EE3402 Linear Integrated Circuits
2 Mark Q&A
UNIT 1
BASICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
1. Mention the advantages of integrated circuits.
*Miniaturisation and hence increased equipment density.
*Cost reduction due to batch processing.
*Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints.
*Improved functional performance.
*Matched devices.
*Increased operating speeds.
*Reduction in power consumption.
2. Write down the various processes used to fabricate IC’s using silicon planar technology.
*Silicon wafer preparation. * Epitaxial growth
*Oxidation. *Photolithography.
*Diffusion. *Ion implantation.
*Isolation. *Metallisation.
*Assembly processing and packaging.
3. What is the purpose of oxidation?
*SiO2 is an extremely hard protective coating and is unaffected by almost all reagents.
*By selective etching of SiO2, diffusion of impurities through carefully defined windows can
be accomplished to fabricate various components.
4. Why aluminum is preferred for metallization?
*It is a good conductor.
*it is easy to deposit aluminium films using vacuum deposition.
*It makes good mechanical bonds with silicon.
*It forms a low resistance contact.
5. What are the popular IC packages available?
a. Metal can package. b. Dual-in-line package. c. Ceramic flat package.
6. Define an operational amplifier.
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more
differential amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to perform a
variety of mathematical operations.
7. List out the ideal characteristics, and draw the equivalent diagram of an OP-AMP
* Open loop voltage gain is infinity.
*Input impedance is infinity.
*Output impedance is zero.
*Bandwidth is infinity.
*Zero offset.
8. Define Virtual ground property of an OP-AMP
A virtual ground is a ground which acts like a ground. It may not have physical connection to
ground. This property of an ideal op-amp indicates that the inverting and non-inverting terminals of
op-amp are at the same potentials. The non-inverting input is grounded for the inverting amplifier
circuit. This means that the inverting input of the op-amp is also at ground potential.
9. What is active load? Where it is used and why?
In circuit design, an active load is a circuit component made up of active devices, such as
transistors, intended to present a high small-signal impedance yet not requiring a large DC voltage
drop, as would occur if a large resistor were used instead. Such large AC load impedances may be
desirable, for example, to increase the AC gain of some types of amplifier.
Most commonly the active load is the output part of a current mirror and is represented in an
idealized manner as a current source. Usually, it is only a constant-current resistor that is a part of
the whole current source including a constant voltage source as well
10. Draw the voltage follower circuit of an OP-AMP
11. Define the following parameters as applied to an op-amp:
i) Input bias current: Input bias current IB is the average of the currents that flow into the inverting
and non-inverting input terminals of the op-amp. i.e. IB = (IB1+IB2)/2
ii) Input offset current: The algebraic difference between the current into the inverting and non-
inverting terminals is referred to as input offset current Iio. Mathematically it is represented as I io = |
IB - IB Where
I B+is the current into the non-inverting input terminals.
IB- is the current into the inverting input terminals.
iii) Input offset voltage: This is the voltage required to be amplified at the input for making output
voltage to zero volts.
iv) C.M.R.R: The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) can be defined as the ratio of differential
gain to common mode gain. CMRR = |Ad/Ac|
v) P.S.R.R: Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is the ability of an amplifier to maintain its
output voltage as its DC power-supply voltage is varied.
PSRR = (change in Vcc)/(change in Vout)
vi) slew rate: Slew rate can be defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage of op-amp
with respect to time. It is expressed as S = (dVo / dt) max in V/Sec.
Where slew rate S = 2П f Vm in V/Sec.
12. Why open loop op-amp configurations is not used in linear applications?
a. The open loop gain of the op-amp is very high. Therefore only the smaller signals having
low frequency may be amplified accurately without distortion.
b. Open loop Voltage gain of the op-amp is not a constant voltage gain varies with changes in
temperature and power supply as well as mass production techniques. This makes op-amp unsuitable
for many linear applications
c. Bandwidth of most open loop op-amps is negligibly small or almost zero therefore op-amp
is impractical in ac applications.
13. Determine the slew rate of the op-amp.
Slew rate can be defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage of op-amp with
respect to time. It is expressed as S = (dVo / dt) max in V/Sec.
Where slew rate S = 2П f Vm in V/Sec.
UNIT-II
APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
1. Give some applications of Comparator.
a. Zero crossing detector b. Window detector
c. Time marker generator d. Phase detector
2. What is a window detector?
A device, usually consisting of a pair of voltage comparators, in which output indicates
whether the measured signal is within the voltage range bounded by two different thresholds (an
"upper" threshold and a "lower" threshold).
3. List the types of comparators.
Inverting comparator Non-inverting comparator
4. Differentiate Schmitt trigger and comparator.
A Schmitt trigger is a comparator with a small amount of positive feedback applied to create
a hysteresis for the input level.
5. What are the limitations of an ideal active differentiator?
At high frequency, differentiators may become unstable and break into oscillation. The input
impedance i.e. (1/ωC1) decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to
high frequency noise.
6. State the important features of an instrumentation amplifier.
a. high gain accuracy b. high CMRR
c. high gain stability with low temperature co-efficient d. low dc offset
e. low output impedance
7. How does the precision rectifier differ from the conventional rectifier?
These rectifiers are used to rectify very small voltages or currents for which the diode never
gets forward biased in the conventional one. i.e. voltage or currents are always less than .7V which
can not be rectified by normal rectifiers.
This rectifier doesn’t give any kind of drop in output since diodes are previously biased using
op-amp.
8. What are the advantages of active filters over the passive filters?
Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and capacitors in
their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics. Active filters can have high input
impedance, low output impedance, and virtually any arbitrary gain.
They are also usually easier to design than passive filters. Possibly their most important
attribute is that they lack inductors, thereby reducing the problems associated with those
components.
9. Draw the freq. response of the LPF.
10. What is an antilog amplifier? Draw the circuit of an antilog amplifier.
Antilog amplifier is a decoding circuit to convert a logarithmically encoded signal back to the
real signal.
11. What is a V to C convertor?
A transconductance amplifier (gm amplifier) puts out a current proportional to its input
voltage. In network analysis, the transconductance amplifier is defined as a voltage controlled
current source (VCCS) .
For direct current, transconductance is defined as follows:
12. Draw the circuit of an integrator.
13. Why integrators are preferred over differentiators in analog computers?
Integrators are more linear than the differentiators and the integrators reduce the power
consumption than the high pass filter.
UNIT III
ANALOG MULTIPLIER AND PLL
1. List out the blocks of PLL.
a. Phase detector/comparator b. Low pass filter
c. Error amplifier d. Voltage controlled oscillator
2. Define the following terms related to PLL,
a) Capture range
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input signal is called
the capture range. Itis expressed as a percentage of the VCO free running frequency.
b) Lock range
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is
called the lock-in range or tracking range. It is expressed as a percentage of the VCO free running
frequency.
3. Write the expression of capture range and lock range
Lock in range ∆fL = +/- 7.8 fo / V
fo is free running frequency
Capture range = +/- = [∆fL / (2*∏*R*C)] 1/2
4. Define voltage to frequency conversion factor of VCO.
Voltage to Frequency conversion factor is defined as, Kv= ∆fo / ∆Vc = 8fo /Vcc
where, ∆Vc is the modulation voltage required to produce the frequency shift ∆fo
5. Mention the applications of analog multipliers.
1. Voltage squarer 2. Frequency doubler 3. Voltage divider
4. Square rooter 5. Phase angle detector 6. Rectifier
6. List out the applications of PLL.
a. Frequency multiplication/division b. Frequency translation
c. AM detection d. FM demodulation e. FSK demodulation.
7. Define phase transfer conversion coefficient of PLL.
The covertion ratio Kd of phase detector is given by Kd = Vcc/π
8. Briefly write on frequency synthesizers.
A frequency synthesizer is an electronic system for generating any of a range of frequencies
from a single fixed time base or oscillator. They are found in many modern devices, including radio
receivers, mobile telephones, radiotelephones, walkie-talkies, CB radios, satellite receivers, GPS
systems, etc. A frequency synthesizer can combine frequency multiplication, frequency division, and
frequency mixing (the frequency mixing process generates sum and difference frequencies)
operations to produce the desired output signal.
9. Explain how a frequency doubler can be realized using analog multiplier.
The multiplication of two sine waves of the same frequency, but of possibly different
amplitudes and phase allows doubling a frequency using an analog multiplier.
10. What is a compander IC?
The term companding means compressing and expanding. In a communication system, the
audio signal is compressed in the transmitter and expanded in the receiver. Examples: LM 2704- LM
2707; NE 570/571.
11. What is a peak detector?
A peak detector is a series connection of a diode and a capacitor outputting a DC voltage
equal to the peak value of the applied AC signal.
UNIT-IV
ANALOG TO DIGITAL AND DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS
1. Explain the operation of basic sample and hold circuit.
A typical sample and hold circuit stores electric charge in a capacitor and contains at least
one fast FET switch and at least one operational amplifier. To sample the input signal the switch
connects the capacitor to the output of a buffer amplifier. The buffer amplifier charges or discharges
the capacitor so that the voltage across the capacitor is practically equal, or proportional to, input
voltage. In hold mode the switch disconnects the capacitor from the buffer. The capacitor is
invariably discharged by its own leakage currents and useful load currents, which makes the circuit
inherently volatile, but the loss of voltage (voltage droop) within a specified hold time remains
within an acceptable error margin.
2. State the advantages and applications of sample and hold circuits.
A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last
sampled value until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing,
analog to digital systems, and pulse code modulation systems.
3. List the drawbacks of binary weighted resistor technique of D/A conversion.
a) Wide range of resistor values needed
b) Difficulty in achieving and maintaining accurate ratios over a wide range of variations
4. What is the advantage and disadvantages of flash type ADC?
Flash type ADC is the fastest as well as the most expensive.
The disadvantage is the number of comparators needed almost doubles for each added bit (For a n-
bit convertor 2(n-1) comparators, 2n resistors are required).
5. The basic step of a 9 bit DAC is 10.3 mV. If 000000000 represents 0Volts, what is the output
for an input of 101101111?
The output voltage for input of 101101111 is
= 10.3 mV (1*28+0*27+1*26+1*25+0*24+1*23+1*22+1*21+1*20)
= 10.3 * 10-3 * 367 = 3.78 V
6. Why does the dual slope ADC provide excellent noise rejection of AC signal whose periods
are integral multiples of the integration time?
7. Find the resolution of a 12 bit DAC converter.
Resolution (volts) = VFS/(212-1) = I LSB increment
VFS – Full scale voltage
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of R-2R ladder DAC.
Advantages:
a) Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal films are required.
b) Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values.
Disadvantage:
a) In this type of DAC, when there is a change in the input, changes the current flow in the
resistor which causes more power dissipation which creates non-linearity in DAC.
9. Define start of conversion and end of conversion.
Start of Conversion in ADC (SOC): This is the control signal for start of conversion which
initiates A/D conversion process.
End of Conversion in ADC (EOC): This is the control signal which is activated when the
conversion is completed.
10. What are the types of ADC and DAC.
Types of ADC:
1. Flash (comparator) type converter 2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter 4. Successive approximation type converter
Types of DAC:
1. Weighted resistor DAC 2. R-2R Ladder 3. Inverted R-2R Ladder
11. What is the difference between direct ADC and integrating type ADC.
a) The integrating type of ADC’s do not need a sample/Hold circuit at the input.
b) It is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in an isolated form.
12. Define following performance parameters of D/A converters: (8)
a) Resolution
The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the
output or input of the converter.
Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is defined as the
smallest change in analog input for a one bit change at the output.
b) Accuracy
Absolute accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal converter
output.
Relative accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed.
The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.
c) Monotonicity
A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.
d) Conversion time
It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It
depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components.
The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by T(n+1)
where T---clock period
Tc---conversion time n----no. of bits
UNIT-V
SPECIAL FUNCTION INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
1. What are the operating modes of a 555 timer?
a. Monostable mode b. Astable mode
2. List out the applications of 555 timer?
a. Oscillator b. pulse generator c. ramp and square wave generator
d. mono-shot multivibrator e. burglar alarm f. traffic light control.
3. Define sink current and source current?
Sink current: When the output is low, the load current that flows through the load connected
between Vcc and o/p terminal is called sink current.
Source current: When the output is high, the load current that flows through the load
connected between ground and o/p terminal is called source current.
4. Define normally ON load and normally OFF load?
Normally ON load: The load connected between VCC and output terminal.
Normally OFF load: The load connected between output terminal and ground.
5. What is the use of reset pin of 555 timer?
This is an interrupt for the timing device when pin 4 is grounded, it stops the working of
device and makes it off.
6. What is the purpose of control voltage pin (5) of 555 timer?
This pin is the inverting input terminal of comparator. This is reference level for comparator
with which threshold is compared. If reference level is other than 2/3 VCC, then external input is to
be given to pin 5. Pulse width modulation is possible due to pin 5.
7. List out the major blocks of 555 timer functional diagram?
The IC 555 timer combines the following elements.
1) A relaxation oscillator 2) RS flip-flop
3) Two comparators 4) Discharge transistor
8. Define duty cycle?
It is defined as the ratio of on time to the total time of one cycle. D = W/ T
W – time for output is high = TON
T – total time of one cycle.
9. Write the expression for pulse width of 555 timer in monostable mode?
Pulse width W = 1.1 RC seconds R – resistor in ohms, C – capacitor in farads
10. Write the expression for total time period of 555 timer in astable mode?
T = 0.693 (RA + 2 RB) C seconds
11. What is the frequency of oscillation of free running mode of 555 timer?
F = 1.44/ (RA + 2 RB) C Hz
12. List out the applications of 555 timer in astable mode.
a. missing pulse detector b. Linear ramp generator
c. Frequency divider d. Pulse width modulation.
13. List out the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode.
a. FSK generator b. Pulse-position modulator
14. Define voltage regulators and give the types?
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature, and ac line voltage variations.
The classification of voltage regulators:
*Series / Linear regulators *Switching regulators.
15. What do you mean by linear voltage regulators?
Series or linear regulator uses a power transistor connected in series between the unregulated
dc input and the load and it conducts in the linear region .The output voltage is controlled by the
continuous voltage drop taking place across the series pass transistor.
16. Define switched voltage regulators?
Switching regulators are those which operate the power transistor as a high frequency on/off
switch, so that the power transistor does not conduct current continuously. This gives improved
efficiency over series regulators.
17. What are the advantages of adjustable voltage regulators over the fixed voltage regulators?
i) Improved line and load regulation by a factor of 10 or more.
ii) Because of the improved overload protection, greater load current can be drawn.
iii) Improved reliability.
18. List out the parameters related to the fixed voltage regulators?
1) Line regulation 2) Load regulation 3) Ripple rejection
4) Output impedance 5) Maximum power dissipation 6) Rated output current
19. Define dropout voltage of a fixed voltage regulator?
It is the minimum voltage that must exist between input and output terminals. For most of
regulators, it is 2 to 3 volts.
20. What is an opto-coupler IC? Give examples.
Opto-coupler IC is a combined package of a photo-emitting device and a photosensing
device.
Examples for opto-coupler circuit : LED and a photo diode,
LED and photo transistor, LED and Darlington.
Examples for opto-coupler IC : MCT 2F , MCT 2E .
21. Mention the advantages of opto-couplers.
*Better isolation between the two stages.
*Impedance problem between the stages is eliminated.
*Wide frequency response.
*Easily interfaced with digital circuit.
*Compact and light weight.
*Problems such as noise, transients, contact bounce,.. are eliminated.
22. What is an isolation amplifier?
An isolation amplifier is an amplifier that offers electrical isolation between its input and
output terminals.
