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Watkins, Susan M. , and Lucy E. Dunne. "User-Centered Design." Functional Clothing

Design: From Sportswear to Spacesuits. London: Fairchild Books, 2015. 1–30. Bloomsbury
Fashion Central. Web. 7 Jan. 2025. <http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781501303715.ch-001>.

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User-Centered Design
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DOI: 10.5040/9781501303715.ch-001
Page Range: 1–30

The design of functional clothing ties together science and art. The evidence-based
methods and processes of engineering are combined with the creative, intuitive methods
and processes of art and fashion. Most important, because all functional clothing is worn
by humans, the human user is at the very center of all functional clothing design activities.
This chapter will discuss the process of design (i.e., the nature of design and the thought
processes and methods designers use to develop effective design solutions).

What Is Design?
There are as many definitions of design as there are authors to write about it. Design is
used as a noun, verb, or adjective that can be applied to products as diverse as apparel,
space vehicles, graphics, architecture, and cities. The wide variation in end products that
are the result of design makes it difficult for many people to pinpoint the common
elements that bind together the various design professions. Is design artistic or
mathematical? Rational or imaginative? Systematic or chaotic? Among the many attempts
to define design are the following:
Design is a highly complex and sophisticated skill. It is not a mystical ability given only to
those with recondite powers but a skill which, for many, must be learnt and practised
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rather like the playing of a sport or a musical instrument.

--(Lawson 1983, 6)

Design is converting the actual to the preferred. It is a conversation with the materials of
a situation.
--(Schon 1983, 77)

Design can be defined as the process of creative problem-solving; a process of creative,

constructive behavior.
--(Koberg and Bagnall 1981, 16)

[Design] … involves a highly organised mental process capable of manipulating many

kinds of information, blending them all into a coherent set of ideas and finally generating
some realisation of those ideas.
--(Lawson 1983, 6)

Designers need the same skills that are those used by people in other professions to solve
problems. In general, however, people who label themselves designers have been trained
to trigger more quickly the process that generates creative approaches to solutions and
bring them to reality.

A designer must be familiar with both content and process. Many in the design
professions believe that a good designer can design anything. To the extent that one can
process information in a creative way to generate design solutions, this is true. However,

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the content of the various design professions may be quite different, and this is primarily
what creates design specialists. Consider, for example, the materials, scale, and use of
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products such as apparel and architecture. Even though an apparel designer might
generate ideas for an innovative building and an architect might develop an innovative
garment on paper, most individuals in these respective fields are not trained to use the
materials (soft versus hard); work in the scale (apparel must move on the person; people
move within buildings); or provide the functions needed to use the other product.
Designers who have trained in one specialty simply have greater facility in moving through
the process of product development because they have a stored bank of knowledge
about specifics in that field. They are called upon because they can take a project from
the request for a solution through idea generation to production of the final product.

One cannot minimize the value of designers who move across to fields with which they
have had less experience. Their lack of knowledge of specifics may actually help them to
develop exciting new, untried approaches because they have no preconceptions about
what cannot be done. In many instances, projects have moved along at a faster pace when
both generalist and specialist designers work together. Both generalists and specialists are
helped by having a process with which to attack new design problems.

The Design Process

The creative problem-solving (design) process is most easily understood as a sequence of
stages or stopovers on a journey to a given destination … (it) involves the conscious
application of incentives, intentions, decisions, actions and evaluations.
--(Koberg and Bagnall 2003, 16)
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Designers work out problems in a variety of ways. When they talk about process, they
generally mean a step-by-step sequence of methods they use to develop design
concepts. For many practicing designers, the process they use to solve problems is so
much a part of their work style that they would be unable to identify what was taking
place or delineate their processes into steps. Many scholars who have studied design have
attempted to identify and name the steps in a design process; consequently there are a
multitude of systems and sets of terminology.

Many of the activities attributed to typical design processes are divided into a series of
alternating periods of “opposite” forms of behavior. Thus, the designer is said to move
between two forms of thinking: divergent (spreading out to explore a wide range of ideas
and information) and convergent (narrowing in or focus attention on the most pertinent
ideas and concepts). Alternatively, they may be said to move back and forth between
decision making that is explicit (conscious thinking; based on logic) and decisions that are
intuitive (feeling; based on instinct). A similar analogy is drawn between so-called rational
periods of thought and imaginative periods that might be identified as creative thinking.
(These have sometimes been referred to as left brain and right brain modes of thinking.)
Effective problem solving involves both of these approaches, with designers often
shutting down one approach at a time to focus on the other.

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Most analysts of design behavior, if asked to pare the design process down to its most
essential elements, would focus on a similar set of opposite forms of behavior: analysis
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and synthesis. Designers alternate between analysis (breaking down a problem into its
essential elements) and synthesis (building up a design concept by linking ideas) to
develop effective designs. This does not mean that the design process is one that
contains only two steps. Analysis and synthesis may be applied to a single problem many
times, until a designer reaches what philosophers call reflective equilibrium (i.e., the
design solution reaches a balance in the designer’s mind between what can be defended
by rational means or ‘proved’ and what feels right).

Regardless of the number of steps in the design process or the names given to them,
designers rarely progress through them in a simple sequence. Since each step builds on
those that precede it, designers are continually uncovering more information and gaining
new insights into problems. Often, during this process, misconceptions are uncovered or
new ideas cause a designer to want to return to earlier steps, plug in this new information
and rework the process in order to develop an improved design. Koberg and Bagnall
(1981) provide a number of views of the ways in which their design process steps can be
configured (See Figure 1.1). The process chosen may vary with the designer or may
change for each designer due to the nature of the problem being solved.
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1.1 The design process. The design process may (A) proceed in a linear fashion; (B) be
continually repeated in a circular fashion; or (C) return at any stage to refine prior steps.

The following sections of the chapter detail each of the activities in the design process
that appear in one form or another, often under different labels, in most designers’
versions of how they go about designing. These are the critical tasks that cannot be
ignored in the development of effective functional clothing.

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Conducting Research
Men give me credit for some genius. All the genius I have lies in this; when I have a
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subject in hand, I study it profoundly. Day and night it is before me. My mind becomes
pervaded with it. Then the effort which I have made is what people are pleased to call the
fruit of genius. It is the fruit of labor and thought.
--(Alexander Hamilton)

Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration.

--(Thomas Edison)

These two quotes help dispel a popular misconception about designers—that they simply
lie back and wait for inspiration to strike. Most laypeople assume designers are primarily
involved in idea generation; however, analysis of the design problem probably occupies
the vast majority of an effective designer’s efforts. In fact, the research stage of the design
process is generally responsible for design inspiration. Good design is often the result of
hours, weeks, or even years of disciplined study of factors related to a problem, not just a
stroke of brilliant thought. Skilled designers have what might be called design insight. This
is the unique ability to extract from what is sometimes a very large body of information
the important details that will lead to an innovative (and sometimes transformative)
approach to a solution. Design insight is developed through many years of learning to
listen and to uncover critical factors during the research process.

A large part of designers’ research is exploratory. Exploratory research helps designers

analyze and become familiar with problems. Koberg and Bagnall describe what they call
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the analysis phase of the design process with such phrases as “gathering facts and
opinions” and “dissecting or decomposing the problem” (2003, 47).

When designers begin with thorough research, all subsequent stages of the design
process should be more productive. Research exposes designers to the subtle variables of
the specific problem at hand so that they can be effectively addressed and manipulated
when design solutions are being generated. When design criteria are based on research,
they form the basis for a more effective evaluation of the end product in the later stages
of the design process.

In the research phase, the designer’s objective is to learn as much as possible about (1)
the user, (2) the task, and (3) the environment. In addition to these major areas, the
designer must also learn as much as possible about peripheral areas that influence the
user, task, and environment as well as the life cycle of the design. Peripheral areas include
other stakeholders (employers, manufacturers, individuals related to the user), methods
and processes of manufacture, sales channels, and many other elements in the ecosystem
of the design. Together, these elements and the relationships between them form the
problem, or landscape of the design challenge. A deep understanding of the problem is
fundamental to designing a good solution.

There are a variety of research methods that can provide analytical tools for designers.
The following subsections will outline some of the more prevalent methods used by
designers to gather information to inform a design. A designer’s skill in administering any

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research method has a direct impact on the usefulness of the information obtained, so in
many cases it is in the best interests of the designer to seek training in these methods
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outside of the scope of this text.

Literature Review
In any design challenge there is, of course, a tremendous amount to be learned by
conducting a literature review of areas related to the design problem. Two of the key
reasons for conducting a literature review are to learn the language of the field and to
understand and evaluate what other researchers and designers have already done.
Understanding and being able to use the language of the field allows a designer to have
more productive interviews with specialists and to read the literature of the field to
generate a more complete analysis. Literature review should be used to learn more about
user needs and to understand hazards in the environment. It also should reveal
information about other individuals who have a stake in the outcome of the design efforts
for a particular activity.

Markus suggests that designers look at research in terms of the sources of information
available in a design decision-making situation: the designer’s own experience, others’
experience, existing research and new research (Lawson 1983, 97). Lawson states that “It
is perhaps the inevitable mixing of these sources which contributes to designers’
seemingly random behaviour, sometimes apparently intuitively leaping to conclusions
whilst at other times making very slow progress.” As the research process unfolds,
designers learn more and more about where to look and what to look for. They then need
to determine if there are unexplored aspects of the design situation that demand original
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research (i.e., observation, data gathering, etc.) before a problem can be truly
understood.
Market Survey
The current marketplace can also be helpful to designers in early stages of the design
process. A market review that comprehensively assesses the existing commercially
available solutions to the design problem can help the designer to avoid redesigning
solutions that already exist and to find trends in product solutions. Product trends,
however, are not always evidence of an optimal (or even successful!) solution. Persuasive
marketing can sometimes promote a solution that is not actually effective in meeting user
needs.

In addition to direct competitor products and solutions, peripheral products and products
for users with similar needs can lend insight from a slightly different perspective. For
example, a designer researching protection of scuba divers from sharks might also
research the market for cut-resistant butcher’s gloves. Other products and tools used by
the user group can highlight user needs that may not have been met by a wearable
solution. For example, researching the features of ski poles can generate ideas about ski
glove design.

Insight gained from reviewing literature is often a powerful guide for planning a market
survey. Using themes and concepts discovered in literature review, a quantitative, directed
survey of the market can be conducted to determine which are the most popular
strategies for existing design solutions, and whether or not specific strategies have been
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explored. Themes exposed in the market survey can also alert a designer to topics that
need further literature review. Collecting product examples and classifying similar
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characteristics can help in identifying areas where new research is needed.

Direct Observation
Direct observation involves going to the site of work or recreation where protective
apparel is needed and watching both people and the environment to obtain relevant
information. It is an effective way of becoming familiar with the range of problems a
designer must resolve and may be used to acquaint designers with specific design
situations. The information gathered may then be used to identify specific areas in which
data should be collected, for example, on a specific portion of the activity, a specific body
part, or a certain cycle of events.

Direct observation requires that the designer use the same types of opposite behaviors
discussed earlier in this chapter. An explicit, rational approach applies information gained
during the research process to generate hypotheses or open questions that are best
answered through observation. By having predetermined questions to ask, designers are
better prepared to gather useful information. With them, a designer is more likely to
uncover useful insights, whether they confirm a preset hypothesis or not.

At the same time, intuition also plays a critical role during observation. It is important to
be open to random factors not previously considered in setting up tools for observation.
Therefore, in addition to formal methods of collecting data, it is helpful to have recording
tools that allow for the noting of random thoughts and observations.
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There are many ways to prepare for observation, from identifying the most important
areas to observe and important questions to ask to developing data-collection charts,
checklists, and tools. The section “Identifying User Needs for Movement” in Chapter 2 will
outline some approaches used in observing and recording body movement that may be
useful for conducting observations for other areas.

Well-planned direct observation can be an effective method of task analysis (i.e., analyzing
the activities of the user). In a physical task, this might involve noting what a construction
worker does on a particular type of job site (hammering by hand, using a nail gun, using a
jackhammer, etc.). For the user of a wearable technology, this might involve noting what
the user expects to get from the technology (looking up directions, taking a picture,
sending a message, etc.). For some activities, direct observation can be more effective
than asking the user because users are not always aware of the things they are actually
doing. Task analysis is important to the design process because it may help the designer
to analyze which tasks are more important to the activity and which are less important, as
well as which tasks are currently causing difficulty.

The nature of a task may help determine the tools that can be used for direct observation.
For most sports, a great deal of information useful to the protective equipment designer
can be gathered at the site. For activities such as asbestos removal, where law prohibits
persons other than the work crew from entering the workplace, films or videotapes of the

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activity may provide an alternate form of direct observation. Regardless of the tools
designers employ to observe users as they participate in their activities, direct observation
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is a critical part of research.

Participant Observation
One variation of direct observation that provides unique insight for a designer is
participant observation. When designers physically engage themselves in the activity,
additional senses can be brought to bear on observation, and the psychological factors
can be personally felt. Playing a sport in protective gear, trying to use equipment while
wearing a totally enclosed chemical suit, and trying to operate instruments in bulky gloves
or mittens in below freezing conditions all give a designer a different perspective than
simply hearing about others doing it. In some instances, designers may participate simply
by becoming an accepted part of the environment. For example, designers who develop
clothing for individuals in nursing homes cannot suddenly will themselves to be old. They
can, however, participate regularly in the activities at the nursing home through volunteer
work or by adopting a “grandparent” so that they have a first hand view of the design
situation in many aspects of an older person’s life. This type of direct observation nets far
more useful information for a designer than can be obtained through one or two
observation sessions with no direct interaction with users.

There are, of course, limits to participant observation. In police work, for example, where
direct observation of the behavior of ballistics vests would be dangerous, this method is
not feasible. And although it is possible to restrict mobility to simulate handicaps (see
Chapter 2, Design Strategies 2.1) or don thick mittens to simulate the effects of arthritis
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on manipulating fasteners, it is often not possible to fully replicate the situations of users.
Another danger of participant observation may be initially less obvious. Designers who
already participate in the activities of a user group may assume that their experience can
be leveraged in the design process. Designer-users sometimes suffer from inflating the
relevance of their particular experiences and preferences. It can be too easy to want to
design a solution that is ideal for the designer, but perhaps not for others. These
individuals have the additional challenge of remaining objective and subjecting their own
experience to extra scrutiny in the research process.
Indirect Observation
When direct observation is not feasible, indirect observation may provide another useful
tool. Where conditions such as those in the Arctic or outer space are not available to a
designer, the needs of a design situation can be indirectly observed by examining changes
in apparel or equipment that has been used in those environments. Apparel specialists
often examine wear patterns on clothing items or test their durability following a specific
wear cycle. Heat-damaged yarns from a firefighter’s coat or broken yarns in a ballistics
vest may be examined under a microscope; or rips in disposable protective coveralls may
be measured and catalogued to provide a record of areas where problems with garment
design exist.

For impact-protective equipment, injury data can provide a basis for design criteria. It is
important to explore existing information both in the literature and in data banks of
concerned organizations. Various government agencies, sports research groups, and
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standards groups have collected injury data for specific activities. Many of their surveys
provide information on the number and severity of accidents related to products such as
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protective equipment and clothing, often with a breakdown of the data by age and sex.
Many of these groups, as well as a variety of library bibliographic search services, compile
lists of impact and injury studies that have been performed independently throughout the
country.

Direct Communication
Design criteria may also be based on information from direct communication techniques.
Interviews with people involved in an activity will not only yield a wealth of information
about the problems involved but can expand a designer’s knowledge of the many
environmental factors that affect a design situation. These can be helpful in setting up a
realistic program of direct observation.

It is important to remember to interview other stakeholders as well as users. (See Design

Strategies 1.1.) Subjective information from those being interviewed can reveal the
attitudes of participants and others connected with an activity. Manufacturers have a great
deal of insight to offer with regard to production costs, time to produce, methods of
production, and sales potential (LaBat and Sokolowski 1999). Retailers can offer insight
about their customers, customer complaints about designs currently on the market, and
potential markets. A designer with a solid understanding of how current products are
produced and sold can work more effectively within existing structures as well as be
better able to propose viable changes or deviations from current practice.

It should be noted that many researchers believe that interviews do not provide
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altogether accurate information about behavior since what people do and what they say
they do are often at odds. It is easy for novice interviewers to lead interviewees and thus
prejudice their responses. Designers need to become familiar with the literature on
interviewing, or they need to team up with social scientists skilled in interview techniques.

Another form of direct communication involves the use of questionnaires. Questionnaires

allow a designer to reach a much greater number of individuals in a much shorter period
of time. Often, direct observation and selected interviews may be used to frame the
questions asked by a questionnaire. Like the structuring of interviews, questionnaire
development is not for the inexperienced. A designer should either become familiar with
appropriate techniques or team up with a specialist in that area.

Design Strategies 1.1: Who Is the Client?

One factor that is often ignored by designers as they begin the research process is the
need to explore not just users but also other people who are associated with a product.
Many people are actually “clients” who need to give their stamp of approval to a
design for it to even get to the market, let alone be successful. For example, the
primary client for football shoulder pads would appear to be a player, who in addition
to desiring protection, wants to achieve a certain appearance on the field and wants be
comfortable and able to move without restriction. However, for younger players,
parents are often the ones who purchase the pads, and they are primarily concerned
with cost and injury prevention. In later years, coaches may be the selectors of

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equipment, and they want maximum player performance and injury prevention. At the
college and professional level, equipment managers may be the purchasers, and they
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add ease of care and cleanability to this list. Trainers and team physicians may dictate
what can and cannot be worn by specific players based on the injuries they see, and
this can affect future purchases for a team.

In addition to users and buyers, there are often governing boards for sports that have
specific standards that an item of protective clothing must meet if it is to be used in an
officially sanctioned game. Safety rules and regulations exist for many protective
apparel items. Garments such as firefighting apparel, for example, must meet strict
federal regulations. Government regulations may force nursing home administrators to
mandate that specific garments must be used or must be banned from their facilities.
Factory owners must continually be aware of changes in materials and processes in
their plants that affect the safety of their employees and necessitate new protective
apparel. The rise of lawsuits involving protective apparel has placed an even greater
emphasis on meeting both voluntary standards and government regulations for many
design situations.

Manufacturers need to consider production costs and the cost of retooling to produce
new designs as well as the cost of testing and going through a rigorous certification
process for new design features if regulations exist for their products. They may be able
to contribute valuable insight about potential customers and sales potential. Even
when good design ideas come along, it may be difficult for designers to find a
manufacturer willing to take on the expense of putting a new product on the market.
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Users, purchasers, administrators, medical personnel, governing bodies, and

manufacturers should all be considered a designer’s clients and each group has
important contributions to make to the list of important criteria for a design.

Laboratory Simulation and Experimentation

Laboratory simulation may be needed when the actual design situation is not available or
is too dangerous or infrequently occurring in the real world for the designer to study
directly. Laboratory simulation also allows designers to generate research data in areas
where none exists. Exploring design variables uncovered in the literature review in a
setting where they can be controlled and human responses can be measured can add an
even greater understanding of a design situation.

When laboratory simulation is simply used for convenience (i.e., simulating winter
conditions in the summer rather than moving to the Arctic or Antarctic to do research),
many excellent results can be obtained. There are a number of facilities that can
accurately recreate climatic conditions, and protective apparel can be tested on live,
active subjects inside these climatic chambers. However, laboratory simulations are most
often employed when the potential for injury does not make it feasible to use live human
subjects. In these situations, each substitution for a human component becomes a
potential weak point in the procedure. Research results in the laboratory that reflect
behavior in a field setting must involve simulated body parts that have a physical
composition and/or a reaction time as close as possible to that of a live human. Because

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no universally accepted reproduction of the human body exists, many laboratory

simulations simply identify at the outset the way in which the simulated models (and thus
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the outcome of the experiments) will differ from the actual end-use conditions. Where
many variables exist, mathematical models or finite element analysis may be used to
predict the effect each change in a variable will have on a design situation.

Laboratory tests are often used to test materials alone. It should be noted, however, that
the behavior of materials may be quite different in a laboratory than when they are
contoured to the body and backed by human flesh and bones.

Each of the methods just described—direct observation of behavior, indirect observation,

direct communication, and laboratory simulations—provides a different type of useful
information. In order to define a problem (i.e., to set design criteria), more than one, or
perhaps all four, of these methods may need to be used in studying a specific activity. In
that way, a designer can draw on the strengths and overcome the weaknesses inherent in
each method of gathering information.

One difficulty that designers face with research is that it can never be complete. There is
always more one can learn about any subject. In addition, even though one would assume
that designers who are experienced in research would be able to undertake it more
quickly, this is not always the case. Experienced designers are often able to identify and
access resources more quickly, but as Lawson points out, they may also be able to identify
more critical areas that need research. He likens the situation to a chess master who can
manage many games at a time because his experience allows him to identify patterns and
react quickly to situations (1983, 96). However, sometimes a chess master may actually
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take longer to make decisions because he can see more possibilities and recognize
potential problems further ahead than can the average player.

Perhaps the most difficult decision for a designer to make with regard to research and
analysis is when to stop the process and move on. Often, either time or financial
limitations dictate the termination of any phase of the process. However, keep in mind
that research continues to occur throughout every stage of the design process. One may
frequently circle back to collect information needed to move design development
forward.

Defining the Problem

One of the many ways in which our mind attempts to make our life easier is to solve the
first impression of the problem that it encounters …
We pick the most obvious (to us) shortcoming and set to work on it. In doing so, we are
embarrassingly casual about the directions implicit in the wording of the problem.
--Adams (1986, 114)

The research phase of the design process may result in a messy array of information that
can be overwhelming to a designer. The goal of the definition phase of the design process
is to create a new structure or understanding out of all of the information acquired
through research. It is one of the most critical tasks of designing.

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There are as many approaches to sorting through research and defining a problem as
there are designers. The steps detailed here are simply one suggested pathway.
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Regardless of the method a designer chooses, in order to define a functional apparel

design problem, it is important to clarify three important factors: (1) Who are the users?
(2) What is the activity? and (3) What are the environmental conditions under which
apparel will be used? In addition, it is important to determine and state specific goals for
the apparel being developed (e.g., thermal protection, mobility).

Among the activities helpful to developing a definition are creating personas, identifying
problem variables and constraints, developing frameworks, and developing a list of
specific design requirements. The next section will provide information on how to
approach each of these activities.
Creating Personas
Personas are characters that represent potential users or groups of users. One of the
important outcomes of design research activities is a more in-depth understanding of who
the users are. This is often a nuanced, detailed impression that is difficult to exhaustively
record. Building personas is a technique that can help the designer to wrap up all of the
nuanced detail they have come to understand about their user group.

Personas capture the aspects of research observations that deal with the personality of
the user rather than the concrete variables like body dimensions and range of motion.
They help a designer address the emotional, psychological, and social elements of a
design. These factors cannot be ignored because they often determine whether even the
most functional design will be worn. For example, if users do not like the way the design
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looks or feels, they may refuse to wear it. Identifying potential downfalls of a design
solution early in the process is crucial, and it is hazardous to rely on the designer’s intuition
to discover these variables.

Personas are usually an archetype of a user group. That is to say, they are not extreme
stereotypes or caricatures of the ends of the user spectrum, but rather they represent the
“average Joe” of a user type. They are given proper names to further humanize the
characters and are usually fleshed-out into something that would resemble a movie
character. The designer uses observations of multiple users rather than the specifics of
one individual person’s life. Characteristics such as age, occupation, likes, dislikes, and
habits are specified to communicate the identity of this hypothetical user.

Personas must be specific to be useful. Designers need to be able to imagine seeing and
talking to the person described. Because of this, multiple personas are often needed to
fully capture the scope of users. In developing garments for rock climbers, for example, a
designer may have identified a few groups of potential users: the novice enthusiast, the
nature-loving voyager, and the expert athlete. Personas developed based on these three
groups are illustrated in Figure 1.2. These are distinct groups of users with differing needs,
goals, experiences, and skills, but none is an extreme stereotype.

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1.2 Examples of personas.

Personas are used during several stages of the design process. They help a designer
synthesize information collected about the personalities, experiences, and feelings of the
people who will be using the design solution in order to set design requirements. They are
also used in assessing potential design solutions during the later phases of the design
process as a quick and easy way to illuminate important user experience variables. As
design alternatives are developed and decisions are made, the designer can conduct
imaginary consultations with each persona, imagining what Joe would do in this situation,
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or how Karen might like the aesthetics of this option, or how Helen would feel about using
a high-tech solution. Personas can also be created for other stakeholders who will not
actually be using or wearing the solution. (For more on other stakeholders, see Design
Strategies 1.1.)
Identifying Design Variables
Design variables are elements related to the user, the context, the design objective, or the
problem itself that influence how effective a particular design solution will be. They are
usually identified through research as a designer explores the problem. Variables might
include things like the user’s body temperature, the amount of moisture in the air, or the
range of movement needed by the user.

In the course of the research process, many facts, figures, ideas, concepts, and bodies of
knowledge will be uncovered. Not all of these pieces of information are truly variables of
the design challenge; they may instead be examples or values of a variable. The
designer’s task is to identify the root variable. (See Figure 1.3.) For example, a designer
may have recorded during the research phase that rock climbers often report being “too
hot.” Too hot, however, is not the root variable; the underlying variable is probably body
temperature, and too hot is a possible value or state of body temperature. Defining the
variable as body temperature may allow the designer to study all of the influences that
create thermal balance, such as ambient air temperature, amount of moisture, and activity

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level of the climber. It may also help the designer to think about other states of the
variable body temperature. For example, looking at factors that make the body too cold
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may offer insight that leads to innovative problem solutions.

1.3 Identifying a root design variable from information gathered in the research process.

It is tempting to think of design variables in terms of the materials and tools a designer
can use, things like textiles, fasteners, and design features. However, these elements are
more likely to be alternative solutions to the problem rather than more fundamental
variables that influence the problem. For example, defining insulation type as a design
variable when designing a winter coat could cause designers to think only in terms of
insulation as a means of providing thermal comfort. Using thermal comfort as the design
variable instead, allows consideration of a range of other design solutions such as
chemical or electrical heating. It is extremely important that the design variables identified
are phrased in terms of problems, not solutions.

Identifying Design Constraints

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Design constraints are another kind of variable influencing a design problem. Constraints
differ from other problem variables in that they are not directly under the control of a
designer. They are commonly part of the environment or the task; for example, the
requirement that the garment attach to a specific structure (a component of a building or
vehicle, or an accessory like a glove or shoe) or the need to wear a pack on top of the
garment. In the example of designing clothing for rock climbers mentioned earlier, a
design constraint might be the safety harness that is worn on top of the climber’s clothing.
The harness will exert pressure on the body in specific places, and the wearer must be
able to reach and interact with the harness at times during his or her climb. Depending on
the scope of a designer’s influence, the harness may or may not be changeable. Indeed, a
designer may not have control over even what specific harness type is worn. A designer
with holistic control over an entire ensemble might have the option of designing a harness
built into the garment. However, designers must establish with a client at the outset the
factors in the design situation that they will be permitted to manipulate. There may be
federal safety standards or other regulations that cannot be ignored for many items of
functional clothing.

Not every design problem has constraints significant enough to articulate separately.
However, in cases where the peripheral needs of the system have a strong impact on the
designer’s decisions, it can be helpful to outline and specify the constraints on the design
in the same way that the variables of the problem are described.

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It is important that designers use critical thinking to assess whether any articulated
constraints are fundamental parts of the problem, or whether they are simply a narrow or
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mistaken view of the real problem. Like design variables, design constraints can be
disguised solutions, and designers must explore the problem deeply enough to determine
which constraints are permanent and which can be resolved through a clever design
solution.
Developing Frameworks
Frameworks are graphic illustrations of two important things: the most important variables
of the design problem and the relationship between these variables.

Figure 1.4 shows a framework for the problem of designing clothing for rock climbing.
One simple method of creating a framework is to begin by writing each idea, concept, or
observation that emerges from the research and analysis process on an individual index
card or adhesive note. This allows each thought to be mobile and malleable as a designer
attempts to sort the variables into groups.
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1.4 A framework of variables related to rock climbing.

Once this sorting has been done, the next step is to label each group of notes or cards
with a heading or title. Then, thoughts can easily be arranged and rearranged according
to new groupings and variables as the inductive process of identifying design variables
continues. In the rock climbing example, this sorting and labeling process yielded design
variables such as body temperature, air temperature, activity level, mobility of the wearer,
tactile sensitivity (the need to “feel” the rock), and interaction with the safety harness.
Significantly more detail about each of these variables is known by a designer, but at this
stage detailed information is represented only by the categories or variables shown in
each circle.

Once this step is completed, it is important to explore the relationships between variables
to understand the ways in which variables interact and influence one another. Figure 1.4
shows just one of a number of possible framework formats based on the previously listed
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variables. In practice, this framework would be far more complex and include many more
variables.
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In many ways, this step of framework-building is one of the most difficult parts of the
design process because there is no one typical example of what a framework should be.
Figure 1.5 shows some common forms that frameworks can take. It is important to note
that many frameworks do not fit neatly into one of these categories, and designers very
commonly need to create a new type of illustration of the problem or combine multiple
approaches to effectively describe their insight.

1.5 Common graphic representations of frameworks.

One of the benefits of building a framework is that by forcing designers to think around
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the problem and into its corners, the framework-building process can help identify
possible gaps in the research and analysis process and identify new design variables that
may have been overlooked. It can help a designer discover new categories and
relationships within a problem. For example, simply exploring the variable interaction with
harness could lead to concerns about the interaction of clothing with other accessories
such as gloves, boots, and helmets. Other accessories were not represented in the original
framework, but adding them could provide a designer with new perspectives on the
problem. It could also inspire a designer to seek out more information, such as how
continuous coverage between clothing and other accessories has been provided for other
types of clothing.
Identifying Design Requirements
Design requirements are the most concrete result of the research and definition phases of
the design process: They translate abstract concepts from the framework and problem
definition into itemized, specific details about what the design should or must do. Table
1.1 shows some examples of design requirements derived from the framework in Figure
1.4. As the table shows, specific values have been assigned to variables and subvariables
identified as influential in the design problem.

Table 1.1. Examples of Design Requirements for Rock Climbing

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Variable Subvariable Requirement

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Mobility Shoulder mobility Allows unimpeded shoulder flexion to 180°

Mobility Spinal mobility Allows unimpeded spinal flexion to 90°

Tactile sensitivi Pressure Prevents localized pressure of greater than 100

ty sensitivity kPa

Body temperat Surface Maintains body surface temperature within the

ure temperature range of 32–37 °C

Abstract frameworks allow a designer to fully describe and discuss the problem itself,
before even beginning to think about solutions. Moving from a framework to a list of
design requirements allows the qualities that would make up an effective solution to be
described specifically before a solution is designed. Sometimes this is because of the
need to communicate between groups of people (e.g., designer with client; design team
with engineering team, etc.), and sometimes it is used as an internal checkpoint for the
designer to help make sure the research leading up to this point has been thorough
enough to be articulated in terms of requirements. In many cases, there are specific
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government regulations that set concrete design requirements that designers and
manufacturers cannot ignore if their products are to reach the market.

The final list of design requirements can be very short or very long, depending on the
level of detail required by the design challenge. In some cases, design requirements are
nearly all quantitative, expressed in terms of the temperature or force or weight that the
solution must withstand or have. In other cases, design requirements are much more
descriptive and expressed in terms of the user needs that must be met.
For example, Table 1.1 shows how the designer’s specific knowledge that is wrapped up
in each of these variables is unpacked into explicit requirements. To begin, look for root
variables. During the research phase, a designer has probably listed all of the movements
that the climber will need to be able to comfortably do in the garment. The root variable
that movements needed have in common is the range of motion of each body joint
involved. Instead of listing every movement that involves bending the elbow, for example,
it makes more sense to list as a design requirement a single value for the minimum range
of motion of the elbow. By specifying that the spine needs to be able to flex easily to a
90° angle, or the shoulder needs to flex to a minimum of 180°, the designer need not list
all of the possible activities that would require flexion of those joints.

In creating design requirements, it is important that designers continue to refrain from

forming requirements that limit the range of possible design solutions. For example, a
design requirement that states that “the skin surface must be kept between 32 and 37
degrees C” is quite a different from a criterion that says that one should design “a vest for

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the rock climbers that will keep the skin surface between 32 and 37 degrees C.” The first
statement gives the parameters of the problem; the second limits the solutions to a vest.
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Thus, the designer is effectively prevented from using a whole arsenal of other design
configurations—from jackets to shirts to electrically heated wrist bands to a rock-mounted
radiator blowing hot air at the climber. The language used to define design problems can
significantly affect the creativity with which a designer can tackle problems. (See Design
Strategies 1.2)
Creating a Concise Problem Definition
Design requirements comprise a specific, detailed definition of a design project. However,
it is helpful to be able to communicate overall design goals with a one- or two-sentence
definition. This concise, overarching definition is useful for communicating the nature of a
project to others, but it also helps to focus and clarify a designer’s efforts.

For example, in the rock-climbing project described throughout this chapter, a project
definition might be “Provide a means by which female rock-climbers of average ability
may climb unimpeded in 40–100 degree F weather under any conditions of precipitation
while maintaining thermal and tactile comfort.” Each factor in this definition may be
backed up by several design requirements. Some design requirements may contain
numerical values for specific physical tests a design needs to pass or percentages of test
subjects that need to approve of a design. Designers are wise to return to the concise
problem definition often to be certain they are focusing on the problem they set out to
solve.
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Design Strategies 1.2: The Importance of a Good Definition

One drawback of designing with an ill-conceived definition: the designer may

ultimately work to solve the wrong problem. Ashdown and Watkins (1993), in
describing an industry-sponsored project aimed at improving the fit of a totally
encompassing chemical suit, state that one of the design criteria set by the client was
“make the bootie smaller.” The researchers’ analysis of the garment pattern and
anthropometric data revealed that the uncomfortable wrinkling and excess bootie
material around the foot was due not to the bootie being too large, but to it being
considerably too small, forcing wearers to step on part of the lower leg of the garment,
pulling it down under the heels of the wearer’s foot. This created the appearance of
excess bulk and a bootie that was, in the words of the client, “too large.” A good
criterion in this case—one that would allow designers to form a clearer and more
accurate problem definition—might have been, “Reduce the wrinkling around the
bootie of the suit.”

Framing a concise definition at this stage of the process may allow a designer to add a
direction for the research that was uncovered during the process of forming design
requirements. For example, for the preceding definition, one might add the criterion that
the design should allow a climber to feel as “natural” and “unencumbered” as possible
while being protected and comfortable.

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A good definition can form both the guidelines for selecting the best design ideas and the
basis for evaluating the final product. By articulating the definition to clients and checking
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it throughout the design process, a designer can ensure that the goals of a project are
being met.

Generating Ideas
There have been many great discoveries, both in science and in art, in which the critical
link has been met by chance …
It is the highly inquiring mind which at that moment seizes the chance and turns what was
an accident into something providential.
--(Jacob Bronowski)

You see things; and you say, “Why?” But I dream things that never were; and I say, “Why
not?”
--(George Bernard Shaw)

Chance favors the prepared mind.

--(Louis Pasteur)

Idea generation (sometimes called ideation) is considered by the layperson to be the work
that designers are really equipped to do. It is the creative, idea-generating part of the
design process that most designers find to be great fun. If the problem has been
thoroughly analyzed and a clear definition has been developed, good ideas may simply
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flow naturally out of a designer’s brain.

The ability to generate creative ideas evolves in part from experience and in part from the
way individuals process and use information. One might think of the brain as a sort of file
cabinet in which one can deposit ideas and observations and then open it to retrieve them
when they are needed. It is clear that the more experiences one has, the more files there
are to retrieve and thus the more ideas one can contribute to a problem. At the same
time, two people who share the same experience may draw out of it quite different
qualities and quantities of ideas to store in their files. This is one of the reasons why it is
often valuable to have teams of designers from different backgrounds working together
to solve a problem. The ability to maintain an active curiosity about the world—to keenly
observe, question, and perceive unusual configurations and situations—all increase the
material one draws from a single experience.

Two attributes that are vital to creative problem solving are fluency and flexibility.
Individuals who possess these attributes are able to “scan more alternative thoughts, ride
the wave of different associative currents, and think of more ideas in a given span of time
than can people who are less creative” (Raudsepp 1983, 173).

Fluency is the ability to come up with many ideas in a single category, whereas flexibility is
the ability to come up with many categories of design requirements or approaches.
Fluency has no judgment component. It simply allows the idea generator to come up with
as many ideas as possible regardless of their feasibility. Flexibility allows the creative
person to “choose and explore a wide variety of approaches to a problem without losing

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sight of the overall goal or purpose” (Ibid. 174). It allows one to free associate (i.e., to
move in random directions from an original idea without any apparent pattern). One idea
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triggers another even though it may be only tangentially related.

For example, one might ask people to come up with as many uses as they can for a
toothbrush. If one person lists many uses for personal grooming, that person
demonstrates fluency. If another proposes a use in art, one in gardening, one in auto
repair, one in cooking, one in home construction, one in poetry, one in interior decoration,
and so on, this demonstrates flexibility. When an individual possesses both fluency and
flexibility, the number and variety of ideas increases exponentially.

Both of these qualities are important to all stages of the design process. Even in research,
a fluent designer is more easily able to think of additional subtopics within a topic at hand
that may need investigating. A flexible designer is better able to think around the
problem and discover peripheral areas relevant to the problem. Having both fluency and
flexibility often allows designers to illuminate additional design requirements, personas,
and the like at this stage of the design process.

It is important to allow creative design ideas to flow freely without censoring them. Adams
(1986b, 46) states, “if you analyze or judge too early in the problem-solving process, you
will reject many ideas. This is detrimental for two reasons.” The first is that newly formed
ideas are fragile and need detail and maturity. The second is that many ideation
techniques depend on unreasonable, “way out” ideas (Ibid., 47). Even insignificant or
apparently absurd ideas can serve as links to truly creative solutions.
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When problem solving, one can never have enough ideas. It is important not to reject any
ideas during the idea generation process, and it is equally important to note ideas as they
come along, in words, sketches, or both. Designers always need to keep recording tools
handy because the freest flow of ideas often occurs when the brain is relaxed and not
working directly on a problem.

There are many approaches to the improvement of creative thinking skills and many
excellent methods that have been established to help designers who have difficulty
generating new ideas and design concepts. It is impossible to describe each of the
methods in enough detail here for the reader to fully implement them. The methods and
their authors are mentioned and included in the reference list in the hope that the reader
will explore full texts on many of them as they approach various design problems.
Idea Generation Techniques
One of the most often used techniques for generating ideas is brainstorming (Osborn
1957). Brainstorming can be used in any stage of the design process. It is especially
helpful in generating large numbers of ideas in a short period of time. It is intended as a
group technique that seeks quantity of ideas without concern for quality, encourages
“tagging on” to an idea that originated with another group member, and forbids criticism
of ideas.

Lateral thinkingis an approach to creative thinking that is different from traditional

methods of thinking in that it may deliberately seek out irrelevant information, use
information only for its effect on stimulating creative thinking, and use incorrect

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assumptions to achieve a correct solution. In contrast, with traditional thinking (i.e.,

vertical thinking), “one moves forward by sequential steps each of which must be
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justified” (de Bono 1985, 11). In vertical thinking, incorrect information is discarded, and
only relevant information is sought. Lateral thinking generates insight and produces new
connections. It is a way of cutting across established patterns to find new ones. The
difference between lateral and vertical thinking may remind one of the divergent and
convergent thought processes discussed earlier in this chapter.

The concept of the “six thinking hats” is a form of lateral thinking that asks designers to
challenge the ways their brains work by temporarily donning different colored hats,
becoming individuals who think in different ways (de Bono 1999).

Synectics is a method of joining together different and apparently irrelevant elements as a

stimulus to generating creative solutions to problems (Gordon 1961). Synectics theory
holds that the emotional component is as important as the intellectual component in
problem solving and that individuals who understand these emotional, irrational
components have an increased probability of success in a problem-solving situation. In a
synectics session (which in itself is a complete design process), the group first attempts to
become familiar with the problem and the goals or wishes of the client. Then, the group
takes an excursion, that is, it leaves the problem for a while and examines how other
problems with similar wishes have been solved. Finally, it returns to the original problem
with fresh insights and attempts to apply that new energy to the problem.

Another method involves using manipulative verbs to view problems in unique ways.
Verbs such as magnify, minify, rearrange, combine, reverse, and substitute are used to
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suggest ways to manipulate a subject by, among other things, altering its size or changing
its position or function (Koberg and Bagnall 2003, 69). This has much the same effect as
an excursion in synectics in that it moves a designer out of the specific problem and
focuses instead on stimulating new insights that may later be applied to the problem.

Mind mapping seeks to stimulate both flexibility and fluency by recording ideas in a way
that is much more like natural thought processes than are the outlining, note-taking
methods taught in most schools (Buzan 1984). It encourages the person seeking ideas to
explore a central topic by letting the mind wander in any direction and recording the
thoughts in the order they come, in a pattern that branches out from the central idea. (See
Figure 1.6.) The nature and number of ideas nearest the center subject demonstrate the
flexibility of the designer, and the number of ideas on the outer edges of the map
demonstrates fluency.

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1.6 A mind map.

Small sketches and symbols may be used rather than words to record ideas. The purpose
of mind mapping is to generate an individual brainstorming process without having to
worry about fitting ideas into categories. As the ideas are generated, they become a
stimulus for additional ideas and categories of thought. The branching out of the mind
map is a form of lateral thinking and reflects the type of excursion taken in synectics.
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Therefore, the process can serve as a route to innovative design ideas.

Ideas generated through brainstorming often need incubation time. This is undoubtedly
true for other idea-generating techniques as well. One creativity expert established the
practice of contacting the members of a brainstorming group the following day when they
had had a chance to sleep on their ideas. He often found that the afterthoughts were
better than the ideas generating in the original session (Osborn 1957, 250). Similarly, an
individual designer would be wise to revisit an idea-generating session a day after it takes
place.

Interaction matrixes are another tool. They use design variables themselves to generate
new design ideas. In this technique, design variables are listed on both the horizontal and
vertical axes of a matrix grid. (Figure 1.7). Then a designer selects a variable from each
axis and uses the combination of those two design variables to stimulate new design ideas
that address those two variables simultaneously. Figure 1.7 illustrates several design ideas
that result from exploring the intersection between variables.

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1.7 Using an interaction matrix to generate design ideas.

Some designers find a three-dimensional box-like matrix to be more helpful than a two-
dimensional one. The shaded box on the 3-D matrix in Figure 1.8 shows the intersection
of three variables relating to a rock-climbing ensemble—hip, harness, and moisture. One
idea that might come out of the consideration of these three variables together might be
to use a spacer fabric around the hips to prevent moisture buildup under a rock-climbing
harness.
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1.8 Using a three-dimensional interaction matrix to generate design ideas.

As with analysis, designers find it difficult to ever consider the process of idea generation
completed. There is never only one correct answer; a better design can always be
developed. Lawson concluded that “The designer identifies the end of his process as a
matter of judgment. It no longer seems worth the effort of going further because the
chances of significantly improving on the solution seem small” (1983, 88). Conversely,
however, when generating ideas, it is tempting to consider the task finished when the end
of the first, easily retrieved set of ideas is reached. Since early ideas can tend to be more
obvious and commonplace, it is vitally important that designers continue to pursue

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additional ideas beyond those that come easily to mind. This is where ideation tools and
techniques are most useful; even experienced designers can come up with more ideas
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and better ideas using ideation tools than those relying only on what comes to mind.
Sketching
Sketching and drawing may be the most stereotypical designer activities, even though the
bulk of the design process arguably happens while doing other activities. Sketching is
more than the process of recording an idea that passes through the brain of a designer; it
is actually a way of developing ideas. Because the connection between the brain and the
hand is not perfect (the sketch is never 100 percent what the designer intended), the
process of drawing is only an interpretation of the original idea. Goldschmidt (1991)
describes this process as a “dialog” between the designer and the sketch, or even
between the designer’s conscious and subconscious mind. She differentiates between
drawings (renderings of fully formed ideas, aimed at recording detail as accurately as
possible) and sketches (components of a developmental process, aimed at helping to
discover or develop an idea). In the sketching process, a designer may not have fully
realized the objective being pursued. The sketch may actually result in a design direction
that was not explicitly intended when the sketch was begun. An idea held in the mind is
inherently less explicit than an instance of that idea put on paper. By making the idea
explicit, a designer can raise questions or flesh out critiques of the idea that are not
possible when the idea is still implicit in the mind.

Many beginning designers can be hesitant to engage in a sketching process because they
perceive that they are not good at drawing. Although skill in drawing can certainly be
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helpful, it is by no means essential to a sketching process. Because the benefit of

sketching is the transition back and forth between a vague idea and a concrete expression
of that idea, accuracy is not necessarily required for the dialog to take place.

Developing Designs
No one deserves either praise or blame for the ideas that come to him, but only for the
actions resulting therefrom.
--(A. R. Wallace, qtd. in Madigan and Ellwood 1983, 284)

The creative process does not end with an idea—it only starts with an idea.
--(John Arnold, qtd. in Osborn 1957, 249)

Many designers believe that the point at which the most creative design behavior takes
place is not during idea generation, but in the shaping and selection of the design ideas
that best solve a problem. Often the best design cannot be found among a series of
design ideas presented during idea generation. Instead, it may evolve from recombining
aspects of several of the original design proposals. The shaping and recombining of ideas
may also uncover new design variables or constraints. At this stage moving between
concrete examples and abstractions or categories in a process similar to creating a
framework of the problem can greatly expand the number and quality of design concepts
available to solve a problem.

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One designer recommends selecting the most promising design ideas by following
brainstorming with a screening session done by individuals not involved in the
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brainstorming session. This is to avoid the tendency for brainstorming to be like “a beauty
contest being judged by the mothers of the would-be Miss Americas” (Osborne 1957,
251). Others believe that this screening committee should be charged with more than just
“judge and select. One of its prescribed functions is creatively to reprocess the ideas
through combination, elaboration, and other means” (Ibid., 252).

Ranking and Weighting Criteria

Not all criteria (variables) are equally important to the success of a design. At some point
in the design process, it is important to prioritize criteria so that the relative importance of
each plays a part in the selection of the final design. This is generally done by ranking and
weighting them. Ranking criteria involves listing them in order of importance while
weighting involves assigning a relative value to them. Ranking and weighting design
criteria can be difficult processes that are further complicated by the presence of multiple
clients, each of whom has his or her own set of priorities. Both need to evolve from the
initial problem statement in combination with a thorough analysis. Even assigning a
weight to each criterion, something often thought to be particularly difficult, can be
greatly simplified if a thorough analysis of the problem has been completed. Because
ranking and weighting of criteria is so intimately connected with idea selection, a
discussion of some of the methods that can be used for these processes will be presented
here.
Using Forced Connections
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Koberg and Bagnall have suggested a technique they call “forced connections
morphology” to help a designer connect some alternative ideas generated in the ideation
process (2003, 72). Figure 1.9 shows an example of an attribute chart prepared for this
method. The problem for which a solution is being sought is that of developing a postural
support for elderly persons with deteriorating posture. Across the top of the chart are
some attributes of the problem and under each attribute is a list of alternatives generated
during analysis and ideation. The breadth of the list of attributes shows the flexibility of
the designer; the alternatives below each heading demonstrate fluency. Note that, unlike
an interaction matrix, this method allows more than two attributes to be explored at once.
When the lists are as complete as possible, a designer can make random passes through
them. An alternative to random passes might be to cut up the lists, place each of the
alternatives in attribute piles and draw one alternative out of each pile. Then, attempts to
flesh out the details of a design can be based on those characteristics.
For example, based on the list in Figure 1.9, one might develop an inflatable backpack
secured on the body with D-rings that had shoulder straps that pulled back on the
shoulders. An alternative pass through the lists might suggest a zippered vest made of
woven, nonstretch fabric in front and stretch fabric in back that incorporated semirigid
supports at intervals all the way across the front to push the body upright.

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1.9 Forced connections morphology. Random passes through the lists provide alternative
design concepts. (Koberg and Bagnall 2003, 72)
Using Decision Matrixes
A decision matrix (also sometimes called a Pugh chart) is a visual representation of design
criteria in rows and columns that helps a designer to understand and investigate the
influence of their design decisions on the success of the resulting design. The matrix
format helps designers to understand and assess the influence of individual criteria and
the relative success of different design solutions. Table 1.2 shows a decision matrix for
four criteria applied to three design concepts. In the table, design criteria are listed
individually in the left-hand column. In the next column, each criterion is assigned a
weight (from 1 to 5 in this table) that reflects its relative importance to the success of the
design solution. Appropriate weights may be determined by soliciting input from users
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and other stakeholders. A useful tool is a pairwise comparison that allows people to
compare two characteristics at a time and identify which is more important. Respondents
can also be asked the relative importance of each (i.e., is one “slightly more important” or
“a lot more important” than the other?). Then, these comparisons can be put into a
decision model that can determine the overall weightings of the criteria.

Table 1.2. A Decision Matrix

Concept Concept Concept

1 2 3
Concept Weighted Concept Weighted Concept Weighted
Criterion Weight 1 Score Score 2 Score Score 3 Score Score

MOBILI 5 5 5×5= 4 5×4= 2 5×2=

TY 25 20 10

BODY T 4 2 4×2=8 4 4×4= 5 4×5=

EMPER 16 20
ATURE

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Concept Concept Concept

1 2 3
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Concept Weighted Concept Weighted Concept Weighted

Criterion Weight 1 Score Score 2 Score Score 3 Score Score

TACTILE 4 3 4×3= 2 4×2=8 5 5×2=

SENSATI 12 10
ON

AESTHE 3 5 3×5= 1 3×1=3 3 3×3=9

TICS 15

TOTAL 60 47 49
SCORE

Next, each design concept is scored on each criterion (also with a score from 1 to 5 in this
example). The score is multiplied by the weight in order to arrive at a weighted score for
each criterion. Finally, all of the weighted scores for each concept are summed to form a
total score for the concept, which can be compared to the total scores for other concepts.

A tool like this matrix can be helpful in illuminating some of the implicit values or
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assumptions that may have influenced the designer’s decision making, by substituting a
very explicit decision-making process. In the example in Table 1.2, for instance, a designer
may have been surprised to find out that Concept 1 was the winner. This might help the
designer to reflect more objectively on why that concept was not previously thought to be
as strong as other concepts or to stop and ask why the objective evidence does not line
up with the intuitive choice made. This could help the designer to understand which
factors might have been overlooked in previous analyses.
Resolving Conflicts
Regardless of how carefully a matrix is set up, it cannot really serve as an ultimate decision
maker. It simply helps designers to explore combinations of ideas that may have fallen
between the cracks. Sometimes the combination that yields the highest total simply feels
wrong. A designer needs to use both intuitive and explicit means to select the best ideas
and develop the final design.

In addition to setting ranked and weighted design criteria, it is often helpful to identify the
criteria that are likely to be in conflict with one another. When the best solution to one
criterion exacerbates the problem expressed by another, a designer has to determine the
relative importance of each criterion and work to develop a design solution that
maximizes the benefits for both. DeJonge discusses what she calls an “interaction matrix
and net” (Watkins 1995, 351) that identifies the interactions between design criteria for a

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sleeping ensemble (Figure 1.10). The nets at the bottom of the figure were developed on
the basis of the matrix. They show areas that “need additional work if they are to be
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incorporated into the design.”

1.10 An interaction matrix and net for a sleeping ensemble.

Working on a design for a total enclosure such as a space suit, a chemical protective suit,
or a military protective ensemble that has multiple and often conflicting requirements
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presents one of the most challenging tasks in design development. The selection process
becomes chicken-or-egg decision making, in which each decision made for one part of an
ensemble is linked to each decision made for every other part of the ensemble. One of
the most interesting approaches can be found in a concept plan for an integrated
protective clothing and equipment ensemble for the Canadian soldier, which was
projected for the year 2005 (Knapp 1988). This project involved the design of an
ensemble to protect soldiers from a wide range of threats: weather (temperature,
precipitation), ballistic, chemical, biological, nuclear, flame, directed energy (lasers,
microwaves), detection, impact, sensory, insects, and so on.

Knapp developed what he called a concept generator and established levels of decision
that he used to sequence his idea selection. The purpose of the concept generator was to
move from a specific requirement or criterion to a list of all of the possible technologies
that could meet that criterion. This is analogous to the definition and idea generation
phases of the design process discussed earlier in this chapter. Knapp kept these lists of
requirements and possible solutions in front of him as he began the selection process so
that none of them could be forgotten, but new ideas could be inserted as they evolved in
the process of idea selection. Knapp applied this concept generator to the development
of his protective ensemble for the Canadian soldier. If his lists were made into a
morphological box, Knapp estimated that 146,750 different designs would have been
possible.

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Determining levels of decision involves studying the design problem to determine which
decisions need to be made first. Figure 1.11 shows the decision path through which
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Knapp’s ensemble was created. Knapp decided that the most basic decision that needed
to be made was whether the ensemble would be permeable or impermeable to air. Many
other decisions, such as how to achieve thermal balance (including power requirements to
do so), whether to use a soft or hard material shell, and how to support the weight of the
system, rested on that initial decision. The pros and cons of permeable and impermeable
systems were considered, and it was decided that a hybrid system would best satisfy the
needs of the soldier. (The hybrid system included a permeable garment with an
impermeable overgarment to be worn at specific times.) After this decision was made, he
moved on to the issue of whether a hard or soft shell approach should be chosen.
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1.11 Concept generator for an infantry soldier’s protective ensemble. (Knapp 1988)

Knapp’s decision path looks fairly simplistic, so it is important to emphasize again the
importance of thorough research and analysis, a clear definition of the problem, and a free
and open idea generation process. Knapp used nine levels of decision, each of which
involved analysis of many factors, from the threats and hazards confronting a soldier to the
tasks that needed to be accomplished to the costs involved in production. Having well-
outlined requirements and many approaches to meeting them are critical to this phase of
the decision-making process.
Using Interaction Narratives
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After an idea has been selected for further development, the designer’s next task is to
‘flesh out’ the concept into the full detail required of an actual garment solution. The
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designer must make many small decisions during this process. It can be tempting to make
these smaller decisions based on more direct influences such as cost or the designer’s
intuition. However, even small variables can have a significant effect on the overall success
of the design. Things like closures, seam placement, and even color can determine
whether or not a design will be effective and usable.

One method of working through the development of detail in a design concept is to bring
personas back into play in the form of interaction narratives. Interaction narratives are
short storytelling exercises that allow a designer to imagine in some detail how the user
will interact with the design solution. The process of storytelling encourages the designer
to consider how something will happen, which can illuminate some of the overlooked
variables of the design. For example, Figure 1.12 shows a storyboard style of interaction
narrative for one of the personas illustrated in Figure 1.2. It is annotated with design
sketches showing the details of the design. To fully describe how the user will interact with
the design, the details of the interaction must be thought through.

At this point, it is crucial that the designer fully understand the person who will be
engaged in the activity. This is where the personas described earlier in this chapter
become very useful as developmental tools. Because personas encapsulate the rich
understanding that the designer has of various users, those personas can now be
consulted by hypothetically testing out a design solution. Storyboards based on personas
help the designer take into account a user’s personality, knowledge, abilities, and needs
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rather than making assumptions or thinking based on their own subjectivity.

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1.12 A storyboard illustrates the rock-climbing experience of one design persona.

Low-Fidelity Prototyping
As the details of a design are developed, it is crucially important that the evolving design
be tested by users as early and as often as possible. This feedback is important for two
reasons: so that the user’s perspective is integrated throughout the design process,
allowing inaccurate assumptions to be caught before they become poor design decisions,
and so that design alternatives can be evaluated by an objective outsider early in the
process, before the designer becomes too attached to a pet idea whose
conceptualization and actualization are quite disparate.

Testing ideas is much more effective when they can be tested in physical form. Discussing
ideas verbally is somewhat helpful but requires all of the parties in the discussion to make
assumptions, which can lead to misinterpretations. Physical form brings a design concept
into reality and gives the designer and user something concrete to discuss.

It is important that emerging concepts be evaluated in physical form, but it is not

important that the physical form be refined or polished in any way. In fact, it is often more
effective for designs to be evaluated in very obviously unfinished or low-fidelity form. This
helps the designer communicate to the user that the design is not finished and that it is
still acceptable to implement changes.
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Conducting User Feedback Sessions

Conducting an effective feedback session with low-fidelity prototypes requires experience
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and skill in much the same way that effective interviewing does. Two of the important
elements of a feedback session are enacting use scenarios and gathering concrete
feedback. In the first case, it is important that users actually physically interact with the
design concept as if they were using it in real life. They should put it on and engage in, or
pretend to engage in, tasks and activities that they would need to undertake in the field.
It is important to include accessories normally worn over or under garments for these
sessions. Feedback sessions illuminate specific drawbacks, such as not being able to move
in a certain way or not having the appropriate contour in a given area.
Second, as users enact these use scenarios, it is important to capture their feedback in a
very concrete way, by actually reshaping or drawing on the low-fidelity prototype itself.
For this reason, it can be very helpful to arrive at a feedback session with multiple versions
of a low-fidelity prototype! Capturing concrete feedback again helps minimize
misinterpretations in the feedback process. Rather than assume that “too tight right here”
means a 0.5 inch (1.27 cm) increase in diameter at the knee, the designer can actually
capture that what the user really needed was a 0.75 inch (1.9 cm) increase in diameter 2
inches (5.08 cm) above the knee.

Evaluating Designs
Evaluation (is) a form of accounting. It involves the comparing of actions with
consequences; detecting flaws and making improvements; planting the seeds of future
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challenge.
--(Koberg and Bagnall 2003, 94)

Evaluation involves taking a critical look at the decisions made in the design process. It
may involve numerical ratings based on tests with many subjects or simply the informal,
subjective opinion of a designer. In the field of functional clothing design, evaluation
tends to lean toward the former. If evaluation is seen as a stopping point along the way—
a time for assessment before moving ahead—it makes sense to achieve the most
objective assessment possible and use it as a guide to further design development.

It is preferable to set up evaluation procedures prior to ideation in order to be certain that

the choice of evaluation technique is not prejudiced by the final design selected.
Evaluation techniques may take many forms, including observation, interview,
questionnaires, laboratory testing, and field testing. Many types of laboratory and field
tests specific to various clothing problems are discussed throughout this text.

In many fields, evaluation is undertaken before a full-scale design is begun. The more
complex and expensive the construction process is, the more likely it is that this will occur.
Because many items of apparel are relatively inexpensive, full-scale garments in final
materials are frequently constructed and evaluated on users. Prototypes or parts of
models may also be constructed and evaluated throughout all phases of the process as
the decision-making process proceeds.

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Regardless of the stage at which evaluation is performed, this part of the design process is
made considerably simpler by the establishment of clear design criteria at the definition
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stage of the design process. As Koberg and Bagnall state, “If you can’t explain where
you’re headed, you’ll never know when you’ve arrived” (2003, 23). If the goals of a design
problem are clearly defined, evaluation can often be almost a checklist process of
assessing whether or not goals have been met. For some projects, the physical aspects of
an acceptable product can be precisely defined. For example, survival handwear designed
for pilots may be required to take no more than 10 cubic inches (163.87 cu cm) of storage
space on an ejection seat. Other criteria may be defined by more subjective means such
as “the appearance of the handwear must be acceptable to the pilot community.” If
precise acceptance levels are set in the definition phase of the design process, evaluation
becomes a matter of providing an appropriate test to determine how effectively the
designer’s goals were met. For example, the above definition may be further narrowed so
that it specified that “the appearance of the handwear must be acceptable to seventy
percent of a random sample of one hundred pilots.”

All evaluations should end with a look toward the future. Aspects of designs that did not
meet the goals set by the design criteria can be explored again. Like test grades, the
evaluation provided by an objective assessment of a product should not be considered a
catalog of its failures but rather a guide to areas that need attention in future efforts.

Conclusion
A few people may pick up a golf club and swing it naturally or easily sound a flute … but
for the vast majority the skills must be acquired initially by attention to detail. It is in the
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very nature of highly developed skills that we can perform them unconsciously… . So it is
with design. We probably work best when we think least about our technique. The
beginner however must first analyse and practise all the elements of his skill.
--(Lawson 1983, 6–7)

The great cutting edge of economic change in this country is not technology but design.
--(John Kenneth Galbraith)

Graduates have been well equipped to think analytically about a clearly defined
deterministic problem, but they have been poorly prepared to solve complex, ill-defined
problems in the presence of uncertainties.
--(Haupt 1978, 55)

The profession with the brightest future is that of creative problem-solving. The statute of
limitations on problem-solutions is short.
--(Koberg and Bagnall 2003, 25)

In this highly technological age, where virtually anything is possible, more and more
problems—both nationally and internationally—are complex ones that involve endless
numbers of factors. Problems that involve human beings and/or changing environmental
conditions will remain, as Haupt states, “ill-defined.” The capacity to deal with those
problems—to design—is, and will continue to be, a highly prized skill.

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Each of the following chapters in this book is intended to help designers become familiar
with the content of a specific problem area in functional apparel. Every designer needs to
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develop a personal process that can help convert knowledge of this content into
innovative functional apparel.
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