UTS REVIEWER Personality refers to the total person in his/her

overt and covert behavior. The determinants of

WEEK 1: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
factors of personality are as follows:
self-understanding (1) provides a sense of
-Environmental Factors of Personality. The
purpose; (2) leads to healthier relationships; (3)
surroundings of an individual compose the
helps harness your natural strength; and (4)
environmental factors of personality. This
promotes confidence.
includes the neighborhood a person lives in, his
Self and personality characterized the way we school, college, university and workplace.
define our existence, also these refers on how Moreover, it also counts the social circle the
we organized our experiences that are reflected individual has. Friends, parents, colleagues, co-
to our behavior. workers and bosses, everybody plays a role as
the determinants of personality.
Personality
Biological Factors of Personality.
-The etymological derivative of personality
comes from the word “persona”, the theatrical 1) hereditary factors or genetic make-up of the
masks worn by Romans in Greek and Latin person that inherited from their parents. This
drama. Personality also comes from the two describes the tendency of the person to appear
Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which literally and behave the way their parents are;
means “to sound through”.
-Personality have no single definition since 2) physical features include the overall physical
different personality theories have different structure of a person: height, weight, color, sex,
views on how to define it. personality is that it is beauty and body language, etc. Most of the
a relatively permanent traits and unique
physical structures change from time to time,
characteristics that give both consistency and
individuality to a person’s behavior (Roberts & and so does the personality. With exercises,
Mroczek, 2008). cosmetics and surgeries, many physical features
-Personality plays a key role in affecting are changed, and therefore, the personality of
how people shape their lives. It involves the the individual also evolves; and
complex relationship of people with their
3) brain. The preliminary results from the
environment, how they cope and adjust
through life, and how they respond to electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research
demands of physical and social challenges. gives indication that better understanding of
-Personality is the overall pattern or human personality and behavior might come
integration of a person’s structure, modes of from the study of the brain.
behavior, attitudes, aptitudes, interests, Situational Factors of Personality situational
intellectual abilities, and many other
factors do alter a person’s behavior and
distinguishable personality traits. Personality
response from time to time. The situational
is the conglomeration of the following
factors can be commonly observed when a
components: physical self, intelligence,
character traits, attitudes, habits, interest, person behaves contrastingly and exhibits
personal discipline, moral values, principles different traits and characteristics.
and philosophies of life. Cultural Factors. Culture is traditionally
considered as the major determinants of an
Determinants of Personality
individual’s personality. The culture largely
determinants what a person is and what a
person will learn. The culture within a person is Answering the question 'Who am I?' can lead to
brought up, is very important determinant of a solid self-concept and self-understanding.
behavior of a person. Culture is complex of
Understanding of who you are as a person is
these belief, values, and techniques for dealing
called self-concept and understanding what
with the environment which are shared among
your motives are when you act is called self-
contemporaries and transmitted by one
understanding.
generation to the next.
self-concept is generally thought of as our
Personality Traits
individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities,
Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic and unique characteristics—a mental picture of
patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. who you are as a person.
Personality traits imply consistency and stability
According to the book Essential Social
—someone who scores high on a specific trait
Psychology by Richard Crisp and Rhiannon
Five-Factor Model. This system includes five Turner:
broad traits that can be remembered with the
-The individual self consists of attributes and
acronym OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness,
personality traits that differentiate us from
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
other individuals. Examples include introversion
“The Big Five” / Big 5 Trait Descriptions of or extroversion.
Personality Traits
-The relational self is defined by our
Openness- The tendency to appreciate new art, relationships with significant others. Examples
ideas, values, feelings, and behaviors. include siblings, friends, and spouses.

Conscientiousness- The tendency to be careful, -The collective self reflects our membership in
on-time for appointments, to follow rules, and social groups. Examples include British,
to be hard working. Republican, African-American, or gay.

Extraversion- The tendency to be talkative, WEEK 2: THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY

sociable, and to enjoy others; the tendency to
Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge
have a dominant style.
or wisdom from its Latin roots, philo (love) and
Agreeableness- The tendency to agree and go sophia (wisdom). This field is also considered as
along with others rather than to assert one “The Queen of All Sciences” because every
owns opinions and choices. scientific discipline has philosophical
foundations.
Neurotism- The tendency to be frequently
experience negative emotions such as anger, Socrates
worry, and sadness, as well as being
-A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to
itnerpersonally sensitive.
have the greatest influence on European
Traits are important and interesting because thought
they describe stable patterns of behavior that
-According to the history he was not able to
persist for long periods of time (Caspi, Roberts,
write any of his teachings and life’s account
& Shiner, 2005).
instead, he is known from the writings of his
student Plato who became one of the greatest
philosophers of his time. Socrates had a unique person during their childhood to adulthood
style of asking questions called Socratic Method. given the fact that they undergone
developmental changes throughout their
-Socratic Method or dialectic method involves
lifespan.
the search for the correct/proper definition of a
thing. In this method, Socrates did not lecture, Plato
he instead would ask questions and engage the
-A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea
person in a discussion. He would begin by acting
of a three-part soul/self that is composed of
as if he did not know anything and would get
reason, physical appetite and spirit or passion.
the other person to clarify their ideas and
resolve logical inconsistencies (Price, 2000). o The Reason enables human to think deeply,
make wise choices and achieve a true
-The foundation of Socrates philosophy was the
understanding of eternal truths. Plato also
Delphic Oracle’s that command to “Know
called this as divine essence.
Thyself”. Here, Socrates would like to emphasize
that knowing or understanding oneself should o The physical Appetite is the basic biological
be more than the physical self, or the body. needs of human being such as hunger, thirst,
and sexual desire.
-self is dichotomous which means composed of
two things: The physical realm or the one that is o And the spirit or passion is the basic emotions
changeable, temporal, and imperfect. The best of human being such as love, anger, ambition,
example of the physical realm is the physical aggressiveness and empathy.
world. The physical world is consisting of
anything we sense – see, smell, feel, hear, and -These three elements of the self works in every
taste. It is always changing and deteriorating. individual inconsistently. According to Plato, it is
The ideal realm is the one that is imperfect and always the responsibility of the reason to
unchanging, eternal, and immortal. This organize, control, and reestablish harmonious
includes the intellectual essences of the relationship between these three elements.
universe like the concept of beauty, truth, and
goodness. Moreover, the ideal realm is also -Plato also illustrated his view of the soul/self in
present in the physical world. One may define “Phaedrus” in his metaphor: the soul is like a
someone as beautiful or truthful, but their winged chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a
definition is limited and imperfect for it is white horse, representing Spirit, and a black
always relative and subjective. It is only the horse, embodying appetite. The charioteer is
ideal forms themselves that are perfect, reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the
unchanging, and eternal. eternal realm by controlling the two
independent-minded horses. Those charioteers
-a human is composed of body and soul, the who are successful in setting a true course and
first belongs to the physical realm because it ensuring that the two steeds work together in
changed, it is imperfect, and it dies, and the harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and
latter belongs to ideal realm for it survives the banquet with the gods. However, those
death. Socrates also used the term soul to charioteers who are unable to control their
identify self. horses and keep their chariot on track are
-The self, according to Socrates is the immortal destined to experience personal, intellectual,
and unified entity that is consistent over time. and spiritual failure.
For example, a human being remains the same
 wrong things which he believes will give him
happiness. Furthermore, he said that if man
loves God first and everything else to a lesser
St. Augustine degree, then all will fall into its rightful place.

He is considered as the last of the great ancient Rene Descartes

philosophers whose ideas were greatly Platonic.
-A French philosopher, mathematician, and
In melding philosophy and religious beliefs
considered the founder of modern philosophy.
together, Augustine has been characterized as
Christianity’s first theologian. -Descartes, famous principle the “cogito, ergo
sum—“I think, therefore I exist” established his
-Like Plato, Augustine believed that the physical
philosophical views on “true knowledge” and
body is different from the immortal soul. Early
concept of self.
in his philosophical development he described
body as “snare” or “cage” of the soul and said -He explained that in order to gain true
that the body is a “slave” of the soul he even knowledge, one must doubt everything even
characterized that “the soul makes war with the own existence. Doubting makes someone aware
body”. Later on he came to view the body as that they are thinking being thus, they exist. The
“spouse” of the soul, with both attached to one essence of existing as a human identity is the
another by a “natural appetite.” He concluded, possibility of being aware of our selves: being
“That the body is united with the soul, so that self-conscious in this way is integral to having a
man may be entire and complete, is a fact we personal identity. Conversely, it would be
recognize on the evidence of our own nature.” impossible to be self-conscious if we did not
have a personal identity of which to be
-According to St. Augustine, the human nature is
conscious. In other words, the essence of self is
composed of two realms:
being a thinking thing.
1. God as the source of all reality and truth.
-The self is a dynamic entity that engages in
Through mystical experience, man is capable of
metal operations – thinking, reasoning, and
knowing eternal truths. This is made possible
perceiving processes. In addition to this, self-
through the existence of the one eternal truth
identity is dependent on the awareness in
which is God. He further added that without
engaging with those mental operations.
God as the source of all truth, man could never
understand eternal truth. This relationship with He declared that the essential self or the self as
God means that those who know most about the thinking entity is radically different from the
God will come closest to understanding the true physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non-
nature of the world. material, immortal, conscious being,
independent of the physical laws of the universe
2. The sinfulness of man. The cause of sin or evil
while the physical body is a material, mortal,
is an act of mans’ freewill. Moral goodness can
non-thinking entity, fully governed by the
only be achieved through the grace of God.
physical laws of nature.
-He also stated that real happiness can only be
-He also maintained that the soul and the body
found in God. For God is love and he created
are independent of one another and each can
humans for them to also love. Problems arise
exist and function without the other. In cases in
because of the objects humans choose to love.
which people are sleeping or comatose, their
Disordered love results when man loves the
bodies continue to function even though their 5. Consciousness makes possible our belief that
minds are not thinking, much like the we are the same identity in different times and
mechanisms of a clock. different places.

-He identified the physical self as part of nature, -Although Locke and Descartes believed that a
governed by the physical laws of the universe, person or the self is a thinking intelligent being
and available to scientific analysis and who has the abilities to reflect and to reason,
experimentation, and the conscious self (mind, Locke was not convinced with the assumptions
soul) is a part of the spiritual realm, of Plato, St. Augustine and Descartes that the
independent of the physical laws of the individual self necessarily exists in a single soul
universe, governed only by the laws of reason or substance. For Locke, personal identity and
and God’s will. And because it exists outside of the soul or substance in which the personal
the natural world of cause-and-effect, the identity is situated are two very different things.
conscious self is able to exercise free will in the The bottom line of his theory on self is that self
choices it makes. is not tied to any particular body or substance. It
only exists in other times and places because of
John Locke
the memory of those experiences.
-An English philosopher and physician and
David Hume
famous in his concept of “Tabula Rasa” or Blank
Slate that assumes the nurture side of human -He was a Scottish philosopher and also an
development. empiricist.

-The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In -His claim about self is quite controversial
his essay entitled On Personal Identity (from his because he assumed that there is no self! In his
most famous work, Essay Concerning Human essay entitled, “On Personal Identity” (1739) he
Understanding) he discussed the reflective said that, if we carefully examine the contents
analysis of how an individual may experience of [our] experience, we find that there are only
the self in everyday living. He provided the two distinct entities, "impressions" and "ideas".
following key points:
-Impressions are the basic sensations of our
1. To discover the nature of personal identity, it experience, the elemental data of our minds:
is important to find out what it means to be a pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief, fear,
person. exhilaration, and so on.

2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being who - ideas are copies of impressions that include
has the abilities to reason and to reflect. thoughts and images that are built up from our
primary impressions through a variety of
3. A person is also someone who considers
relationships, but because they are derivative
themself to be the same thing in different times
copies of impressions, they are once removed
and different places.
from reality.
4. Consciousness as being aware that we are
-Hume considered that the self does not exist
thinking—always accompanies thinking and is
because all of the experiences that a person
an essential part of the thinking process.
may have are just perceptions and this includes
the perception of self. None of these
perceptions resemble a unified and permanent -Freud proposed how mind works, he called this
self-identity that exists over time. as provinces or structures of the mind. By
illustrating the tip of the iceberg which
-He further added that there are instances that
according to him represents conscious
an individual is limited in experiencing their
awareness which characterizes the person in
perception like in sleeping. Similarly, when
dealing with the external world. The observable
someone died all empirical senses end and
behavior, however, is further controlled by the
according to him, it makes no sense to believe
workings of the subconscious/unconscious
that self exists in other forms. As an empiricist,
mind.
Hume provide an honest description and
analysis of his own experience, within which -Subconscious serves as the repository of past
there is no self to be found. experiences, repressed memories, fantasies,
and urges. The three levels of the mind are:
-Hume explained that the self that is being
experienced by an individual is nothing but a 1. Id. This is primarily based on the pleasure
kind of fictional self. Human created an principle. It demands immediate satisfaction
imaginary creature which is not real. “Fictional and is not hindered by societal expectations.
self” is created to unify the mental events and
2. Ego. The structure that is primarily based on
introduce order into an individual lives, but this
the reality principle. This mediates between the
“self” has no real existence.
impulses of the id and restraints of the
Sigmund Freud superego.

-A well-known Australian psychologist and 3. Superego. This is primarily dependent on

considered as the Father and Founder of learning the difference between right and
Psychoanalysis. His influence in Psychology and wrong, thus it is called moral principle. Morality
therapy is dominant and popular in the 20th to of actions is largely dependent on childhood
21st century. upbringing particularly on rewards and
punishments.
-The dualistic view of self by Freud involves the
conscious self and unconscious self. According to Freud, there are two kinds of
instinct that drive individual behavior – the eros
-The conscious self is governed by reality
or the life instinct and the thanatos of the death
principle. Here, the self is rational, practical, and
instinct. The energy of eros is called libido and
appropriate to the social environment. The
includes urges necessary for individual and
conscious self has the task of controlling the
species survival like thrist, hunger, and sex.in
constant pressures of the unconscious self, as its
cases that human behaior is directed towards
primitive impulses continually seek for
destruction in the form of aggression and
immediate discharge.
violence, such are the manifestations of
-The unconscious self is governed by pleasure thanatos
principle. It is the self that is aggressive,
Gilbert Ryle
destructive, unrealistic and instinctual. Both of
Freud’s self needs immediate gratification and -A British analytical philosopher. He was an
reduction of tensions to optimal levels and the important figure in the field of Linguistic
goal of every individual is to make unconscious Analysis which focused on the solving of
conscious.
philosophical puzzles through an analysis of as a unity of all impressions that are organized
language. by the mind through perceptions. Kant
concluded that all objects of knowledge, which
-According to Ryle, the self is best understood as
includes the self, are phenomenal. That the true
a pattern of behavior, the tendency or
nature of things is altogether unknown and
disposition for a person to behave in a certain
unknowable (Price, 2000).
way in certain circumstances.
-For Kant, the kingdom of God is within man.
-He opposed the notable ideas of the previous
God is manifested in people’s lives therefore it is
philosophers and even claimed that those were
man’s duty to move towards perfection. Kant
results of confused conceptual thinking he
emphasized that people should always see duty
termed, category mistake.
as a divine command (Price, 2000).
-The category mistake happens when we speak
Paul and Patricia Churchland
about the self as something independent of the
physical body: a purely mental entity existing in -An American philosopher interested in the
time but not space fields of philosophy of mind, philosophy of
science, cognitive neurobiology, epistemology,
Immanuel Kant
and perception.
-A German Philosopher who made great
-Churchlands’ central argument is that the
contribution to the fields of metaphysics,
concepts and theoretical vocabulary that people
epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely
use to think about the selves—using such terms
regarded as the greatest philosopher of the
as belief, desire, fear, sensation, pain, joy—
modern period.
actually misrepresent the reality of minds and
-Kant maintained that an individual self makes selves. He claims that the self is a product of
the experience of the world comprehensible brain activity.
because it is responsible for synthesizing the
-The behavior of the self can be attributed to
discreet data of sense experience into a
the neuropharmacological states, the neural
meaningful whole.
activity in specialized anatomical areas.
-It is the self that makes consciousness for the
-Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia
person to make sense of everything. It is the
Churchland, the modern scientific inquiry looks
one that help every individual gain insight and
into the application of neurology to age-old
knowledge. If the self failed to do this
problems in philosophy. The philosophy of
synthesizing function, there would be a chaotic
neuroscience is the study of the philosophy of
and insignificant collection of sensations.
science, neuroscience, and psychology. It aims
-Additionally, the self is the product of reason, a to explore the relevance of neurolinguistic
regulative principle because the self regulates experiments/studies to the philosophy of the
experience by making unified experience mind.
possible and unlike Hume, Kant’s self is not the
-Patricia Churchland claimed that man’s brain is
object of consciousness, but it makes the
responsible for the identity known as self. The
consciousness understandable and unique.
biochemical properties of the brain according to
-Transcendental apperception happens when this philosophy of neuroscience is really
people do not experience self directly, instead
responsible for man’s thoughts, feelings, and -According to him, the world and the sense of
behavior. self are emergent phenomena in the ongoing
process of man’s becoming.
-Paul Churchland is one of the many
philosophers and psychologists that viewed the -Phenomenology provides a direct description
self from a materialistic point of view, of the human experience which serves to guide
contending that in the final analysis mental man’s conscious actions. He further added that,
states are identical with, reducible to, or the world is a field of perception, and human
explainable in terms of physical brain states. consciousness assigns meaning to the world.
This assumption was made due to the Thus man cannot separate himself from his
physiological processes of the body that directly perceptions of the world.
affecting the mental state of the person. The
-Perception is not purely the result of sensations
advent of sophisticated technology and
nor it is purely interpretations. Rather
scientific research gives hope to understand the
consciousness is a process that includes sensing
connection between the physical body and the
as well as interpreting/reasoning.
mind/brain relationship that integrated in the
self. WEEK 3: THE SELF ACCORDING TO SOCIOLOGY
AND ANTHROPOLOGY
-Being an eliminative materialist, he believes
that there is a need to develop a new Sociology and Anthropology- two interrelated
vocabulary and conceptual framework that is disciplines that contributes to the
grounded in neuroscience. This new framework understanding of self. Sociology presents the
will be a more accurate reflection of the human self as a product of modern society. It is the
mind and self. science that studies the development, structure,
interaction, and collective behavior of human
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
being. On the other hand, Anthropology is the
-A French philosopher and phenomenologist. study of humanity. This broad field takes an
interdisciplinary approach to looking at human
-He took a very different approach to the self
culture, both past and present. The following
and the mind/body “problem.” According to
set of sociologists and anthropologist offered
him, the division between the “mind” and the
their views about self.
“body” is a product of confused thinking. The
self is experienced as a unity in which the George Herbert Mead and the Social Self
mental and physical are seamlessly woven
-Mead is an American philosopher, sociologist,
together. This unity is the primary experience of
and psychologist. He is regarded as one of the
selves and begin to doubt it when an individual
founders of social psychology and the American
use their minds to concoct abstract notions of a
sociological tradition in general. Mead is well-
separate mind and body.
known for his theory of self.
-Developed the concept of self-subject and
-He postulated that, the self represents the sum
contended that perceptions occur existentially.
total of people’s conscious perception of their
Thus, the consciousness, the world, and the
identity as distinct from others. Mead argued
human body are all interconnected as they
that the self like the mind is social emergent.
mutually perceive the world.
This means that individual selves are the
products of social interaction and not logical or 3. The Game Stage. Here, the child is about
biological in nature. eight or nine years of age and now does more
than just role-take. The child begins to consider
-He claimed that the self is something which
several tasks and various types of relationships
undergoes development because it is not
simultaneously. Through the learnings that were
present instantly at birth. The self arises in the
gained in stage two, the child now begins to see
process of social experience and activity as a
not only his own perspective but at the same
result of their relations to the said process as a
time the perspective of others. In this final stage
whole and to other individuals within that
of self development, the child now has the
process. In other words, one cannot experience
ability to respond not just to one but several
their self alone, they need other people to
members of his social environment.
experience their self.
-Generalized other the person realizes that
-The social emergence of self is developed due
people in society have cultural norms, beliefs
to the three forms of inter-subjective activity,
and values which are incorporated into each
the language, play, and the game.
self. This realization forms basis of how the
-He proposed the stages of self formation: person evaluate themselves.

1. Preparatory Stage. Mead believed that the -The self, according to Mead is not merely a
self did not exist at birth. Instead, the self passive reflection of the generalized other. The
develops over time. Its development is responses of the individual to the social world
dependent on social interaction and social are also active, it means that a person decides
experience. At this stage, children’s behaviors what they will do in reference to the attitude of
are primarily based on imitation. It was others but not mechanically determined by such
observed that children imitate the behaviors of attitudinal structures. Here, Mead identified the
those around them. At this stage, knowing and two phases of self:
understanding the symbols are important for
1. the phase which reflects the attitude of the
this will constitute their way of communicating
generalized other or the “me”; and
with others throughout their lives.
2. the phase that responds to the attitude of
2. The Play Stage. Skills at knowing and
generalized other or the “I”.
understanding the symbols of communication is
important for this constitutes the basis of -In Mead’s words, the "me" is the social self,
socialization. Through communication, social and the "I" is a response to the "me". Mead
relationship are formed. Now children begin to defines the "me" as "a conventional, habitual
role play and pretend to be other people. Role- individual and the “I” as the “novel reply” of the
taking in the play stage is the process of individual to the generalized other.
mentally assuming the process of another
-Generally, Meads theory sees the self as a
person to see how this person might behave or
perspective that comes out of interactions, and
respond in a given situation (Schefer, 2012). The
he sees the meanings of symbols, social objects,
play stage is significant in the development of
and the self as emerging from negotiated
the self. It is at this stage where child widens his
interactions.
perspective and realizes that he is not alone and
that there are others around him whose The Self as a product of modern society among
presence he has to consider. other constructions
Georg Simmel is also changing. It becomes more and more
separated from subjectivity (subjective culture)
-Simmel was a German sociologist, philosopher,
due to division of labor and market economy.
and critic. He was intensely interested in the
Many products are easily replaced, subjected to
ways in which modern, objective culture
the dynamics of fashion and diversification of
impacts the individual’s subjective experiences.
markets which leads to inappropriate sign use.
-In contrast to Mead, Simmel proposed that
-Money creates a universal value system
there is something called human nature that is
wherein every commodity can be understood.
innate to the individual. This human nature is
Money also increases individual freedom by
intrinsic to the individual like the natural
pursuing diverse activities and by increasing the
inclination to religious impulse or the gender
options for self-expression. Money also makes
differences. He also added that most of our
the individual to be less attached to the
social interactions are individual motivations.
commodities because the individual tends to
-Simmel as a social thinker made a distinction understand and experience their possession less
between subjective and objective culture. The in terms of their intrinsic qualities and more of
individual or subjective culture refers to the their objective and abstract worth. Additionally,
ability to embrace, use, and feel culture. money also discouraged intimate ties with
people. Money comes to stand in the place of
-Objective culture is made up of elements that almost everything – and this includes
become separated from the individual or relationship! Money further discourages
group’s control and identified as separate intimate ties by encouraging a culture of
objects. calculation.
There are interrelated forces in modern society -Because of urbanization, Simmel observed that
that tend to increase objective culture according social networks also changed. Group affiliations
to Simmel. These are urbanizations, money, and in urban is definitely different from rural settings
the configuration of one’s social network. wherein the relationship are strongly influenced
-Urbanization is the process that moves people by family. An individual tends to seek
from country to city living. This result to the membership to the same group which makes
concentration of population in one place the family as basic socialization structure. This
brought about by industrialization. This paved natural inclination to join groups is called by
way to the organization of labor or increased Simmel as organic motivation and the grouping
division of labor, which demands specializations is called primary group. This group is based on
wherein this creates more objective culture. ties of affection and personal loyalty endure
over long periods of time, and involve multiple
-Simmel also stressed that the consumption of aspects of a person’s life.
products has an individuating and trivializing
effect because this enables the person to create -On the other hand, in the modern urban
self out of things. By consumption, an individual settings, group membership is due to rational
able to purchase things that can easily motivation or membership due to freedom of
personalized or express the self. People used choice. This characterized the secondary group
commodities to create self-concept and self- which is goal and utilitarian oriented, with a
image. Simmel also said that products used in narrow range of activities, over limited time
the modernity to express and produced the self spans. As a result, it is more likely that an
individual will develop unique personalities.
Moreover, Simmel said that a complex web of Anthropologists are identification of probable
group affiliations produces role conflicts and causes of diseases, physical mutation, and
blasé attitude. Role conflict is a situation that death, evolution, and comparison of dead and
demands a person of two or more roles that living primates. They are interested in explaining
clash with one another. Blasé attitude is an how the biological characteristics of human
attitude of absolute boredom and lack of being affects their way of living. Accordingly,
concern. This is the inability or limited ability to human beings at present still share the same
provide emotional investment to other people. biological strengths and vulnerabilities. Like
eating balanced nutrients and minerals that are
The Self and Person in the Contemporary
beneficial to all human beings while being
Anthropology
exposed to a virus in a pandemic might cause
The four subfields of anthropology – negative implications to many.
Archeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics,
--Linguistic Anthropology. Focused on using
and Cultural Anthropology, suggest that human
language as means to discover a group’s manner
beings are similar and different in varying ways
of social interaction and their worldview.
and tendencies. For example, people have the
Anthropologists in this field want to discover
same need for food and water, but they have
how language is used to create and share
different means on how to satisfy them. These
meanings, to form ideas and concepts and to
similarities and differences make life so
promote social change. Furthermore, they also
interesting. As one learn facts/information that
study how language and modes of
make them similar to the other, they will also
communication changes over time.
discover that they have different characteristics
the define them. This knowledge aims to --Cultural Anthropology. Focused in knowing
highlight the uniqueness of each person and what makes one group’s manner of living forms
making them value life and existence even an essential part of the member’s personal and
more. The subfields of Anthropology are as societal identity. This encompasses the
follows: principles of Theory of Cultural Determinism
which suggests that the human nature is
--Archeology. Focus on the study of the past and
determined by the kind of culture he is born
how it may have contributed to the present
and grew up in. Cultural diversities are
ways of how people conduct their daily lives.
manifested in different ways and different levels
Archeologists have so far discovered the unique
of dept. The following are the ways in which
ways in which human beings adapted to the
culture may manifest itself in people:
changes in their environment in order for them
to survive. Among their discoveries around the -Symbols. These are the words, gestures,
world is the species, homo sapiens did not pictures or objects that have recognized or
become extinct because of their ability to think, accepted meaning in a particular culture.
use tools and learn from experience. In relating Example: colors have similar meaning across all
to the contemporary society, people still aim for cultures.
survival, for their basic needs to be fulfilled and
-Heroes. These are persons from the past or
to live legacy to their society.
present who have characteristics that are
--Biological Anthropology. Focus on how the important in culture. They may be real of work
human body adapts to the different earth of fictions. Example: Fiction – Thor, Captain
environments. Among the activities of America; Real – Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini.
-Rituals. These are activities participated by a Psychology- scientific study of mental processes
group of people for the fulfilment of desired and human behavior. It aims to describe,
objectives and are concerned to be socially analyze, predict, control human behavior in
essential. Example: Wedding, fiesta, Christmas general. Self is an essential construct in
celebration, graduation, etc. psychology because it fulfills the goals of the
discipline in studying human and the reason for
-Values. These are considered to be the core of
their action. Many psychologists tried to define
every culture. These are unconscious, neither
the origin of mental processes and behavior but
discuss or observed, and can only be inferred
they all settle down with numerous theories
from the way people act and react to situations.
and assumptions. The following descriptions on
Example: hospitality, respect for elders etc.
the formation of self were presented for you to
-The field of Anthropology offers another way have a clear picture on the psychological
by which a person can view themselves. As self perspective of self.
is formed or determined by the past and
The Self as Cognitive Construction
present condition, by biological characteristics,
the communication and language use, and the The cognitive aspect of the self is known as self-
lifestyle we choose to live. concept. Self-concept is defined as self-
knowledge, a cognitive structure that includes
The Self Embedded in the Culture
beliefs about personality traits, physical
Clifford Geertz- was an Anthropology Professor characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles,
at the University of Chicago. He studied as well as the knowledge that an individual exist
different cultures and explored on the as individuals. As humans grow and develop,
conception of the self in his writings entitled, self-concept becomes abstract and more
“The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the complex.
Concept of Man” (1966) in his fieldwork at Java,
-According to the psychologist Dr. Bruce A.
Bali and Morrocco.
Bracken in 1992, there are six specific domains
-The analysis of Geertz (1966) in his cultural that are related to self-concept these are:
study about the description of self in Bali is that
1) the social domain or the ability of the person
the Balinese person is extremely concerned not
to interact with others;
to present anything individual (distinguishing
him or her from others) in social life but to 2) the competence domain or the ability to
enact exclusively a culturally prescribed role or meet the basic needs;
mask. In one instance, Geertz (1973) gave an
3) the affect domain or the awareness of the
example of the stage fright that pervades
emotional states;
persons in Bali because they must not be
publicly recognizable as individual selves and 4) the physical domain or the feelings about
actors points precisely to the fact that agency or looks, health, physical condition, and overall
an ability to act in one’s own account is an appearance;
integral ability of human beings—an ability
which continually threatens the culturally 5) academic domain or the success or failure in
established norm of nonindividuality the school; and

WEEK 4: THE SELF ACCORDING PSYCHOLOGY 6) family domain or how well one function
within the family unit.
William James and the Me-Self and I-Self -A wide gap between the ideal self and the self-
concept indicates incongruence and an
William James is a well-known figure in
unhealthy personality. Psychologically healthy
Psychology who is considered as the founder of
individuals perceive little discrepancy between
functionalism. He brought prominence to U.S.
their self-concept and what they ideally would
psychology through the publication of The
like to be.
Principles of Psychology (1890) that made him
more influential than his contemporaries in the Multiple versus Unified Self
field.
-According to Multiple Selves Theory, there are
-James made a clear distinction between ways different aspects of the self exist in an
of approaching the self – the knower (the pure individual. From here, we can say that self is a
or the I – Self) and the known (the objective or whole consist of parts, and these parts manifest
the Me – Self). The function of the knower (I- themselves when need arise.
Self) according to James must be the agent of
-Gregg Henriques proposed the Tripartite Model
experience. While the known (Me-Self) have
of Human Consciousness, wherein he described
three different but interrelated aspects of
that self is consist of three related, but also
empirical self (known today as self-concept): the
separable domains these are the experimental
Me viewed as material, the Me viewed as social,
self, private self, and public self.
and the Me viewed as spiritual in nature.
o The experiential self or the theater of
-The material self is consists of everything an
consciousness is a domain of self that defined as
individual call uniquely as their own, such as the
felt experience of being. This includes the felt
body, family, home or style of dress. On the
consistency of being across periods of time. It is
other hand, social self refers to the recognition
tightly associated with the memory. This is a
an individual get from other people. Lastly,
part of self that disappears the moment that an
spiritual self refers to the individual inner or
individual enter deep sleep and comes back
subjective being.
when they wake up.
Real and Ideal Self
o The private self consciousness system or the
Carl Rogers -best known as the founder of narrator/interpreter is a portion of self that
client-centered therapy and considered as one verbally narrates what is happening and tries to
of the prominent humanistic or existential make sense of what is going on. The moment
theorists in personality. His therapy aimed to that you read this part, there is somewhat like a
make the person achieve balance between their “voice” speaking in your head trying to
self-concept (real-self) and ideal self. understand what this concept is all about.

-The real self includes all those aspects of one's o Lastly, the public self or Persona, the domain
identity that are perceived in awareness. These of self that an individual shows to the public,
are the things that are known to oneself like the and this interacts on how others see an
attributes that an individual possesses. individual. Henriques’ Tripartite Model attempts
to capture the key domains of consciousness,
-The ideal self is defined as one’s view of self as
both within the self and between others.
one wishes to be. This contains all the
aspirations or wishes of an individual for -Unified being is essentially connected to
themselves. consciousness, awareness, and agency. A well-
adjusted person is able to accept and -His personality theory, The Social Cognitive
understood the success and failure that they Theory asserts that a person is both proactive
experienced. They are those kinds of person and agentic, which means that we have the
who continually adjust, adapt, evolve and capacity to exercise control over our life. This
survive as an individual with integrated, unified, theory emphasized that human beings are
multiple selves. proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective, and
self-organizing.
True versus False Self
-Self as proactive means an individual have
Donald Winnicott- was a pediatrician in London
control in any situation by making things
who studied Psychoanalysis with Melanie Klein,
happen. They act as agent in doing or making
a renowned personality theorist and one of the
themselves as they are. Agency is a defining
pioneers in object relations and development of
feature of modern selfhood. Agents assume
personality in childhood.
some degree of ownership and control over
-According to him, false self is an alternative things, both internally (I control my own
personality used to protect an individual’s true thoughts) and externally (I make things happen
identity or one’s ability to “hide” the real self. in the environment). The ability of an individual
The false self is activated to maintain social to pursue their goals in life is an example of
relationship as anticipation of the demands of agentic approach to self.
others. Compliance with the external rules or
-According to Bandura (1989), self-efficacy
following societal norms is a good example of
beliefs determine how people feel, think,
this. false self can be a healthy self if it is
motivate themselves and
perceived as functional for the person and for
the society and being compliant without the behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse
feeling of betrayal of true self. On the other effects through four major processes. They
hand, unhealthy false self happens when an include cognitive, motivational, affective and
individual feels forced compliance in any selection processes. A strong sense of efficacy
situation. enhances human accomplishment and personal
well-being in many ways.
-On the contrary, true self has a sense of
integrity and connected wholeness that is -In contrast Bandura (1989) said that people
rooted in early infancy. The baby creates who doubt their capabilities shy away from
experiences of a sense of reality and sense of difficult tasks which they view as personal
life worth living. Winnicott claimed that true self threats. They have low aspirations and weak
can be achieved by good parenting that is not commitment to the goals they choose to
necessarily a perfect parenting. pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they
dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the
The Self as Proactive and Agentic
obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of
Albert Bandura-is a psychologist and Professor adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on
Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at how to perform successfully. They fall easy
Stanford University. He is known for his theory victim to stress and depression.
of social learning by means of modeling. He is
WEEK 5: THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND
famous for his proposed concept of self-efficacy.
ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought

Cultural differences and environment creates -Example of the description would include an
different perceptions of the self. The most individual identifies primarily with self, with the
common distinction between people and needs of the individual being satisfied before
cultures is the Eastern-Western distinction. those of the group. Looking after and taking
Eastern are known as the Asian countries, and care of ourselves, being self-sufficient,
Western represents the Europe and Northen guarantees the well-being of the group.
America. It must be noted that countries who Independence and self-reliance are greatly
are geographically closer to each other my share stressed and valued.
commonalities, but factors that may create
-In general, people tend to distance themselves
diffrences must be considered.
psychologically and emotionally from each
Individualistic versus Collective Self other. One may choose to join groups, but group
membership is not essential to one’s identity or
Understanding individualism and collectivism
success. Individualist characteristics are often
could help in the understanding of the cross-
associated with men and people in urban
cultural values of a person. Not every culture is
settings.
at one end or the other of the spectrum, but the
majority tend to favor one over the other in -Western cultures are known to be
everyday life. individualistic.

Individualistic Self Collective Self

-Individualism is not the idea that individuals -Collectivism is the idea that the fundamental
should live like isolated entity, nor the idea that unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and
they should never get or give help from others, acts toward goals is not the individual, but some
nor the idea that an individual never owes group. In different variants, this group may be
anything to other people. the family, the city, the economic class, the
society, the nation, the race, or the whole
-Individualism is the idea that the fundamental
human species. The group exists as a super-
unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and
organism separate from individuals: A group
acts toward goals is the individual. This means
may make its own decisions, acts apart from the
that we can form our own independent
actions of individuals, and has its own interests
judgments, act on our own thoughts, and
apart from those of the individuals that
disagree with others.
compose it.
-Each adult individual can consider what is in his
-Under collectivism, individuals are analogous to
own best interests. Each can act on his own
ants in the protection of their queen ant. The
private motivations and values and can judge
individual ant doesn’t have minds of their own,
other people as good people to form
and generally cannot disagree with the hive.
relationships with, or as bad people to be
Any ant that acts in a way contrary to the
avoided. Each can decide whether to cooperate
interests of the group is a malfunctioning ant. If
with others to solve problems. Each can choose
an ant does not follow the certain pattern of
to think for himself about the conclusions that
how they protect their queen, it will be entirely
the majority of others in a group come to,
unable to support itself, find other ants that
accepting or rejecting their conclusions as
support other queen ant and will surely die in
indicated by his own thought.
short order. If the malfunctioning ant stays
within the group, it will be a threat to the line Real things are not only visualized but
appropriate to protecting the queen ant. immaterial things like thoughts, ideas and
memories would be given emphasis.
-Examples of the collectivist thinking is when
our identity is in large part, a function of our o Western self as monotheistic. Monotheism
membership and role in a group, e.g., the family can be known as the rigid consequence of the
or work team. The survival and success of the doctrine of normal human being. It is like
group ensures the well-being of the individual, forcing the concentration of supernatural
so that by considering the needs and feelings of capabilities.
others, one protects oneself. Harmony and the
o Western self as individualistic. The emphasis
interdependence of group members are
on individualism has direct and indirect effects
stressed and valued. Group members are
on both the presentation of self (in public ways)
relatively close psychologically and emotionally,
and the experience of the self (in private
but distant toward non-group members.
awareness).
Collectivist characteristics are often associated
with women and people in rural settings. o Western Self as materialistic and rationalistic.
The western accentuation of rational, scientific
Asian countries are known to be collective in
approach to reality has tended to define
nature.
spiritual and immaterial phenomena as
The Social Construction of the Self in Western potentially superstitious and dangerous. In any
Thought society, belief system is stratified and composed
of a hierarchy of interrelated, causal-
-Self has been an area of interest by French and
explanatory models.
English philosophers, and evident in the ideas of
Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato. The Self as Embedded in Relationships and
through Spiritual Development in Confucian
-Descartes in 17th century emphasized the self
Thought
in his dictum “I think therefore I am” which
claims that cognitive basis of the person’s -Confucius was born in the period of the Zhou
thoughts is proof for the existence of the self. Dynasty in 551 BCE in the state of Lu. He grew
up poor although he was descended from
-Kant believed that the self is capable of actions
scholarly family.
that entitles it to have rights as an autonomous
agent. -Confucius philosophy is known as humanistic
social philosophy which focusses on human
-Here are some qualities imparted to the
beings and the society in general.
Western subjective self. It sketches some
features on subjectivity and ways of thinking of -Confucianism is centered on ren which can be
western persons. This provides an manifested through the li (propriety), xiao
impressionistic profile through the use of a few (filiality), and yi (rightness). For Confucius, ren
strokes characterizing some ways of being and reflects the person’s own understanding of
thinking of many western persons. humanity. It is found within each person and
can be realized in one’s personal life and
o Western self as analytic. Since analytic and
relationship. Ren guides human actions that
inductive modes of thinking were prominent for
makes life worth living which can be realized
person in western cultures, to see objects as
through li, xiao, and yi:
divisible combinations of yet smaller objects.
o Li the propriety. Rules of propriety should be THE PHYSICAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF
followed to guide human actions. These rules ESTEEM- Understanding the self of in different
are the customs, ceremonies, and traditions classification of physical aspects is one way to
that forms the basis of li. According to discover a person’s real self.
Confucius, “to master oneself and return to
The concept of Physical Self
propriety is humanity” (Koller, 2007). Self
mastery involves self development. Self mastery ● The understanding of the Physical self is
is characterized by self-control and the will to shaped by biological and environmental factors.
redirect impulses to change these to socially
accepted expression of human nature. Li ● The Biological blueprint involves Heredity and
conforms to the norms of humanity, thus one its important factors. Heredity is defined as the
must fulfill their duties and responsibilities in transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
this five (5) relationships: father and son, ruler The traits are made up of specific information
and subject, older and younger brothers, embedded within one’s gene. Genotype refers
husband and wife, friend and friend. to the specific information embedded within
one’s genes; not all genotypes translate to an
o Xiao the filiality. This is the virtue of reverence observed physical characteristic. Phenotype is
and respect for the family. Parents should be the physical expression of a particular trait. Each
revered for the life they and given. Children individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes,
show respect to their parents by exerting efforts which are threadlike bodies in the nucleus of
to take care of themselves. Reverence for the cell and the storage unit of genes. The 23rd
parents and family is further demonstrated by pair, also known as sex chromosomes,
bringing honor to the family, making something determines the sex of an individual. Within each
of himself and to earn respect of other. If, chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid
however, the person is having difficulty giving (DNA), which is a nucleic acid that contains the
his family the honor that they deserved, he genetic instructions specifying the biological
should just do this best to not disgrace the development of every individual.
family. Relationship that exist in the family
reflect hoe the person relates to others in the ● Maturation is known as the completion of
community. The family is the reflection of the growth of a genetic character within an
person. How the person interacts socially and organism or the unfolding of an individual’s
the values they emulate can all be traced back inherent traits or potential.
to their family environment. This forms the ● As you grow up, you are exposed to
bases of the person’s moral and social virtues environmental influences that shape your
(Koller, 2007). physical self, including those from your social
o Yi the rightness. The right way of behaving networks, societal expectations, and cultural
which is unconditional and absolute. Right is practices that will lead a person to understand
right, and what is not right is wrong. Actions themselves.
must be performed and carried out because ● According to Santrock (2014), self-
they are right actions. Confucius emphasized understanding is the individual’s cognitive
that actions should be performed because they representation of self which consists of
are right and not for selfish benefits that they substance and the content of self-conceptions.
provide. Self-understanding can be described as simple
WEEK 6: PHYSICAL SELF to perplex and involve a number of aspects of
the self. It also changes throughout the life span ● Puberty is a brain neuroendocrine process
as the person grows older. occurring primarily in early adolescence that
triggers the rapid physical changes. The Pituitary
● As children advance in age, their interests
gland is the master endocrine gland that
change and with these come changes in their
controls growth and regulates functions of all
bodies. The changes are rapid and before
the other endocrine glands including gonads.
parents notice it, they are no longer babies but
The chemical substances secreted by the gonads
teenagers. An obvious change in teenagers are
promotes physical changes such as height,
the changes in Physical Self. The Physical Self
widening of the hips and increase in fatty tissues
refers to the concrete dimensions of the body, it
in the breast of girls and responsible for boy’s
is the tangible aspect of the person which can
growth of facial and body hair, muscles, and
be directly observed and examined.
changes in voice.
● Physical Characteristics are the defining traits
The self as impacted by the body
or features of a person’s body. This is also the
first thing people see when they look at another ● Different levels of connectedness characterize
person that could include facial features, the relationship between self and body. These
hairstyle, clothes, or figure. They encompass connectedness may be in a positive or negative
everything that one can describe about a person ways, or in helpful or destructive ways.
or group of people, by just looking. Nevertheless, it is between individuals as well as
across situations. The potential of the physical
● Erik Erikson believed in the importance of the
body to be regarded as an object introduces the
body from early development because the
possibility of trait and state body as well as the
physical as well as intellectual skills will
state of the self.
somehow serve as a basis to whether a person
has achieved a sense of competence and be ● Perspectives in Understanding Physical Self:
able to manage and face the demands of life
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
complexities. William James, on the other hand,
considered the body as the initial source of Freud’s theory of the ego was primarily known
sensation and necessary for origin and as body ego, that solidifies the importance of
maintenance of personality. body in understanding the self. The body and its
evolving mental representations form the basis
● A period of rapid physical changes is in
of a sense of self (Krueger, 2002). The
Puberty. According to Santrock (2016), puberty
development of a body self mainly has three
is not the same as adolescence because puberty
stages: early psychic experience of the body in
ends prior to the end of the adolescent period.
which sensations like tactile like in infants
But the recognized puberty as the most
enable babies to discriminate bodies from their
essential marker of the beginning of
surroundings, which contribute to the sense of
adolescence. The changes experienced during
self. Next is defining body surface boundaries
puberty are different from girls and boys. Girls
which is the stage of being awareness of body
reach puberty earlier than boys and experience
image in contrast to surface boundaries. Last
menarche which is her first menstrual flow.
stage is the distinguishing of the body’s internal
Boys, two or three years later, experience
states which is the stage of having cohesion of
spermarche or semenarche which is his first
the body. In these images and experiences of
ejaculation or nocturnal emission (wet dreams).
the body and the body, surfaces can be
organized into holistic understanding of the 1. Personal Factors
body.
a. Introspection and Self-reflection. Looking
Theory suggests that Physical body both has inward is one of the simplest ways to achieve
objective and subjective components. self-knowledge. According to Hewstone, et al.,
Individual’s conception and acknowledgment of (2015) Introspection is the process is the
their physical bodies substantiate their process by which one observes and examines
assessment of the sense of totality which is an one’s internal state (mental and emotional)
integral to his/her experience of the physical after behaving in a certain way.
world. Moreover, one’s experience of one’s
b. Self-Perception Theory. As stated by
physical body may be a key predictor of a
Hewstone and Bem (2015) Self-perception
variety of behaviors.
theory explains that since one’s internal state is
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner
states by observing their own behavior – as if
Focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and affective
they are an outside observer. Physical
aspects which is a multidimensional experience
perception includes all aspects of a person’s
that can aid a more precise understanding of
perception of his physical self.
the body . The cognitive-behavioral perspective
makes multiple distinctions to facilitate precise c. Self-concept. According to Hewstone, et al.,
conceptual and operational definitions of body- (2015), self-concept is a cognitive
image related variables. representation of self-knowledge which includes
the sum total of all beliefs that people have
The cognitive behavioral model of body image
about themselves. It is a collection of all
recognizes multiple determinants of body image
individual experience involving one’s
with a distinction between those determinants
characteristics, social roles, values, goals and
that are historical versus those determinants
fears. Physical concept is the individual’s
that are proximal or concurrent that predispose
perception or description of his physical self,
or influence how people come to think, feel,
including his physical appearance.
and act in relation to their body.
d. Personal Identity. This is the concept a person
3. Feminist Perspective
has about himself that develops over the years.
Relies on the social construction in which there This includes aspects of his life that he was born
is a possibility of individuals to experience their into like family, nationality, gender, physical
bodies in distorted ways (especially, women). traits as well as the choices he makes, such as
women’s dissatisfaction with their bodies as a what he does for living, who his friends are and
systematic social phenomenon rather than a what he believes in.
result of individual pathology (McKinley, 2002).
2. Social Factors
Specifically, the duality established between the
a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal.
mind and body in Western societies and the
According to Bowlby (1969), people learn about
pairing of men with the “mind” and women
their value and lovability when they experience
with the “body” contribute to women
how their mothers or caregivers care for them
experiencing their bodies differently than men.
and respond to their needs.
● Factors that affect perception of the Physical
Self:
b. Maintaining, Regulating and expanding the WEEK 7: PHYSICAL SELF: The Physical Self: Body
self in interpersonal relationships . Image and Self Esteem

c. The Looking-glass Self Theory. Charles Horton Understanding the self includes understanding
Cooley stated that a person’s self grows out of the surroundings and what influences our
society’s interpersonal interactions and the outlook in our beauty. Culture may seem to
perception of others. The view of oneself comes have an effect also on how people view
from a compilation of personal qualities and themselves and how they construct their
impressions of how others perceive the images and boost their self-esteem. Physical
individual. Therefore, in a looking-glass self, the aspect of the self may also provide
self-image is shaped and reflected from the understanding and the importance of beauty.
social world. Other people’s reactions would
The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-
serve as a mirror in which people see
Esteem: The Importance of Beauty
themselves particularly the way in which they
are perceived and judged by others.  there’s another factor that strongly
impacts this perception, his cultural
d. Social Comparison. The work of Leon
milieu. Culture is defined as a social
Festinger in 1954 introduced another way of
system that is characterized by the
understanding oneself by comparing one’s
shared meanings that are attributed to
traits, abilities, or opinions to that of others.
people and events by its members.
Social Comparison is a process of comparing
 In humans, that body typically takes on
oneself with others in order to evaluate one’s
a form with two arms, two legs, a torso,
own abilities and opinions. There are two types
and a head. But the question is, is there
of social comparison:
such a thing as a universal
● Upward social comparison happens when an decontextualized body? The answer is
individual compares themselves to others who no. bodies are shaped in countless ways
are better than them. by culture, by society, and by the
experiences that are shared with a
● Downward social comparison happens when
social and cultural context. Since it is
an individual compares themselves to someone
also shaped by history, there are always
who is in a worse situation than they are in
changing ideas about it. It can be
especially when they are feeling low.
assumed that the body is contingent –
e. Social Identity Theory (Collective Identity). meaning molded by factors outside the
This was formulated by tajfel and Turner 1973 body, and internalized into the physical
which provides a framework about how people being itself.
achieve understanding about themselves by  A significant aspect of culture that
being a member of their group. This idea strongly influences adolescents who are
assumes that as a member of the group they in a face-to-face encounter with their
will not be discriminated against by an out- physical selves is how their culture
group. It will enhance their self-esteem because conceptualizes beauty. Young
they feel secured with the shield of group adolescents are forced to adhere to
membership where they belong. Social groups society’s definition of beauty lest they
include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, be labelled ugly or “pangit” in local
political membership and business dialect.
organizations.
 This is what is called the social processes emerge as a powerful means
constructionist approach to of social control. She is the one who
understanding the physical self. This centralized the analysis of the body
suggests that beauty, weight, sexuality, focused on traditional societies.
or race do not simply result from the Therefore, the physical body is a threat
collection of genes one inherited from to the social body. Further, she finds
one’s parents. Instead, these bodily that societies with strict social limits
features only take on the meaning that would regard boundaries with caution
they have. A person may have a certain including bodily boundaries.
set of facial features, or weigh a certain  This control of behavior from within was
number of pounds and attractiveness made as theory by Erving Goffman
will come from the time and place in (1982) which is called the Dramaturgical
which they live. theory. The theory suggests that we are
 Meaning what occurs is that once all actors on a stage, and much of what
something comes to take on cultural we do is engage in impression
meaning, it becomes naturalized: management during which we must
people think that things are the way monitor and adjust our own behavior in
that they are because they have always accordance with how people want
been that way. These meanings have others to perceive them.
been created, and that they can change,  A woman is what she wears – this
and that there’s nothing natural at all. statement is from the work of Janes
Even something that seems to be Gaines on fashion (1990) which implies
rooted in the body as disability is that women are often defined
partially socially constructed. completely by their clothing –. In this
 essentialist view of the body. study, it suggests that people have body
Essentialism means that bodies are images. Body image can be described as
defined entirely by their biological a representation of how individuals
make-up – bones, muscles, hormones, think and feel about their own physical
and the like. Much of human behavior attributes. Body image is both internal
can also be reduced to many of those (personal) and external (society).
biological functions, it is referred to by  This includes (1) how a person perceives
social scientists call a reductionist idea his body, (2) how a person feels about
that complex human behaviors can be their physical appearance, (3) how a
reduced to something as simple as, for person thinks and talks to themselves
example, hormones. This simply means about their bodies, and (4) a sense of
that we cannot understand the how other people view their bodies.
biological organism without first Though sometimes how a person looks
understanding social, cultural, and has possibly never held as much as
historical context in which it exists. societal importance or reflected so
 Another anthropologist, Mary Douglas significantly on our perceived self-
(1973) said that the body is the most worth.
natural symbol for and medium of  Body image is the mental
classification, and thus rules associated representation one creates, but it may
with controlling the body and its or may not bear close relation to how
 others actually see you. Body image is This section tackles one of the most crucial
subject to all kinds of distortion from aspects of human development, the sexual self.
internal elements like our emotions, It highlights biological and environmental
moods, early experiences, attitudes of factors that shape sexual development. Being a
our parents, and much more. complex and amazing structure, the human
 Self-esteem is the overall evaluation body is a source of strength, beauty, and
that a person has of himself which can wonder. Like a well-designed machine, a healthy
be positive or negative, high or low. Self body has parts whose parts function smoothly
esteem is a measure of the person’s together. Like a harmonious orchestra that
self-worth based on some personal or musicians play together, they produce beautiful
social standard. It is a global evaluative music, a healthy body that has parts whose
dimension of the self. Self-esteem is operations are in harmony with others.
how valuable to himself and others he
Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks
person perceives himself to be.
about himself or herself as a sexual individual.
The following are some aspects in culture Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is
that may have led to some misconceptions: culturally diverse. This should be understood in
varied ways.
1. Society’s ideal for the perfect physical
form for men and women. 1. Historical.

2. Images of perfection brought by all types -In Ancient Greece, it is the male that assumes
of media i.e print, television, film, and the dominant role. The male symbol, the penis,
internet. was viewed as the symbol of fertility and how
the male body was structured and was greatly
3. Since a standard has been set by society
admired. Their wives were considered as
and reinforced by the media, any
objects to be possessed just like property.
characteristic that does not conform to the
Women, on the other hand, were forbidden to
standard is labelled as ugly. Body diversity in
own property and had no legal and only
size and structure due to genetic heritability
function was to bear children. The Greek word
is not tolerated.
for woman is “gyne” means – bearer of children.
 These misconceptions strongly
-In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to
affect how the young form their
the strong influence of church particularly in
body image and its influence on
matters of sexuality. The church decreed that all
their self-esteem. Knowing that
sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were
adolescence is the period where
considered evil. Women were labelled as either
self-identity is formed, it is
temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like
important for adults in the
Virgin Mary).
environment to listen to these
young people and provide proper In the protestant reformation of the 16th
guidance and support. century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin
and other Protestant leaders initiated a
WEEK 8: SEXUAL SELF
movement against the Roman Catholic Church.
THE SEXUAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF Protestantism believed that sexuality is a natural
ESTEEM part of life and that priests should be able to
marry and have families. Martin Luther King and
John Calvin believed that the reason for sexual process by which organisms that are best suited
intimacy was to strengthen the physical and to their environment are most likely to survive.
emotional bond between husbands and wives Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend
and not just procreation. to be passed on, whereas maladaptive traits are
lost. On the basis of human sexual behavior, it
- By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a
all begins with physical attraction.
group of people who were discontented with
the Church of England rallied for religious, moral -Beauty is more than just cultural standard. It is
and societal reformation. They had positive view primarily an evolutionary standard for attracting
on marital sex and did not tolerate sex outside the best male or female in the lot to ensure that
marriage. Premarital sex, therefore, was one’s genetic characteristics will be passed on to
considered immoral. the next generation.

- In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), -Although survival is the goal of the

homosexuality and prostitution were rampant evolutionary perspective, physical attraction
and considered to be threats to social order. which ends in sex does not mean that the
People in this era were not comfortable in attraction will be lasting. For what is really
discussing breast or buttocks, they used other important in human sexual relationships is the
terms instead. love, care, and responsibility each gender has
for the other.
-Through the years and in the 20th century,
interest in sexuality became more evident and 4. Psychological
accepted in society. The separation of church
-Rosenthal (2013) also explained that sexuality
and state reduced the influence the church had
is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also
over sexual mores. Also, the rise of feminism
involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.
allowed for changes in employment, home life,
and sexual standards for women. Over time, -Sigmund Freud was one of the most prominent
cultural diversity and social norms offered people to explain sexuality, through his theories.
varied views on what today may be considered According to him, human beings are faces with
as sexually normal. two forces – sex instinct and libido (pleasure)
and death or aggressive instinct (harm toward
2. Biological.
oneself or towards others).
-Knowing the structures and functions of the
-Sex instinct does not only pertain to the sexual
reproductive system is essential to the
act rather it could also mean anything that
understanding of sexuality. In the nervous
could give pleasure to the person. Thus, human
system, it is the brain that initiates and
behavior is geared towards satisfying the sex
organizes sexual behavior. Through the process
instinct and/or death instinct. A person’s libido
of sexual reproduction, the next generation of
or sexual energy is located in an area of the
human beings are created by the fusion of the
body at different psychosexual stages. These
egg cell and sperm cell.
areas of pleasure are called erogenous zones.
3. Sociobiological/Evolutionary.
-Freud also regarded personality as composed
-This perspective studies how evolutionary of three structures: the id, the Ego and the
forces affect sexual behavior. According to Superego. The id is the part which always seeks
sociobiological theory, natural selection is a for pleasure and aggression. It follows the
pleasure principle because it wants the person opposed but they agree to natural family
to attain gratification immediately. It is planning and prohibit abortion.
unconsciously saying “I want it now!”. The
● There are two kinds of reproduction: asexual
Superego is the person’s sense of morality; it
and sexual. Many biochemical events must
follows the moral principle whose role is to
occur before an organism can reproduce either
restrict demands of the id. It is developed when
way.
children are taught the difference between right
and wrong. The ego follows the analytical 1. Asexual reproduction
principle. It analyses the need of the id and its
consequences as dictated by the superego and The simplest form of reproduction that literally
thinks of ways to satisfy the need in an means without sex. A single celled animal grows
acceptable manner. to a certain stage or size and divides into two
identical organisms. Multi-celled asexual
5. Religious organisms have developed several unique
reproductive strategies. For example, the
-Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook
jellyfish reproduces by budding, a process
toward marital sex which they consider as
where a new individual begins to grow (bud)
blessed by God and pleasurable for both men
from the original organism and is eventually
and women. Sexual connection provides an
released as a small, free swimming organism.
opportunity for spirituality and transcendence.
2. Sexual reproduction
-In Islam, family is considered of utmost
importance, and celibacy within marriage is In organisms that reproduce sexually, there are
prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have up males and females and reproduction occurs
to four wives but Muslim women can only have when partners come together. This also involves
one husband. Sex is permitted only within reproductive cells, including a female ovum
marriage and extramarital sex is penalized. (egg) and a male’s sperm.
-According to Taoism, which originated in China, Puberty is the stage of physical maturation in
sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred which an individual becomes physiologically
union necessary to people’s physical, mental, capable of sexual reproduction. The biological
and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to changes include: (1) neurosecretory factors
balance male and female energy. and/or hormones, (2) modulation of somatic
growth, and (3) initiation of the development of
-In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual force,
the sex glands. The physiology of puberty
and the act of ritual lovemaking is a means of
includes also the activation of the hypothalamic
both celebrating and transcending the physical
pituitary-gonadal axis which induces and
-For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is enhances the progressive ovarian and testicular
purely for intercourse and procreation. Pope sex hormone secretion.
John Paul II confirmed the idea that married
Puberty proceeds through five stages from
couples should engage in intercourse only for
childhood to full maturity as described by
the purpose of procreation. They further
Marshall and Tanner (2006). In both sexes, these
believed that homosexual orientation, in itself is
stages reflect the progressive modifications of
not sinful, but homosexual acts are immoral and
the external genitalia and of sexual hair.
sinful. The use of birth control is strongly
Secondary sex characteristics appear at a mean
age of 10.5 years in girls and 11.5 to 12 years in it. Like the preferences people have of type of
boys. individual as partners – tall, short, younger, or
varieties of partners like
Erogenous Zones
heterosexual/homosexual. The classification of
-This part could be understanding the sexual self behavior as normal or away from normal
in a Psychological manner. represents culture based rather than
scientifically explained.
-Erogenous zones can be understood in a
certain way we understand our body. These are Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC);
areas of the human body that have heightened
Excitement- This is the body’s initial response to
sensitivity. The stimulation of these areas may
sexual arousal. It is characterized by an increase
result in the foundation and production of
in heart rate and blood pressure as well as
sexual fantasies, sexual arousal, and orgasm.
heightened muscle tone.
These are areas that are more sensitive than
others all over the body. Plateau- This is the period of sexual excitement
prior to orgasm. It is characterized by
-Varieties of sexual excitement may be provoked
intensification of the changes begun during the
that will classify the erogenous zones.
excitement phase.
Erogenous zones vary from culture to culture
and over time. Essentially, these parts have high Orgasm- This is characterized by waves of
concentration of nerve endings, that the result intense pleasure (climax), often associated with
is they are particularly sensitive to touch, vaginal contractions in females and ejaculation
pressure, or vibration. in males.

- Erogenous zones is different from sexual Resolution- In this phase the body returns to its
fetishes. According to Freud, a fetish is an non-excited stage.
inappropriate object (a shoe for example) that is
WEEK 9: SEXUAL SELF: THE SEXUAL SELF:
substituted for a woman and used for sexual
UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, STIS AND
gratification. An erogenous zone is a body part
CONTRACEPTION.
(a foot, for instance) that arouses sexual
curiosity and draws a man's attention to the Highlight of this part is the understanding of the
whole female body. Fetishism is an individual chemistry of love, lust and attachment; The
personality disorder, while erogenous zones are Psychological aspect; the sexually diverse
sexual preferences shared by most men at a behavior; Sexually Transmitted Disease (STIs)
given time or place. Fetishes belong to the and Contraception.
science of psychopathology while erogenous
zones belong to the social world of costume and Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love, and
fashion Attachment

Understanding Human Sexual Response -According to anthropologist Helen Fisher

(2016) there are three stages of falling in love. In
-One of the great qualities of a human being is each stage, a different set of brain chemicals run
its ability to be modified by experiences. This the show. These stages are lust, attraction, and
process is known as learning and conditioning, love. 1. Lust - When people are in the stage of
which most of the aspects of human behavior, lust, they feel physically attracted and drawn to
even sexual behavior appear to be a product of
their object of affection. There are elements of various specific emotions, such as euphoria aor
mystery that make things exciting. anxiety”.

-Lust is driven by the desire for sexual Lee’s Love Styles:

gratification. The evolutionary basis for this is
1. Eros (EH-ros). Love is based on a strong
from people’s need to reproduce, a need shared
sexual and emotional component. This type of
among all living things.
love creates initial excitement of a new
2. Attraction- is characteristic that causes relationship. A romantic and passionate love
pleasure or interest by appealing to a person’s which emphasizes physical attraction and sexual
desires or tastes, and causes one to be drawn to desire. The Eros lover dreams of the ideal
the other. characteristics of a partner and usually
experiences love at first sight. The relationship,
-In this stage, a person may begin to be
however, seldom lasts forever because they
obsessed about their object of affection and
tend to be quick to fall in and out of love.
crave for his presence. A person may don’t feel
like sleeping or eating. People can certainly lust 2. Agape (AH-gah-pay). This is altruistic and
for someone they are attracted to, and vice selfless love. The person shows his love without
versa, one can happen without the other. expecting to receive the same in return. He
considers the wishes of his partner as more
-Attraction has brain pathways that controls
important than his own. He may not have a
“reward” behavior, which explains the first few
perfect partner but he will always be there to
months of a relationship. Dopamine is the main
support and offer his love.
player in the brain’s reward pathway. When it is
released, people feel good. In this case, these 3. Storge (Store-gay). This is love-related
things spending time with loved ones with high friendship and based on nonsexual affection.
levels of dopamine and related hormones The person experiences love as a gradual and
(norepinephrine) are released. slow process. When love is storge, love takes
time. Storgic lovers do not suddenly fall in love
3. Attachment- This stage involves wanting to
with an idealized lover. Commitment, stability
make a more lasting commitment to your loved
and comfort are their goals.
one. All the goals are dedicated to the object of
affection being a part of a person’s life. 4. Ludus. For ludic lovers, love is just a game,
dopamine decreases and attraction goes down. something for fun or entertainment. They do
not experience jealousy. They do not value
-If things are going well, it gets replaced by the
commitment or intimacy. They manipulate their
hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, which
partners by lying, cheating and deceiving.
create the desire to bond, affiliate with, and
nurture your partner. You want to cuddle and be 5. Mania. This is characterized by an intense
close and share your deepest secrets with her. feeling which may lead to obsessive and
You plan and dream together. possessive love towards the loved one. Manic
lovers always check the partner’s whereabouts.
-The singer Robert Palmer compares love with
They easily get jealous and their experience of
an addiction.
love is out of control. They are easily taken
- early passionate love is not an emotion in and advantage of by ludic lovers.
if itself. Rather, it is best characterized as a
“motivation or goal oriented state that leads to
6. Pragma. This is a practical and business-like intensity and sexual excitement. The experience
love. Pragmatic lovers may plan the best time to of passionate love may be positive and negative.
get married, have children, and other future
5. Companionate love (Intimacy and
plans. Love is based on what is appropriate. It is
Commitment). The components are both
not intense nor out of control.
intimacy and commitment which is experienced
The Triangular Theory of Love by Robert in long deeply committed friendship or marriage
Sternberg, According to him, love is made up of where passion has faded. It is more durable
three components: than romantic love and may grow over time.

1. Intimacy. This includes the desire to give and 6. Fatuous love (Passion and Commitment). A
receive emotional closeness, support, caring combination of passion and commitment
and sharing. experienced by a couple who spent a short time
in courtship and suddenly decided to get
2. Passion. This is the hot component of love
married.
which can be described as intensely romantic or
sexual desire for another person usually 7. Consummate love (Passion, Intimacy, and
accompanied by physical attraction and Commitment). There exists a healthy balance of
physiological arousal. passion, intimacy, and commitment shared by
couples considered to be ideal for each other.
3. Commitment. This is the cold component of
love. It is the decision to maintain the The psychology of love shows that there are
relationship through good times and bad times. psychological theories that would explain why
people fall in love.
Sternberg also described several types of love
based on the above components. 1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory.
When someone received a reward such
1. Liking (Intimacy). This only involves
as free ride or other favors from
emotional intimacy and has no passionate
another, a positive feeling may be
intention for long-term commitment. It is just a
experienced. The better the feeling
friendly relationship.
associated with the behavior of a
2. Infatuation (Passion). This is associated with person, the more likely it is for the
a high degree of physiological arousal. There is behavior to be repeated.
only passion without intimacy or commitment. 2. Physiological Arousal Theory. This
It is usually called “love at first sight” and may explains the most acceptable theories
fade quickly. about emotions: the bodies experience
a physiological change first, then people
3. Empty love (Commitment). This involves only assign an emotion to that physical
commitment. A relationship. With no intimacy sensation. It is based on the
and passion. Couples only stay together for their interpretation of the brain.
children or other important reasons.
3. Evolutionary Theories. This explains that love
4. Romantic love (Passion and Intimacy). It is a arose due to some sociobiological need. Males
combination of both passion and intimacy tend to look for young, healthy females mates
which may be present during the first phase of a to carry their offspring. Females prefer males
relationship. This is characterized by emotional who have the resources to support them and
their offspring.
● Based on social psychological data from 1. Heterosexuality – it is the attraction to
Rosenthal (2013), the factors that would members of opposite sex.
determine with whom people fall in love are:
2. Homosexuality – refers to a person whose
o Physical attractiveness (though beauty is in sexual orientation is toward another of the
the eye of the beholder) same sex. It is the attraction to members of the
same sex.
o Reciprocity (people tend to like an individual
who also like them) a. Lesbian – is the term used to describe a
woman whose sexual and romantic attraction
o Proximity (being around anytime physically or
toward women.
virtually)
b. Gay - is a man whose sexual and romantic
o Similarities (same age, religion, education,
attraction is towards other men.
race, physical attractiveness, intelligence, and
socio-economic class) 3. Bisexual – is a person who may be sexually
oriented to both men and women
The diversity of sexual behavior: solitary,
heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual and 4. Transsexual – these are people experience a
transsexual gender identity that is inconsistent with, or not
culturally associated with, their assigned sex,
-Human sexual behavior is any activity, solitary,
and desire to permanently transition to the
by pair or by group which includes sexual
gender with which they identify, usually seeking
arousal.
medical assistance.
- Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into
Transsexual denotes an individual who seeks, or
heterosexual behavior (male with female) and
has undergone, a social transition from male to
homosexual behavior (male with male or female
female or female to male, which in many, but
with female). If three or more individuals are
not all, cases also involve a somatic transition by
involved it is, of course, possible to have
cross-sex hormone and genital surgery (sex
heterosexual and homosexual activity
reassignment surgery).
simultaneously.
In clinical viewpoint, a person is suffering from
- Solitary behavior – A behavior with the
gender dysphoria if there is distress that may
intention of stimulating self that caused arousal
accompany the incongruence between one’s
usually done in private. This behavior is more
expressed gender or gender identity and one’s
common to males. There is great individual
assigned gender.
variation in frequency. Solitary behavior
provides pleasure for self with emotional 5. Pansexual – is a new sexual orientation of
content with sole control to the degree of persons who are sexually attracted to people
pleasure. regardless of their sex or gender identity. The
word “pan” is a Greek word for “all r every”.
-The phrase “sexual orientation” is preferred
Thus, they may also be called “gender blind” for
over “sexual preference” which implies a
they believe that gender and sex are not
conscious or deliberate choice of a sexual
determining factors for getting sexually
partner. The following are types of sexual
attracted to both males and females whereas
orientations:
pansexual is more fluid. Aside from men and
women they may also be attracted to
transgender, transsexual, androgynous and 2. Genital Herpes. This is a sexually transmitted
other gender categories. infection caused by a large family of viruses of
different strains. These strains produce other
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)- also known
non-sexually transmitted diseases such as
as Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI), together
chicken pox and mononucleosis.
with venereal disease, these are infections that
are commonly spread by sexual intercourse. 3. Genital Warts. Genital warts (also called
These are infections that are passed from one venereal warts or Condylomata Acuminata) are
person to another through sexual contact, blood caused by the human papillomavirus, a virus
transfusion, breastfeeding, and a certain related to the one that causes common skin
amount of saliva. warts. Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause
cervical cancer and other genital cancers, but
- Antibiotics can treat STDs caused by bacteria,
these are different from the types that cause
yeast, or parasites. There is no cure for STDs
genital warts.
caused by a virus, but medicines can often help
with the symptoms and keep the disease under 4. Gonorrhea. This a sexually transmitted
control. infection caused by bacterium Neisseria
gonorrheoeae which thrives in the moist
The following are some examples of STIs:
mucous membranes linings of the mouth,
1. HIV/AIDS. HIV stands for Human throuat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and the anal
Immunodeficiency Virus with AIDS tract.
stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency
5. Syphilis. This is a sexually transmitted
Syndrome. Thus, HIV is a virus while
infection caused by bacterium Treponema
AIDS is a condition or syndrome. HIV
palligum, a spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis
can lead to infections that attack and
may progress through four phases: Primay
destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of the immune
(chancre sores appear), Secondary (general skin
system which is the body’s natural
rashes occur), latent (a period that can last for
defense against such illness as
several years with no overt symptoms), and
tuberculosis, pneumonia, and cancer.
tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness,
- HIV without treatment can lead to AIDS paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental
but not all cases of HIV develop AIDS. Only problem and even death may occur).
untreated HIV may lead to AIDS. Presently,
6. Chlamydia. This is one of the most common
there is no effective cure for HIV. But the
sexually transmitted infections, named for
condition can be controlled with proper
Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that
medical care.
spreads through sexual contact and infects the
- antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a genital organs of both sexes.
combination of medications that are used to
Methods of Contraception (Artificial and
prevent HIV from replicating to protect the
Natural)
body against the virus and infection.
However, ART is not a cure. It helps those There are a lot of reasons why people use
with HIV positive to live longer and happier contraceptives. Some purposes of birth control
and lowers the risk of advancing the are to prevent pregnancy, many women choose
condition into AIDS. to use contraception because of certain health
advantages. For example, some hormonal birth
control methods may help regulate your period, a. Diaphragm - A flexible latex (rubber) or
reduce acne, and/or lower endometriosis- silicone device, used with spermicide, is put into
related pain. the vagina to cover the cervix. Can be put in any
time before sex. b. Cervical Caps – These are
Some of the methods of contraception:
similar to the diaphragm, though they are
1. Hormonal method of contraception generally always made of silicone. They are put
(prevents the release of an egg or ovulation) into the vagina to cover the cervix and are 92 to
96 percent effective when used correctly.
a. Oral Contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily
oral contraceptives. Some contain estrogen and c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides -
progesterone; others are progestin only and are For Males: A very thin latex (rubber)
over 99% effective if used according to polyurethane (plastic) or synthetic sheath, put
instruction. Often reduces bleeding and period over the erect penis. For Females: Soft, thin
pain, and may help with premenstrual polyurethane sheath that loosely lines the
symptoms. Missing pills, vomiting or severe vagina and covers the area just outside.
diarrhea can make it less effective. Condoms are the best way to help protect
yourself from sexually transmitted infections
b. The Patch – It is a small patch you stick on the
skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It 3. Behavioral Methods
stops ovulation. It can make bleeds regular,
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – It is a way to
lighter, and less painful, however, may be seen
determine a woman’s most fertile and interfile
and can cause skin irritation.
times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is also
c. The ring – The contraceptive vaginal ring is a known as natural family planning or fertility
small plastic ring a woman inserts into her awareness.
vagina every month and releases hormones to
b. Abstinence or celibacy – It refers to the
stop ovulation. One ring stays in for three weeks
avoidance of sexual intercourse.
– you don’t have to think about contraception
every day and must be comfortable with c. Outercourse – It is a sexual activity that does
inserting and removing it. not include the insertion of the penis into the
vagina.
d. Implants - A small, flexible rod put under the
skin of the upper arm releases progestogen. d. Withdrawal – it happens when a man
Works for 3 years but can be taken out sooner. It removes his penis from vagina and ejaculate
requires a small procedure to fit and remove it. outside of the woman’s body. 4. Sterilization
(procedures that make an individual
e. Injectable - An injection of progestogen.
permanently incapable of conceiving or
Works for 8 or 13 weeks – you don’t have to
fertilizing a partner)
think about contraception during this time.
Can’t be removed from the body so side effects a. Tubal Ligation /Sterilization – It is a surgery
may continue while it works and for some time for women in which fallopian tubes are tied to
afterwards. prevent eggs from travelling to the uterus so a
woman cannot get pregnant.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or
chemically block the sperm from reaching an b. Vasectomy – It is an operation in which the
egg and provide a barrier between direct skin to surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of
skin contacts) the scrotum then ties or blocks the vas
deferens. Men can still have orgasm or
ejaculation after the operation.

5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – It is a small device

that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to
prevent pregnancy.

6. Emergency Contraception - It is a measure

that protects against pregnancy after
unprotected sex has already occurred. It could
be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.