GEOLOGY LAB REPORT

Title:An Overview of Reservoir and Salt Domes in Different Areas of the World Especially Bangladesh.

January 12, 2025

Submitted by: HRISHI DEB HRIDI

Instructor: Lecturer BINTUN ZAMAN

Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET)

 EXPERIMENT NO-03

Table of Contents
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................2
List of Tables......................................................................................................................3
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………4
1.1 Background on Hydrocarbon Systems……………………………………………………………………..4
1.2 Introduction to Salt Domes………………………………………………………………………………………5
1.3 Scope and Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Chapter 2: Reservoir Geology: A Global Perspective………………………………………………………9
2.1 Types of Reservoir Rocks………………………………………………………………………………………….9
2.2 Global Distribution of Major Reservoirs………………………………………………………………….12
2.3 Reservoir Characterization Techniques…………………………………………………………………..16
Chapter 3: Salt Domes: Formation, Characteristics, and Economic Significance……………18
3.1 Formation of Salt Domes………………………………………………………………………………………..18
3.2 Structural Features of Salt Domes…………………………………………………………………………..20
3.3 Global Distribution of Salt Domes………………………………………………..............................21
Chapter 4: Reservoir and Salt Domes in Bangladesh……………………………..........................25
4.1 Geological Context……………………………………….............................................................25
4.2 Reservoir Potential………………………………………………………………………………………………….26
4.3 Salt Structures in Bangladesh…………………………………………………………………………….......27
4.4 Challenges and Opportunities………………………………………………………………………………….29
Chapter 5: Petroleum Geology of Bangladesh…………………………………………………...............32
5.1 Geological Setting of Bangladesh………………………………………………………....................….32
5.2 Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production in Bangladesh…………………………..............…34
5.3 Reservoir Characteristics in Bangladesh…………………………………………………………………..35
Chapter 6: Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………...37
6.1 Global Perspective on Reservoir Geology and Salt Domes……………………………………….37
6.2 Petroleum System and Exploration in Bangladesh……………………………………………………37
6.3 Implications for Future Exploration and Research…………………………………………...........38
6.4 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………………………………………..........38
References .........................................................................................................................39

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 List of Figures
Figure 1: Petroleum Systems Elements………………………………………....................................5
Figure 2: Simplified Cross Section of a Salt Dome……………................................................6
Figure 3: Photomicrographs of Different Sandstone Types Showing Variation in Porosity and
Texture……………………………………………………………………........................................................9
Figure 4: Ternary Diagram Showing Sandstone Classification Based on Composition…..10
Figure 5: Schematic Diagram Illustrating Different Types of Carbonate Porosity ...........11
Figure 6: World Map Showing Major Oil and Gas Provinces............................................14
Figure 7: Schematic Diagram Illustrating Different Well Logging Techniques.................15
Figure 8: Schematic Diagram Showing the stages of Salt Dome Developments…………..19
Figure 9: Map Showing the Global distribution of Major Salt Basins and Salt dome
Provinces……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..20
Figure 10: Diagram Illustrating the Process of Solution Mining for Creating Salt
Carevens…………………………….............................................................................................23
Figure 11: Geological Map of the Bengal Basin.................................................................26
Figure 12: Titas Gas Field in Bangladesh………………………………………………………………………..31
Figure 13: Tectonic Map of Bangladesh and Surroundings Regions……………………………….33
Figure 14: Generalized Stratigraphic Column of the Bengal Basin………………………………….54

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 List of Tables
Table 1: Typical Porosity and Permeability Ranges for Different Reservoir Rock Types……8
Table 2 : Examples of Major Oil and Gas Fields and their Reservoir Characteristics……….12
Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Salt Caverns for Storage......................24
Table 4: Gas Reserves i n Bangladesh................................................................................30

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background on Hydrocarbon Systems

The global energy landscape is significantly shaped by the availability and production of
hydrocarbons, primarily oil and natural gas. These fossil fuels, formed over millions of years
from the remains of ancient organisms, are essential for various industries, including
transportation, power generation, and manufacturing. Understanding the complex processes
involved in their formation, accumulation, and entrapment is crucial for successful exploration
and production.

Hydrocarbon generation begins with the accumulation of organic matter, typically in oxygen-
deficient environments such as lakes, swamps, or marine basins. This organic material, primarily
composed of algae, plankton, and plant debris, is buried under layers of sediment. As burial
depth increases, temperature and pressure rise, leading to a series of chemical transformations
known as diagenesis and catagenesis. During catagenesis, kerogen, the solid, insoluble organic
matter, is converted into hydrocarbons. This process, known as thermal maturation, generates oil
and gas within specific temperature windows, often referred to as the "oil window" and "gas
window" [1]

The generated hydrocarbons then migrate from the source rock, where they were formed,
through permeable pathways such as fractures, faults, and porous rock layers. This migration is
driven by buoyancy forces, as hydrocarbons are less dense than the surrounding formation fluids.
The migration continues until the hydrocarbons encounter a trap, a geological structure that
prevents further movement . [2]

A complete petroleum system requires several key elements to be present and properly aligned:

• Source Rock: A rock rich in organic matter capable of generating hydrocarbons (e.g.,
shales, organic-rich limestones).
• Migration Pathway: Permeable conduits that allow hydrocarbons to move from the
source rock to the trap.
• Reservoir Rock: A porous and permeable rock capable of storing hydrocarbons (e.g.,
sandstones, carbonates).
• Trap: A geological structure that prevents hydrocarbons from escaping to the surface
(e.g., anticlines, faults, salt domes).
• Seal (Caprock): An impermeable rock layer that overlies the reservoir and prevents
upward migration (e.g., shales, evaporites).

The presence and effective interplay of these elements determine the success of hydrocarbon
accumulation. The absence or failure of even one element can result in a dry well. [3]

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 Figure-1: Petroleum System Elements [7]

1.2 Introduction to Salt Domes

Salt domes are unique geological formations created by the upward movement of large salt
deposits, also known as halite, through denser overlying sedimentary rocks. This process,
referred to as halokinesis or salt tectonics, occurs due to the density contrast between salt and the
surrounding materials. Salt, being less dense than most sedimentary rocks, becomes plastic and
flows under sufficient overburden pressure, allowing it to rise through the overlying strata [4].

The formation of salt domes begins with the deposition of thick evaporitic layers, including
halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, in restricted marine basins. As these salt layers are buried under
increasingly thick layers of sediment, the weight of the overburden generates pressure gradients
that initiate the movement of the salt. The buoyant nature of salt allows it to flow upward
through the surrounding sedimentary layers [5].

The upward movement of salt creates several structural features, including:

5
 • Salt Stock (Diapir): The main body of the salt dome, typically taking a cylindrical or
elliptical shape. This feature is formed as salt pushes upward through surrounding
sediments, creating a central mass of salt [6]
• Caprock: A layer of altered rock that forms over the salt stock. The caprock is typically
composed of minerals such as anhydrite, gypsum, and calcite, and it forms through the
interaction of salt with circulating groundwater [5]
• Surrounding Sediments: The layers of sediment surrounding the salt stock become
deformed and faulted due to the rising salt, which creates various geological structures
[4]

Salt domes have significant economic value, particularly in the oil and gas industry, because they
can serve as excellent hydrocarbon traps. The deformation of surrounding sediments creates
several trapping mechanisms, including:

• Fault Traps: Faults formed by the upward movement of salt can act as impermeable
barriers, trapping hydrocarbons in the process [7]
• Anticlinal Traps: The upward movement of salt can lead to the formation of anticlinal
structures in the overlying sediments, which serve as effective traps for hydrocarbons [6]
• Stratigraphic Traps: Unconformities and pinch-outs around the salt dome can also
create traps. Additionally, the impermeable nature of the salt itself serves as a sealing
barrier, further enhancing the trapping potential of these geological structures [6]

Figure 2: Simplified cross section of a Salt Dome (Gora salt dome) [8]

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1.3 Scope and Objectives
This lab report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of reservoir geology and the formation
and significance of salt domes, with a particular focus on the petroleum system in Bangladesh. The
report will explore the different types of reservoir rocks, their global distribution, and the
techniques used to characterize them. It will also delve into the processes involved in salt dome
formation, the structural features associated with them, and their importance as hydrocarbon
traps.
The specific objectives of this report are:
To define the key elements of a petroleum system and explain the processes of hydrocarbon
generation, migration, and entrapment.
To describe the different types of reservoir rocks and their petrophysical properties.
To provide a global overview of major oil and gas provinces and examples of significant reservoirs.
To explain the process of salt tectonics and the formation of salt domes.
To describe the structural features associated with salt domes and their role as hydrocarbon traps.
To examine the geological setting and hydrocarbon potential of Bangladesh, with a focus on its
reservoir characteristics.
To synthesize the information and draw conclusions about the relationship between reservoir
geology, salt domes, and hydrocarbon accumulation.
This report will utilize data from published literature, geological surveys, and other reliable sources
to provide a scientifically sound and informative analysis of the topics covered. The findings of this
report will contribute to a better understanding of the factors controlling hydrocarbon
accumulation and inform future exploration and production efforts.[5]

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8 CHAPTER 2: Reservoir Geology: A Global Perspective

2.1 Types of Reservoir Rocks

Reservoir rocks are geological formations found deep underground that have the ability to store
and allow the flow of hydrocarbons like oil and gas. For a rock to be a good reservoir, it needs to
have enough porosity (space to hold the hydrocarbons) and permeability (the ability to let them
move through). These rocks are a key part of the petroleum system. The most common types of
reservoir rocks are clastic rocks, like sandstones, and carbonate rocks, like limestone. However,
in recent years, unconventional reservoirs, such as shale, have become increasingly important in
the oil and gas industry.

Table 1: Typical Porosity and Permeability Ranges for Different Reservoir Rock Types

Reservoir Rock Type Porosity Range (%) Permeability Range (mD)

Sandstone 5-30 10-1000
Limestone 5-25 1-1000
Dolomite 5-20 10-1000
Shale Gas 1-8 0.001-0.1
Tight Gas Sand 1-5 0.01-1

2.1.1 Clastic Reservoirs

Clastic reservoirs are made up of rocks formed from the accumulation and cementing of
fragments (called clasts) from other pre-existing rocks. The most important clastic reservoir
rocks are sandstones and conglomerates.

Sandstones:
Sandstones are mostly made up of quartz, feldspar, and other rock fragments. The mix of these
minerals affects the rock's stability and how much space it has to store hydrocarbons. The texture
of the sandstone—such as the size of the grains, how well the grains are sorted, and how rounded
they are—also affects its porosity and permeability. Generally, well-sorted, medium-grained
sandstones tend to have the highest porosity and permeability.

There are different types of sandstones:

• Quartz Arenites: These are almost entirely made of quartz grains. They are well-
matured and usually have great porosity and permeability, making them excellent for
storing hydrocarbons.

8
• Arkoses: These sandstones have a lot of feldspar, meaning they’ve been less weathered
and transported over shorter distances. They might not have as good porosity because
feldspar can change over time.
• Litharenites: These are rich in fragments of other rocks, showing they’ve been through
minimal weathering and transport. Their porosity and permeability can vary widely
depending on their composition.

Figure 3: Photomicrographs of different sandstone types showing variations in porosity and texture. [8]

9
Diagenesis: After the sandstones are deposited, processes like compaction, cementation, and
dissolution can change their porosity and permeability. Cementing minerals like quartz, calcite,
or clay can reduce the spaces between grains, lowering porosity. On the other hand, dissolution
(where minerals dissolve away) can create more pore space, increasing porosity.

Figure 4: Ternary diagram showing sandstone classification based on composition (quartz, feldspar, rock
fragments). [8]

Conglomerates:
Conglomerates are made of rounded, gravel-sized clasts. They can have good porosity and
permeability if the matrix (the material between the clasts) is porous and permeable, like a sandy
matrix. However, conglomerates are less common as major reservoirs compared to sandstones.

2.1.2 Carbonate Reservoirs

Carbonate rocks are created through the accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) from both organic and inorganic processes. The most important
types of carbonate reservoir rocks are limestones and dolomites.

Limestones:
Limestones mainly form from the accumulation of skeletal remains of marine organisms like
corals, shells, and foraminifera, or from the direct precipitation of calcium carbonate from
seawater. Once formed, limestones can undergo various diagenetic processes that change their
properties, especially their porosity and permeability. These processes include:
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 • Cementation: The buildup of calcite cement in the pores between grains can reduce the
rock’s porosity, making it less capable of storing hydrocarbons.
• Dissolution: When acidic fluids pass through limestone, they can dissolve some of the
carbonate minerals, creating secondary porosity in the form of holes or cavities like vugs,
caves, or fractures. This process can increase the rock’s ability to store and transmit
fluids.
• Dolomitization: This occurs when magnesium-rich fluids replace calcium in the
limestone, turning it into dolomite. This replacement can change the rock's porosity and
permeability, sometimes improving them.

Dolomites:
Dolomites primarily form through the replacement of limestone by magnesium-rich fluids, a
process called dolomitization. The effect of dolomitization on porosity and permeability can vary
depending on the conditions, but in many cases, dolomites have better porosity and permeability
than the limestones they came from.

Carbonate Porosity Types:

Carbonate rocks can have different types of porosity, which affects their ability to store and
move hydrocarbons. Some common types of carbonate porosity include:

• Intergranular Porosity: This is the space between the individual grains in the rock.
• Intragranular Porosity: This refers to pores that exist within the grains themselves, such
as in the shells of marine organisms.
• Vuggy Porosity: Large, irregular pores that form when minerals in the rock dissolve
away.
• Fracture Porosity: Open fractures that can improve the rock’s permeability, allowing
fluids to move more easily through the rock.

These different porosity types play a significant role in determining how well carbonate rocks
can store and transmit hydrocarbons.

Figure 5: Schematic diagram illustrating different types of carbonate porosity. [8]

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2.1.3 Unconventional Reservoirs
Unconventional reservoirs are hydrocarbon-bearing formations with very low permeability,
requiring special stimulation techniques for economic production.
Shale Gas/Oil:
Fine-grained sedimentary rocks (shales) containing significant amounts of organic matter (kerogen).
Hydrocarbons are stored within the organic matter (as adsorbed gas or oil) and in natural fractures
and pores.
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is essential to create artificial fractures and enhance permeability.
Tight Gas Sands:
Sandstone or carbonate reservoirs with very low matrix permeability.
Hydraulic fracturing is also typically required for economic production.
Often found in deep, overpressured formations.[9]

2.2 Global Distribution of Major Reservoirs

Hydrocarbon resources are distributed unevenly around the globe. This section provides an
overview of major oil and gas provinces and examples of significant reservoirs.

2.2.1 Middle East:

Holds the largest proven oil reserves in the world.
Ghawar Field (Saudi Arabia): One of the largest oil fields globally, producing from Jurassic and
Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs.
Other significant fields: Burgan (Kuwait), Rumaila (Iraq).
Reservoir types: Primarily carbonate (limestone and dolomite) and sandstone reservoirs.

2.2.2 North America:

Significant production from both conventional and unconventional reservoirs
Permian Basin (USA): A prolific basin producing oil and gas from various formations, including
carbonate and clastic reservoirs.
Bakken Formation (USA/Canada): A major unconventional oil play producing from tight oil shales.
Gulf of Mexico (USA): Significant offshore production from sandstone reservoirs.

Table 2: Examples of Major Oil and Gas Fields and their Reservoir Characteristics

Field Name Country Reservoir Age of Depth Key

Rock Type Reservoir Characteristics
Rocks
Ghawar Saudi Arabia Carbonate Jurassic, 6,000-7,000 ft Largest
(Limestone, Cretaceous conventional oil
Dolomite) field in the
world; multiple
stacked
reservoirs; high
porosity and
permeability.

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Burgan Kuwait Sandstone Cretaceous 3,500-4,500 ft One of the
largest
sandstone oil
fields; high oil
viscosity;
relatively
shallow depth.
Rumaila Iraq Limestone Cretaceous 6,000-10,000 Supergiant oil
ft field; complex
geological
structure;
significant water
injection for
pressure
maintenance.
Brent UK (North Sandstone Jurassic 8,000- 10,000 Classic North
Sea) ft Sea oil field;
complex faulting
and
compartmentali
zation; high-
quality reservoir
sandstones.
Permian USA Carbonate, Permian 5,000-15,000 Prolific basin
Basin Sandstone, ft with diverse
Shale reservoir types;
significant
unconventional
production
(shale oil and
gas); complex
geological
history.
Bakken USA/Canada Shale Devonian, 8,000-10,000 Major
Formation (Siltstone, Mississippian ft unconventional
Dolomite) oil play; low
permeability;
requires
hydraulic
fracturing and
horizontal
drilling.
Tengiz Kazakhstan Limestone Permian 12,000-14,000 Supergiant oil
ft field; deep, high-
pressure

13
 reservoir; sour
gas content.
Cantarell Mexico Breccia Cretaceous 8,000- 10,000 Former
ft supergiant oil
field; significant
production
decline; complex
fractured
carbonate
reservoir.
Groningen Netherlands Sandstone Permian 9,000-10,000 One of the
ft largest natural
gas fields in
Europe; high-
quality reservoir
sandstone;
subsidence
issues.

2.2.3 North Sea:

Significant oil and gas production from complexly faulted sandstone reservoirs.
Brent Field (UK): A classic example of a North Sea oil field producing from Jurassic sandstone
reservoirs.
Reservoir types: Primarily sandstone reservoirs in a graben setting.
2.2.4 Other Regions:
Africa: Significant oil and gas reserves, particularly in Nigeria, Angola, and Algeria.
South America: Large oil reserves in Venezuela and Brazil.
Asia: Significant gas reserves in Russia, Iran, and Qatar.[10]
Figure

Figure 6: The World Map of Oil and Gas Exploitation [11]

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2.3 Reservoir Characterization Techniques
Understanding reservoir properties is crucial for estimating hydrocarbon reserves, predicting
production performance, and managing reservoirs effectively.

2.3.1 Well Logging

Well logging involves recording the physical properties of the rock formations that a borehole
passes through. Some key types of well logs include:

• Gamma Ray Log: This log measures natural radioactivity in the formation, helping to
identify the lithology. For example, shales typically show high gamma ray readings.
• Porosity Logs: These logs measure the porosity of the rock, with different types such as
neutron, density, and sonic logs providing valuable data on how much space is available
for hydrocarbons.
• Resistivity Logs: These measure the electrical resistivity of the formation, which helps
determine the presence and saturation of hydrocarbons.

Figure 7: Schematic diagram illustrating different well logging techniques. [8]

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2.3.2 Seismic Surveys: Using seismic waves to image subsurface geological structures. 2D and 3D
Seismic: Provides information on stratigraphy, faults, and other structural features. Seismic
Attributes: Derived from seismic data to identify potential hydrocarbon accumulations 2.3.3 Core
Analysis:
Laboratory measurements on rock samples (cores) retrieved from the wellbore.
Porosity and Permeability Measurements: Direct measurement of these key reservoir properties.
Fluid Saturation: Determination of oil, gas, and water saturation.
Rock Mechanics Testing: Measurement of rock strength and other mechanical properties.[2]

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CHAPTER 3: SALT DOMES: FORMATION, CHARACTERISTICS, AND ECONOMIC
SIGNIFICANCE

3.1 Formation of Salt Domes

Salt domes, or salt diapirs, are geological structures formed when salt (mainly halite, NaCl) rises
through denser surrounding sediments. This upward movement, known as halokinesis or salt
tectonics, occurs because salt is less dense than most sedimentary rocks, especially when they are
compacted. The difference in density, combined with the pressure from the overlying layers,
causes the salt to behave like a slow-moving fluid over long periods of time.

3.1.1 Conditions for Salt Dome Formation

For salt domes to form, several conditions are needed:

• Thick Salt Sequences (Evaporites): The primary requirement is thick layers of

evaporite deposits, which form in shallow, restricted marine basins with high evaporation
rates. This leads to the precipitation of salts like halite, gypsum, and anhydrite.
• Overburden Pressure: The weight of the layers of sediment above the salt creates
pressure that causes the salt to deform and flow. As more sediment accumulates, the
pressure increases, pushing the salt upwards.
• Density Contrast: Salt is less dense than the surrounding sediments, which typically
have a density of 2.3-2.7 g/cm³ compared to the salt’s 2.1-2.2 g/cm³. This difference in
density creates buoyancy, causing the salt to rise through the denser overlying rock
layers.
• Tectonic Setting (Optional but Influential): While not always necessary, tectonic
activity like faulting or rifting can make it easier for salt to move by creating weak spots
in the overlying layers, allowing the salt to rise more easily.

3.1.2 Stages of Salt Dome Development

Salt dome formation occurs in several stages:

• Initial Deposition: Thick layers of salt are first deposited in a sedimentary basin.
• Burial and Compaction: Over time, more sediment builds up on top, compacting the
salt and increasing the pressure from above.
• Salt Pillow Formation: As pressure builds, the salt begins to deform, forming broad,
low-relief uplifts called salt pillows or anticlines. These can be hundreds of meters to
several kilometers wide.
• Diapirism (Upward Movement): The salt continues to move upwards, piercing through
the overlying sediments and forming a vertical or near-vertical structure called a salt
diapir or salt dome.
• Mature Salt Dome: As the diapir continues to rise, it deforms and faults the surrounding
layers. Eventually, the top of the salt dome can reach the surface or even break through it.

17
Figure 8: Schematic diagram showing the stages of salt dome development (from initial deposition to mature
dome). [17]

3.1.3 Mechanisms of Salt Movement:

Density-Driven Flow (Rayleigh-Taylor Instability): The fundamental mechanism is the Rayleigh-
Taylor instability, which describes the instability of a denser fluid overlying a less dense fluid. In the
case of salt tectonics, the denser sediments overlying the less dense salt create this instability,
leading to upward movement of the salt.
Differential Loading: Uneven loading of the overburden can also initiate salt movement. For
example, differential sediment loading in a deltaic environment can cause salt to flow towards
areas of lower loading.
Tectonic Forces: Tectonic stresses, such as extension or compression, can create faults and
fractures that act as conduits for salt movement.[16]

3.2 Structural Features of Salt Domes

Salt domes exhibit distinctive structural features due to the deformation of surrounding sediments
during salt movement.

18
Figure 9: Map showing the global distribution of major salt basins and salt dome provinces. [8]

3.2.1 Anatomy of a Salt Dome:

Salt Stock (Diapir): The main body of the salt dome, typically composed of relatively pure halite. It
can range in size from a few hundred meters to several kilometers in diameter.
Caprock: A zone of altered rock overlying the salt stock. It is formed by the interaction of the salt
with circulating groundwater, which dissolves the halite and leaves behind less soluble minerals
such as anhydrite (CaSO₄), gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), and calcite (CaCO₃). The caprock can be porous
and permeable, and it is often a target for hydrocarbon exploration.
Peripheral Sink (or Rim Syncline): A downwarped area surrounding the salt dome, formed by the
subsidence of sediments as the salt rises. 21

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Overhangs (or Salt Canopies): Lateral extensions of the salt stock that extend outward into the
surrounding sediments. These overhangs can create complex trapping geometries for
hydrocarbons.[12]
3.2.2 Associated Structures and Traps:
Faults: Salt movement creates various types of faults, including normal faults, reverse faults, and
radial faults. These faults can create traps for hydrocarbons by juxtaposing permeable reservoir
rocks against impermeable sealing rocks.
Anticlines and Domes: The upward movement of salt can create anticlinal structures or domes in
the overlying sediments, which can trap hydrocarbons.
Unconformities: Erosion or non-deposition around the salt dome can create unconformities, which
can also act as traps.
Piercement Structures: In some cases, the salt dome can pierce through to the surface, creating a
salt glacier or salt island.
3.2.3 Salt Dome Classification:
Shallow Domes: Where the top of the salt is relatively close to the surface.
Deep Domes: Where the top of the salt is at significant depth.
Piercement Domes: Where the salt has pierced through to the surface.[13]
3.3 Economic Significance of Salt Domes
Salt domes are of significant economic importance for several reasons.
3.3.1 Hydrocarbon Traps:
Salt domes are highly effective hydrocarbon traps due to the combination of structural and
stratigraphic trapping mechanisms. The faults, anticlines, and unconformities associated with salt
domes create ideal conditions for the accumulation of oil and natural gas.
Many of the world's giant oil and gas fields are associated with salt domes, particularly in the Gulf
Coast of the United States, the North Sea, and the Middle East.

3.3.2 Storage of Natural Gas and Other Products:

The impermeable nature of salt makes salt caverns ideal for the storage of natural gas, propane,
butane, and other liquid and gaseous products. Salt caverns are created by solution mining, where
water is injected into the salt dome to dissolve the salt and create a cavity.
Salt caverns offer several advantages for storage, including high storage capacity, fast injection and
withdrawal rates, and long-term stability.
3.3.3 Mining of Salt and Other Minerals:
Salt domes are a source of halite (rock salt), which is used for various purposes, including road de-
icing, industrial processes, and food production.
The caprock of salt domes can also contain economically valuable minerals such as sulfur, gypsum,
and anhydrite.[15,16]

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 Figure 10: Diagram illustrating the process of solution mining for creating salt caverns. [8]

3.3.4 Waste Disposal:

Salt formations are being considered for the long-term disposal of nuclear waste due to their
geological stability, impermeability, and ability to creep and seal fractures. [16]

3.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Salt Caverns for Storage:

Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Salt Caverns for Storage

Features Advantages Disadvantages

Geological Stability High geological stability due Requires suitable salt
to the strength and integrity formations with sufficient
of salt formations. Minimal thickness and depth.

21
 risk of collapse or Geological surveys are
subsidence essential to ensure stability.
if properly engineered.
Impermeability Salt is virtually impermeable Potential for slow creep of
to liquids and gases, salt under pressure, which
providing excellent needs to be accounted for in
containment and minimizing cavern design and
leakage. operation.
High Storage Capacity Large volumes can be stored Cavern creation requires
in relatively small surface significant volumes of water
areas due to the ability to for solution mining, and
create large caverns. Cavern brine disposal needs
creation requires significant careful management.
volumes of water for
solution mining, and brine
disposal needs careful
Fast injection/Withdrawal High injection and Potential for pressure
Rates withdrawal rates are fluctuations within the
possible, allowing for rapid cavern during
response to injection/withdrawal cycles,
changes in demand. which needs
to be monitored.
Long Term Integrity Salt caverns can maintain Monitoring and
their integrity for long maintenance are required to
periods, making them ensure long- term integrity
suitable for strategic and prevent leaks.
reserves
and long-term storage.
Cost Effectiveness Can be more cost-effective Initial investment for cavern
than other storage methods creation can be high,
(e.g., above-ground tanks) depending on depth,
for large volumes and long- size, and location.
term storage, especially if
suitable salt formations are
readily available.
Environmental Impact Minimal surface footprint Brine disposal from solution
compared to other storage mining can have
methods. environmental impacts if
not managed properly.
Requires
careful environmental
assessment and permitting.

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 Chapter 4: Reservoir and Salt Domes in Bangladesh

4.1 Geological Context

The geological setting of salt domes and hydrocarbon reservoirs in Bangladesh is mainly shaped by the
Bengal Basin, a large sedimentary basin located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. This basin
extends across Bangladesh and parts of India and has been subsiding since the Paleogene period. Over
time, it has received thick layers of sediments from the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system, which are
mostly clays, shales, and sandstones. These sediments serve as the source rocks for petroleum and
natural gas in the region (27).

Salt domes in the Bengal Basin are especially significant in the offshore and southern parts, where thick
evaporite deposits from the Miocene to Pliocene periods have migrated upwards. This movement
occurs because salt is buoyant, and as it rises, it forms traps for hydrocarbons. These salt domes, created
by the deformation of salt layers beneath younger sediments, lead to the formation of structural traps
that accumulate oil and gas. For example, the Titas, Fenchuganj, and Kamta gas fields are located in
areas where salt tectonics have created effective traps for natural gas (28).

Geologically, the Bengal Basin is situated between the Indian plate and the Bangladesh Shield. Tectonic
activity from the Himalayan orogeny, along with regional extensional forces, has significantly influenced
the subsidence and uplift within the basin. This interaction of compressional and extensional forces has
played a key role in the formation of salt domes and petroleum reservoirs in the area (18).

Figure 11: Geological Map of the Bengal Basin [21]

23
Overall, the Bengal Basin's complex geological setting, coupled with salt tectonics, plays a critical
role in the formation and preservation of hydrocarbon resources in Bangladesh.

4.2 Reservoir Potential

The reservoir potential in Bangladesh is influenced by the geological characteristics of the Bengal
Basin, which includes a variety of sedimentary rocks, structural traps, and tectonic processes that
contribute to significant hydrocarbon accumulation.
4.2.1 Geological Features and Reservoir Rocks
The Bengal Basin hosts a range of Paleocene to Miocene age sedimentary rocks, including shale,
sandstone, and coal deposits. These formations provide the source rocks for natural gas generation,
with shale and sandstone serving as both the source and reservoir rocks. The sandstones,
particularly from the Miocene and Pliocene periods, are highly porous and permeable, making them
suitable for gas storage. Shale layers, often rich in organic material, act as seal rocks, preventing the
migration of gas and ensuring its accumulation.
4.2.2 Structural Traps
The Bengal Basin is marked by structural traps such as salt domes, anticlines, and faults. Salt domes
are especially significant, as they result from the upward migration of salt layers, creating
deformation in overlying sediments. This deformation leads to the formation of anticlines and faults
that serve as effective traps for natural gas. The buoyant salt layers, along with the tectonic folding
and faulting, create structural highs where hydrocarbons accumulate, contributing to the basin’s
high reservoir potential. The faultblock reservoirs formed by tectonic activity also play a key role in
trapping natural gas within the basin.[19]
4.2.2 Unconventional Reservoir Potential
In addition to conventional natural gas resources, the Bengal Basin holds potential for
unconventional resources, particularly coalbed methane (CBM) and shale gas. The coal deposits in
the region, especially in the Barapukuria coalfield, offer potential for CBM exploration. Similarly, the
presence of shale formations in the basin suggests untapped potential for shale gas, although
exploration in this area is still limited.
The reservoir potential of Bangladesh is considerable, driven by the geological characteristics of the
Bengal Basin, including sandstone reservoirs, shale seals, and saltrelated structural traps. The salt
domes, anticlines, and faults in the basin contribute to the effective trapping of hydrocarbons, while
the growing interest in unconventional resources like coalbed methane and shale gas adds further
potential for future development.[19]

4.3 Salt Structures in Bangladesh

The Bengal Basin in Bangladesh is known for its complex salt tectonics, with significant subsurface
salt structures playing a crucial role in hydrocarbon formation, migration, and accumulation. These
salt structures, primarily in the form of salt domes, diapirs, and salt ridges, have a profound impact
on both the geological development of the region and the exploration and production of natural
gas.
4.3.1 Salt Structures in the Bengal Basin
The Bengal Basin has undergone extensive salt tectonics due to the region's tectonic setting, which
involves the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates. As a result, salt layers that
were deposited during earlier Cenozoic times have been mobilized due to their lower density,
forming various salt structures. These include:

24
Salt Domes:
These vertical or near-vertical columns of salt have risen through overlying rock layers, creating
anticlines and faults. These deformations trap hydrocarbons, especially natural gas, beneath
impermeable layers of rock. The salt domes in the Bengal Basin are crucial for creating structural
traps for natural gas accumulation.
Salt Diapirs:
A diapir is a mass of salt that pushes through overlying rocks, causing deformation. In the Bengal
Basin, salt diapirs are often associated with faults and folds, leading to the formation of
compartmentalized reservoirs. These structures can facilitate the migration of hydrocarbons and
also create significant traps for oil and gas.
Salt Ridges:
These are elongated salt structures that can form along tectonic boundaries or in areas of
horizontal compression. Salt ridges can influence fluid migration and reservoir distribution by
providing migration pathways for hydrocarbons or by acting as barriers depending on their
geometry.
Analytical Techniques and Implications
The analysis of these subsurface salt structures in Bangladesh relies on various advanced geological
and geophysical techniques:
1. Seismic Imaging: 3D seismic surveys are widely used to identify and map the geometry and
extent of salt domes and diapirs. These surveys help in understanding the interaction between salt
structures and surrounding rock formations, guiding exploration efforts. The distinct acoustic
properties of salt make it identifiable in seismic profiles, enabling precise delineation of salt bodies.
2. Borehole Data: Drilling through salt formations provides valuable data on the thickness and
composition of salt layers. Well logs, such as gamma ray and resistivity logs, help characterize the
salt bodies and adjacent strata, aiding in the identification of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.
3. Geological Modeling: Numerical modeling helps simulate the behavior of salt structures over
geological time scales, predicting their movement and impact on surrounding reservoirs. These
models assist in evaluating the stability of salt structures and their role in trapping hydrocarbons, as
well as in assessing potential drilling hazards.
Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production
Salt structures in the Bengal Basin have significant implications for hydrocarbon exploration and
production:
• Trap Formation: Salt domes and diapirs create effective structural traps for natural gas. These
traps, formed by anticlines or faults due to salt movement, concentrate hydrocarbons in porous
sandstone reservoirs beneath impermeable salt and shale layers. These traps are critical for the
accumulation and preservation of natural gas in the region.
• Migration Pathways: Salt diapirs and faults can act as migration pathways for hydrocarbons,
guiding gas from deeper source rocks to the traps. Additionally, the compartmentalization caused
by salt structures can isolate pockets of gas, making it essential to understand these dynamics for
efficient reservoir management.
• Drilling and Well Planning: Salt-related deformation poses challenges to drilling, as salt bodies
can cause wellbore instability. Accurate mapping of salt structures allows for better well planning,
reducing drilling risks such as salt creep and well collapse. Additionally, understanding the structural
features can help optimize well placement and enhance gas recovery.
The analysis of subsurface salt structures in Bangladesh, particularly those found in the Bengal
Basin, plays a crucial role in understanding the formation and distribution of hydrocarbon

25
reservoirs. Salt domes, diapirs, and ridges are central to the formation of effective traps for natural
gas, making the study of these structures essential for successful exploration and production. With
advanced seismic imaging, borehole data, and geological modeling, geologists and engineers can
enhance the accuracy of their assessments, mitigate drilling risks, and optimize the extraction of
natural gas from the basin.[20]
4.4 Challenges and Opportunities
The reservoir and salt structures in Bangladesh, particularly in the Bengal Basin, offer both
significant opportunities and challenges for hydrocarbon exploration and production. The complex
tectonic setting, combined with the region's geological features, creates a dynamic environment
where salt structures, such as salt domes, diapirs, and ridges, play a crucial role in the formation
and accumulation of hydrocarbons. However, these same structures present unique challenges for
exploration and development.
Challenges in Reservoir and Salt Structures:
30 Drilling Hazards and Wellbore Instability One of the primary challenges in drilling through salt
structures is wellbore instability. The movement of salt domes and diapirs can create deformation
in surrounding rocks, leading to salt creep (slow movement of salt through the surrounding
formations) and wellbore collapse. As a result, drilling in or near salt bodies requires careful
planning and advanced techniques to avoid hazards, which can significantly increase operational
costs. Additionally, the abrasiveness and density of salt can cause drilling tool wear, further
complicating the drilling process.
Structural Compartmentalization
Salt-related deformations, including faulting and folding caused by salt domes and diapirs, can lead
to compartmentalization of the hydrocarbon reservoirs. While this can create additional trapping
mechanisms, it also complicates reservoir modeling and makes it challenging to predict the
movement and accumulation of hydrocarbons. This compartmentalization may also lead to uneven
reservoir pressure and fluid distribution, which can affect production rates and efficiency.
High Exploration Costs
The complexity of salt structures increases the cost of exploration. Accurate identification of salt
bodies, structural traps, and hydrocarbon-bearing formations requires the use of advanced seismic
imaging and borehole data, which are expensive and time-consuming. The difficulty in mapping
subsurface salt features accurately increases the risk of exploration failures, leading to high upfront
costs for companies operating in the basin.

Seismic Imaging Limitations

Salt layers create significant challenges for seismic imaging. Salt’s low density and acoustic
properties often result in poor seismic resolution when imaging beneath salt structures. This
phenomenon, known as salt-induced seismic shadowing, can make it difficult to obtain clear and
accurate images of the deeper subsurface, especially for reservoirs that lie beneath thick salt
layers.[29] Overcoming this limitation requires sophisticated processing techniques and advanced
seismic surveys, which again adds to exploration costs.
Opportunities in Reservoir and Salt Structures
Potential for Large Hydrocarbon Reserves Despite the challenges, salt structures in the Bengal Basin
offer immense potential for large-scale hydrocarbon reservoirs. Salt domes and diapirs, by creating
effective structural traps, have led to the formation of significant natural gas fields in the region.
The presence of salt tectonics significantly influences the migration and trapping of hydrocarbons,

26
which creates valuable exploration targets for oil and gas companies. The structural highs formed
by salt-related folds and faults can host large volumes of trapped natural gas, which is critical for
meeting Bangladesh’s growing energy demand.

Table 4: Gas Reserves in Bangladesh

Gas Field Name Estimated Reserve (TCF) Current Production (MMCFD)

Titas 7 400

Bibiyana 8.4 1200

Jalalabad 1.8 300

Habiganj 4 250

Rashidpur 1.4 100

Improved Exploration Techniques

Advances in seismic imaging technology and drilling techniques provide opportunities to better
understand and mitigate the challenges associated with salt structures. The development of high-
resolution 3D seismic surveys, amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis, and salt-specific processing
techniques are improving the ability to map and assess salt structures in more detail. These
advancements help reduce exploration risks, optimize well placement, and enhance the accuracy of
reservoir models, making it more feasible to exploit the hydrocarbon potential in salt-affected
regions .

Enhanced Recovery Techniques

The high porosity and permeability of the Miocene sandstone reservoirs in the Bengal Basin,
especially those affected by salt structures, provide significant potential for enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) techniques. The presence of structural traps created by salt deformation makes these
reservoirs ideal candidates for secondary and tertiary recovery methods. By using water injection,
gas injection, and other advanced methods, the recovery of hydrocarbons from these reservoirs can
be optimized, extending the life of existing fields and maximizing resources extraction.

27
 Figure 12: Titas Gas Field in Bangladesh [22]

The salt structures in Bangladesh’s Bengal Basin present both challenges and opportunities for
hydrocarbon exploration and production. While drilling through salt bodies and the
compartmentalization of reservoirs pose significant risks and complexities, the potential for large
hydrocarbon reserves, the discovery of unconventional resources, and the advancements in seismic
and drilling technologies provide considerable opportunities for growth in the energy sector.
Understanding and overcoming the challenges posed by salt-related tectonics will be essential for
optimizing the hydrocarbon production from the region’s reservoirs and unlocking the full potential
of Bangladesh's natural gas resources. [20]

28
 CHAPTER 5: Petroleum Geology of Bangladesh
5.1 Geological Setting of Bangladesh
Bangladesh is situated in the Bengal Basin, one of the largest deltaic systems in the world, formed
by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers. The basin's geological history is
complex, influenced by tectonic activity related to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
5.1.1 Tectonic Framework:
Bangladesh lies on the northeastern part of the Indian Plate, adjacent to the Indo-Burman Ranges
to the east and the Shillong Plateau to the north.
The ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates has resulted in significant subsidence
and sedimentation in the Bengal Basin.
Major tectonic features include:
The Hinge Zone: A major fault zone separating the stable platform to the west from the rapidly
subsiding basin to the east.
The Chittagong-Tripura Fold Belt: A zone of folding and faulting in the eastern part of Bangladesh,
related to the Indo-Burman orogeny.
The Bengal Foredeep: A deep sedimentary basin located south of the Himalayan foothills. [23]

Figure 13: Tectonic map of Bangladesh and surrounding regions, showing major tectonic features. [8]

29
5.1.2 Stratigraphy and Sedimentation:
The Bengal Basin has accumulated a thick sequence of sediments, reaching up to 20 km in some
areas.
The stratigraphy consists of:
Precambrian basement rocks.
Permo-Carboniferous Gondwana sediments.
Mesozoic sediments (Jurassic and Cretaceous).
Tertiary sediments (Paleogene and Neogene), which are the primary focus for hydrocarbon
exploration.
Quaternary sediments (deltaic and fluvial deposits).
The Tertiary sequence is characterized by thick deltaic and fluvial deposits, providing potential
source and reservoir rocks. [25]

Figure 14: Generalized stratigraphic column of the Bengal Basin. [8]

30
5.2 Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production in Bangladesh
Hydrocarbon exploration in Bangladesh began in the early 20th century, with the first gas discovery
in 1955. Since then, numerous gas fields have been discovered, making natural gas a significant
energy resource for the country.
5.2.1 History of Exploration:
Early exploration focused on surface geological surveys and shallow drilling.
Modern exploration techniques, including seismic surveys and deep drilling, have led to significant
discoveries in recent decades.

5.2.2 Major Gas Fields:

Titas Gas Field: One of the largest gas fields in Bangladesh, discovered in 1962.
Habiganj Gas Field: Another significant gas field, discovered in 1968.
Bibiyana Gas Field: A relatively recent discovery and one of the largest gas fields in the country.
Other important gas fields include: Rashidpur, Kailas Tila, Meghna, and Sangu (offshore).
5.2.3 Production and Reserves:
Natural gas is the primary hydrocarbon produced in Bangladesh.
The country relies heavily on natural gas for power generation, industrial use, and domestic
consumption.
Estimates of remaining gas reserves vary, but continued exploration is crucial for maintaining
production levels.
5.2.4 Exploration Challenges and Opportunities:
Complex geological structure due to faulting and folding.
Deep drilling required to reach some potential reservoirs.
Need for advanced exploration techniques to identify subtle traps.
Potential for deeper gas resources and unconventional gas plays.
Offshore exploration offers significant potential but requires advanced technology and investment.
[24]

5.3 Reservoir Characteristics in Bangladesh

The primary reservoir rocks in Bangladesh are Tertiary sandstones, deposited in deltaic and fluvial
environments.
5.3.1 Reservoir Rock Types:
Sandstones: The main reservoir rocks are medium- to coarse-grained sandstones, often
interbedded with shales and siltstones.
Depositional Environments: Deltaic, fluvial, and shallow marine environments have contributed to
the formation of these sandstones.
5.3.2 Petrophysical Properties:
Porosity: Typically ranges from 15% to 25%, depending on sorting, grain size, and diagenesis.
Permeability: Can vary significantly, from a few millidarcies to several hundred millidarcies,
depending on porosity, grain size, and cementation.
Diagenesis: Compaction, cementation (mainly by quartz and calcite), and clay mineral alteration
have affected reservoir quality.
5.3.3 Trapping Mechanisms:
Structural Traps: Anticlines, faults, and fault-related folds are the main trapping mechanisms.
Stratigraphic Traps: Pinch-outs, channel sandstones, and unconformities can also form traps.

31
Absence of Salt Domes: There is no evidence of significant salt dome development in Bangladesh.
The trapping mechanisms are primarily related to tectonic activity and sedimentary processes.
[23,25]

32
 CHAPTER 6: Conclusion
This chapter summarizes the key findings of the report, emphasizing the interconnectedness of
reservoir geology, salt dome formation (where applicable), and hydrocarbon accumulation, with a
specific focus on the petroleum system of Bangladesh.
6.1 Global Perspective on Reservoir Geology and Salt Domes
This report has provided a global overview of reservoir geology, highlighting the diverse types of
reservoir rocks, their characteristic properties, and their distribution across the world's major
hydrocarbon provinces. Key takeaways include:
Reservoir Rock Diversity: Both clastic (sandstones, conglomerates) and carbonate (limestones,
dolomites) rocks serve as important hydrocarbon reservoirs, each with unique petrophysical
properties influenced by depositional environment and diagenetic processes. Unconventional
reservoirs, such as shale gas and tight gas sands, represent a significant resource but require
specialized extraction techniques.
Global Distribution of Resources: Hydrocarbon resources are unevenly distributed globally, with
major accumulations found in regions like the Middle East, North America, the North Sea, and
others. Each region's geological history and tectonic setting have played a crucial role in shaping its
petroleum systems.
Salt Domes as Traps: Salt domes, formed through the process of halokinesis, are highly effective
hydrocarbon traps. Their unique structural features, including faults, anticlines, and unconformities,
create ideal conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation. The impermeable nature of salt provides an
excellent seal, further enhancing their trapping potential. [9]

6.2 Petroleum System and Exploration in Bangladesh

This report has examined the petroleum geology of Bangladesh, emphasizing the country’s
unique geological setting and hydrocarbon potential. Key findings include:

• Tectonic Setting and Sedimentation: Bangladesh is located within the Bengal Basin, a
large deltaic system with a thick sequence of Tertiary sediments. The region's tectonic
history, shaped by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, has led to the formation
of complex structural features.
• Gas-Prone System: Natural gas is the dominant hydrocarbon resource in Bangladesh,
with numerous gas fields discovered and actively producing. The country relies heavily
on natural gas for its energy needs.
• Reservoir Characteristics: The primary reservoir rocks in Bangladesh are Tertiary
sandstones, deposited in deltaic and fluvial environments. These sandstones vary in
porosity and permeability due to factors like grain size, sorting, and diagenesis.
• Trapping Mechanisms: In Bangladesh, hydrocarbon traps are mostly structural, linked
to anticlines, faults, and fault-related folds. Unlike some other hydrocarbon regions, there
is no significant evidence of salt dome development in the country (26).

6.3 Implications for Future Exploration and Research

A deep understanding of the relationship between reservoir geology and trapping mechanisms is
essential for successful hydrocarbon exploration and production. This report highlights several
important implications:

33
 • Targeted Exploration Strategies: Exploration efforts in Bangladesh should focus on
structural traps related to faults and folds, in line with the region's geological setting.
• Advanced Exploration Techniques: Using advanced methods like 3D seismic surveys
and sophisticated well logging is critical for imaging complex subsurface structures and
characterizing reservoir properties.
• Continued Research: Further research is needed to improve our understanding of the
Bengal Basin's complex geological history, refine reservoir models, and explore the
potential for deeper gas resources and unconventional plays (23).

6.4 Concluding Remarks

This report has provided a comprehensive overview of reservoir geology and the role of salt
domes as hydrocarbon traps, with a specific focus on Bangladesh's petroleum system. While salt
domes are significant hydrocarbon traps in some regions, Bangladesh’s system is mainly driven
by tectonic structures and sedimentary processes. Continued exploration and research, along with
the use of advanced technologies and a deep understanding of the geological framework, will be
essential for ensuring Bangladesh's future energy security.

34
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35
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%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8-

%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8-

%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1

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36
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1.Tissot, B. P., & Welte, D. H. (1984). Petroleum formation and occurrence. Springer.
2.Berg, G., & Hager, A. (2019). Geological aspects of petroleum systems. Elsevier.
3.Jahn, A., et al. (2020). Hydrocarbon systems and exploration. Wiley.
4.Hudec, M. R., & Jackson, M. P. A. (2007). Subsalt structure and petroleum exploration in the Gulf of
Mexico basin. Geology, 35(7), 629-632.
6.Jackson, M. P. A., & Hudec, M. R. (2017). Salt tectonics: A global perspective. Springer.
5.Morad, S., & El-Sayyed, M. A. (2010). Evaporites and the petroleum industry. Elsevier.
[7] hQps://www.geologyin.com/2014/08/petroleum-system.html
[8] hQps://www.researchgate.net
[9] Tiab, D., & Donaldson, E.C. (2012). Petrophysics: Theory and PracWce of Measuring
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Transport ProperWes. Gulf Professional Publishing.
[10] Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary: hQps://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
[11] hQps://databayou.com/oil/andgas.html
[12] Jackson, M.P.A., & Talbot, C.J. (1991). Lexicon of salt tectonics. Bureau of Economic
Geology, University of Texas at AusWn.
[13] Warren, J.K. (2016). Evaporites: A Geological Compendium. Springer.
[14] Alsop, G.I., Hodgkinson, R., & Warren, J.K. (2018). Salt Tectonics, Sediments and
ProspecWvity.
[15] USGS. (n.d.). Salt and Evaporites. Retrieved from [Relevant USGS webpage on salt]
[16] Various journal arWcles on salt tectonics and related topics (search on databases like
GeoRef, Web of Science, etc.).
[17] hQp://homepage.ufp.pt/biblioteca/WebBasPrinTectonics/BasPrincTectonics/Page8.htm
[18] Siddique, M. A., Choudhury, M. S., & Karim, M. S. (2015). Tectonic and Sedimentary
EvoluWon of the Bengal Basin and its Petroleum PotenWal. Journal of Geology, 123(1), 32-46.
[19] Rahman, M. & Faupl, Peter. (2003). 40Ar/39Ar mulWgrain daWng of detrital white mica
of sandstones of the Surma Group in the Sylhet Trough, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh.
Sedimentary Geology. 155. 383-392. 10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00188-4
[20] Hossain, M. S., Alam, M. S., & Haque, M. A. (2011). Petroleum Reservoirs and Structural
DeformaWon in the Bengal Basin. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 34(2), 205-222.
[21] hQps://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bengal_Basin
[22] hQps://bdgfcl.brahmanbaria.gov.bd/en/site/page/IfQy-
%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8-
%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8-
%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1
[23] Alam, M.M. (2014). Geology of Bangladesh. Geological Society of Bangladesh. BGS
(BriWsh Geological Survey). (Various Reports and Maps on Bangladesh Geology).
[24] Petrobangla (Official Website and PublicaWons).
[25] Various journal arWcles and conference proceedings on the geology and hydrocarbon
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[26] BGS (BriWsh Geological Survey). (Various Reports and Maps on Bangladesh Geology).

37
38
39