeseburger 303kcal 15g 30g 14g 589mg

The food chosen should also take into account the composition of the food and the amount of
sodium per serving. Some individuals may need more sodium than others, the answer is very
individual.

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9.4 Carbohydrate Super Compensation (CARB-UP)

The carb-up or super carbohydrate compensation aims to replenish muscle glycogen stores and fill
out the athlete's physique, making him/her look bigger and leaner on stage. This phase usually
occurs 1 to 3 days before the competition, depending on the athlete's condition or whether he/she
needs to maintain weight to fit into a specific category. Carbohydrate intake varies from 6 to 14g/kg
of body weight each day of the carb-up, and can include a variety of foods such as rice, pasta, milk
flour, rice or cornstarch crackers, fruits, honey, dulce de leche, condensed milk, cereal, among
others. The foods used in the carb-up must have a lot of water, proteins, fats and sodium in their
composition, since the water and sodium in the foods ingested in the carb-up can influence the
dehydration process and leave the individual feeling constipated.

Examples of foods to use in the carb-up – 100g portions

Food Kcal Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Sodium
Rice 128kcal 28.1g 2.5g 0.2g 1.2mg
Noodle 158kcal 30.9g 5.8g 0.9g 0.1mg
Cassava 125kcal 30.1g 0.6g 0.3g 0.9mg
Cornstarch cookie 443kcal 75.2g 8.1g 12g 352mg
Milk cream 306kcal 59.5g 5.5g 6g 120.1mg
Condensed milk 313kcal 57g 7.7g 6.7g 93.8mg
Bee honey 309kcal 84g 0g 0g 6mg
Banana 91kcal 23.8g 1.4g 0.1g 0mg
Raisin 300kcal 79.3g 3.5g 0.7g 11.7mg

It is worth mentioning that the carb-up diet should be low in protein and fat to encourage greater
carbohydrate consumption, while maintaining a good fiber intake to avoid constipation. During the
finishing week, the processes of dehydration and depletion of glycogen stores occur together, which
leaves the athlete increasingly withered and weakened. The lower carbohydrate intake and high
training volume in this phase favor the depletion of glycogen stores and make the muscle more
sensitive to glucose uptake, so the carb-up can be done more efficiently. It is important to note that
with the uptake of glucose for the resynthesis of muscle glycogen, sodium and water also enter the
intracellular environment, which leaves the body drier and fuller.

If the athlete is in excellent condition and does not need to worry about the weight limit, the carb-
up can be started up to 3 days before the competition. In cases where the athlete is not very well-
conditioned, caution should be taken with the carb-up so as not to leave the individual feeling held
back. When the athlete needs to reach a certain weight to fit into a specific category, the carb-up
should only be started after weighing in. If the individual is close to the weight limit for the category,
the carb-up should be postponed or done with great caution. One way to work with carbohydrate
supercompensation is to start with larger meals, containing a large amount of carbohydrates to
favor an initial recharge of glycogen stores.

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After this initial recharge, it is possible to maintain the athlete's physical volume with foods with a
higher caloric density, avoiding discomfort caused by consuming such a large amount of food. As a
practical example, the carb-up menus of athletes Lucienne Dias Ferreira (Bikini) and Rodrigo Dias
(Classic Physique and Bodybuilder) will be used. The Bikini category requires the least muscle
volume among the female categories, so it is not necessary to do such an aggressive carb-up.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Milk, cow, skimmed, UHT 200g 1 American cup
Psillyum 20g 1 Tablespoon
Breakfast cereal (colored) 60g 2.7 Tablespoon
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Rice biscuit 5 units 11.6g
Grape, Italy, raw 25 Unit 100g
Sweet, milky, creamy 1 Tablespoon 20g
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 5 Tablespoon 100g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.5 Fillet 50g
Raisin 1 Tablespoon 20g
Sweet, milky, creamy 1 Tablespoon 20g
MEAL 4
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Dwarf banana 2 Unit 200g
Sweet, milky, creamy 1 Tablespoon 20g
MEAL 5
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 5 Tablespoon 100g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.5 Fillet 50g
Sweet, milky, creamy 1 Tablespoon 20g
Raisin 1 Tablespoon 20g

Lucienne's diet was planned using foods that she had already consumed previously, making it easier
to adhere to the diet. In this case, 5 solid meals were consumed the day before the competition to
promote greater recharging and initial filling. Carb-up of the athlete Bikini Lucienne Dias Ferreira –
Body weight on the eve of the competition 44 kg

Carb-up of athlete Bikini Lucienne Dias Ferreira – Body weight on the eve of the competition 44kg
Macronutrient Grams Calories Macros in g/kg Calorie percentage
Proteins 57.2g 228.8kcal 1.3g/kg 16.1%
Carbohydrates 277.2g 1108.8kcal 6.3g/kg 78.3%
Fats 8.8g 79.2kcal 0.2g/kg 5.6%
Total calories 1416.8kcal

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On the day of the carb-up, water intake was around 2 liters, and it was extremely important to
divide the water intake until the end of the night to avoid activating the braking system, in addition
to favoring the absorption and digestion of food. During the day of the competition, the body
volume was maintained by using cornstarch cookies, dulce de leche and banana in small quantities
according to the body response. At all meals, 100 ml of water was ingested to avoid activating the
braking system and aid in digestion. Approximately 2 hours before the stage, the athlete consumed
75g of salty snacks (Pingo de Ouro) to create a sodium pump and thus help fill out her physique,
making her skin even “closer” to her muscles. A few minutes before going on stage, the athlete ate
30g of milk chocolate to help with pre-stage anxiety and provide a quick energy boost, since the
poses demand a lot of energy from the athletes.

Completion week x Body ready on stage

Below is the carb-up for the first competition of the Classic Physique athlete Rodrigo Dias. In this
category it is necessary to maintain an excellent relationship between conditioning and muscle
volume, being necessary to work the carb-up with more caution to avoid harming the athlete's
condition.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 15 Tablespoons 300g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.5 Fillet 50g
Sweet, milky, creamy 3 Tablespoons 60g
Raisin 3 Tablespoons 60g
Psillyum 0.5 Tablespoon 10g
MEAL 2
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 10 Tablespoons 200g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.6 Fillet 60g

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Sweet, milky, creamy 2.5 Tablespoons 50g
Raisin 3 Tablespoons 60g
Psillyum 0.5 Tablespoon 10g
MEAL 3
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 10 Tablespoons 200g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.6 Fillet 60g
Sweet, milky, creamy 2.5 Tablespoons 50g
Raisin 3 Tablespoons 60g

Rodrigo's diet was designed using foods he was already familiar with, thus avoiding gastric
discomfort and facilitating adherence to the plan. The foods were initially distributed into 3 solid
meals with a large volume to promote satiety and ensure good initial filling.

Carb-up of Classic Physique athlete Rodrigo Dias – Body weight on the eve of the competition 68.1kg
Macronutrient Grams Calories Macros in g/kg Calorie percentage
Proteins 81.72g 326.8kcal 1.2g/kg 14.8%
Carbohydrates 408.6g 1634.4kcal 6g/kg 74.1%
Fats 27.2g 244.8kcal 0.4g/kg 11.1%
Total calories 2206kcal

Since the athlete needed to keep his weight below 70kg to remain in the desired category, the carb-
up was only done after weighing in the day before the competition. His physique responded well
initially, however, it was necessary to have another meal at the end of the day to keep his physique
full.

MEAL 1
FOOD HOME MEASUREMENT QUANTITY (g/ml) SUBSTITUTION
Cooked white rice 15 Tablespoon 300g
Chicken, breast, skinless, cooked 0.5 Fillet 50g
Sweet, milky, creamy 3 Tablespoons 60g
Raisin 3 Tablespoons 60g
Psillyum 0.5 Tablespoon 10g

On the first day of the carb-up, water intake was around 2 liters, and it is extremely important to
divide the water until the end of the night to avoid activating the braking system, in addition to
favoring the absorption and digestion of food.

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During the competition day, three more meals of larger food were consumed, using 200g of rice,
50g of chicken, 60g of dulce de leche and 60g of raisins at each meal. At each meal, 100ml of water
was ingested to avoid activating the braking system and aid in digestion. Throughout the day, the
athlete ate smaller meals with cornstarch cookies, dulce de leche and banana just to keep the body
full. Approximately 2 hours before the stage, 60g of salty snacks (pingo de ouro) were ingested to
create the sodium pump and thus help the body to fill out, making the skin even “closer” to the
muscles. A few minutes before going on stage, the athlete ingested 30g of milk chocolate to help
with pre-stage anxiety and provide a quick energy recharge, since the poses demand a lot of energy
from the athletes.

Completion week x Body ready on stage

9.5 Drugs used in the finalization

Several drugs can be used during the finishing phase to help the athlete arrive at the championship
in the best condition. Among the most commonly used drugs are diuretics, laxatives, antiflatulents
and stimulants. These drugs can be used to help the athlete fit into a certain weight category,
remove excess subcutaneous water to make the physique leaner on stage, aid in bowel movements,
reduce abdominal discomfort and alleviate fatigue caused by calorie restriction and dehydration.

If the athlete is more than 5 kg over the weight of the category on the day before the competition,
it will be more viable and less risky to let him compete in the heavier category, since abusing
diuretics and laxatives can make the individual flat and cause serious health risks. Normally the use
of anabolic steroids is suspended about 7 to 10 days before the competition to avoid discomfort
with applications, risk of inflammation and even to help reduce water retention and body weight so
that the athlete can fit into a certain category.

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9.5.1 Diuretics

This class of drugs is generally used to treat high blood pressure and edema, but bodybuilders,
fighters, fitness models and athletes from other sports use diuretics during the finishing week to
increase diuresis, reduce body weight to fit into a certain category and make their physique leaner.
Among the most commonly used diuretics are hydrochlorothiazide, furosemide and spironolactone.
It is worth mentioning that the use of diuretics can cause problems such as cramps, low blood
pressure, cardiac arrhythmias, nausea, vomiting and others. Many athletes eliminate sodium from
their diet, supplement potassium to avoid cramps and force dehydration with diuretics, saunas and
hot tubs, which can cause serious side effects and even death.

9.5.1.1 Hydrochlorothiazide

Hydrochlorothiazide basically inhibits the Na+/Cl transporter in the kidneys to increase the
excretion of water, sodium, chloride and potassium. This drug is less potent than loop diuretics and
is normally used in doses between 25 and 100 mg every 8 to 10 hours depending on the athlete's
condition. Its action begins approximately 2 hours after ingestion and has a prolonged effect
(approximately 6 to 12 hours), which is why it is usually used the day before the competition. This
drug has fewer side effects than other diuretics, however, potassium supplements may be necessary
to prevent cramps.

It is worth mentioning that diuretics should not be combined with other dehydration strategies such
as saunas, hot tubs or manipulation of sodium and other electrolytes, as, in addition to leaving the
athlete flat, they increase the risk of side effects and even death. This drug is normally used when
the athlete is about 2 to 3 kg above the category limit the day before the competition or in cases
where there is some water retention the day before the championship. This way, the individual can
reach the necessary weight and arrive at the competition in excellent physical condition.

To illustrate the use of diuretics, we will use the case of athlete Rodrigo Dias, who weighed 72 kg
two days before the competition, while the weight limit for his category was 70 kg. On the evening
of that same day, the athlete was given hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg), and was instructed to maintain
the dosage of 25 mg every 8 to 10 hours on average until he finished his performances in the
championship. The athlete reached 68.1 kg of body weight at the weigh-in that took place late in
the afternoon of the day before the competition. Many coaches and athletes make the mistake of
stopping the use of diuretics after the weigh-in, which ends up leaving the individual held up on
stage by the activation of the braking system.

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Diuretic protocol – Athlete Rodrigo Dias
Date Body weight Drug Dosage
01/09/2022 72kg 25mg every 8~10 hours
Hydrochlorothiazide
02/09/2022 (weighing) 68.1 kg 25mg every 8~10 hours
09/03/2022 (competition) 70kg 25mg every 8~10 hours

When the diuretic is removed, the body continues to excrete extracellular water until the point at
which osmolarity increases (due to the lower amount of water in relation to electrolytes in the
plasma), causing water from the intracellular environment to be transported to the extracellular
environment in order to normalize osmolarity, leaving the individual withered and retained.

9.5.1.2 Furosemide

A drug from the loop diuretic class that acts on the kidneys, more specifically on the loop of Henle
in the nephrons. This diuretic acts by blocking the Na+/K+/2Cl- transporter, resulting in increased
excretion of water, sodium, potassium and chloride. It is worth mentioning that this class of drug is
the most potent of the diuretics. Furosemide, in addition to causing great loss of potassium, also
increases the excretion of calcium and magnesium, which can cause problems such as metabolic
alkalosis, dehydration and increased uric acid. It is important to emphasize that diuretics should not
be combined with other dehydration strategies such as saunas, hot tubs or manipulation of sodium
and other electrolytes, as this, in addition to leaving the athlete flat, increases the risk of side effects
and even death.

Furosemide begins to act approximately one hour after taking the drug, its half-life is 1.5 hours and
its effects last for around 3 to 6 hours. Since this drug acts quickly, athletes usually only use it on the
day of the competition as a last resort to eliminate excess water retention in order to improve the
athlete's condition or fit into the desired category. Due to the increased excretion of potassium, it
may be necessary to supplement this mineral to avoid cramps and other problems.

9.5.1.3 Spirolactone

Among the three diuretics mentioned, spironolactone is the least potent, and this drug belongs to
the class of aldosterone antagonist diuretics. Aldosterone is an extremely important hormone in
controlling blood pressure, acting by increasing the reabsorption of water and sodium in the
kidneys, in addition to increasing the excretion of potassium.

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With its antagonistic action on aldosterone receptors, spirolactone inhibits the binding of
aldosterone to its receptors in the distal tubule and collecting system of the kidneys, thus increasing
the excretion of sodium and water, in addition to decreasing the excretion of potassium.
Spirolactone has a late-onset diuretic action, with peak action between 2 and 3 days after the start
of treatment, therefore, it is recommended that the use of the drug be started three days before
the weigh-in/competition. It is worth mentioning that the diuretic action of spirolactone lasts for
another 2 or 3 days after the use of the drug is stopped.

The half-life of spirolactone is approximately 1.5 hours, however, one of its metabolites has a longer
half-life, around 9 to 24 hours. Normally, the protocol with spirolactone is done with initial doses of
25 mg daily, which can be increased to 100 mg the day before the competition. Some athletes
combine spirolactone with hydrochlorothiazide or furosemide if they need to remove even more
water.

9.5.2 Laxatives

Laxative drugs can be used to aid in the dehydration process or to relieve abdominal discomfort
caused by constipation. In cases of abdominal pain, discomfort and constipation, the athlete can use
the suppository as a last resort. It is worth mentioning that excessive use of laxatives can lead to
activation of the braking system by causing forced dehydration, in addition to leading to intestinal
dryness, hemorrhoids and causing dependence on the drug for defecation.

If the athlete is having difficulty evacuating during the final week, it may be a good idea to use a
herbal medicine with a laxative effect and low risk of developing dependence, cascara sagrada,
which contains 20 to 30 mg of cascaroside A in its composition. This medicine can be found in
compounding pharmacies.

9.5.3 Antiflatulents

This type of drug is normally used to alleviate gastrointestinal discomfort caused by gas
accumulation, and is also useful for reducing gas and abdominal swelling in bodybuilding athletes
on the day of the carb-up and even on the day of the competition. A drug widely used for this
purpose is simethicone, which acts on the stomach and intestines by reducing the tension of
digestive fluids, culminating in the rupture of gas bubbles that are then expelled, reducing bloating
and abdominal discomfort. The action of simethicone begins between 10 and 30 minutes after
ingestion of the drug, normally used in doses of 10 to 20 drops throughout the day. Overdosages
can cause abdominal pain and diarrhea.

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Since this drug is not absorbed by the body, there is little chance of it causing side effects.
Simethicone acts on the stomach and intestines and is subsequently excreted in the feces without
undergoing changes.

9.5.4 Stimulants

During the finishing week and even on the day of the competition, many athletes use stimulants to
overcome the discomfort caused by caloric restriction, high levels of training and dehydration.
Among the most common drugs used for this purpose in bodybuilding is Potenay (mephentermine),
a veterinary substance with great stimulant power for the central nervous system. It is important to
mention that this drug does not have significant anabolic or thermogenic action, so there is no point
in using it for aesthetic purposes.

This drug is usually administered by intramuscular injections in doses ranging from 4 to 20 ml daily.
The action of this medication begins approximately 5 to 15 minutes after administration and lasts
for up to 4 hours. The most common side effects of using this substance are increased blood
pressure, arrhythmias, anxiety, insomnia, and it can also cause chemical dependency. Symptoms
such as lethargy, weakness, and malaise generally occur after stopping use. Other drugs such as
caffeine, clenbuterol, and ephedrine are also used at this stage to enhance lipolysis and generate a
stimulating effect, partially inhibiting fatigue and tiredness caused by calorie restriction and
dehydration.

It is worth mentioning that at the end the athlete has

already lost what he had to lose in terms of fat, with this
phase being more focused on removing excess water
retention and filling the athlete's muscles, leaving him in
the best condition for the stage.

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10. POST CONTEST

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In the post-competition phase, great care will be needed to control the rebound effect, which in
addition to facilitating fat gain can bring risks such as high blood pressure, edema, and others. Some
drugs used at the end of the cutting and in the final week, such as stimulants, thermogenics, and
diuretics, must be withdrawn. Some of these drugs can be withdrawn all at once, while others need
to be weaned off to avoid weight rebound. Immediately after the competition, the athlete must
rehydrate and eat, leaving him/her rehabilitated and with more energy. After the competition, the
individual can eat more freely, however, maintaining the diet with a good portion of clean calories
to provide good nutritional value to the plan, avoiding excesses so as not to gain too much weight
quickly.

10.1 Rehydration

The main priority as soon as the athlete steps off the stage will be rehydration, which can be done
by drinking water, isotonic drinks and/or coconut water, respecting the individual's thirst. This
process is extremely important, as it helps to reestablish the balance of electrolytes in the body and
cellular hydration, leaving the individual more energetic and looking healthier again. It is worth
mentioning that one should not force water intake after the competition, as this can cause gastric
discomfort, nausea and vomiting. In the week after the competition, hydration can continue as
normal, with between 35 and 50 ml of water for every 1 kg of the individual's body weight daily.

10.2 Energy replacement

Usually, after a competition, athletes go out to eat to celebrate their results or even to “satisfy the
craving” for certain foods after weeks or months of calorie restriction. This moment is very
important for the athlete’s psychological well-being, but it is necessary to respect hunger and not
overeat. At this time, many athletes eat more than they are hungry, feel sick and end up gaining
weight very quickly due to the rebound effect, increased water retention and excessive calorie
intake.

On the day of the competition, the athlete should eat more flexibly, satisfying the desire to consume
certain foods, but most of the calories in the diet should be reduced to avoid excess and provide a
good supply of vitamins, minerals and fiber. In the week after the competition, the diet can have
calories increased by about 30% to 40% of what was consumed in the final week, prioritizing the
consumption of foods such as rice, pasta, lean meats, dairy products, oats, fruits, vegetables and
legumes.

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The diet can continue with greater flexibility during this week, as long as the majority of calories are
made up of the foods mentioned above, thus avoiding excessive calorie and sodium intake so that
the athlete does not suffer excessively from weight regain. Many athletes gain more than 10 kg in
the week after the competition, this is due to the rebound effect of withdrawing stimulants,
diuretics and excess calories for several days. Very aggressive weight regain can harm the metabolic
environment, increase blood pressure, worsen cardiovascular risk and make the transition to
bulking more difficult.

It is recommended that the individual gain less than 10% of their body weight in the week after the
championship, and it is extremely important to control their caloric intake and maintain their caloric
expenditure. It is worth noting that much of the weight gained after the championship is due to
water retention, replenishment of glycogen and fat stores, depending on the control of caloric
intake. After one week of the competition, the athlete can transition to bulking or prepare for
another championship that will be held in the near future. If the individual is not competing again in
the next few days, caloric intake can gradually increase after each stagnation of weight for more
than 7 days, following the transition to bulking.

10.3 Withdrawal of drugs

At the end of the competition, stimulants should be weaned off, diuretics and other drugs used at
the end should be withdrawn. Diuretics, antiflatulents and laxatives can be discontinued without
the need for gradual weaning, however, the dosage of stimulants should be gradually reduced until
their use ceases. Drugs such as salbutamol, ephedrine and clenbuterol should have their dosage
gradually reduced every two or three days. The dosage of salbutamol can be reduced by
approximately 4 mg every 3 to 7 days, ephedrine can be reduced by approximately 25 mg every 2 to
3 days, while clenbuterol should have its dosage reduced by 1 ml every 3 to 7 days. It is worth
mentioning that drugs such as yohimbine and caffeine do not require weaning. With the gradual
withdrawal of stimulants, adrenergic receptors are gradually sensitized, not having such a
pronounced impact on weight gain when the use of these drugs is stopped.

10.4 Training

The week after the competition, the athlete can return to training, however, with reduced volume
and intensity, without using failure and/or advanced techniques. The sets can be performed with 1
to 5 repetitions in reserve to promote recovery, maintenance of hypertrophic stimulus and caloric
expenditure. Aerobic exercises should be performed at low volume and intensity.

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Aerobic exercise must be maintained both to increase calorie expenditure and to adapt to the
changes generated by exercise, such as increased mitochondrial biogenesis and improved
cardiorespiratory capacity. After one or two weeks of training with reduced volume and intensity,
the work volume can gradually increase again according to the individual's response and needs.

10.5 Back in the game, a second competition in a row

Many athletes leave a competition, take advantage of the fact that their physique is “ready” and
simply maintain their conditioning to compete again in a few days or weeks. If the athlete decides to
compete again in the near future (less than 4 weeks), stimulants should be introduced one or two
weeks before the first competition, allowing the use of stimulants to be continued until the second
championship. The diet can be relaxed after the first competition, using these extra calories as
energy reserves for training in the following weeks. The diet in the week after the first competition
can be maintained with a slight calorie deficit, aiming to replenish energy stores and enhance
training performance. Depending on the time remaining until the next competition, training volume
can be reduced in the week following the first championship, and failure and advanced techniques
should be eliminated. The volume of work and intensity can be increased to favor hypertrophic
stimulation and calorie expenditure in the following week. The athlete must rehydrate after
finishing the competition, maintain the normal hydration protocol (35 to 50 ml of water per kg of
weight) in the following days until dehydration begins for the second championship.

Below, the diet, training and medication strategy used for the transition periods between
competitions by athlete Lucienne Dias Ferreira in 2022 will be detailed.

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Dietary strategy used in the transition between upcoming competitions

Competition Dietary adjustments Training Drugs
IFBB-ES After finishing the The athlete did not train from The pharmacological protocol
Newcomers presentations, the athlete the day before the competition included the combination of
05/28/2022 rehydrated herself using until 05/31/2022 in order to caffeine
Gatorade and was allowed to avoid too much fatigue. + taurine + ephedrine in the
eat whatever she wanted on last weeks for the first
the day of the competition, but Training resumed the following competition in order to
without overdoing it. week with reduced volume, enhance fat burning and
without advanced techniques maintain a good state of
Acropolis Cup SPFF The following day (05/29/2022) or sets to failure, just to sustain alertness.
06/11/2022 the diet returned to what was caloric expenditure and
being done the week before generate a certain
completion, maintaining some hypertrophic stimulus. The drug protocol was
flexibility for another two or maintained until the end of the
three days. second competition.
On 06/06/2022 the training
On 06/01/2022, the flexibility volume and intensity were We used wine (alcohol) to help
of the diet was reduced to increased to prepare the with dehydration during the
accentuate the caloric deficit, athlete for the next second competition.
as there would be a next competition that would take
competition in two weeks. place on 06/11/2022.
After finishing the second
The final stage of the second competition, the drugs were
competition included the After the second competition, removed, without the need for
ingestion of an alcoholic there were 2 weeks of deload weaning due to the low
beverage (wine) to aid in training to promote recovery dosage used.
dehydration, in addition to a and then begin preparation for
higher sodium intake to test a new competition, however,
the athlete's response. with a few months to work.

After finishing her performances,

the athlete rehydrated and was
allowed to eat whatever she
wanted for a week, however,
controlling the quantities to
avoid aggressive weight gain.

Later the diet was adjusted to

begin a new preparation,
aiming for a championship
that would take place after a
few months.

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11.REFERENCES

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11.1 Articles

Carvalheira, José BC, Zecchin, Henrique G. and Saad, Mario JAInsulin Signaling Pathways. Brazilian
Archives of Endocrinology & Metabolism [online]. 2002, v. 46, n. 4 [Accessed 19 October 2022], pp.
419-425. Available at: <https://doi.org/10.1590/S0004-27302002000400013>. Epub 20 Nov 2002.
ISSN 1677-9487.

Ide, Bernardo & Lazarim, Fernanda & Macedo, Denise. (2011). Exercise-induced human skeletal
muscle hypertrophy. JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES. 1. 52. 10.21876/rcsfmit.v1i2.40.

UENOJO, Mariana; MAROSTICA JUNIOR, Mário Roberto; PASTORE, Gláucia Maria. Carotenoids:
properties, applications and biotransformation for the formation of aroma compounds. Chemistry.
Nova, São Paulo, v. 30, n. 3, p. 616-622, June 2007.

STRINGHINI, Maria Luiza Ferreira, et al. Advantages and disadvantages of the Atkins diet in the
treatment of obesity. Salusvita, Bauru, v. 26, n. 2, p. 257-268, 2007.

Stijn Soenen, Alberto G. Bonomi, Sofie GT Lemmens, Jolande Scholte, Myriam AMA Thijssen, Frank
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