1 & 2.

Horticulture: Definition and Branches, Importance and Scope

 The term horticulture first appeared in written language in the seventeenth century. It is found
mentioned in Peter Lauemberg’s treatise written in 1631.
 In English, horticulture was first mentioned by E. Phillips in ‘The New World of English Words’
London, 1678.
 The word horticulture is derived from the Latin words: ‘Hortus’ meaning garden and Colere or
‘cultura’ meaning to cultivate.
 Thus, horticulture is a science of cultivation of garden plants.
 Garden crops traditionally include fruits, vegetables and all the plants grown for ornamental
purpose as well as spices, plantation, medicinal and aromatic extracts.
 Horticulture is a science and technique of production, processing and merchandizing of
fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantations, medicinal and aromatic plants.
 Horticulture may be broadly defined as the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables
and flowers and crops like spices, condiments and other plantation crops.
 It is the branch of agriculture concerned with intensively cultured plants directly used by people
for food, for medicinal purpose or for aesthetic gratification.

Branches / Divisions of Horticulture

The science of horticulture can be divided into several branches depending upon the crops it
deals with. It can be divided into four major/main different branches:
1. Pomology (Fruit Science): The pomology term is derived from two words, Latin word: Pomum
means fruitand Greek word: Logy means Science. Therefore, this is the branch of horticultural
science which deals with the cultivation of fruit crops.
2. Olericulture (Vegetable Science): This term is derived from the Latin word: Oleris means Pot
herbs and English word: culture means ‘cultivation of succulent vegetables. So, olericulture
literally means pot herb cultivation. In present days it is broadly used to indicate the cultivation
of vegetable crops such as Brinjal, Okra, Tomato, Chilli etc.
3. Floriculture: It is derived from the two words: Florus means flower and culture means
cultivation. So, floriculture means study of flowers and ornamental foliage plants.
4. Fruit and vegetable preservation: It is the branch of horticultural science which deals with the
principles and practices of postharvest handling and preservation of horticultural produce.

Sub branches of Horticulture

1. Landscape gardening and ornamentals: It is the branch of horticultural science which deals
with planning and execution of ornamental gardens, parks, landscape gardens for pleasure and
fashion purpose.
2. Plantation crops: The branch of horticultural science which deals with cultivation of crops
whose produce is used only after processing e.g. Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Cashew nut etc.
3. Spices and condiments: The branch of horticultural science which deals with cultivation of
crops whose produce is utilized mainly for seasoning and flavouring the food items. Spices
such as Cardamom, Clove, Cinnamon etc. and Condiments like Turmeric, Ginger, Chilli,
Onion, Garlic etc. Both spices and condiments contain essential oils which provide aroma,
flavor and taste and they have low nutritive value.
4. Medicinal and aromatic plants: The branch of horticultural science which deals with the
cultivation of medicinal plants that provides drugs and aromatic crops which yields aromatic
(essential) oils. Medicinal plants such as Opium, Cinchona, Senna, Sarpagandha, Aswagandha,

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 Tulsi, etc. & aromatic plants like Lemon grass, Citronella, Vetiver, Geranium, Davana,
Lavender, etc.
5. Arboriculture: This is the branch of horticultural science which deals with the raising of
plants for aesthetic, educational and scientific purpose.
6. Nursery and seed production: It deals with the production of seeds and planting material of
horticultural crops on commercial basis.
7. Mushroom cultivation: This branch deals with the cultivation of edible mushrooms which are
rich in proteins eg. White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Dhingri/Oyster mushroom
(Pleurotus sp.), Chinese/Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvaceae), etc.

Scope of Horticulture in India

There is vast scope for horticulture in India because of the following reasons:
1. Diverse agro-climatic conditions: India is blessed with diverse agro-climatic conditions which
results into cultivation of varieties of fruits eg. Temperate fruits such as Apple, Pear, Peach,
Strawberry, Grapes, Cherry etc., tropical fruits such as Banana, Cashew nut, Jack fruit,
Pineapple, Kokum, etc. and sub-tropical fruits such as Mango, Ber, Jamun, Citrus, Guava etc.
2. Better utilization of land: The hilly and undulating cultivable waste land in India is about 9.65
lakh hectares can be brought under cultivation by growing dryland fruit crops like Custard
apple, Aonla, Ber, Dates, Tamarind, Pomegranate, Fig as well as aromatic and medicinal plants
3. Availability of irrigation facilities: Many irrigation projects have been constructed and water
can be given at critical stages of growth for better yield and quality of the fruits. Numbers of
percolation tanks are being constructed and new schemes of irrigation are being implemented
efficiently.
4. Availability of good transport facilities: The metro cities in India are well connected to each
other by good roads, railways and air ways which can help in quick transport of horticultural
commodities.
5. Markets of international repute:In India, there is availability of markets of international
repute such as Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi etc. for selling of our horticultural produce.
6. Availability of improved varieties: Improved and high yielding varieties of different
horticultural crops released by various universities, institutes and private companies are
available for cultivation. e.g.
 Pomegranate: Ganesh, Phule Bhagwa, Bhagwa Super, P- 26, G-137
 Mango: Ratna, Amrapali, Mallika, Sindhu, Konkan Smarat
 Grapes: Thompson seedless, Tas-A- Ganesh, Sonaka, Manik Chaman, Saga Gold,
Kishmish Chorni, Flame Seedless, Sharad Seedless, Beauty Seedless
 Guava: Sardar (L-49), Lalit, Allahabad Safed
 Cashew nut: Vengurle No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
Similarly, introduction of commercial cultivation of some of the new crops like Ber,
Aonla, Pomegranate, Fig etc. have good scope for bringing more and more area under
cultivation.
7. Availability of good quality planting material: Good quality planting material developed by
the nurseries of agricultural universities, government nurseries and NGO’s are available for the
growers.
8. Improved techniques in horticulture: The improved techniques like HDP, meadow
orcharding, rejuvenation techniques, training and pruning, bahar treatment, bending in guava,
ringing in mango, girdling in grapes, notching in fig, use of growth regulators etc. are available
to the growers for getting higher yield with better quality.
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9. Availability of cheap labour: Horticulture industry requires labours continuously for carrying
out different operations in the orchard. For this purpose, the required labours can be supplied as
there is cheaply availability of labours in India. Hence, there is great scope for cultivation of
fruits, which definitely help in keeping down the production cost at lower level.
10. Availability of cold storage facilities and processing technologies: During peak period of a
particular crop there is glut in market and prices realized are very low. This can be solved by
storing the fruits in cold storage and processing them into many value added products such as
jam, jelly, juice, syrups, powder, pickle, preserves etc. Hence, there is good scope for setting up
of agro- based industries.
11. Availability of bank loan facilities: Many commercial banks and Government agencies are
providing loans at low interest to the growers for the promotion of horticultural industry.
12. Government incentives: Realizing the need for area expansion of fruit crops, during 1990,
Government of Maharashtra have started a very ambitious programme which gives 100%
subsidy to the marginal farmers towards the establishment and maintenance of fruit orchard for
a period of three years and National Horticulture Mission during 2005.
13. High returns per unit area: The average production of horticultural crops is many times more
than the agronomical crops and therefore, the net returns are also more.
14. To meet dietary requirements: The per capita consumption of fruits in India is very low.
However, in USA it is 202 kg per capita per year, Pakistan 100 kg per capita per year and India
10 kg per capita per year i.e. 93 gm per capita whereas the requirement is 120 gm per day per
capita. The standard of living of peoples of any country can be judged on the basis of per capita
consumption fruits and vegetables. The prices of fruits are so high, as to keep fresh fruits out of
reach of large population with more efficient production and marketing, the prices could be
reduced as to increase consumption of fruits and still provide good profits to the growers.
15. Good export potential: Fresh fruits like mango, grapes, pomegranate, guava, oranges have
good demand in the international market. Hence, there is great potential for getting more foreign
exchange.

Importance of horticulture
The field of horticulture is very wide and has an appeal to the potential commercial
producers, businessman, nurseryman, teachers etc. all these have same common characters and they
are as follows.
1. High returns per unit area: Returns per unit area are very high for fruit crops as compared
with the agronomical crops such as Wheat 5000 kg/ha, Bajara - 2500 kg/ha, Grapes - 20,000
kg/ha, Banana - 40,000 kg/ha.
2. Acts as bed rock for many ago- industries: Horticultural crops provide raw material to many
industries. eg. Fruit processing industry, Canning industry, Pickle industry, Papain extraction
and Cashew nut processing industry, etc.
3. Provides employment around the year: Agronomical crops are seasonal in nature and hence
they can provide seasonal employment while horticultural crops are perennial in nature and
require intensive care throughout the year. Hence, we can provide employment throughout the
year.
4. Source of income throughout the year: Most of the vegetables/flowers are seasonal / annual
which are harvested within a short period and gives returns while some fruits which can give
yield throughout the year.
5. Better utilization of inputs: The inputs like land, labour and other inputs can be utilized
efficiently as compared to agronomical crops.
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6. No recurring expenditure for every year towards planting material and layout: The
horticultural crops are long lived, once planted they remains years together and does not require
expenditure on inputs for every year.
7. Better utilization of barren land: Lot of waste land / barren land/dry land is available in India,
that land can be nicely utilized by growing many fruit crops like ber, aonla, tamarind, custard
apple, jamun, woodapple, karonda, jack fruit etc.
8. Maintenance of ecological balance: Fruit trees help in checking soil erosion and maintain
ecological balance (33% area of earth should be under the tree cover) and improves rainfall
condition and micro-climatic conditions of particular area.
9. Social and religious importance: The crops like coconut, arecanut, turmeric, various kinds of
flowers, betelvine etc. are used in various religious functions. The fruits like bael offered to the
Lord Shiva and mango leaves used for toran. The flowers are used as symbol of love and
friendship and they are used for welcoming the guests.
10. Better foreign exchange: There is a good demand for pomegranate, mango, cashew nuts etc. in
foreign markets and fetches better foreign exchange. The horticultural crops have huge potential
for earning valuable foreign exchange as compared to agronomical crops.
11. Nutraceutical (Nutritional) importance of fruits: Fruits and vegetables are the nature’s gift to
mankind. These are essential for normal physiological well-being and help in maintaining
healthy state and development of resistance against different pathogens. The pectin and
cellulose content help in stimulating the intestinal activity.
Vitamins
Vitamin A (Beta carotene): Disorders -Night blindness, drying up tear glands of eyes,
eruption of skin, brittleness of teeth and susceptibility to many diseases and disorders.
Rich sources: Mango, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Ber, Cashew nut and Persimon.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin): Disorders- Beri- beri, loss of sensitivity of skin, paralysis, loss of
appetite, loss of weight and fall in body temperature.
Rich sources: Cashew nut, Banana, Apple, Apricot, Almond etc.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Disorder- Sore throat, loss of body weight, development of
swollen nose.
Rich source: Papaya, Bael, Pomegranate, Pineapple, Litchi, Peach etc.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid): Essential for formation of normal teeth and bones and plays
significant role in assimilation of proteins.
Disorders: Scurvey, pains in the joints and swelling of limbs (Rheumatism), Bleeding of
gums and tooth decay.
Rich sources: Aonla, Guava, Ber, Citrus, Pineapple, Strawberry etc.
Minerals
The balanced diet should content 3000 kcal, 90-100g proteins, 450g carbohydrates,
1.49 mg calcium, 3mg P, 47mg Fe, 75mg Vitamin C and 3mg Vitamin A.
Calcium: It is essential for development of bones regulation of functioning of heart and
blood clotting.
Rich sources: Acid lime, Orange, Fig, Dried apricots, Woodapple etc.
Iron: It is required for production of hemoglobin and it is constituent of red blood
corpuscles. Its deficiency causes anemia, smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes & skin and frequent
exhaustion.
Rich sources: Custard apple, Guava, Pineapple, Strawberry, Grape, Black Currents, Dried
dates etc.

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Phosphorous: It is essential for maintaining the moisture content of tissues and for
development of bones.
Rich sources: Guava, Grape, Jack fruit, Passion fruit, Orange etc.
Proteins: These are the body building foods and are essential for growth of body.
Rich sources: Guava and Banana.
These are required for controlling several metabolic activities in the body.
Rich sources: Papaya (Papain) and Pineapple (Bromelin).
Fibre and roughages (Cellulose and pectin): These are required for digestion and
prevention of constipation.
Rich sources: Guava and Aonla
Energy foods (Carbohydrates): Fruit contains carbohydrates which supply energy to
human body.
Rich sources: Banana, Dates, Apple, etc. & Nut fruits like Walnut, Cashew nut and Almond
etc.

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 3 & 4. Classification of Horticultural Crops
Classification is a system of placing an individual or a number in various categories
{

according to particular plan which is in conformity with the nomenclature. Knowledge of

classification is very useful to the horticulturist because it helps:
a. To identify and name them
b. To get some idea of the closeness of their relationship i.e. line of descent to other kinds
c. To suggest the possibility of interbreed or cross breed or inter-grafted
d. To suggest certain soil, climatic and cultural requirements
However, the classification of the fruits on basis of consumers; rating is gaining more
attention during recent years. This rating is mainly based on the shape, size and nutritive value of
them.

Horticultural crops are popularly classified into the 6 broad divisions

1. Fruits
2. Vegetables
3. Flowers
4. Plantation crops
5. Spices and condiments
6. Aromatic and medicinal plants

Important basis for classification of horticultural Crops

1. Based on basis of duration of life span:
Horticultural crops are classified as:
A. Annuals: A plant which can complete its life cycle in one season or a year is called as
annuals e.g. strawberry, fenugreek, coriander, marigold, gaillardia, balsam, etc.
B. Biennials: A plant which can complete its life cycle in two season or two years is
known as biennials e.g. turnip, carrot, cabbage, onion, gladiolus, dahlia, etc.
C. Perennials: These plants require more than one year for completion of their life cycle.
These plants may be woody or herbaceous. Woody perennials have hard fibrous trunk
and branches e.g. mango, jamun, drumstick, sesbania, bauhinia, roses, etc. The
herbaceous perennials have soft and succulent stem e.g. banana, pointed gourd, snake
gourd, chrysanthemum, etc.

2. Classification based on climatic adaptability (Ecological classification)

Based on temperature requirements and response to different climatic conditions,
horticultural crops have been classified in to three main groups and these are:
i) Temperate:
Temperate plants are commonly found in cold regions enjoying a mild and temperate
climate. These plants endure cold and go to rest or dormancy by shedding of all their leaves
during winter season e.g.
Fruits : Apple, pear, cherry, grape, almond etc.
Vegetables : Cabbage, carrot, radish etc.
Flowers : Carnation, tulips, etc.
Spices : Saffron, asafoetida, etc.

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 ii) Tropical
Tropical plants are those which do not tolerate severe cold but can tolerate warm
temperatures of about 100°F. Those plants need strong sunshine, warmth, humidity and a very
mild winter. They cannot stand far against frost e.g.
Fruits : Papaya, banana, sapota, pineapple, etc.
Vegetables : Tomato, chilli, brinjal cucurbits, etc.
Spices : Black pepper, turmeric, ginger clove, etc.
Plantation crops: Coconut, areca nut, cocoa, coffee, etc.

iii) Sub-tropical
The crops grown under climatic conditions in between temperature and tropics are
known as ‘sub-tropical’. These crops require low temperature for flower and fruit bud
differentiation. They can able to withstand low temperature but not the frost e.g.
Fruits : Pomegranate, Mango, Citrus, Litchi, Fig etc.
Vegetables : Okra, gourds, leafy vegetables etc.
Flowers : Gladiolus
Spices : Ginger, Garlic, onion etc.
The above classification based on climatic preference of plants, is more or less arbitrary
and no sharp line can be drawn between these groups. However, they have broad difference in
climatic requirement of various crops. This does not necessarily mean that a plant belonging to
one zone does not grow in other zones.

3. Classification of Horticultural Crops Based on Whether they shed Leaves during a

Portion of Year
A. Deciduous: Plants which shade their complete leaves any either of the season for a part
of the year. They usually drop leaves in the fall, and then grow new leaves in the
spring. They are found in temperate and tropical climates around the world. e.g. fig,
guava, apple, ber, sweet cherry, pomegranate, grape, mulberry, phalsa, almond,
drumstick, sesbania, etc.
B. Evergreen: plant that doesn't shed its leaves and has foliage that remains green and
functional throughout the year. e.g. areca nut, dates, coconut, pineapple, banana,
jackfruit, avocado, sweet orange, mandarin orange, k. lime, mango, sapota, papaya,
passion fruit, cashew nut, etc.

4. Classification based on growth habit and physiological characteristics

a. Herbs: A plants without woody stem and have tender stem. Herbaceous fruit trees:
Fruits : Banana, papaya, strawberry
Vegetables : Palak, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, etc.
Flowers : Carnation, gerbera, etc.
Spices : Fenugreek, cumin, fennel, turmeric, etc.
b. Shrubs/ Bush fruit trees: A woody plant that remains small and produces shoots from the
base and they have many stems
Fruits : Pomegranate, phalsa, etc.
Vegetables : cluster bean, okra, brinjal, chilli, etc.
Flowers : Hibiscus, rose, parijatak, etc.
Plantation crops: tea, coffee, etc.

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 c. Trees: A woody plant that produces one main trunk and more or less distinct and elevated
crown e.g. Mango, Tamarind, Jamun, Jack fruit etc.
Fruits : Mango, jamun, aonla, ber, etc.
Vegetables : Drumstick, Sesbania, etc.
Flowers : Bakul
Spices : Clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc.
d. Vines: A climbing plant with a non woody stem is known as ‘vines’. The vines are further
classified as climbers, creepers, ramblers, strugglers
Fruits: Grapes, passion fruit, etc.
Spices: Black pepper, vanilla, etc.
Ornamentals: Allamanda, antigonan, sankrantvel,etc.
Vegetables: Kartoli, cucurbits, beans, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT CROPS

Fruit crops are classified on different bases as follows:
1. Based on nature of growth
a) Herbaceous : banana, pineapple, etc.
b) Shrubaceous : karonda, phasla, pomegranate, etc.
c) Woody : mango, ber, sapota, jamun, guava, apple, peach, pear, etc.
2. Based on climatic requirement
a) Temperate fruits : apple, pear, peach, plum, almond, walnut, apricot, cherry, etc.
b) Sub-tropical fruits : fig, guava, ber, citrus, pomegranate, bael, date, loquat, phalsa, etc.
c) Tropical fruits : mango, banana, pineapple, sapota, jackfruit, etc.
3. Based on continuation of growth
a) Evergreen: mango, citrus, litchi, sapota, etc.
b) Deciduous: apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, etc.
4. Based on fruit morphology
All the fruits are classified into three major groups on the basis of the number of ovaries and the
number of flowers involved in their formation. The following outline includes most of the common
types of fruits.
a) Simple fruits: Those fruits which are derived from single ovary of one flower are called as
simple fruits. There are different types such as:
1. Berry: A pulpy indehiscent, few or many seeded fruit, technically, the pulpy fruit
developing from a single compound pistil, containing one or more seeds but no true stone
eg. Grapes, Banana, Papaya, etc .
2. Modified berry:
i. Balusta: Pomegranate
ii. Amphisarica: Woodapple
3. Pepo: One celled and many seeded fleshy pulp and having hard rind e.g. water melon
4. Pome: The fleshy fruit formed by fusion of an inferior ovary e.g. Apples and Pears.
5. Drupe: A stone fruit, a one or two seeded indehiscent fruit with a seed enclosed in stony
endocarp that is in turn enclosed in the fleshy or fibrous outer layers of the pericarp e.g.
Mango, Peach and Almond
6. Hesperidium: Citrus fruits
7. Nut : Cashew, Litchi, Walnut, Rambutan
8. Capsule : Anola, Carambola
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 b) Aggregate fruits: Those fruits developed from numerous ovaries of the same flower. There
are different types:
i. Etaerio berries : Custard apple, raspberry
ii. Etaerio druplets : Blackberry
iii. Etaerio achenes : Strawberry
c) Multiple fruits: Those fruits which are produced from the ripened ovaries of several flowers
crowded on the same inflorescence.
i. Syconus: Fruit composed of hollow globose receptacle opened at the apex and thickly be
set inside with reduced flowers eg. Fig
ii. Sorosis: Jack fruit, Pineapple, Bread fruit, mulberry, etc.

5. Based on plant part used for consumption

Citrus : Juicy placental hairs
Banana : Mesocarps and endocarp
Coconut : Endosperm
Custard apple : Fleshy pericarp of individual berries
Fig : Fleshy receptacle
Guava : Thalamus and pericarp
Apple : Fleshy thalamus
Grape : Pericarp and placenta
Mango : Mesocarp
Litchi : Aril
Pomegranate : Juicy covering of fruits
Pear : Stalk of fruit and thalamus
Almond : Seed
Walnut : Cotyledon
Pineapple : Fleshy axis, bracts, pedicel, pericarp
Jackfruit : Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth and seed
Bael : Fleshy layer of pericarp
Jamun : Pericarp and thalamus

6. Based on botanical relationship

(A)Monocot
Musaceae : Banana
Bromeliaceae: Pineapple
(B ) Dicot
Anacardiaceae: Mango, Ambada, Chranji, Cashewnut
Myrtaceae : Guava
Caricaceae : Papaya
Sapindaceae : Litchi
Euphorbiaceae: Aonla
Moraceae : Jackfruit, Breadfruit, fig
Sapotaceae : Sapota, Khirni
Rutaceae : Citrus, Woodapple, Bael
Rhamnaceae : Ber
Arecacae : Date
Vitaceae : Grape
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 Apocynacae : Karonda
Rosaceae : Loquat, Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot
Punicaceae : Pomegranate
Juglandaceae : Walnut
Annonaceae : Custard apple
Tiliaeae : Phalsa
Caesalpiniaceae: Tamarind

7. Based on salinity tolerance

a) Tolerant (8 mmhos): date, ber, pomegranate, phalsa, aonla, custard apple, kair, pilu,
guava, bael, etc.
b) Moderatly Tolerant (6 to 3 mmhos): Fig, Orange, Lemon, Mango, Grapefruit, Grape
c) Sensitive (3 to 1.5 mmhos): Peach, Apricot, Avocado, Almond, Plum
8. Based on ripening behaviour
a) Climacteric: Fruits experiencing sudden upsurge/increase in rate of respiration after
harvest at the time of ripening. These fruits ripe after harvest. e.g. Mango, Guava,
Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota, Passion Fruit
b) Non-Climacteric: Fruits experiencing simple gradual decline in rate of respiration at the
time of ripening. These fruits fail to ripe after harvesting that means tree ripe fruits are
known as ‘non–climacteric fruits’. e.g. Litchi, Lemon, Lime, Orange, Grape,
Pomegranate, Pineapple

9. Based on ethylene evolution

Class Range at 20℃ Name of fruits
(μl C2H4 per kg/hr)
Very low Less than 0 Citrus, Grape, Pomegranate
Low 0.1-1.0 Pineapple
Moderate 1.0-10.0 Banana, Fig, Guava, Mango
High 10.0-100.0 Avocado, Papaya
Very high More than 100 Passion fruit, Sapota, Apple

10. Based on bearing behaviour

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11. Based on photoperiodic responses
a) Long day: Passion fruit, Apple
b) Short day: Strawberry, Pineapple, Coffee
c) Day neutral: Papaya, Guava, citrus

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE CROPS

1. Based on botanical relationship
A. Monocot
Family Crops
Alliaceae Onion, Garlic, Leek, Welsh onion, Shallot, Chive
Liliaceae Asparagus
Araceae Elephant foot yam, Arvi
Discoreaceae Yam
B. Dicot
Family Crops
Apiaceae : Carrot, Parsley, Celery, Parsnip
Asteraceae : Lettuce, Chicory, Endive, Artichoke
Brssicaceae : Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knolkhol or Kohlrabi, Sprouting broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, Rutabaga, Turnip, Chinese cabbage, Horse radish,
Radish
Chenopodiaceae : Beetroot, Palak, Swiss chard, Spinach
Convolvulaceae : Sweet potato
Cucurbitaceae : Summer squash, Pumpkin, Winter squash,Water melon, Muskmelon,
Cucumber, Long melon, Tinda, Ridge gourd, Sponge gourd, Bottle
gourd, Bitter gourd, Kakrol, Parwal, Snake gourd, Cho-Cho, Spine
gourd, Kartoli
Euphorbiaceae : Topioca
Fabaceae / : Pea, French bean, Lima bean, Broad bean, Indian Bean, Cowpea,
Papillionaceae Asparagus bean, Winged bean
Malvaceae : Okra
Polygonaceae : Rhubarb, Sorrel
Solanaceae : Potato, Brinjal, Tomato, Chilli and sweet pepper

2. Based on season of growth

Growing Season Name of vegetables
Kharif Okra, chilli, tomato, cucurbits, beans, sweet potato, brinjal , leafy
vegetables, etc.
Rabi cole crops, onion, radish, carrot, turnip, peas, spinach, beet root etc.
Summer gourds, cucumber, brinjal, melons, beans, okra, amaranthus, etc.

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3. Classification based on the parts used for consumption
From roots to fruits different parts of vegetables are consumed. On that basis vegetables
are classified.
Classification base Example
Leafy Vegetable Palak, Amaranthus, Methi (leaves)
Root Vegetable Carrot, Radish, Turnip, beet root
Fruit Vegetable Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Cucurbits, Beans
Bulb Vegetable Onion, Garlic
Tuber Vegetable Potato, Sweet Potato
Flower Vegetable Broccoli, Globe artichoke, Sesbania
Stem Vegetable Kohlrabi, Asparagus

4. Based on Method of Culture

In this method all those crops having similar cultural requirements are grouped together.
They are botanically different. System has practical utility for vegetable grower. In this method
one can generalize cultivation practices for one group and thus avoid repetition individually for
all crops.
Classification base Example
Perennial Vegetable Asparagus, cocinia (Tondali), Parwal, Drumstick
Green leafy vegetables Spinach, shepu, palak, pokala, methi, coriander, etc.
Salad Crops Lettuce, celery
Cole Crops Cabbage, Cauliflower
Bulb Crops Onion, Garlic
Root Crops Carrot / radish, turnip
Tuber Potato, Sweet Potato
Peas & Beans Cluster bean, cowpea, Dolichas
Solanaceous Tomato, Brinjal, Chili,
Cucurbits Watermelon, pumpkin, gourds, Cucumber etc.
Fruit vegetables Tomato, Brinjal, chilli etc.
Others Okra

5. Based on hardiness or temperature tolerance

Based on sustenance to varying temperature, vegetables have been placed into two groups:
a) COOL SEASON VEGETABLES
 These are the vegetables of which roots, stems, leaves, buds, or immature flowers or
parts other than fruits eaten.
 Root and tuber crops, cole-crops (cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, brussels sprouts,
sprouting broccoli etc.), leafy vegetables etc. are important cool season vegetables.
 However, sweet potato and New Zealand spinach are not come under cool season
vegetables though their roots and leaves respectively are edible.
b) WARM SEASON VEGETABLES
 The vegetables of which immature fruits are consumed are counted under warm season
vegetables; e.g. brinjal, okra, cucurbits, french bean, cluster bean, cowpea etc.
 Pea and broad bean have been excluded from this group though fruit part of these
vegetables are eaten. Both are vegetables are cool season crops.
12
6. Based on tolerance to soil acidity

7. Based on tolerance to salts

8. Based on methods of raising

a) Direct sown crops: Okra, Carrot, Radish, Beans, Peas, Garlic, Cucurbits, Peas and Beans, etc.
b) Transplanted crops: Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Cabbage, Cauliflower, etc.

9. Based on forcing
a) Cool forcing vegetables: Asparagus, Beet, Carrot, Cauliflower, Radish, Spinach, Pea, Onion,
Lettuce, Celery.
b) Warm forcing vegetables: Brinjal, Bean, Tomato, Cucumber, Muskmelon

10. Based on rate of respiration

a) Very high : Asparagus, Broccoli, Pea, Spinach
b) High : Beans, Lettuce, Limabean
c) Moderate : Beet, Carrot, Celery, Cucumber
d) Low : Cabbage, Sweet Potato, Turnip
e) Very low : Onion, Potato

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWER CROPS

1. Based on nature of growth
a) Annuals: Nasturtium, Ice plant, Hollyhock, Sweet pea, Annual Chrysanthemum, Carnation, Corn
flower, Sweet Alyssum, Dahlia, Marigold, Nasturtium, Verbena, Phlox
b) Perennials: Rose, Jasmine, Chrysanthemum
2. Based on season of growing
a) Summer season annuls: Zinnia, Kochia, Portulaca, Tithonia, Gaillardia, Gomphrena, Sunflower.
b) Rainy season annuals: Balsam, cock’s comb, amaranthus, gaillardia.
c) Winter season annuals: Aster, corn flower, lark spur, sweet sultan, phlox, verbena, candytuff, tetunia
3. Based on growth behaviour
a) Herbs: Nasturtium, Verbena, Candytuft, Corn flower, Lady's Lace, Clianthus, Gladiolus
b) Shrubs: Rose, Jasmine, Bougainvillea, Tecoma, Nyctanthes, Chandani
c) Trees: Plumeria, Amaltas, Dhak, Palas, Kadamb, Pride of India, Gulmohar
d) Climber: Jasmine, bougainvillea
13
4. Based on mode of propagation
a) Seed propagated plants : Aster, Annual chrysanthemum
b) Bulbous plants : Lily, Narcissus, Tulip
c) Cormellous plants : Gladiolus, Crocus
d) Rhizomatous plants : Canna, Iris
e) Tuberiferous plants : Dahlia

CLASSIFICATION OF SPICES
1. Based on nature of growth / life span
a) Annual spices : Coriander, Cumin, Fennel, Fenugreek
b) Biennial spices : Onion, Garlic
c) Perennial spices : Clove, Nutmeg, Black Pepper, Cardamom, Cinnamon, Saffron, etc.

2. Based on growth behaviour / pattern

a) Herbaceous spices : Cumin, Coriander, Fenugreek, Onion, Garlic, Turmeric, Ginger
b) Shrubaceous spices : Black pepper, Cardamom
c) Tree spices : Cinnamon, Tejpat, Nutmeg, Clove
d) Climber spices : Pepper, Vanilla

3. Based on economic importance

Depending upon the magnitude of trade, earnings and use they are classified as:
a) Major/Primary spices : Pepper, Cardamom, Turmeric, Clove, Ginger, Nutmeg, Chilli
b) Minor/Secondary spices : Coriander, Fenugreek, Cumin, Fennel

4. Based on plant part used as a spice

a) Root spices : Angelica, Horse radish
b) Rhizome spices : Turmeric, Ginger
c) Bulb spices : Onion, Garlic
d) Bark spice : Cinnamon, Cassia
e) Leaf spices : Mints, Coriander, Fenugreek
f) Aril spices : Mace
g) Seed spices : Coriander, Celery, Fenugreek
h) Fruit spices : Berries : Pepper, All spice
Capsules : Cardamom, Chilli
i) Flower/Bud spice : Saffron, clove

5. Botanical classification
(A) Monocot
Zingiberaceae : Ginger, Turmeric, Cardamom
(B) Dicot
Piperaceae : Black-pepper
Apiaceae : Cumin, Coriander, Fennel, Asafoetida, Dill, Celery, Parsley
Lamiaceae : Ocimum
Solanaceae : Chilli
Alliaceae : Onion, Garlic
Myrtaceae : Clove
Myristicaceae : Nutmeg, Mace
Lauraceae : Cinnamon, Tejpat
Papaveraceae : Khas-khas
Rutaceae : Curry leaves
Brassiceae : Mustard

14
 Iridaceae : Saffron
Orchidaceae : Vannila
Guttifcrae : Kokam
Araceae : Buchh
Fabaceae : Fenugreek

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTATION CROPS

1. Based on botanical relationship
(A) Monocot
Arecaceae : Coconut, Arecanut
(B) Dicot
Theaceae : Tea
Rubiaceae : Coffee
Moraceae : Rubber
Sterculiaceae : Cocoa
Anacardiaceae : Cashewnut

2. Based on growth behaviour

a) Vine : Vanilla, Black-pepper
b) Shrub : Tea, Coffee
c) Tree : Cashewnut, Cocoa
d) Palm : Coconut, Arecanut, Oil palm
3. Based on utility
a) Food : Coconut, Cashewnut
b) Industrial : Rubber, Arecanut, Oil-palm
4. Based on extent of growing
a) Homestead plantation : Coconut, Black- pepper
b) Estate plantation : Tea, Coffee, Rubber
5. Based on intensity of cultivation
a) Single-storeyed : Clove, Nutmeg
b) Multi-storeyed : Coconut

15
 5 & 6. Soil and Climate for Horticultural Crops

Selection of site
{{{{{ {

The site selected for the orchard is permanent in nature and it is long term investment, hence
it deserves a very careful planning. Mistakes done in the outset are difficult to rectify at the later
stage. Selection of location, site, planning, distance, soil & climate, irrigation facilities, varieties
and nursery plant material used, considerably reduce the returns on investment. Improper planning
of orchard results in loss of capital and wastage of long range efforts of the growers.

Factors affecting the selection of site for fruit orchard

Topography of land: The slope of land affects the system of planting of orchard. It is especially
important from the stand point of erosion, frost, freezing and desiccation. The slope more than 15 %
makes the land uncultivable, whereas 1 to 4 % slope may be kept clean without much loss. Uneven
land involves heavy expenditure on leveling of the land and introduces other unfavorable factors
and cultural difficulty. Southern slopes are generally warmer and affect the plants in a manner
different from the northern slopes because of the difference in the quantum of sunshine that the
plants receive.
Climate and soil: Climate and soil are the chief natural factors on which the success or failure of
the fruit cultivation is dependent. Knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on
fruit growing is very essential for every prospective fruit grower as fruits cannot be grown
successfully in every type of soil and climate.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Climate includes several factors like temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, wind, hail
storms and light. Soil includes physical condition of the soil and its fertility, nature of sub-soil, its
drainage conditions, temperature, texture and its composition.
i. Temperature: Every fruit plant has a fairly well defined range of temperature to which it is
tolerant and below which the plants of that variety are liable to be injured to a more or less
extent.
a. Minimum Temperature: Plants cease to grow at the onset of sufficiently cold weather,
although how cold it must become in order for them to stop growing varies with the kind of
plant and its condition. It is generally regarded that at 00C or below the growth is suspended,
above this it proceeds. Hardiness to cold is related to the water content of the tissue. However,
it is not the absolute water content but the form in which water is held by the tissue that brings
about the hardiness. The water in the plant tissues is held in three forms such as
1. Free water
2. Osmotically held water
3. Bound or colloidally held water
Plants containing the largest amount of bound water are more resistant to cold (Apple and Pear).
It is, therefore, important for the grower not only to know what the minimum temperatures are
in the region where farmer wish to plant the fruit crops but also the approximate minimum
temperature that the particular plant or crop will withstand at different stages of growth.
b. Maximum temperature: Just like the minimum, there is maximum temperature which the
plant will endure. This varies with the kind of plant and its conditions. Though the absolute
maximum temperature for living protoplasm is closer to boiling point for most of the higher

16
 plants, the lethal point lies somewhere between 43 to 540 C. A number of growth processes
are much retarded at these temperatures.
c. Optimum Temperature: It lies somewhere between the minimum and the maximum
temperature that the fruit tree will endure arrow range of temperature which is most congenial
for its growth. This temperature is known as ‘optimum temperature’.

ii. Atmospheric humidity: Higher humidity and higher temperature are favourable for growth of
certain crops like, banana and pineapple. It is usually observed that the ambia bahar fruit of
santra is juicier than mrig bahar fruits, probably due to the fact that the atmospheric humidity
during the growing season of ambia bahar is more as compared to that in growing season of
mrig bahar crop. Thus, the atmospheric humidity affects the juiciness of fruit. As regards the
taste, fruits growing in higher humidity are less tasty and do not have good keeping quality.
Higher humidity, being congenial for growth of fungi and bacteria and may be harmful to the
fruit trees.

iii. Rainfall: The quantity of annual rainfall as well as its distribution plays an important role in the
success or failure of fruit growing. Excessive rain occurring in short period is generally
unfavorable to fruits as it leads to water logging. Rain at the blooming period may wash away
the pollens and thereby inhibit pollination. In low rainfall regions, cultivation of fruit crops is
difficult if adequate and cheap irrigation facilities are not available.

iv. Wind: The wind causes damage to fruit trees in several ways. High winds blow away the fruits
and break the branches. A situation which is exposed to wind causes greater evaporation of soil
moisture and thereby necessitates more frequent irrigation. Hot winds at the time of flowering
may cause failure of pollination due to drying of stigmatic fluid and reduced activity of the
pollinating insects. The damage caused by winds can be reduced by planting wind breaks.

v. Hail storms: Fruit crops are greatly affected by hails. Hail storms are rare in Maharashtra, it
causes shedding of fruits and flowers.

vi. Light: Fruits exposed to light are found to be better in quality than those receiving less light. In
mandarin, it has been observed that the fruits borne on upper half of the tree and consequently
receiving more light were found to be richer in vitamin C and sugar contents. Fruits exposed to
strong sun light are likely to get sun-scald injury. In places, where the summer temperatures are
high, as in Vidarbha region the plant stem is likely to suffer from sunburn. In tropical region, the
light is not such a problem, but in temperate region, care has to be taken that the trees receive
good light for which it is necessary to train and prune the trees in a particular fashion.

SOIL REQUIREMENT
Soil is an important factor for successful establishment of the orchard. In fruit cultivation the
careful examination of sub - soil rather than the surface soil is more important. To get an idea about
the sub-soil, test pits should be dug in the field before taking up planting operation. While
examining the soil, it is necessary to pay more attention to its physical conditions rather than
chemical composition.
a. Physical conditions

The soil should be sufficiently porous, well drained and properly aerated having uniform texture
upto depth of 2.0 to 2.50 m. The water table should be about 4 m. In soils having fluctuating water
table, when the water table goes up and reaches the root zone, roots or root hairs get killed. When it
17
goes down, the trees with their root system have to struggle for moisture and nutrients. Extreme
conditions of top and sub- soil such as very heavy (clayey) and very light (highly sandy) should be
avoided. Heavy soils are difficult to handle on account of poor drainage and aeration while very
light soils are infertile because of leaching of nutrients.

b. Chemical composition

For most of the fruit trees, soil with pH ranged from 6 to 8 is most suitable. In alkaline
soils, concentration of sodium salts above 0.1 % is considered dangerous. In such soils, the fruit-
trees suffer from physiological disorders. On the other hand, if the soils are acidic, the micro-
organisms flourish to such an extent as to act pathologically, while the biological activity
favourable for the growth of the trees may be retarded. In general, it may be stated that soils for
fruit growing should be porous, deep and well aerated and should not be water logged, marshy,
saline or acidic and there should be no hard pan at the bottom layers. The garden soil should be
free from the following adverse conditions:

(i) High water table: A high water table is dangerous for roots and affects the plant growth in
several ways. Where water table is high, the fruit trees start becoming chlorotic after some
time and even die subsequently. A fluctuating water table, creating temporary water logged
conditions, is equally detrimental for fruit trees. It is considered that good fruit growing soils
are those which have water table beyond 2 m and preferably beyond 3 m from soil surface.
(ii) High salt concentration: Different types of fruit tree behave differently to varying salt
concentrations present in the soil. Citrus fruit trees have been ascertained to do well at the
electrical conductivity value below 0.5 mmhos/cm, while other fruit trees can withstand
values upto 1.0 mmhos/cm. Sodic conditions in the soil in the formation of alkali soils are
very injurious to fruit trees. Similarly, it is recommended that the pH of garden soil (upto 2
m depth) should be less than 8.5 in case of citrus and for other fruits; it must not be greater
than 8.5.
(iii) Lime concentration and presence of hard pan: For the successful growth of fruit trees, no
hard pan or kankar, pan should be present in the soil upto 2.5 m depth. Presence of such
pans causes physical obstruction in the development of the roots. Such soils also show
impediment to percolations of water to the roots. Further, excess water remains standing at
the surface and produces water logged conditions which are extremely injurious for the
growth of fruit trees. Trees with constantly ‘wet feet’ become chlorotic and ultimately die. A
layer of gravel in the sub-soil is also harmful as it does not allow proper development of root
system. High percentage of calcium carbonate and lime concretion in the sub-soil is also
detrimental for the growth of fruit trees. It has been found that the level of calcium
carbonates upto 5 per cent and the lime concretions upto 10 per cent in the soil 2 m depth
have no bad effect on citrus. However, other fruit trees can tolerate upto 10 per cent of
calcium carbonate and 20 per cent of lime concentration in soil.
(iv) Nutrient status: It is essential to know the condition of soil and sub-soil for supply of
nutrients. In fact, it is on the basis of this information, the exact amount of manures and
fertilizers required for normal growth of trees can be known and applied accordingly.

18
 7-11. Plant propagation-methods and propagating structures

Definition
Plant propagation can be defined as controlled reproduction of plants by a man, in order to
perpetuate a selected individuals or group of individuals which is having specific values to him.
There are basically two methods of propagation such as sexual and asexual or vegetative.

Sexual propagation
Multiplication of plants by seed is known as ‘sexual propagation’. In ancient times when
the asexual methods of plant propagation were not known, this was the only commercial method for
plant propagation. The fruit crops like papaya, phalsa and coconut are still being propagated by
seed.
Advantages
 It is a simple and cheap method of propagation.
 Seedling trees are long lived, bear more heavily and are comparatively hardier.
 This is the only means of reproduction where vegetative propagation is not possible.
 The possibility of chance seedling of highly superior qualities e.g. Most of the commercial
mango varieties like Dashehari and Langra have originated from seed and were later multiplied
by vegetative means.
 In breeding for evolution of new varieties, the hybrid plants are first raised by seed.
 The rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are usually obtained by
sexual propagation.
 Seedlings obtained from seeds of the fruits developed through parthenogenesis are similar to its
mother plant such plants can be commercially raised through seeds.
 Polyembryony exists in many fruit plants and give rise to more than one seedling per seed. e.g.
mango cultivars like Olour, Kurukkan, Chandrakaran, Bappakai and Vellaicolumban as well as
all varieties of citrus except pummelo are polyembryonic The polyembryonic varieties can be
propagated by seeds.
 Apomixis exist in a number of apple species. E.g. Malus sikkimensis, M. hupehsis, M. Saiyenti
and M. toringoides give rise to apomictic seedlings which are true to its mother plant. These
species can thus be commercially propagated through seed.
Limitations/Disadvantages
 Seedlings have a long phase of juvenility and the first crop is obtained very late.
 There is no uniformity in growth, yield and quality of fruits.
 Seedling trees are usually large in size and thus the cost of harvesting, pruning and crop
protection is more.
 Fruits obtained from seedlings are of inferior quality.
 Since seed borne viruses exist in a number of fruit plants eg. Psorosis in citrus and mosaic in
peach, cherry and almond. The multiplication of such plants by seed is not recommended.
 It is not possible to perpetuate the exact characters of any superior selection.
 In plants producing seedless fruits viz., banana and pineapple the vegetative methods of
propagation have to be used.

19
Asexual propagation
Asexual propagation through the use of vegetative organs of the plants involves no
changes in the genetic makeup of the offspring and the plants are homozygous bearing all the
characteristics of the mother plants because of exact duplication of the chromosomes taking place
during cell division.
Advantages of asexual propagation
 Progenies raised by asexual methods are generally true-to-type, uniform in growth, yielding
capacity and fruit quality. Variations inherent with seedling trees are overcome easily.
 Asexually propagated plants come to fruiting early i.e. they have less juvenile period.
 Plants bearing seedless fruit or which are difficult to raise by sexual method can be propagated
only by asexual means eg. Banana and Pineapple.
 Uniformity of fruit quality can be obtained. Picking or harvesting becomes easy owing to
restricted growth and early maturity.
 Budding or grafting to resistant rootstock for vigorous growth and free from pests and diseases is
made possible.
 Budding or grafting to develop the adaptability towards unfavourable soil conditions is made
possible e.g. Jamberi and Rangpur lime can be used as rootstocks for citrus.
 The advantage of better rootstock can be conveniently combined with the method to suit the
climatic requirements of the area e.g. Citrus under cold climatic conditions can be successfully
grown by using trifoliate orange as a rootstock and apple on Russian stock or Crab apple does
very well in very cold regions
 Modification in the growth habit i.e. tree size and fruit quality is possible in Golden delicious
apple grafted on Mailing - XVI rootstock may be three times larger than those grafted on
Mailing –IX and pear tree may be dwarfed on Quince A or C rootstock.
 Vegetative propagation makes it possible to convert inferior quality crown into superior quality.
 Top working improves the bearing capacity of the plants.
 Cross-pollination can be aided by grafting shoots of pollinizers on branches of self-unfruitful
variety to encourage better bearing and high yields.
 Vegetative propagation makes it possible to use a desirable plant as a variety directly, regardless
of whether it is homozygous or heterozygous.
 Mutant buds, branches or seedlings if desirable can be multiplied and used directly as varieties.
 Bridge grafting & buttress grafting helps in healing wounds made by rodents or other means.
 Composite trees with different types of fruit can be raised on a common stock. eg. Same stocks
may be used for several varieties of sweet oranges or even different citrus fruits.
 Vegetative propagation helps to avoid the cost of seed production mainly the expenditure on
maintaining the male-female lines, thereby unnecessarily increasing cost of propagation material.
 It also helps in rapid multiplication of planting materials with modern techniques like tissue
culture and other micro-propagation techniques.
 Rare, endangered plant species can be multiplied by using vegetative means.
Disadvantages
 No new variety can be evolved by means of the vegetative method of propagation.
 Vegetative propagation in many cases is more expensive than seed propagation.
 Vegetatively propagated plants are comparatively less hardy.
 Plants are comparatively short lived. Lack of tap root system in vegetatively propagated plants
results in poor anchorage in the soil; consequently, such plants are easily uprooted in storms and
or other such severe conditions.
20
Apomixis
The embryo is generally produced by sexual reproduction but there are certain cases in
which the embryo is produced by an asexual process. This is of great value as the resulting plant
can be reproduced by seed propagation in almost the same manner as it would be by any other
vegetative method. The seedlings produced through apomixis are known as ‘apomictic seedlings’.
Apomictic seedlings are identical to their mother plants and similar to the plants raised through
other vegetative means, as it has the same genetic make-up as that of the mother plant. Hence,
propagation by means of apomictic seedlings is equivalent to vegetative propagation. The
phenomenon in which an asexual reproductive process occurs in place of the normal sexual
reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization is known as ‘apomixis’.

Kinds of apomixis
a. Recurrent apomixis: In this type of apomixis, embryo develops from the diploid egg cell
(diploid parthenogenesis) or from some other diploid cells of the embryo sac, without
fertilization (diploid apogamy). As a result, the egg has normal diploid number of chromosomes,
as in the mother plant eg, Onion, Raspberry, Apple etc. In some plants apomixis occurs without
the stimulus of pollination, in others pollination it is necessary for embryo development.
b. Non-recurrent apomixis: In this type, the embryo develops directly, either from the haploid egg
cell (haploid parthenogenesis) or some other haploid cells of the embryo sac (haploid apogamy).
In this case, haploid plants are always produced. As the plants produced by this method contain
only one set of chromosomes, these are sterile and the process is not continued for more than one
generation. Non-recurrent apomixis does not commonly occur and is primarily of genetic
interest. e.g. Solanum nigrum, Lilium sp., etc.
c. Adventitious apomixis (Adventitious or nucellar embryony): In this type of apomixes, the
embryo does not develop from the cells of the embryo sac, but develops from any diploid
sporophytic cell eg.Cells of the nucleus and integument, hence, the diploid cells of the
sporophyte giverise directly to diploid new embryos. This type of apomixis is found in citrus,
where fertilization takes place normally and a sexual 70 plus number of apomictic (nucellar)
embryos develop. e.g. Opuntia.
d. Vegetative apomixis (Bulbils): In this case, the flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by
bulbils or vegetative buds, which often sprout into new plants while they are still on the mother
plant. This type of apomixis is found in some species of Allium, Agave and Dioscoria.

21
 METHODS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
I. CUTTING / CUTTAGE
Cutting is defined as production of new plants from the detached piece of stem, root or
entire leaf or leaf pieces from the parent plant which is placed under favorable conditions to induce
root and shoot.
It is an easiest and important vegetative method of propagation of horticultural crops
commonly used in propagation of dicot plants and is used commercially in ornamentals, vegetables
(drumstick, Ivy, sweet potato) and few fruit crops. In this method, vegetative parts like leaves,
stems, roots, are first detached from mother plant and are then induced or forced to produce roots.

Methods of cutting
Based on the plant part used, there are 3 methods of cuttings:
1) Root cutting 2) Stem cutting 3) Leaf cutting
A. Root cutting: e.g. Apple, Pear, Guava, Bael, etc.
Dig out the roots not smaller than 2 cm in diameter. Cut them into pieces of 10 to 15 cm
length. Plant them in pot, either in horizontal or vertical position. Water the pot with the help of
watering can.

B. Stem cutting: There are four types of stem cutting such as:
1. Hard wood cutting: e.g. Grape, Pomegranate, Fig, etc.
Select a well matured pencil size thick branch of past season’s growth having adequate
number of swollen buds. Detach the branch from parent plant. Remove all the leaves. Make the
cuttings of 15 to 20 cm length. Give a straight cut at the upper side just 2 to 3 cm away from the top
most bud. Take a slanting cut at the lower side just near the node. Fill the pot in normal fashion.
Plant the cutting in slantwise position, either in pot or in bed in such a way that 1/3 length of cutting
will be in soil. Water the pot or bed immediately.
2. Semi-hard wood cutting: e.g. Guava, Jack fruit, Aonla, Lemon etc.
Semi hard wood cutting is a portion of a growing branch including a woody portion which is
immature or partly mature.
Select healthy vigorous growing shoot which is in active stage of growth from terminal
portion of the branch. Cut it from the mother plant and prepare the cutting of 15 cm length. The
lower cut on the cutting is made close to the node. Retain few top most leaves. If the leaves are
bigger, cut them half to check the transpiration. Remove the lower leaves. Plant the cutting either in
pot or in bed in upright position and keep at least 2/3 of the portion in soil. Water the bed or pot
immediately.
3. Soft wood cutting: e.g. Apple, Peach etc.
Soft wood cuttings (Late spring, new growth) are usually soft, tender, succulent are
herbaceous in nature. Select a healthy and vigorous growing mother plant. Cut the tender soft
terminal shoot of 2 to 3 months old. Remove the leaves from the portion which is to be buried in the
soil. Plant the cutting in Parli after making a cavity. Do not thrust the cuttings in the soil and press
the sides firmly. Water the pot with water can.

4. Herbaceous cutting: e.g. Pilia, Coleus, etc.

Mostly ornamental plants are propagated through this method. For this purpose, the shoot
of one to two months old are selected.

22
 C. Leaf cutting
Selected plants propagated by leaf cuttings which consists of entire leaf or pieces of leaves
and closely related parts which are used to propagate many common green house plants. There are
three types of leaf cutting such as
1. Marginal buds: e.g. Bryophyllum
Select just mature leaf. Avoid young or older leaves as younger leaves will spend energy for
making their own growth, whereas older ones are devoid of energy. Keep a small stone to avoid
dislodging. Cover only margins of the leaf with soil. Keep the central portion of leaf exposed. One
plant arises from each notch in the margin of leaf.
2. Use of petiole: e.g. Pepromia
Select just mature leaf. Cut the petiole to about 1-2cm in length. Insert the petiole in soil
keeping the blade exposed. Roots will appear on the petiole.
3. Use of main vein / mid rib: e.g. Begonia
Select just mature leaf. Give the cut with sharp knife at the junction of main veins. Plant the
entire leaf in soil so that, the notched portion will be in contact with soil.

II. LAYERAGE

Layerage is defined as the mode of propagation in which a portion of the parent plant is
induced to produce the roots while still attached to the parent plant. There are different methods of
layering such as:
1. Tongue layering: e.g. Guava, Sapota, etc.
Select a mature pencil size thick branch of previous season growth that can be easily bend to
the ground. Remove all the leaves on basal portion of branch where it is to be operated. Make a slit
of 2-3 cm length on the lower side of branch just below the node. Insert a small piece of stick in the
slit. Fill the parli in normal fashion. Prepare a notch in the rim of parali to fit the branch. Bury the
operated portion of branch in soil. Keep a stone just above the buried portion to avoid dislodging.
Water the layer regularly. Normal season of layering is monsoon but can be followed at any time
when weather conditions are favourable and plant is in a vigorous growing condition.
2. Air layering or Gootee (Marcottage): e.g. Guava, Pomegranate, etc.
Select a healthy mature pencil size terminal branch of 60 to 70 cm length from the desired
tree.Give two circular cuts about 3 to 5 cm apart. The upper circular cut should be near the bud. Join
two circular cuts with a longitudinal incision. Remove the ring of bark. If the plants are difficult to
root, dust or paste it with root inducing plant growth regulators like planofix (NAA) and IBA along
with lanoline paste. Get a moistened sphagnum moss and press it around the operated stem. Prepare
a 25cm2 sheet of a polythene paper. Wrap the polythene paper around the moss in overlapping
fashion. Tie the gootee, first at the top and then at the bottom with elastic rubber band or jute string.
After rooting, cut off the gootee in three stages from the parent plant just below lower end. Plant it
in the pot after removing the polythene.
3) Continuous or Trench layering: e.g. Raspberry, Pear, Cherry etc.
This method is also known as ‘etiolation method of layering’. In this method, about one year
old plants intended to be multiplied are planted in a slanting position forming an angle of 40 o to the
ground. When the plants are established in this position, they are bent over and pegged down in a

23
 shallow trench and covered with a thin layer of soil. As the buds begin to swell along the burried
parts of the stem, more soil is thrown over the stem gradually. This process is continued as the new
shoots grow up and the soil covering is about 15 to 20 cm deep. The covered parts of the new
growth thereby kept in the dark get etiolated. From these etiolated parts, roots emergesand the
rooted growth are finally detached and planted out leaving sufficient number of the buds on parent
plant for the formation of future layers.
4) Mound or Stool layering: e.g. Guava, Grapes, etc.
This is a modification of etiolation method. In this method, the plants to be multiplied are
cut back to almost ground level. The new shoots are thus buried gradually upto not more than about
half of their length. After rooting they are detached.
5) Compound or Serpentine layering: e.g. Apple, Pear, etc.
Long shoots are alternately covered and exposed over their entire length are known as
compound layering. They normally form roots at each node where they are covered and develop
new shoots from buds at node that are not covered.

Air layering or Continuous or Mound or Stool Compound or

Gootee Trench layering layering Serpentine layering
(Marcottage)

III. BUDDING

Budding is a form of grafting in which a scion having only one single mature bud is inserted
in the stock plant in such a way that proper union will takes place.
Methods of budding: Budding is classified into various kinds according to the manner in which
bark of stock is prepared to receive the bud and shape of bud. There are different methods of
budding as below:
1) Shield budding: a) ‘T’ budding b) ‘ꓕ’ budding
c) Simple budding d) ‘I’ budding
2) Forkert budding
3) Patch budding
4) Flute budding
5) Ring budding
6) Chip budding

1) Shield budding: This is the method of budding in which a single bud with little wood or without
wood is taken out from the scion plant and is shaped like shield before it is inserted into the
rootstalk. It is done in the following three ways:
A. ‘T’ Budding: it is the most common method of budding adopted by the nurserymen for budding
different fruit crops, roses and ornamentals. Select of well matured pencil size thick branch of
24
 past season growth having plumpy buds on scion plant. Select healthy vigorous, erect growing
pencil size thickness rootstock having 45 to 60 cm height. Rootstock seedling should be in sap
flowing condition to ensure proper union. Perform the budding operation at 25-30 cm from
ground level. Make 2 to 3 cm long vertical cut followed by horizontal cut across top at right
angle with a sharp budding knife. Remove a plumpy bud from the selected bud stick. Take out
the bud carefully with wood and remove the wood from bud. Loosen the flap of bark on stock
plant with the help knife. Insert the bud by pushing it downwards beneath the bark and hold it in
position. Tie the bud with polythene strip keeping the bud exposed. Cut off the top portion above
the bud union after about 4 to 5 weeks when the union is completed.
B. ‘ꓕ’ budding: in high rainfall areas, in case of T-budding, rain water running down the stem of
the rootstalk is often soaked under the bark which causes decay of the shield piece of the bud
leading to the failure. Under such condition an ‘ꓕ’ budding (inverted T budding) is adopted as
rain water cannot get accumulated in the operated parts sheds down very quickly. Procedure is
similar to ‘T’ budding except that instead of ‘T’ a ‘ꓕ’cut is made.
C. ‘I’ budding: Procedure is similar to above two types except the method of making incision.
Simple length wise (vertical) incision is made on the seedling stem of rootstalk. Then two
horizontal cuts, above 0.5 cm long one across the top and other across the base of the vertical cut
are made. The bark on the rootstalk, so cut is loosened with the help of ivory end of the budding
knife and the prepared scion bud shield is inserted either from the above or from the lower
horizontal cut of the rootstalk. The bud is then wrapped tightly with the help of budding tape or
polythene ribbon.
D. Simple budding: It is similar to I budding but only the difference is that only vertical slit is
opened without giving transverse cuts. Simple length wise (vertical) incision is taken on the
rootstock and the stem is bend a little so that the bark becomes loose. Then the bud is inserted
and tightened firmly with banana fibre or polythene tape.
2) Patch budding: e.g. Aonla, Jamun, Jackfruit, etc.
Patch budding consists of small bud with a patch of bark about 0.5 to 1 cm wide over a thick
rootstock seedling of one year old. At first, a patch of bark is removed from the stem of the
rootstock seedling. Then, a patch bud of exactly the same size is removed from a desired variety
and fitted into the exposed area. Polythene film or banana fiber is tied to protect this bud and the
stock seedling is beheaded above the inserted bud in gradual stages. This stimulates the sprouting of
inserted bud. This method has been adopted on a large scale by nurseryman in India.
3) Ring budding: e.g. Ber, Peach, etc.
This method is useful for small stocks of not more than 1.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter. This is
more or less an extension of flute method of budding. The stock is completely injured and is
replaced by ring containing the bud of scion. Budding is done when plant parts are in sap flowing
condition. A complete cylinder or ring of bark is removed around the stem of stock in order to form
matrix. Complete ring of scion with a prominent, plumpy, healthy bud is removed intact, when
placed on stock; it extends all-round the stock. After placing the ring in position, tie it in usual
manner. Failure of bud to unite, results in the loss of terminal portion of stock above ringed portion.
4) Flute budding: e.g. Ber, Cashew, apple, etc.
This method makes the use of ring of tissues adjoining the bud, relatively thick barked trees
thinner than 2.5 cm and in the active stage of growth is commonly budded by this method. On the
stock, two horizontal cuts spaced about half to two inches are made through the bark down in the
25
 wood probably between nodes, but can be extended approximately to three quarters of way around
the plant part. A vertical cut connects the horizontal cuts at both ends of cuts and semi-circular bark
is removed and is placed against the corresponding cut portion of the stock. After the flute is
positioned, tie it usual way. The jute string is removed immediately after the union is completed.
5) Forkert budding: e.g. Mango
The method is being successfully practiced in Java and Sri Lanka. In Maharashtra State, a
fair degree of success has been achieved in mango. The favourable season is from July to
September, when stock seedlings make excellent growth. Buds are selected from a year old growth,
the terminal shoots are removed from the parent trees after detaching the leaves by leaving the leaf
petiole intact. But, stocks of mature trees are alsoobtained from distant places and stored in moist
sphagnum moss. Buds with piece of bark 2 to 3 cm long and 1 cm wide with ample wood are
removed with outer bark intact. The leaf stalk attached to bud is cut off just close to the bud with a
sharp knife.A rectangular piece of bark similar to the bud in size is removed from the stem of stock
seedling about four to six inches above the ground. Firstly, a panel is marked out by two parallel
cuts on the bark. A transverse cut is then made by joining two cuts at one end. The cut bark is
pulled aside gently and place the bud in panel of exposed region. The peeled bark is then brought
back, so as to cover the bud. The whole area is then bandaged with a wax cloth in order to prevent
water and air getting into the bud joint. After three weeks, bud sprouts and bandage is opened, so as
to allow the bud to grow.
6) Chip budding: e.g. Mandarin, Custard apple, etc.
A long slanting downward and inward cut (2.0 to 3.0 cm) is given on a smooth surface of
the stock plant. A second cut at an angle 450 is made so as to intersect the first cut and to remove a
‘chip’ of bark along with wood. A chip of similar size containing a bud is placed on the cut surface
of the stock so that it fits well and tied with polythene tape to hold the chip in position leaving the
unexposed. When the bud starts sprouting the stock is beheaded. This method can be adopted even
if the bark does not slip well.

Shield “T” or “I” budding Patch budding Ring budding

Forkert budding Flute budding Chip budding

26
 IV. GRAFTING / GRAFTAGE

Graftage is the process of inserting a part of plant into another in such a way that union will
takes place and two parts joined together would continue to grow as normal plant. Different
methods of grafting are as follows:
Objectives / Advantages of grafting: the importance of grafting a vegetative method of plant
propagation are as follows:
1. Production of clones (group of plants identical to each other propagated from only one plant) is
possible to maintain the genetic purity of the variety even in cross pollinated crops.
2. The inferior crown of the plant can be converted into a superior one.
3. Certain benefits of certain root stock viz., resistance abiotic stresses, nematode resistance,
dwarfening habit, etc. can be achieved.
4. Benefit of intermediate root stocks can be achieved that may avoid stock scion incompatibility.
5. Repairing damaged part of high yielding and well-established tree is possible.
6. Study of virus diseases on trees is possible with the help of different roots stocks.
Methods of grafting :-
I. Scion attached methods:
1. Simple approach or inarching
2. Tongued approach grafting
3. Saddle approach grafting
II. Scion detached method:
1. Veneer grafting
2. Saddle grafting
3. Wedge grafting
4. Whip grafting
5. Whip and tongue grafting
III. Method of grafting on established trees:
1. Side grafting
2. Side veneer grafting
3. Crown grafting
4. Cleft grafting
5. Top working
a) Approach grafting
b) Softwood grafting
c) By forkert budding
IV. Methods of rejuvenation:
1. Bridge grafting
2. Buttress grafting
Scion attached methods
1. Simple approach or Inarch grafting: e.g. Mango, Sapota, Guava, etc.
Select one-year old terminal twig of about 45 to 60 cm length having the same thickness as
that of stock from the scion tree of desired variety. Select a healthy well-established stock. The
stock and scion should be of same thickness, so as to bring about proper union. Carry the selected,
potted seedling (stock) to the scion tree and keep on support (Mandav). Hold the scion branch and
27
 mark the position where it can tightly be placed. Remove a thin slice of bark along with wood about
5 cm long and 1 to 2 cm in breadth and 0.2 cm deep with a sharp grafting knife from both stock and
scion branches. The cut thus made should be absolutely flat, clean, even and smooth. Size of cut
varies with the thickness of shoot used. Bring the cut surfaces together with pressure face to face
without leaving any hallow inter space between them. Tie them with banana leaf sheath and then
with sutali. The bandage is made water proof and air proof by pasting it with grafting wax or cow
dung. Water the rootstock plants as required. The union is completed within two to three months.
Cut away gradually scion from the parent tree after union is completed. The original top of stock
plant above the graft joint is headed off after about a week. Transfer the graft to a shade where it is
properly nourished, hardened and cared for a period of about 3-6 months prior to its final planting.

2. Saddle grafting: e.g. Mango

This method is sometime followed in mango though it is not so popular as inarching. As
usual, care is taken to select the stock and scion of equal thickness. The rootstock is beheaded at a
height of about 20 cm by taking two diagonal cuts opposite one another to meet at the centre to
form a wedge shape. The length of such a wedge pointing upward is about 2.5 to 3.0 cm, a cleft
equal in length to that of wedge of the stock is cut on the outer side of selected scion branch to
expose the cambium and fix in wedge of stock. Joined parts are then tied over firmly. The proper
season for this operation is from August to October.

Scion detached methods

1. Whip grafting: e.g. Apple
This method of grafting is used to join the plant parts together which are one inch in
diameter. This method is not used commonly. The stock and scion should be same size and in
vigorous growth having the sap in a free-flowing condition. The seedling stock is headed off at a
height of 20 to 25cm from base by taking a diagonal slantwise cut 3 to 5cm in length. The scion
branch of about 20 cm length from matured wood previously defoliated is selected. A slantwise cut
of the same size as that of stock is given and then brought in contact with the stock and tied firmly
at the operated part with the help of banana fiber and sutali.

2. Veneer grafting: e.g. Mango

Veneer grafting is commonly practiced in West Bengal. In this method, the scion terminal
shoots of 10 to 15 cm length of pencil size thickness are used as scion. Terminal shoots with
plumpy and swollen buds that are about to sprout in a fortnight are considered an ideal. The
terminal shoots are defoliated a fortnight prior to their cutting from the parent tree. Immediately
after cutting, the scion shoot is given a slanting cut of 5cm long on one side of the cut end removing
bark and wood to half of its thickness. Skill is necessary in making a clean cut. A notch is made in a
selected mango seedling up to 5cm deep in an oblique manner on any convenient side. The cut end
of the scion shoot is placed in position and wrapped very tightly with 1 cm wide polythene film tape
keeping the terminal shoot end free. The seedlings are watered regularly, so as to ensure good sap
flow for promoting speedy union. September to October is considered as favorable season for
veneer grafting. The scion shoot starts sprouting in about 3 to 4 weeks. The grafts will be ready for
planting within three months. The success of this method is 75 to 80 per cent.

3. Cleft grafting / Top - working / Crown grafting: e.g. Mango

This method is employed for renovating old trees. The tree which is generally old and is of
inferior variety is cut back to a height of 60 to 90 cm from the ground level with a saw. On the

28
 back, longitudinal cuts of 5 to 8 cm are made from the top with chisel. The bark is exposed in strips
all-round the circular stem. The best time for this operation is from August to October.
One-year old terminal shoots with swollen buds 9 to 12 inch long are selected and the lower
end is made into a wedge by using sharp grafting knife. The wedge is made by cutting the bottom of
shoot slanting from two opposite sides. These shoots are defoliated and inserted in slits between the
bark and wood on old trees which have been cut back. The scion sticks of are inserted on the main
trunk depending on the thickness of tree. After inserting these shoots all openings in the bark of the
stock are immediately closed by mixture of sealing wax, resin and tallow in 1:2:1 proportion. This
helps to keep the joint waterproof and air proof. In order maintaining the humid conditions, a big
earthen pot with a hole in its bottom is kept inverted over the grafted portion without touching the
plant. This method is also known as ‘top-working’.

4. Side grafting: e.g. Sapota, Mango, etc.

This is another method of grafting in which the terminal shoots of scion plants are used. The
scion shoot is first defoliated up to 10 to 12 cm length, a week before its separation. Then these
shoots are cut away from the parent tree and grafted to the side of stock seedling of same thickness.
Two slanting cuts are made at the base of scion shoot forming a wedge and this is fitted into a notch
like cut made on the side of stock seedling. A firm bandage is then made with a cloth strip dipped in
paraffin wax. The scion material separated from the desired variety of mango should be kept moist
by wrapping it with wet gunny cloth.

Simple approach or Whip grafting Saddle grafting

inarch grafting

Veneer grafting Cleft grafting / Top Side grafting

working / Crown
grafting
5. Stone grafting: e.g. Mango
Grafting is done by cleft or wedge method. New bronze colour leaves and stem of rootstock
is beheaded to half of its length i.e. 7 to 8 cm, vertical cut of 3 to 4 cm is given on the stock and 3 to
4 cm slanting cut is given on both the side of scion shoot, so that it will fit properly on the stock
causing a good cambium contact of stock and scion. This operated portion is firmly tied with
polythene tape of 200-250 gauge of 1.5 cm width.

29
 Within 3 to 4 weeks, bud will sprout and new growth of shoot will start within 1 to 1.5
months. The grafted plants are then kept in a shade before final transfer to field. Proper healing and
subsequent growth of scion plant takes place due to stored food material in stones and high
meristematic activity. The best season/period for mango stone grafting is July to August.

Stone grafting Softwood grafting

Advantages
 Requires less time and less expenditure as compared to other methods of grafting.
 Quick method of mango multiplication.
 Success is 70 to 80%.
 No irrigation or watering is required as grafting is carried out in rainy season.
 Most suitable for coastal region.
Disadvantages
 Stone grafting is carried out when age of rootstock is 8 - 10 days only.
 With advancement in age of stock, percentage of success is reduced considerably.
 The survival percentage of stone graft is very poor, probably due to inability of stock to
support the growing scion after exhaustion of reserves in stones. Secondly high temperature
and low humidity may cause excessive loss of moisture.

6. Softwood grafting: e.g. Mango, Cashew apple, Jackfruit, Jamun, etc.

All the steps i.e. collection and selection of mango stones, raising of rootstock seedlings,
selection & preparation of bud wood and grafting procedure are similar to stone grafting except the
age of rootstock. In softwood grafting, the operation is carried out on a rootstock of one-year old
seedlings and such method is usually followed for in-situ grafting.

V. PROPAGATION THROUGH SPECIALIZED VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES

A. Separation: Naturally detachable structures such as:

1. Bulbs: Bulbs are produced by monocot plants in which the usual plant structure is modified for
storage and reproduction. A bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy,
usually vertical stem axis, a growing point at apex and enclosed by thick fleshy scales. Bulb
scales morphologically are the continuous sheathing leaf bases. The outer scales are generally
fleshy and contain reserve food material. Growing points developed in the axils of these scales,
to produce miniature bulbs known as ‘bulbet’. Aerial bulbets are called as ‘bulbils’. They are
separated and used for propagation e.g. Onion, Tuberose.
2. Bulbils: Bulbils are the small bulb like structures developed in the leaf axils or in place of
flowers e.g. Agave .

30
 3. Corms: A corm is the swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by dry scale like leaves. In contrast
to the bulb, corm is a solid stem structure with distinct nodes and internodes. In mature corm, the
dry leaf bases persist at each of these nodes and enclose the corm. This covering is known as the
‘tunica’ and gives protection against injury and water loss. Cormels are the small baby corms
developed in between old and new corms which requires two years to come into flowering e.g.
Gladiolus.

B. Divisions: Plants parts are divided into small sections which bear at least two to three buds such as:
1. Suckers: Sucker is a term used to designate a shoot, which arises from the adventitious bud on
root. However, in practice shoots which arise from the vicinity of crown are also referred as
suckers even though originating from the stem tissues e.g. Banana, Raspberry, Blackberry and
Chrysanthemum.
2. Crowns: The term crown is used to designate part of plant stem below the surface of ground
from which new shoots are produced. Division of crown is an important method of propagation
in strawberry.
3. Stem tubers: A stem tuber is short terminal portion of an underground stem, which become
thickened because of the accumulation of reserve food material e.g. Potato. Propagation by tuber
can be carried out either by planting the whole tubers or by cutting them into sections, each
containing a bud or eye.
4. Root tubers: Certain herbaceous perennials produce thickened roots which contain large amount
of stored food material. The tuberous roots differ from tubers in that they lack in nodes and
internodes. Adventitious buds are present only at stem and or proximal end; fibrous roots are
produced towards distal end. These fleshy roots are separated and used for propagation e.g.
Sweet potato and Dahlia.
5. Rhizomes: A rhizome is a horizontal stem growing either underground or along surface of the
ground. Typically, it is the main axis of plant, producing roots on its lower surface and extends
leaves and flowering shoots above the ground. It may be thick and fleshy or slender and
elongated, but it is always made up of nodes and internodes e.g. Ginger. Propagation by
rhizomes consists of cutting or dividing the rhizome into sections each of which is capable of
producing new shoots from nodes and roots from adventitious buds on lower surface.
6. Runners: A runner is a specialized stem which develops from the axils at the crown of plant,
grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new plant at one of the nodes. e.g. Strawberry.
The rooted daughter plants are dug out when they are well rooted / developed.
7. Stolons: Stolon is a term used to describe various types of horizontally growing stems that
produces adventitious roots when comes in contact with the soil e.g. Hariyali (Bermuda grass).

Onion bulbs Agave bulbils Gladiolus Banana Pineapple

corms sucker crown

31
 Potato stem Sweet potato Ginger Strawberry Bermuda
tuber root tuber rhizome runners grass stolons

VI. MICRO - PROPAGATION

Micro - propagation (tissue culture or in-vitro culture) refers to the multiplication of plants,
in aseptic conditions and in artificial growth medium, from very small plant parts like meristem tip,
callus, embryos, anthers etc. The German Plant Physiologist, Haberlandt (1902) first described the
biological principles of tissue and organ culture. At present, tissue culture finds extensive
application in agriculture and horticulture in several countries. Though some achievements have
been made but the commercial utilization of the techniques of tissue culture is still lagging behind.

Merits of micro - propagation

 Tissue culture helps in rapid multiplication of true-to-type plants throughout the year.
 A new plant can be regenerated from a miniature plant part.
 Large number of plants can be produced in culture tubes in small space with uniform growth.
 Plants raised by tissue culture are free from any diseases.
 Tissue culture coupled with somatic hybridization helps in evolving new cultivars in a short
time.
 Micro- propagation facilitates long distance transport of propagation materials and long term
storage of clonal materials.
 Tissue culture methods are particularly effective in plant that do not breed true from seeds,
seeds are not viable (male sterile) or available easily eg. Banana and in plant where
propagation by conventional methods are expensive eg. Orchid .
Demerits of micro propagation
 The cost involved in setting up and maintenance of laboratory is very high and may not
justify their use in all the horticultural plants.
 Tissue culture techniques require skill and manpower.
 Slight infection may damage the entire lot of plants.
 Some genetic modification (mutation) of the plant may develop with some varieties and
culture systems which may alter the quality of the produce.
 The seedlings grown under artificial condition may not survive when placed under
environmental conditions.

Methods of micro-propagation
1. Meristem culture: In meristem culture, the meristem dome and a few leaf primordia are placed
into a suitable growing medium. An elongated rooted plantlet is produced after some weeks
which is transferred to soil when it has attained a considerable height. A disease free plant can be
produced by this method even from an infected plant.
2. Callus culture: A callus is a mass of undifferentiated parenchymatous cells. When a living plant
tissue is placed in an artificial growing medium, with other conditions favourable, callus is
32
 formed. The growth of callus varies with the endogenous levels of auxin and cytokinin and can
be manipulated by exogenous supply of these growth regulators in the culture medium. The
callus growth and its organogenesis or embryogenesis can be classified into three different
stages.
 Rapid production of callus after placing the explant in culture medium.
 The callus is transferred to other medium containing growth regulators for the
induction of adventitious organs.
 The new plantlet is then exposed gradually to the environmental condition.
3. Embryo culture: In embryo culture, the embryo is excised and placed into a culture medium
with proper nutrient in aseptic condition. To obtain a quick and optimum growth of the embryo,
the culture medium is changed 2 to 3 times. When the embryo has grown into a plantlet, it is
transferred to soil. It is particularly important for the production of interspecific and intergeneric
hybrids and to overcome the embryo abortion.
4. Protoplast culture: Protoplast of plant cell can be isolated with the help of cell wall degrading
enzymes and grown in a suitable culture medium in a controlled condition for regeneration of
plantlets. Under suitable conditions the protoplasts develop a cell wall followed by an increase in
cell division and differentiation and grow into a new plant. The protoplasts are first cultured in
liquid medium at 25 to 280 C with a light intensity of 100 to 500 lux or in dark and after
undergoing substantial cell division; they are transferred into solid medium congenial for
morphogenesis. Many horticultural crops respond well to protoplast culture.

33
 12 & 13. Seed dormancy and seed germination

Seed is a ripened usually fertilized ovule containing the embryonic plant. Many plants are
propagated through the seeds in which other methods of propagation are not useful. In order to
secure good germination, the seeds are to be placed in favourable conditions for germination.
Seed dormancy
Failure of the seed to germinate even though they are placed in favourable conditions for
germination is known as ‘seed dormancy’.

Types of seed dormancy

1. Dormancy due to rudimentary embryo: Some plants shed their fruits before the seed has
matured enough to germinate, such seeds do not germinate because of immature embryos.
2. Seed coat dormancy: The seeds fail to germinate due to presence of hard seed coat which is
impermeable to water and air.
3. Dormancy due to physiologically dormant embryo or physiological dormancy: It is common
in the seeds of certain woody plants. The germination is regulated by inner tissue of seeds such as
embryo and endosperm.
4. Double dormancy: Some seeds have both seed coat dormancy and embryo dormancy; such seed
requires both scarification as well as stratification to overcome the dormancy.
5. Secondary dormancy: Failure of seeds to germinate due to exposure to some unfavourable
conditions, such as high temperatures or high moisture after stratification.
Pre-sowing seed treatments
The treatments which are given just before sowing of seed for getting uniform germination are
known as ‘pre-sowing seed treatments’. Following treatments are used for breaking the seed
dormancy.
1. Soaking in water: Soaking of seed in water is applied to overcome the physical, mechanical or
chemical seed dormancy of some species and to remove germination inhibitors. It promotes
germination by softening the seed coat, activation of enzymes and dilution of the effects of
inhibitors. Most often seeds are soaked in water for 1 day, the seeds of a few species may
require soaking for 2 days. This method is applied to the seeds of Sesbania, Acacia sp., Shirish,
Tamarind, Gmelina, Giripushp/gliricidia, Dalbergia species, etc.
2. Soaking in hot water: Soaking seeds in hot water helps to overcome the physical dormancy of
seeds with hard, thick and waxy seed coats. Water is boiled, removed from the source of heat
and allowed to cool upto 850C. Seeds are then soaked in this hot water while being stirred for 2-
5 minutes and then soaked in cool water for 12-48 hrs. The hot water breaks the waxy resistant
seed coat layer, leach out the inhibitors and supply adequate moisture to the embryo for
germination. Caution: if seed is soaked while the water is being boiled, the seed might be
cooked and die. This method is applied to the seed of Custard apple, Bael, Woodapple,
Australian Babul, Shirish, Apta, Aonla, Amaltas, Kashid, Mangium, Leucaena sp., etc.
3. Stratification: In some seeds, the cold treatment at low temperature of 1 to 2°C with high
moisture is given for 2-3 months which is called as Stratification. It consists of placing the seeds
in moist sandy peat or loam soils and holding at a temperature slightly above the freezing
temperature (0 to 50C). This treatment breaks endogenous dormancy by activating the
34
 biochemical changes that increase the concentrations of growth promoters like GA and cytokinin
in the seed while decrease the content of growth inhibitors like abscisic acid (ABA) decreases. It
also converts complex food material in the seed to simpler substances that nourish the embryo.
It is followed in Abies, Cedrus, Cupressus, Walnut, Pear, Plums, Cherry, etc.
4. Mechanical (scarification) methods: The seeds having hard seed coat are mechanically
ruptured by breaking the seed coat for permeability of water and good germination is called
Scarification. Scarification methods are used to overcome the physical and mechanical
dormancy of hard and thick seed coats or fruit shells. Small holes are cut or scrapped in the seed
coat or fruit shell with a knife, metal file or abrasive material to allow water absorption.
Mechanical machines are available for this purpose. After scarification, seeds are usually soaked
in cool water for 1 day. These methods are used on the seed of the species mentioned under the
hot water pre-treatment as well as Ber, Charoli, Almond, Peach, Plum, Cassia sp., Delonix sp.,
Arjuna, etc.
5. Fire or heating methods: The fire and heating methods are used to overcome mechanical
dormancy of fruits with thick shells. Fruits are spread on the ground and covered with a 2 cm
layer of dry grass or straw, which is then burned. Alternatively, fruits may be heated in a pan
over a fire. E.g. teak and candlenut.
6. Acid scarification: Soaking seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid or nitric
acid for 10-20 minutes overcomes physical and mechanical dormancy by modifying the hard
and impermeable seed coats and make it permeable to water. Seeds are removed from the
chemical soak, rinsed with water for 2-5 minutes to remove the acid traces and then soaked in
cool water for 24 hours. This method is not recommended because chemicals are dangerous and
expensive. E.g. Teak and Ber.
7. Partial Fermentation: it also helps to break the seed dormancy. In some Indian states seeds of
teakwood are allowed to remain in open throughout the rainy season for partial fermentation
that enhances the germination percentage.
8. Chemicals to break endogenous dormancy: Plant growth regulators like GA, kinetin,
ethylene or chemicals like hydrogen peroxide, potassium nitrate, thiourea, hydrogen peroxide
and citric acid can be used to break or reduce the dormancy period and enhance germination.
Pre- sowing treatments of potassium nitrate @ 0.2 and GA3 @ 200 to 500 ppm or Thiourea @
0.5% improves germination of different kinds of seeds. Potassium nitrate is used in freshly
extracted seeds while thiourea is used for seeds sown in darkness. e.g. GA treatment reduces the
dormancy of sandal wood seed from 150 days to 40 days. Some seeds like Mulberry soaked in
Kerosene which acts as repelling action on insects and paste.
9. Radiation: x-rays and gamma rays used experimentally to break dormancy in some species
successfully.

35
 SEED GERMINATION

Seed germination refers to the resumption of metabolic activities and growth of an embryo
resulting in the rupture of seed coat and emergence of plantlet.

Pre-requisites for good germination

 Seed must be viable.
 It must be non-dormant.
 It must be quiescent.
 It must be placed in favourable conditions for germination.

Factors affecting the seed germination

A) External factors
1. Water: After imbibition of water in seed, it becomes physiologically active and resumes
germination. The rate of germination varies with amount of water absorbed by the seed.
2. Temperature: The temperature requirement for germination varies from species to species. In
general, optimum temperature required for seed germination is 25 to 300C. Higher temperature
accelerates the germination up to certain limit while decrease with fall in temperature.
3. Oxygen: The demand of oxygen increases rapidly during early phase of seed germination. The
requirement of oxygen for germination varies from species to species. For rapid germination, the
adequate supply of oxygen is essential.
4. Light: In some crop species seed germination is affected by light and some are insensitive to
light. Depending upon the response to light, seeds are grouped into
a. Positively photoblastic seeds: The seeds in which germination is accelerated by presence of
light eg. Strawberry seeds.
b. Negatively photoblastic seeds: The seeds in which germination is retarded by the light eg.
Onion seeds.
B) Internal factors
1. Hard seed coat: The seed coat of some crop species are impermeable to water and oxygen which
prevent the germination of seed e.g. Almond and Charoli.
2. Immature seeds: When seed having immature embryo, they fail to germinate eg. Marigold.
3.Need for after ripening period: In some crop species, the seeds require some period for
germination after ripening e.g. Bitter gourd and Red pumpkin
4. High amount of inhibitors: When the seed contains high amount of germination inhibitors
which prevents the germination e.g. ABA

36
 14 & 15. Principles of orchard establishment, layout and planting systems

Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very critical

planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting distance, choosing
the varieties and the nursery plants have to be considered carefully to ensure maximum production.

Points to be kept in mind while selecting the location and site for fruit orchard
Before grower selects site for establishing new orchard, he must have assessed the following factors:
1. Owner’s house: For effective supervision of the orchard, it is essential that the owner should
have his home in or around his orchard. Therefore, availability of medical, educational and
social amenities in the vicinity also considered while selecting the site.
2. Soil of selected site should be fertile, free from major pest and disease organisms, with good
subsoil and minimum depth of 1 m or more as per root growth pattern of fruit species.
3. The climatic conditions must be suitable for the fruits to be grown and site should be free from
cyclones, frost, hailstorms and strong hot winds.
4. Site should not be in low lying areas, should have proper slope for proper drainage and to avoid
water stagnation during rainy season
5. Adequate water supply should be available round the year at cheaper rates and irrigation water
must be of good quality without objectionable impurities.
6. There must be proper transport facilities either by road or rail within the reach to ensure quick
transport to market with minimum damage as fruits are highly perishable
7. Nearness to processing industry and cold storage is essential to overcome the problems of
seasonal gluts or over production in any particular period of the year.
8. The market facilities must be available nearer to the site selected for the fruit orchard with an
assured demand in the market for the fruits to be grown.
9. Whether the orchard is a new venture or whether there are already other growers. The technical
know-how must be available in locality. The location should be in a well-established fruit
growing region because one could get the benefit of experience of other growers and also get
the benefit of selling the produce through co-operative organizations with other fruit growers.
10. Labour: labours may be cheap, skilled and available in plenty. As the fruit industry flourishes
with the availability of more skilled labour.
11. The site should not be near to any disease affected plantations, although it would be safe to
select a site close to established, successful and healthy orchards, so that co-operative societies
of the growers are to be formed.
12. The site should not be near any industry.

Preliminary operations:
 After selecting the suitable location and site, some preliminary operations have to be done.
 Trees are felled without leaving stumps or roots.
 Shrubs and other weedy growth are also cleared. Deep ploughing is essential to remove big roots
 The lands should be thoroughly ploughed, leveled and manured.
 Leveling is important for economy of irrigation and preventing soil erosion.
 In the hills, the land should be divided into terraces depending upon the topography of the land
and the leveling is done within the terraces. Terracing protects the land from erosion.
 If the soil is poor, it would be advisable to grow a green manure crop and plough it in-situ so as
to improve its physical and chemical conditions before planting operations are taken up.

37
Points to be considered while planning the orchard:
A careful plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and economic management.
The following points should be considered while preparing the plan:
1. Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.
2. Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the center or at higher
elevations for proper supervision.
3. Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of one well for 2 to 4
hectares.
4. Each kind of fruit should be assigned in a separate block.
5. Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.
6. Those fruit crops which require equal spacing should be grouped in one block.
7. Plant the fruit-plants according to their soil requirements.
8. Irrigated trees should be near to the source of water.
9. Pollinators should be provided in deciduous fruits and self-incompatible fruit trees e.g. Ber,
Mango etc. In deciduous fruit trees, there are some varieties which require pollen from another
variety to set fruits in them, otherwise, they will be barren. Such pollen donors are known as
pollinators. Every third tree in every third row should be planted with a pollinator.
10. Irrigation channels should be laid along the gradients for most economical conduct of water.
For every 30 m length of channel, 7.5 cm slope should be given.
11. Roads should occupy minimum space for the economy of transport. The clearance between
wind break and first row of trees is advantageous for the road.
12. Don’t mix large trees with small trees. Short growing trees should be allotted at the front and
tall at the back for easy watching and to improve the appearance.
13. Evergreen trees should be in the front and deciduous ones behind.
14. Fruits attracting birds and animals should be close to the watchman's shed.
15. A good fence is essential. Live fencing is economic and cheap to other kind of fences. The
plants suitable for live fencing should be drought resistant, easy to propagate from seed, quick
growing, have dense foliage, should stand severe pruning and should be thorny. Agave,
Prosopis juliflora, Pithecolobium dulce and Thevetia if closely planted in 3 rows would serve
as a good live fencing.
16. Wind breaks, rows of tall trees planted close together around the orchard, are essential to resist
velocity of wind which cause severe ill-effects particularly moisture evaporation from the soil.
Since the wind breaks are very effective in reducing the wind velocity and minimizing the
damage to the fruit trees and to other crops, their presence in regions where strong winds
prevail is of paramount importance. A wind break ordinarily has its maximum effectiveness for
a distance about four times as great as its height but has some effect over twice about that
distance.
The most effective windbreak is a double row of tall trees alternately placed. There should
be at least as much as space between the windbreak and the first row of the fruit trees as between
fruit trees. It is preferable to dig a trench of 90 cm deep at a distance of 3m from the windbreak
trees and prune and cut all the roots exposed and again fill up the trenches. This may be repeated for
every 3 or 4 years in order to avoid the compe1ition between the wind breaks and fruit trees for
moisture and nutrition.
Trees suitable for windbreak should be erect, tall and quick growing, hardy and drought
resistant and mechanically strong and dense to offer maximum resistance to wind. The trees which
are suitable for growing as wind breaks are Casuarina equisetifolia, Pterospermum acerifolium,
Polyalthia longifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillea robusta, Azadirachta indica, etc.
38
 For building, paths, roads, tube wells and wells about 10% of total area is kept. Cleaning of
the land (all vegetation including shrubs, bushes and standing local trees), ploughing and leveling is
done. A careful plan of orchard is necessary for most economic and efficient management,
attractiveness and economical layout and location of the roads, drains, irrigation channels, path,
hedges and wind breaks.

Principles of layout
The following points need to be considered before choosing a system of planting.
 It should accommodate maximum number of plants per unit area.
 It should allow sufficient space for the development of each tree.
 It enables equal distribution of area under each tree.
 The intercultural operations such as ploughing, spraying etc are easily carried out.
 It makes supervision easier and more effective.

Methods of layout/systems of planting

The arrangement of plants in the orchard is known as ‘layout’. There are six systems of
planting in which the fruit trees are commonly planted. These are as follows:
1. Square system
The square system of planting is the simplest and the most convenient for layout. In this
system, row to row distance and plant to plant distance is kept similar. The trees are planted exactly
at right angle to each corner. Thus, every four plants make one square. This system of planting is
universally adopted all over India e.g. Mango, Jamun, Jack fruit, Sapota etc.
Advantages
 Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight.
 Operations like ploughing, harrowing, cultivation, spraying, harvesting, etc. become easy
when trees are planted at equal distance from each other in regular lines.
 Better watching of the orchard is possible as any trespasser can be sighted even from the
other end of the orchard
Disadvantages
 Comparatively less number of trees are accommodated in given area.
 Distance between plant to plant and row to row remains the same and hence, certain amount
of space in the middle of four trees is wasted.
No. of plants =

2. Rectangular system
The trees are plated in straight rows running at right angle on the side of the field. The
distance from plant to plant and row to row is not the same and four trees joined at the base make a
rectangle. Grapes (3 x 2 m), Pomegranate (4.5 x 3 m), etc.
Advantages
 Intercultural operations can be carried out easily in the early stages.
 Irrigation channels can be made length and breadth wise.
 Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter spaces between rows.
 Better supervision and easy for intercropping.
Disadvantages
 Inter-cultivation is somewhat difficult when the trees have fully grown.
 A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if intercropping is not practiced.
 Accommodate less number of trees per hectare.
39
 No. of plants =

3. Quincunx or Diagonal system

It is the same as in the square system with the additional of a tree in the centre of each
square i.e. at the points of diagonal cut. In this case, the number of trees is almost doubled but the
distance between the tree in the centre and at the corner is much reduced. For this reason the central
tree is usually not permanent tree and is planted that tree is known as ‘filler palnt or filler tree’.
Filler tree serves as a source of additional income till the main tree come into bearing. These plants
are usually short statured and early bearing. It should be removed if it hinders the growth of main
plants in any way.
 No. of plants =
 Additional plants = (No. of rows lengthwise -1) x (No. of rows widthwise -1)
 Total no. of plants = Plants planted in square system + Additional
plant in the centre of square
Advantages
 Additional income can be earned from the filler tree till the main crop comes into bearing.
 The main advantage of this system is that the plant population is about double than the
square system.
 Maximum utilization of the land is possible.
Disadvantages
 Skill is required to layout the orchard.
 The filler tree can interfere with the growth of the main crop.
 The greatest disadvantage of this system is difficult to carry out intercultural operations on
account of the filler tree.
 Spacing of the main crop is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue after the growth
of the main crop.

4. Hexagonal system
This is also called as ‘equilateral system’. Sometimes a seventh tree is planted in the center
of the hexagon and then it is called ‘septulplet system’. In this system, the trees are planted in each
corner of the equilateral triangle. This system differs from the square system in which the distance
between the rows is less than the distance between the trees in a row, but the distance from tree to
tree in six directions remains the same. This system is usually employed, where land is expensive
and is very fertile with good availability of water.
Advantages
 Compared to square system 15 % more trees can be planted.
 It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.
 Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.
 More income can be obtained.
 This system permits cultivation in three directions.
 The plants occupy the land fully without any waste as in square system.
Disadvantages
 Intercultural operations become difficult.
 Skill is required to layout the orchard.
 This system is not generally followed because it is difficult to adopt in practice in the field.

40
5. Triangular system
The trees are planted as in square system but the difference is that those in the even
numbered rows are midway between those in the odd rows instead of opposite to them. Triangular
system is based on the principle of isolateral triangle. The distance between any two adjacent trees
in a row is equal to the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows.
Advantages and disadvantages
 This system is not much of practical importance.
 Plants are not placed at equal distance from all sides.
 When compared to square system, each tree occupies more area and hence it accommodates
few trees per hectare than the square system.
All the above systems are possible when the land is flat, plain or level, but not on uneven
lands and sub-montane areas (hilly areas).

6. Contour or Terracing planting system

It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are planted along the contour across the
slope. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a way that the flow of water in the
irrigation channel becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate into the soil without causing
erosion. Terrace system on the other hand refers to planting in flat strip of land formed across a
sloping side of a hill and lying level along the contours.
Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and help to bring more area into productive
use and prevents soil erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the nature of the
slope. If slope becomes stiff, width of terrace is narrower and vice-versa. Planting distance under
the contour system may not be uniform. When the slope is <10% contour bunding is practiced and
if the slope is >10% contour terracing is practiced. In this system trees are planted along the contour
line at right angle. Cultivation and irrigation can be practiced along tree rows only.
Advantages
 This system can be adopted in hilly regions.
 Contour system can control the soil erosion.
 It helps simultaneously in the conservation of water.
 Conservation of plant nutrients supplied by manures and fertilizers is possible.
 Contours form an easy path for movements on the hill slopes for carrying out various
operations such as weeding, manuring, pruning, harvesting and plant protection measures.
Disadvantages
 Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time consuming.
 Special skill is required to layout this system.
 Special instruments are required for making contour lines.
 The row to row distance will not be equal and adjustment may be required in the plant to plant
distance.
 Rows are broken into bits and pieces.
 The number of plants per unit area will be generally less than other systems of planting.
7. Hedge row: In this system, plants are spaced either in single or double or multi row system. This system
consists of two or three or five closely spaced rows with middle space between the rows e.g. High
density planting.
8. Hedge system: Layout is exactly same as rectangular system except that very wider spacing is
maintained between rows and a very narrow spacing followed between plants. This system permits easy
movement of men, material and machinery and also effective cultural operations due to wider spacing.
Hence, this system is especially suitable where machines are employed for various farm operations.

41
Different Types of PlantingMethods
Conventional planting/Low density planting: Non-intensive system, age old planting system, trees planted
at wide spacing, accommodating about 100-250 plants/ha dwarfing root stock not used. Trees acquire
commercial production potential after 5-10 years of planting. Output from orchard during early 10-15 years
is less. Less input and care intensive, holds popularity among growers.
Medium density planting: Highly minimized distance covering 250-500 plants/ha proper pruning
undertaken to manage tree in desirable shape. More care intensive, labour requirement is more, obtained
yield is also more. Lead in output reliable growers to produce amenable fruit crops like pomegranate, citrus,
guava, papaya, banana, etc.
High density planting: High Density Planting (HDP) is one of the technologies for increasing fruit yield
per unit area. The HDP can be defined as planting fruit trees at a density in excess of that which sufficient to
give maximum crop yields at maturity if individual tree grows to its full normal size. In other words, it is the
planting at a close spacing to accommodate more number of plants per unit area. The concept of HDP has
drawn considerable attention of the fruit growers all over the world. The technology for HDP is based on the
principle of maximum utilization of solar energy and other natural resources per unit area
Ultra-high density: About 10,000-1,00,000 plants/ha. are accommodated. It relies heavily on rigorous
training and pruning. Maintenance of pruning is very heavy. Dwarfing rootstock and chemicals also used in
this system. Yield as well as expenses per unit area is high as compared with other methods of planting.
Meadow orcharding: Meadow-grassland, also known as Ultra-high density planting. 10,000-1, 00,000
plants/ha in order to maintain tree form, sever top pruning is practiced similar to mowing of grassland. Plants
intended to produce yield after 2 year age. Heavy use of growth regulators as well as pruning.
Ultra High Density Planting: It is a technique which has utilized all the resources optimally and thus,
increased the production per unit area as well as raises profit margin of farmers. Planting a density in excess
of that which gives maximum crop yield at maturity if the individual tree grows to its full natural size.
Benefits of HDP
 Maximum utilization of land and space.
 Higher nutrient and water use efficiency.
 Higher interception of solar radiation.
 Higher efficiency of fungicidal and pesticidal sprays.
 Effective control of weed growth and allows mechanization.
 The plants are closed spaced as compared with the traditional method of planting eg. Mango-2.5 x
2.5m, apple – 3.0 x 3.0m, banana- 1.8 x 1.8 m, pine apple- 0.60x 0.40 m etc.
Constraints in HDP
 Higher incidence of some diseases like leaf spot and sigatoka of banana.
 Poor quality of the fruits e.g. skin colour in apple.
 Higher initial cost of orchard establishment.
 Lower longevity of the plants.

42
 16 & 17. Training & Pruning

Left to themselves, the cultivated plants may grow wild and attain a shape of their own
depending upon the species and variety. They may not bear regularly and abundantly unless trained.
Training is defined as an operation done to a plant by which it is made to develop an orderly
frame work or structure and this is achieve by staking, typing supporting, propping, trellising or
spreading on pergola with or without pruning of plant parts and training is usually done when the
plants/shrubs/vines are young. The training is normally achieved by pruning.
It is necessary to pay sufficient attention for training of plants during the first few years of
planting. During this period, the preplanned frame work as decided by the grower should be
allowed to develop.

Objectives of training
a. To admit adequate sunlight and to train the centre of the tree to expose more leaf area to sun.
b. To limit the growth and spread of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying
and harvesting are performed at minimum cost.
c. To build the frame work and arrangement of scaffold branches.
d. To build the trees and maintain the height so as to reduce the exposure for sunscald and wind
damage.
e. To develop a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth of tree.
Before actually discussing the subject of training, it is necessary to understand the meaning
of following terms.
Head: The point on the trunk from which first branch arise.
Scaffold branches: The main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.
Crotch: The angle made by the scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to the scaffold
limb is called as crotch.
Leader: The main stem growing from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches is
called as leader.
Water shoot: A vigorous growing un-branched shoot arising on any branch or leader is called as
water shoot.
Sucker: The growth appearing on rootstock portion is called as water sucker.
Shoot: New growth which bears leaves.
Trunk: The main axis of plant from ground level to the point of branching is known as trunk.
Spur: The portion of cane /branch left after pruning is known as spur.
Twig: New shoot growth.

Branch orientation and leader training: The branches may be oriented around the stem to
produce a nature shaped tree or they may be oriented in a single plane to provide a flat shape known
as an Espalier (from the French word for Schedule).
Before attempting to train any tree, we should decide the height of the head or crown
depending upon the height of the crown from ground level, the plants can be grouped into two:
A. High head: In this case, the main branches are encouraged at about one meter or higher height
from ground level. In the case of high head plants, intercultural operations with animal or
mechanically drawn implements can be carried out easily. In the tropical climate high headed
trees are unsuitable as they are prone to sunscald and wind damage. The bearing area also
develops late and so they come to bearing late.
43
B. Low head: Main branches forming the foundation frame work of the tree are encouraged on the
trunk within a height of 1 meter from the ground level. The low headed trees are now becoming
common all over the world as they come to bearing comparatively earlier, are able to resist
strong winds more effectively and spraying and harvesting expenses are reduced.

How to train a plant: The formation of the main frame work of the tree is most important part of
the training. Usually two to four main branches are encouraged at almost the same height. These
should be allowed to rise from different directions, at some distance from one another so as to form
a balanced frame work. These branches are called scaffold branches. The frame work is greatly
strengthened if the branches are spaced at 5cm apart vertically on the main trunk. If two are more
branches of equal size are allowed to arise from one place, they form a bad crotch which is often
prone to split their common joint. Most deciduous and ever green trees are trained to a single stem
except a few trees like pomegranate, custard apple, fig, etc. which are better trained to two or three
stems.

SYSTEMS OF TRAINING
1. Central leader: In the central leader system of training the trunk is encouraged to form a central
axis with branches distributed laterally up and down and around the stem. The central axis, or
leader, is the dominant feature of the tree’s frame work and the main direction of growth is
upward. This system of training is adopted in such types of trees which have a pronounced
special dominance. Here the main trunk grows undisturbed. On account of vigorous (rapid)
growth of the main trunk the tree develops a close centre and grows to great heights. The side
branches remain more or less shaded and consequently they would be lower in vigour and
productivity. Since the plants would be very tall the spraying and harvesting operations become
difficult and costly e.g. Sapota, Mango, Jamun, pear and some varieties of apple. This is not
encouraged now.
Advantage: Development strong crotches due to junction of limbs and trunk.
Disadvantage: (1) Lower branches remains un-productive (2) Bearing is confined to top portion
of tree, hence there is difficulty in harvesting of fruits (3) Trees prone to wind damage (4) Not
suitable for high altitude and hot winds where there is high wind velocity.

2. Open centre: In this system, the main stem is allowed to grow only up to certain height by
heading it within a year of its planting or terminating its growth at a particular height and all the
subsequent vegetative growth is promoted by lateral branches. Originating rather close to the
upper end of trunk. However, special pruning is required to prevent a lateral from becoming
dominant i.e. from forming a new central leader. The tree thus trained results in a low head and
as such, the crop is borne closer to the ground in contrast to the central leader system. Open
centre system allows the sunshine to be equally distributed to all the branches. The open centre
trained trees are more fruitful besides greatly facilitating the operations like spraying, thinning
and harvesting. However, the branches form narrow/weak crotches since they arise very close to
one another almost from the same spot. So, there is certain amount of risk of splitting of the
branches when there is a heavier load of crop on the trees. In areas of high light intensity, such
trees suffer from sever sunscald and sun burn injuries. Example, peaches, Apricots, etc.
Advantages: (1) Better penetration of light inner side of the tree i.e. at the centre and all
branches bears fruiting. (2) Facilitate easy intercultural operations.
Disadvantage: This system is not suitable for high altitude where frosts are common eg. Apple,
Pear, Peach etc.
44
3. Modified leader system: This system stands intermediate between the central leader and the
open centre, combined with the advantages of both the systems. It is developed first by training
the tree to the leader type allowing the central stem to grow unhampered for first four to five
years. The main branches are allowed to rise on the main stem at reasonable intervals. After the
required number of them has developed the main stem is cut of. The top laterals will take the
place of the main stem. This results in a fairly strong and moderately spreading type of trees,
e.g., apple, walnut etc.
Advantages:
 Moderate height of trees results in easy carrying out inter cultural operations
 All branches will bear the fruit
 Suitable for all regions.


Central leader training Open centre system system Modified leader stem
system system

OTHER METHODS OF TRAINING

1. Caldwall system of training: The branches of the plant are bent and pegged to the ground. This
makes the plant to come to bearing early and yield better. No pruning is involved in this method
of training, e.g. erect growing varieties of guava.
2. Fan system: This method of training is suitable for wall side planting in home gardens. A fan
shaped frame is developed by allowing the branches to grow in only one plane parallel to the
wall, e.g., ornamental plants.
3. Cordon system: A single arm is allowed to develop from the trunk which will be trained along a
stretched wire at a suitable height e.g., grape. An espalier restricted to one shoot or two shoots
growing in opposite or parallel directions is called a garden.
4. Kniffin system:
(a) Two arm kniffin system: Two arms are allowed on the main stem at height of 5 - 6 ft and
they trained on to wire on either side e.g., grape.
(b) Four arm kniffin system: Here there will be four arms two each on either side of the trunk.
The first pair of arms arise at a height of 3 - 4‟ and the second at 5 - 6‟ e.g., grape.
5. Overhead trellis or telephone system: The wires will be fixed horizontally on some post just as
telephone wires. The plant will be trained on to the wires with a suitable frame work, e.g., grape
and ornamental creepers.
6. Pendal or Bower or Arbour system: A pendal will be erected with the help of pillars and wires
and the plant will be trained on to the pendal with suitable frame work, e.g., grape, ornamental
creepers, etc.
7. Single stake or umbrella systems: The main trunk will be supported by a stake. The trunk is
beheaded at height of 5 - 6‟. The branches which arise on the trunk will be hanging freely. e.g.,
grape, Var. Arkavathi.
45
 PRUNING OF ORCHARD TREES
Pruning is one of the major horticultural practices, which may be defined as “an art or a
science of cutting away a portion of a plant”. The parts more commonly removed are branches,
leaves or both. Obviously, pruning is a subtraction process.
The extent and intensity of pruning on the same tree varies from year to year, depending on
the growth of the tree, its bearing habit and season. The great majority of ornamental plants, if
allowed to grow under normal conditions, become full sized trees growing in a haphazard way
occupying a lot of space in the garden. When raised in pots to get the bushy growth at manageable
sized and in planting proportion, one should prune them periodically, very few species seldom grow
and remain dwarf and compact.

Main objectives of pruning:

1. To maintain the growth and vigour of the trees and to have a balance between the vegetative
vigour and fruitfulness, so as to be conductive for production of optimum crop of best quality
2. To shape the tree to make the best use of the space between trees while allowing the necessary
access
3. To regulate the size and quality of the fruits by way of proper distribution of the fruiting area
4. To regulate the succession of crop and to have the crop where it can be managed easily and
cheaply
5. To spread the trees for economic orchard management
6. To remove the dead, diseased and over aged wood
7. For effective spraying of pesticides to the crop
8. To minimize biannual bearing and consequent risk of die back
9. To get maximum plagiotropic shoots/stems

Principles of pruning:
1. Excessive pruning should be avoided as it affects the growth of the plant by dwarfening and
may induce more of water suckers, fasciations (union of a number of parts side by side in a
flat plane) and thus affect the bearing potential.
2. In pruning, only that wood which is not necessary for the tree should be removed.
3. Pruning of larger limbs should be avoided as far as possible.
4. Pruning of young trees should be done more carefully than the yielding trees, since severe
pruning of young trees delays the cropping and much more of yield area will be removed than
what is desired.

Methods of pruning:
1. Thinning out: This refers to the removal of the branches entirely from its base leaving no
stubs. Thinning is practiced in the removal of shoots arising in unwanted places, water shoots
etc.
2. Heading back: This refers to pruning or cutting of main stem or all or few of the branches
leaving a basal portion. This method is often followed for hedges, ornamental shrub and fore
pruning in grapes.
3. Pollarding: Mere cutting back of the shoots, indiscriminately to reduce the height of the tree is
known as ‘pollarding’.

46
4. De-blossoming: Removal of surplus flowers to enable the tree to produce crops regularly year
after year is called as ‘de-blosoming’. This is practiced in alternate bearing fruit trees like
mango and apple.
5. Disbudding or rubbing off: Here the young buds are nipped without giving them the chance
to sprout. The buds may be either vegetative or reproductive. This is practiced regularly in
flowering plants to make the terminal bud to give a bigger flower. Thinning of the flower buds
from the crowded one is essential to get large size quality blooms, as the lesser the number
healthier and bigger the flowers. Generally, disbudding is done mainly for annuals, herbaceous
perennials and roses. This is followed in large flowered cultivars such as carnation,
chrysanthemum, dahlia, marigold and zinnia. Generally one bud per shoot is retained.
6. Pinching and topping: This refers to the removal of the tip of the shoot alone with a view to
stimulate mainly the lateral growth. This is practiced regularly in „coffee‟ to remove the apical
dominance and to allow the side branches to grow vigorously.

Time and extent of pruning: The time of the year at which the different plants are pruned depends
chiefly upon their dormant and flowering seasons. The best time for pruning most of the deciduous
trees is at the end of the dormant season, i.e., about a month before the commencement of
flowering, but time of pruning of evergreen tree is during December-January when growth is at
minimum compare to dry and flowering seasons. The extent of pruning to be adopted for a
particular crop depends on its growing and fruiting habit as it directly affects the nutritive condition
within the tree and consequently affects the fruit formation. It also much depends on variety and age
of the plants. Pruning of bearing and non-bearing trees differs. The non-bearing trees need much
lesser pruning as compared to the bearing trees.

47
 18 & 19. Juvenility and flower bud differentiation

Plants undergo a series of growth phases during their development from seeds. These phases
are generally referred to as the germination, juvenile phase, maturation and senescence with more or
less gradual transitions.

JUVENILITY
Definition
The juvenile phase is the growth phase following germination from seed during which
flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not “competent” to respond to seasonal envi-
ronmental inductive cues, and hence remains vegetative. It can also be defined as a period from
seed germination during which no flower initiation can take place under conditions which are
favourable during a later stage. Juvenility is defined strictly in terms of ability of seedlings to form
flowers. The juvenile phase ends with the attainment of the ability to flower. The appearance of the
first flowers on the seedling is the first evidence that the plant is in the adult or mature or
reproductive phase.

Duration of the juvenile phase

The juvenile phase may vary even between varieties of the same species. In annuals, it
requires a few weeks or months after germination, a period of some months or one season in
biennials and one to few years in bulbous plants and woody shrubs and 2-40 years in trees. In
perennials, the juvenile phase also called as prebearing period is followed by the simultaneous
reproductive and vegetative growth following a polycarpic (A plant is considered to be polycarpic if
it is able to reproduce more than once before dieing) growth pattern with some irregular or biennial
bearing in few species.
e.g. minimum period of juvenile phases of different crops is as below:
Coriander : 15-25 days Fenugreek : 15-20 days
Bell flower : 4 months Raspberry : 2 years
Grape vines : 3 or 4 years Plum and cherry: 4 or 5 years
Apple : 5-12 or 13 years Pears : 12-18 years
Tangerines : 5-7 years Sweet orange : 6-7 years
Grape fruit : 7-8 years Tangelo : 5-8 years

During this juvenile phase, even if the ideal environmental conditions such as temperature,
photoperiod, light integrals, etc. are provided, the plants never bear the flowers and fruits. The
transition from juvenility to maturity for several plants was proposed to occur when a
photosynthetic leaf area sufficient to sustain flowering and fruiting is reached e.g. banana.

Characteristics of juvenility
Juvenility is often characterized by a period of rapid vegetative growth, which slows
considerably after maturity is reached. Progressive changes may or may not occur during juvenile
period that involve morphological, anatomical, physiological and developmental differences that
include leaf shape, size, thickness and epidermal characteristics, phyllotaxis, thorniness, rooting
ability, shoot orientation, shoot growth vigor, anthocyanin pigmentation, photosynthetic
characteristics, disease and insect resistance, competence to form adventitious buds and roots, etc.
These characteristics may change at different rates from species to species. In many cases, juvenile

48
shoots are more compact, have lower lignifications and shorter internodes than mature shoots. e.g.
juvenile phase may be characterized by thin leaves, and lack of pubescence in apple, small leaves
and horizontal thorny branches in pears, entire juvenile leaves that changes to compound leaves in
adult form in pecan. In citrus, seedlings are thorny in their earlier life but as they mature, the shoots
upward and outward from the trunk gradually lose the thorny condition.

Phase changes or maturation:

The change from juvenile to mature characteristics is referred to maturation or phase
change. The higher plants have to undergo this phase to initiate reproductive development. This
stage is also referred to shoot maturation, or juvenile developmental phase. This is a gradual and
continuous process and is regarded as the ability to flower as a stable condition. Once maturity is
achieved, plants will continue to flower under the normal flower inducing condittions. This
flowering will occur regularly at specific period in perennials while in annuals and biennial plants
this condition is reached once followed by the senescence.
The mature phase of shoot developmment is characterized by slow and plagiotropic growth.
When compared with juvenile shoots, mature shoots have a higher level of lignification and shorter
internodes whereas, the mature leaves are thinner, have higher leaf area and are more elongated in
many species.

Flower bud formation:

It includes the phenomenon of phase changes leading to flower bud initiation and flower
bud differentiation. A bud which is an underdeveloped shoot at later stages consequent of some
internal and external influences differentiates into a flower bud or leaf bud. Every bud has a
potential to develope as a flower bud. The differentiation takes place only when the conditions are
favourable especially the nutritive conditions during the period of rest. The exact time of
differentiation varies considerably with the inherent characters of variety, environmental / seasonal
conditions, moisture supply, cultivation practices followed, etc.

In herbaceous and annual plants this phase change or maturation period is very short while
in fruit plants, there is a wide interval of even many months between the initiation of flower buds
and the actual developement of flowering and fruiting. The knowledge of actual time of
differentiation and its requirements for phase change is helpful to perform different cultural
operations and provide favourable conditions for flower bud formation as well as improve the
fruitfulness of plants.
The two changes associated with the formation of a flower bud are:
(a) Flower bud initiation: it is defined as the anatomical and morphological changes occurring
within the bud that transform the bud to reproductive phase to develope the flowering.
(b) Differentiation of the flower bud: This refers to the further development of the embryonic
flower within the initiated bud i.e., the development of flower parts within the bud which
follows the initiation of the bud.

In flower bud differentiation the growing point of bud differentiates into structures that form
the essential parts of the flower bud. The first symptom of flower bud differentiation is ceasation of
extensive growth of plant and development of growing bud into a narrow conical and more convex
form with more flattening and broadening of the surface. e.g. a broadening and flattening of the
apical meristem with two lateral protuberances in mandarins is the criterion for the blossom bud
differentiation.

49
 In temperate fruits and also in mango the time of blossom bud differentiation approximately
corresponds to the time of cessation of the extension growth. The growing point of the apple shoot
has a round surface enclosed by embryonic leaves, and is characterized by the presence of large
amount of meristematic tissue. Sooner or later this will change either to vegetative form or a
productive flower bud.

Table: Morphological and anatomical markers that distinguish Juvenile and Mature phases of olive
plant (Olea europaea L.).
Characteristics Juvenile plants Mature plants
Leaf morphology Short and more rounded Narrow and more
leaves elongated leaves
Leaf anatomy
Leaf thickness Much thicker Smaller
- upper epidermis Larger cells Smaller cells
- upper palisade parenchyma Composed of three-four Composed of only two-
layers of elongated cells three layers
- spongy parenchyma Less compaction & More compact & contain
contain parenchyma cells more sclerenchyma cells
- lower palisade parenchyma Less compact More compact
-lower epidermis Thicker Smaller
- Total thickness (without hairs) Much thicker Smaller
Relative volumes (%)
- upper epidermis Less More
- upper palisade parenchyma More Less
- spongy parenchyma Less More
- lower palisade parenchyma Less More
- lower epidermis Less More
Total thickness (without hairs) Less More
Stomatal density (No./mm ) 2 Less stomata Much more stomata
Non-glandular hair density (No./mm2) Less hairs Much more hairs
Other features
Internode length Long Short
Ability to flower Absent Present
Leaf eco-physiological markers
Photosynthetic rate High Low
Stomatal conductance High Low
Water Use Efficiency (WUE) High Low
Turgor potential High Low
Water potential Low High
Relative water content High Low
(Source: Rezq Basheer-Salimia, 2007)

Techniques to reduce juvenile period and induction of flowering:

Many theories and hypotheses on shortening the juvenile stage of seed grown plants given
by different scientists are conflicting. However, after the attainment of phase change, the perennials
follow a seasonal pattern of growth and flowering so that it occurs more or less at the same time
every year. It is due to the effect of environmental factors. But, we can manipulate the growth rate
of the plant to certain extent and plants can be brought to earlier flowering and fruiting in perennials
as well as their flowering and fruiting behaviour can be manipulated by following the different
measures as follows:
50
1. Gene transformation: the juvenile phase of trees species can be shortened by transgenic
manipulation of internal genes or ectopic expression of foreign genes. Over-expression of the
LEAFY gene from Arabidopsis reduce juvenility in citrus, over-expression of FT in citrus, pear
and apple or downregulation of a gene encoding a TFL1-like protein in apple significantly
reduced the juvenile phase.
2. Plant C:N ratio: As reported by Kraus and Kraybill in tomato, the plants supplied abundant
quantities of nitrogen for vegetative growth and then transferred and grown with a moderate
supply of available nitrogen and carbohydrates are less vegetative but fruitful. i.e. the plants with
a proper management of optimum fertilizers, training and pruning and other management
practices produce the good fruiting with the average plant growth. The abundant carbohydrate
reserves essential for good fruiting can be obtained through the application organic matter
through manures, green manuring, etc. and high photosynthesis rates through the training and
pruning.
3. Plant growth regulator treatments: Application of few PGRs stimulates precocious flowering
in woody angiosperms.
(a) Gibberellic acid (GA): GA appears to be the key regulator of the phase changes and most of
flower inducing treatments are inhibitors of GA biosynthesis. GA when applied exogenously
inhibit flowering or delay the bud release in many fruit crops. GA produced in the roots may
also promote and maintain juvenility. As the distance between the roots and the shoot apex
increases, the amount of GAs arriving at the shoot tip decreases, resulting in loss of juveniliity.
(b) Auxin: Auxins often occur in the most actively growing tissues. Auxins induce flowering in
many plant species by affecting ethylene synthesis and other physiological processes. Auxins
indirectly improve the plant nutritional status by mobilizing carbohhydrates, stimulating the
differentiation of vascular tissue, thus increasing the supply of nutrients and hormones to
developing organs and hastening their development.
(c) Cytokinins: Cytokinins are reported to stimulate phase change leading to the flowering e.g.
zeatin the naturally occurring cytokinin promotes flower initiation in apple, grape apices when
treated with 6-BAP caused inflorescence and fruit development in four-week-old seedlings.
Application of growth retardants paclobutrazol, daminozide, MH, TIBA, CEPA, SADH, etc.
found to induce flowering in fruit crops like apples, pears, etc.
(d) Ethylene: it is reported to reduce the vegetative growth leading to phase change. It is essential
to induce flowering in many fruit plants. Higher the concentration of ethylene in plants, higher
and earlier is the flowering e.g. pineappple (10 ppm with 2% urea), apple.
4. Environmental control: Faster and longer the plant growth is, sooner it reaches the maturation.
Environmental conditions favouring rapid and continuous growth bring the plants earlier to the
maturity by reducing the length of the juvenile period. The following methods of manipulating
the environmental conditions bring them earlier to maturity and induce flowering:
(a) Light: Light intensity is the most important factor governing rapid growth and the
carbohydrate manufacture in the leaves. Opening the trees by training and prunning techniques
admits sufficient light to the centres and tends to increase flower bud formation. Even we can
get to the notice that many flowering ornamentals brought to home will not give sufficient
flowering and colours unless they are exposed to sufficient light as per their need.
(b) Rainfall: Untimely rains cause more nitrogen to go into the plants and make them to use the
carbohydrates reserves for new vegetative growth thus leading to less or no flower bud
initiation.

51
(c) Photoperiod: Many photoperiodic herbaceous plants pass the juvenile phase when the required
photoperiod is provided to initiate the flowering. e.g. chrysanthemum will continue to grow
vigorously without flowering under the long day conditions. But if short days or more
specifically long night conditions are provided at any time of growth; it will bear the flowers.
The pigmet phytochrome is responsible for this behaviour.
(d) Temperature: Temperature controls the flowering in many fruit plants. Application of low
temperature and increasing cold duration induces earlier opening of the first flower in Dianthus
allwoodii and in Coreopsis. The tropical and subtropical horticulture species like trees of
mango, avocado, olive, litchi, raspberry and sweet orange also require low temperatures for
floral induction in the buds.
(e) Humidity: Dry weather stimulates flowering while cloudy weather or winter rains tend to
retard flower bud initiation in mango.
5. Cultivation Techniques:
(a) Pruning: Training and pruning techniques enhance the induction of flowering and fruiting in
various crops. The practice of pruning opens the trees, admits light to the centres thus exposing
the larger areas to light thereby increasing the photosynthetic activities and the carbohydrate
reserves, and tends to increase flower bud formation. Angle training and spindle training, are
useful in elevating yield and inducing precocious flowering in pear (cv. Anjou) as reportrd by
Denby et al. (1988). Longman et al., (1965) demonstrated that it was posssible to stimulate
flowering by growing apple trees horizontally.
(b) Bending of shoots: the bending of erect growing shoots restricts the movement of
carbohydrates towards the roots beyond the bend portion and results in increased flower-bud
formation beyond the bend with extra reserves of carbohydrates. The part below the bend tends
to grow vigorously with excess water and nutrients but less carbohydrates. It is commonly
followed in Maharashtra in erect growing guava varieties. Bending is also found beneficial in
roses and vanilla to boost the production.
(c) Grafting: Grafting of scions collected from seedlings onto both mature plants as well as
dwarfing rootstocks can be successfully used to induce early flowering of the scion and shorten
the juvenile period.
(d) Ringing and girdling: Ringing is the removal of a thin strip of bark from a branch or the trunk.
Ringing and girdling practices found effective in stimulating flowering and increasing
productivity in many fruit crops. It is due to the accumulation of shoot-produced metabolites
such as carbohydrates, ABA, auxins, etc. above the injured part and while the root-supplied
cytokinins, GA and nitrogen below the restriction as the phloem is disturbed. This technique is
successfully used in mango, grapes, olive, etc.
(e) Notching: Notching is a partial ringing of the branch above a dormant lateral bud. It is
commonly practised for increasing the yield levels of Poona fig. Notching below a bud
effectively produces flowering in the bud due to the accumulation of higher concentration of
carbohydrates in the bud and reduction in the supply of nitrogen and water from below. The
notching above the bud, if done, with excess accumulation of nitrogen and poor carbohydrate
status leads to the developement of vegetative shoots.
(f) Defoliation: the defoliation that occurs just before the flower bud differentiation either due to
insect and pest attack or any sprays; reduces the flower bud formation in the shoots due to a
reduction in the carbohydrates and lack of florigen.
(g) Root exposure: it is common practice followed for the bahar treatment and inducing flowering
in oranges in Maharashtra in which around two months before the expected flowering season,

52
 the roots are exposed by loosening the upper surface of the soil and the fibrous roots are
removed. The orchard is then ploughed and the trees irrigation is discontinued till the leaves
start yellowing and withering. When few leaves start falling, the roots are covered with the
mixture of soil and manure and fertilizers and are irrigated immediately. It is also followed in
jasmines and roses in some parts.
(h) Irrigation: drip irrigation techniques along with fertigation technology by limiting the root
zone and enhancing the growth rate leads to early completion of juvenile phase. It brings early
and enhanced flowering and fruits in most of the crop plants. A mild water stress at flower bud
formation stage causes intensive flower bud formation while severe stress reduces it. e.g. citrus
species
(i) Nutrition: Improving plant mineral nutrition promotes faster and continuous plant growth thus,
reducing the juvenile period. Zimmermman was able to reduce the time to first flowering in tea
crab apple (Malus hupehensis Rehd.) seedling from three years to 92 weeks by growing them
continuously in a greenhouse included weekly treatment with 20-20-20 (N-P-K) water-soluble
fertilizer. Greenwood MS (1987) showed that when ammonium was supplied to apple was a
significantly greater flowering response than trees receiving nitrate as their sole nitrogen
source.

Ways for rejuvenation or reversion to juvenile stage

Rejuvenation is the process of reversion of a plant from reproductive to juvenile phase. The
different means to promote the rejuvenation i.e. restore juvenility are:
(1) Severe pruning i.e. prunning back the stock plants that promotes the vigorous non-flowering
growth
(2) Stumps, sucker development from the base of the stem or roots which are juvenile in growth
(3) Root cutting
(4) Serial grafting of mature scions on juvenile stock
(5) Micropropagation
(6) Embryogenesis
(7) Hormonal treatments e.g. gibberelic acid treatments

References:
1. Dr. K. G. Shanmugavelu. (1997). Production Technology of fruit crops. Pub.:SBA Publications, Calcutta.
2. M. Peggy Damann and Robert E. Lyons (1993). Juvenility, flowering and the effects of a limited
inductive photoperiod in Coreopsis grandiflora and C. Lanceolata. J. Amer.Soc. Hort. Sci. 118(4):513-
518.
3. Rezq Basheer-Salimia. (2007). Juvenility, Maturity, and Rejuvenation in Woody Plants. Hebron Univ.
Res. J. 3(1): 17-43.
4. Rice, L. W. and Rice, R. P. (2003). Fundamentals of Horticulture. In: Practical Horticulture, Fifth
Edition, Pub.: Prentice Hall,
5. Hare Krishna (2012). Physiology of fruit production. Pub.: Studium Press India Pvt. Ltd.
6. Maria C. Albani and George Coupland (2010). Comparative analysis of flowering in annual and
perennial plants. Current Topics in Developmental Biology, 91: 321-348. DOI 10.1016/S0070-
2153(10)91011-9.
7. M.K.M.T.Higazy (1962). Shortening the juvenile phase for flowering. A Ph.D. thesis submitted to the
State Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
8. R. H. Zimmerman (1973). Juvenility and flowering of fruit trees. In: Acta Horticulturae 34: Symposium
on growth regulators in fruit production, 139-142.

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 20. Unfruitfulness in horticultural crops

Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties result in huge loss to
growers and make fruit cultivation less profitable. Unfruitfulness in fruit crops refers to the state
where the plants not capable of flowering and bearing the fruit. To understand the problem of
unfruitfulness in orchards a familiarity with following terms is necessary.
1. Fruit setting: It refers to initial growth of ovary and its associated parts after blossoming and
taking it to maturity.
2. Fruitfulness: It is the state of plant when it is not only capable of flowering and fruit setting but
also takes these fruits to maturity and inability to do so is unfruitfulness or barrenness.
3. Infertility: Ability of a plant not only to produce fruits but develop viable seeds and the inability
to do so is referred as sterility or infertility. All fertile plants are fruitful but all fruitful plants are
not fertile (Seedless fruits).
4. Self fruitfulness: Ability of a plant to mature fruits after self pollination.
5. Self fertility: Capacity of a plant for the production of viable seeds after self pollination.

The ability of a plant to produce optimum crop is Fruitfulness. Whereas, the inability of a
plant to produce optimum crop is referred to as Unfruitfulness. Unfruitfulness is one of the serious
problems of many orchards and its causes need to be understood properly for effective control and
obtaining economically acceptable production level. The causes to this problem can be many and
they have been broadly grouped into following categories:

1. Environmental causes
 Variety: Some varieties of a fruit crop don’t flower in a locality owing to undetermined
environmental factors. eg. Several north Indian varieties of mango do not flower in south
India, which can overcome by top working with south Indian varieties. Jonathan apple which
is sterile in one location is reported to be self fertile in another location.
 Temperature: Un-favourable temperature may cause failure of any flowering as in the case
of apples in Kunoor due to lack of sufficient winter chilling. It has been remedied to certain
extent by oil emulsion sprays and DNOC (Di-nitro-ortho cresol). High temperature at
flowering dries up stigmatic secretion and prevents pollination. Tomato varieties grown at
high temperature do not produce any fruit.
 Pollination: In tropics, plants flowering in summer may experience retarded pollen
germination due to high temperatures and low humidity. The provision of wind breaks, close
planting and cover cropping help in improving the situation.
 Exposure to Light: Less exposure to the light due to close planting, overcrowding of
branches or shade will results into less flowering. Thinningout some trees to increase spacing,
pruning trees to reduce overcrowding and removal of shade can meet the situation. Exposure
of strawberry plants to long photoperiod results in development of stamens and pistils in
strawberry flowers.
 Day length: When long day plants of northern latitudes don’t flower owing to the absence of
the critical length of day, they can be made to flower by providing artificial light.
 Late rains: Late rains may prolong the vegetative growth and delay or reduce flowering in
mango. It can be remedied by drying out the soil by deep ploughing and probably by artificial
inhibition of growth by growth regulators.

54
  Heavy rains: Heavy rains may restrict pollinator activity, wash away pollen and prevent
pollen germination. In crops like grapes, the pruning time may be altered to avoid the onset of
flowering during the period of the rainy season crop may be avoided by hard pruning.

2. Nutritional Causes
Nutritive condition of plant just before or at or and just after the time of blossoming is
an important factor determining the percentage of flowers carrying for setting and for maturity.
 Nutritional condition of spurs has positive correlation with fruit setting in apple. Spurs on
vigorous limbs with large leaves set more fruits than those borne on weak limbs.
 Heavy nitrogenous manuring at the time of flower bud initiation often reduces flowering by
promoting vegetative differentiation.
 Jonathan‘ apple is self sterile in highly fertile soil and becomes self fertile in poor soils. On
other hand, high fertility level is generally associated with good pistil development and low
level with poor pistils and good stamens in grapes. In olives low fertility leads to partial or
complete degeneration of pistils.
 Root pruning and restricted irrigation may be helpful in reducing vegetative vigour and
inducing flowering.
 Over bearing in the previous season exhausts the tree and reduces subsequent flowering as in
mango and most biennial bearing trees.
 Lack of nutrition as in weak shoots causes fruit drop after fruit set. A spray of urea after fruit
set will help the development of fruits.
 Lack of sufficient reserves of carbohydrates in shoots may cause less flowering and poor set. In
case of grapes, carbohydrate deficiency is the common cause of flower drop. In this case,
ringing and girdling may help which lead to accumulation of an extra store of food material
leads to fruitset and develop parthenocarpically. Due to carbohydrate deficiency flower
abortion and ultimately unfruitfulness also occur in green house grown tomatoes.
 The water suckers coming from the main stem will result in a drain of the tree and reduced
flowering not only on themselves but also on other branches of the tree. Such shoots arise when
big branches are pruned.
 Late irrigation following a long drought may cause the production of water shoots and are to be
removed promptly. First irrigation after a drought should always be light irrigation and later
ones should be more liberal.
 Deficiencies of elements are sure cause of reduced flowering as well as fruit set. A composite
mineral spray at the time of blooming will usually be very helpful.
 Heavy manuring and severe pruning during the pre-bearing period will prolong flowering.
Pruning should be done while branches are young, preferably by rubbing of axillary buds.
 Flowering in seedlings and some species of plants have a long pre-bearing period can be
induced by manuring them heavily, pruning hard up to 3 to 4 years oldbranches, spraying a
composite mineral mixture, irrigate frequently and protect them from pests and diseases.
3. Inherent Causes
 Dioecious species in absence or shortage of pollen producing trees leads to unfruitfulness. Eg.
Papaya, Date palm and Strawberry. Profuse flowering without fruit set in ornamental
pomegranate is also a result of being unisexual.
 Low proportion of female or perfect flowers as in some varieties of mango (Jahangir and
Baneshan) often is the cause for a poor crop. There is no remedy for this defect.

55
  Premature or delayed pollination leads to unfruitfulness as it causes the flowers to fall without
setting. When mature pollen grains lodge on immature pistils they germinate, penetrate the
style, enter the ovule and if the ovules are not ready for fertilization the flowers fall. However,
in case of oranges premature pollination did not have any deleterious effect whereas some
injury was noticed in tomato. Lower setting due to premature pollination was noticed in
persimmon, Pear, plum and peach.
 Structural features like heterostyly and habits like dichogamy sometimes restrict the
availability of pollen and pollination. The presence of sufficient population of the trees and
pollinators ordinarily ensures good pollination and fruit set.
 Slow growth of the pollen tube results in unfruitfulness. This may be considered one type of
incompatibility due to chemotropic or hormone influences.
 Inadequate quantities of pollen appear to reduce fruit set in some varieties of strawberry and
grape. Use of suitable growth regulators to get fruit setting will solve the difficulty.
 One of the most common causes of self unfruitfulness and self sterility is due to
incompatibility between the pollen and ovules of the same plant or of the same variety.
Hence, in apple, pear, plum and aonla self incompatible varieties require another pollinizer
varieties for fruit setting.
 Self sterility is a condition determined by the inheritance received but can develop in
favourable environment. Self sterility affects it’s off springs as well as hybrids. Many
varieties of Japanese plums and apples are self-sterile. So, planting varieties which make them
fertile with their pollen will solve the problem.
 When inter-sterility is the cause for low fruit set compatible pollinizers have to be provided.
Mixed pollen sprays and use of synthetic growth regulators may also be helpful.
 Triploidy and distant crosses are often reasons for low fruit set.
 Defects of ovule development and embryo abortion are observed in dropped flowers. These
largely seem to be varietal characteristics and cannot largely be altered. Degeneration of
pistils takes the form of abortion and it is more common in ornamental pomegranate, certain
olive varieties and is also common in some apple varieties. Embryo sac abortion becomes a
cause of seedlessness in certain instances than fruitfulness.
 Impotence of pollen: Many varieties of grapes produce non viable or impotent pollens though
they appear as perfect flowers. Sterile pollen in the grape results from degeneration processes
in the generative nucleus or arrested development prior to mitosis in the microspore nucleus.
It is also common in J.H. Hale peach, Washington Navel orange and Tahiti lime.
4. Biological causes
 Absence of pollinating agents may be a reason for low fruit set in several fruits. Rearing bee
colonies in orchards, besides being a subsidiary source of income greatly helps fruit set.
 The specific insect’s symbiotic adaptations (like the Blastophaga for fig) concerned with the
pollination, they must be reared (by growing Capri fig trees).
 Pests like the mango hopper which directly attacks the flowers obviously reduce the fruit set.
Others which feed on leaves reduce the photosynthetic surface impair production of
carbohydrates and thus reduce flowering.
5. Cultural causes
 The common cause of poor flowering in house gardens is excessive irrigation which restricts
aeration of roots and causes sickly symptoms.

56
  Weeds and intercrops may compete with the main crop for nutrition and water in low rainfall
areas. Removal of weeds and adequate manuring to meet the demands of both the fruit crop as
well as the intercrops are helpful.
 Ploughing or deep cultivation at flowering time will result in drop of flowers and should be
avoided.
 Severe pruning of large limbs which encourages production of water shoots should be
avoided. The pruning should be with regard to bearing habit of the fruit tree. It should be done
up to some fruitful buds (in grapes). Harder or light pruning will reduce fruiting. Pruning
should not be delayed till the new growth is resumed.
 In practice good drainage, timely irrigation, manuring and culture and selection of suitable
varieties will ensure good set of crops.
 Spraying the trees when they are in bloom i.e. spraying at flowering reduces fruit set.
 Some of the fungicides gave inhibitory effect on pollen grains i.e. copper fungicides at 200 to
10000 ppm prevent the germination of pollen grains on the stigma.

Steps to overcome the problem of unfruitfulness:

 Having known that there could be many reasons for unfruitfulness, it is necessary to make
necessary corrective measures which should begin from planning level and extend to an
established orchard.
 Choice of the crop and variety should be made on the basis of climatic and edaphic conditions of
the site of orcharding.
 Provision of windbreak and shelter belts for areas prone to wind damage.
 Before planting an orchard soil should be brought to optimity by incorporating organic matter,
amendments and nutrients based on soil analysis.
 In case of problems of pollination due to heterostyly, dichogamy incompatibility, sterility,
embryo abortion, hybridity, etc. a mixture of varieties should be grown by introduction effective
pollinizer varieties and pollinators (Honey bees).
 Unfruitfulness due to slow growth of pollen tube, premature and delayed pollination, use of plant
regulators can be affected after standardization in terms of chemical concentration and timing of
application.
 The problem due to old age could be overcome by replanting or rejuvenation of old trees.
 Problem due to overbearing can be managed through thinning at appropriate stage.

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 21 & 22. Pollination, pollinizers and pollinators

Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from anthers (male part) to the stigma
(female part) of the flower. The process of pollination is essential for sexual reproduction leading to
the formation of seed and fruits which aids in plant reproduction. Camerarius (1694) was the first to
report that pollination is essential to produce the seeds.

There are two types of pollination

A. Self pollination
B. Cross pollination
(A) Self pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of same flower or another
flower of the same plant is known as self pollination. It is of two types:
a. Autogamy: Pollination of a flower by pollen from the same flower is known as autogamy.
b. Geitonogamy: When pollens of a flower pollinate the stigma of another flower of the same
plant, it is called as geitonogamy.

Many cultivated plants reproduce by self pollination. However, in most of these species cross
pollination may occur upto the extent of 5%. It is known as often cross pollination.

Mechanisms that promote self pollination:

1. Hermaphrodite/Bisexual flower: presence of both male and female organs in the same flower
is known as bisexuality. Presence of both organs helps the self pollination.
2. Homogamy: In hermaphrodite flowers, it is a condition in which both male and female
gametes mature at the same time and aids self pollination. e.g. Citrus, Apricot, Peach, Phalsa,
dwarf Coconuts, etc.
3. Cleistogamy: When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is called as
cleistogamy. This mechanism will not allow the foreign pollens to reach to the stigma of a
closed flower. e.g. Sapota, Grape, Papaya, etc.
4. Chasmogamy: Opening of flowers after pollination has taken place is called as chasmogamy.
It also promotes the self pollination.
5. Position of anthers: Pollination and fertilization takes place after the opening of the flower.
But, the stigmas are totally surrounded by the anthers which ensure the self pollination. e.g.
Tomato, Brinjal, etc.
6. Enclosure of flower organs: In leguminous crops, a keel forms an enclosure that completely
covers the anthers and stigma and ensures self pollination. e.g. Peas, Beans.

Advantages of self pollination:

1. Self-pollination helps to maintain the genetic purity of the species with same characters
(homozygous) and features of the mother plants.
2. Plants do not have to exert energy to produce the elaborate devices like bright colours, nectar,
fragrance, etc.
3. No dependency on pollinating agencies helps improved fruit set.
4. When the number of flowers are small or when plants are widely spaced self pollination is
beneficial.
5. Wastage of pollen is less as well as quantity of pollens to be produced is also less.
6. Improved varieties of crop can be produced and preserved in genetically pure form for more
generations by seed propagation.
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 Disadvantages of self pollination:
1. Hinders the development of new varieties of a crop with change in genetic makeup like
elimination of unwanted characters or appearance of new desired characters.
2. Homozygosity leads to the poor adaptability to the newer environment due to the narrow genetic
base.

(B) Cross pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of flower of one plant to the stigma
of flower of another plant is called as cross pollination or allogamy. For cross pollination to occur
different pollinator agencies are essential. It is a common form of outbreeding and leads to
heterozygosity. Species with cross pollination develop heterozygous balance and exhibit
significant inbreeding depression on selfing.

Mechanisms that promote cross-pollination:

1. Dicliny/Unisexuality: It refers to unisexual flowers where flowers are either pistillate or
staminate. It is of two types:
(a) Monoecy: When separate staminate and pistillate flowers are present on the same plants, it
is known as monoecy. In some crops, the male and female flowers are present in the same
inflorescence e.g. Coconut, Mango, Banana, etc. while in some cases, they are on separate
inflorescence e.g. Cucumber, Strawberry, Cassava, Water melon.
(b) Dioecy: When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants, it is called as
dioecy. The plants are either male or female e.g. Asparagus, Ivy gourd, Papaya, Date palm,
Spinach, Kokum, Kiwi fruit, etc.
2. Dichogamy: Maturation of anthers and stigma of the same flowers at different times is referred
as dichogamy. Dichogamy promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.
Dichogamy was first reported by Stout in 1928. Dichogamy is of two types:
a. Protogyny: A condition when stigma becomes receptive before the anthers mature, it is
called as protogyny. e.g. Annona, Fig, Banana, Plum, Pomegranate, Magnolia, etc.
b. Protandry: A condition when anthers mature before stigma becomes receptive is called as
protandry. e.g. Coconut, Walnut, Passion fruit, Macadamia nut, Marigold, Coriander, etc.
3. Heterostyly: When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called as
heterostyly. Heterostyly is of two tyopes:
a. Pin type: Stamens are short and the pistils are long e.g. Sapota, Pomegranate, etc.
b. Thrum type: Stamens are long and the pistils are short e.g. Almond, Carambola,
Cashewnut, Brinjal, Litchi, etc.
4. Herkogamy: Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as presence of
hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane does not allow
the dehiscence of pollen and prevents self-pollination. e.g. pansy.
5. Self incompatibility: The inability of functional pollens to fertilize the same flower or other
flowers on the same plant is referred to as self incompatibility. It promotes cross pollination in
hermaphrodite flowers. It is of two types sporophytic (e.g. Mango, Aonla, Cocoa, etc.) and
gametophytic (e.g. Almond, Ber, Pineapple, Apple, Pear, Cherry, etc.).
6. Male sterility: male sterility refers to a condition in which pollens are non-functional in
flowering plants. Male sterility promotes cross pollination due to inability of plant to produce
functional pollens. Koelreuter first reported male sterility in flowering plants in 1763. It is a
useful tool in hybrid seed production. Male sterility is of three types: viz. genetic, cytoplasmic
and cytoplasmic genetic. e.g. Some cultivars of Pear, Peach, Olive, Citrus, etc.

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Advantages of cross pollination:
1. Cross pollination promotes the hybrid vigour by producing the healthier progenies that can
adapt well to environment.
2. Produce numerous seeds of better qualities and more viability.
3. Possibilities of variation and appearance of new characters in progeny.
4. Cross pollination produces better results than self pollination.

Disadvantages of cross pollination:

1. Plants have to depend upon the external agencies for the pollination which may not be fully
active/effective at all times.
2. Plants have to exert energy for the production of nectar, brighter colours, fragrance, etc.
elaborate devices.
3. The seed progenies having different genotypes than the parent.
4. Seed propagation of cross pollinated crops leads to the segregation of genotypes.

POLLINATORS
Agency involved in the pollination of flower is called as pollinator or an agency that
transfers pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower is called as a pollinator.
Pollinators are essential to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes
from the pollen grains. In a single species of plants, various pollinators aid in pollination that
enhances the yield levels.
The major pollinators/agencies of pollination are as below:
1. Wind: Pollination through wind is called as anemophily. It is present in plants that produce
inconspicuous flowers with lighter and dry pollens in abundance. e.g. Aonla, Peach,
Cashewnut, Coconut, Date palm, Jackfruit, Papaya, Sapota, Pomegranate, Persimmon, Walnut,
Pecanut, etc.
2. Insects: Pollination by insect is termed as entomophily. Various types of insects are
responsible for the pollination of different crops through their activities like collection of nectar
from the flowers. For the entomophily, the pollens are heavy and sticky that adheres to the
insects. To attract insects; flowers has to produce the nectar, fragrance, attractive and bright
colours, should be in groups or of big size. The major insects involved are:
a. Honey bees: e.g. Ber, apple, almond, cherry, annona, guava, litchi, pear, apricot, plum, etc.
b. Wasp: e.g. Fig, Litchi, Ber, Aonla, etc.
c. House flies: e.g. Mango, Litchi, Ber, Aonla, etc.
d. Bumble bees: e.g. Apple, Pear, Plum, Aster, etc.
e. Moths: e.g. Papaya, Orchids, Yucca spp., Verbena, Lantana, Honeysuckle, etc.
f. Beetles: e.g. Pomegranate, Carrion beetle in Carrion flower (Hydnora africana), etc.
g. Others insects: butterflies, ants, mosquitos (male), etc.
3. Bat: Pollination by bat is termed as cheiropterophily e.g. Agave spp., some Bananas, etc.
4. Water: Pollination by water is termed as hydrophily. e.g. Water chestnut, water lily, etc.
5. Birds: Pollination by birds is termed as ornithophily, e.g. Scarlet monkey flower (Mimulus
cardinalis) by hummingbird, Banana, Papaya, Pine apple, etc.
6. Man: Man is one of the major pollinator who with his artificial pollination and development of
hybridization techniques has developed different inter and intraspecies varieties of crop plants.
7. Animals: Pollination by animals is called as zoophily.
Due to increase use of insecticides the population of pollinators especially insects has
reduced as a result in cross pollinated crops the fruit set problems are arose.
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 POLLINIZERS
A source of pollen is called as pollinizer. In different crop species and varieties, due to the
self-incompatibility and other mechanisms that hinder the self-pollination; pollinizers are essential
to aid the pollination and fruit set.

The important conditions for successful pollination by pollinizers are:

1. Pollinizers should produce large amount of viable and diploid pollen grains which are
compatible with the variety to be pollinated.
2. Triploids should not be used as pollinizers.
3. It should be free from major pest and diseases.
4. It should also produce fruits of some commercial value.
5. Time of flowering of pollinizer should coincide with the flowering of commercial varieties
to be pollinated.
6. The pollinizer variety must be located near the producing tree.
7. The pollinizers should be regular bearers with plenty of flowers every year otherwise
the commercial cultivar eventhough a regular bearer may become alternate/irregular
bearer due to lack of pollination.
8. Bees and other insects must be present in the orchard and be active at bloom stage.
9. Other plants which may attract the bees including weeds should not be present nearby
the plantations.

In order to increase the fruit set, the suitable number of pollinizers is essential to be
planted in the orchards. Its proportion depends upon the activity of pollinators like bees in the
locality, flowering period of main crop and pollinizer variety. e.g. For successful pollination
in delicious cultivars of apple around 30 per cent pollinizers to be interplanted. In lemon and
other tropical fruits 10 per cent pollinizers are sufficient. These pollinizers should be well
distributed in the whole orchard. In close planting every 10th plant where as in wide spaced
types every 4th plant should be a pollinizer. With advanced grafting technology, one can also
go for grafting of pollinizers on the main cultivars. The proper maintenance of pollinizers as
of main crops is essential. The examples of pollinizers in few fruit trees are as below:
1. Apple: Tydeman’s Early Worcestor for early, Golden Delicious for midseason and
Granny Smith for late cultivars
2. Almond: Non-parell for cultivars Ne plus ultra
3. Pear: Conference for William and Bartlett
4. Mango: Bombay Green for Dashehari and Dashehari for Chausa
5. Aonla: Krishna and Kanchan mutually act as pollinizers for each other

Temporary mechanical aids to supplement the pollination in fruit crops

Even with sufficient planting of pollinizers, sometimes it may be necessary to provide
additional pollens when weather conditions do not favor cross-pollination. To enhance the
pollination and ultimately the fruit set some temporary mechanical aids can be employed
which are as follows:
1. Floral bouquets/placing flower blooms: Simplest method to supplement cross
pollination and is commonly followed in temperate fruit crops like apple and walnut. In
this technique, larger flowering branches of a pollinizer variety are placed in a bottle/poly
bag full of water and are hung halfway on the trees exposed to the sun. the branches with
king bloom open and rest in baloon stage are used for pollination. They are checked and
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 changed regularly with the wilting symptoms and are protected from the wind. It will
increase the pollination with increased activities of pollinators. It reduces the devotion of
extra space for planting of pollinizers.
2. Top working with pollinizers: It is a permanent method to supplement the pollination
wherein few branches of the yielding varieties are grafted/budded with the scion sticks of
pollinizer varieties. It is better than all other supplemental methods of pollination. It is
better method if sufficient number of pollinizers are not planted in the orchard. These
pollinizer branches should be marked to maintain their vigour, avoid its pruning, and mixing of
the fruits at harvest with commercial variety.
3. Hand pollination: In crops like date palm and annona the pollination can be done
artificially. First the pollens at balloon stage are collected from the desired
male/pollinizer with the forceps in a petridish, diluted with the talcum powder or
lycopodium spore powder (1:1) and with the hand brush they are applied over the
receptive stigma of a flower. In almond, bud pollination is found effective.
4. Use of chemicals: Spraying of boric acid (H3BO3), Potassium nitrate (KNO3 ) and glucose
in almond enhance the fruit set when applied before hand pollination.
5. Mechanical methods: Mechanical hand blowers, aerosol bombs, gas and compressed air
assisted sprayers, air blast sprayers, etc. can be used for pollinating the orchards with the
pollens of suitable cultivars. But, the wastage of pollens is more as well as the fruit set is
less as compared to other supplemental methods of pollination.
6. Growth Bioregulators: Spray of bioregulators like GA3, alar, cultar, ethephon, 2,4,5-
Trichlorophenoxy Propionic acid, polyamines, etc. is having stimulative effect on
pollination that enhances the fruit set in some fruit crops during the bad weather
conditions.
7. End pollination: In this system, pollens are collected from pollinizer trees either by hand
or a machines and are dusted on honeybees in the hive with pollen dispenser or kept in
small trays at the entrance of bee hives after diluting with talcum powder. When
honeybees leave their hives, they will carry pollens to the flower while they visit for
nectar collection and support in pollination.

References:
1. Phundan Singh (2010). Essentials of plant breeding. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
2. P. S. Chauhan & M. K. Mankotia (1997). Bioregulators and mechanical aids in pollintion and fruit set in
temperate fruits In: Fruit crops pollination. Ed.: L. R. Verma and K. K. Jindal , Pub.: Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana.
3. Jitendra Singh (2014). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
4. R. R. Sharma (2006) Fruit Production: Problems and Solutions. International Book Distributing
Co., Lucknow
5. Hudson T. Hartman and Dale E. Kester (1968). Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. 2 nd
Edition. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
6. Hudson T. Hartman, Dale E. Kester, Fred T. Davies and Robert L. Geneve (2015). Plant
Propagation: Principles and Practices. 8 th Edition. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
7. K. V. Peter (2015) Basics of Horticulture (2nd Edition). New India Publishing Agency, New
Delhi.
8. S. N. Gupta and K. B. Naik (2009). Instant Horticulture. Jain Brothers, New Delhi.

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 23. Fertilization and parthenocarpy

Fertilization is defined as the fusion of haploid (1n) male and female gametes in the ovule to
initiate the development of a new diploid organism. In fertilization, the union of haploid male and
female gametes which are plant reproductive cells takes place and the successful fusion leads to the
production of single diploid cell called a zygote i.e. a fertilized egg. The zygote develops into a new
individual with an unique collection of genetic material from male and female parents. Seeds are the
products of sexual reproduction through fertilization that advances the generation of plants. Single
fertilization takes place in gymnosperms, but in almost all the flowering plants except few orchids
and Podostemaceae family, the double fertilization i.e. two separate fertilization events take place.
Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote or an
embryo and the other sperm cell fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that
develops into the endosperm. Together, these two fertilization events in angiosperms are known
as double fertilization. The double fertilization was first reported by Nawaschin (1898) in Russia in
the ovules of Lilium martagon and Fritillaria tenella from the family Liliaceae.

The fertilization process completes with following four steps:

A. Pollination: In plants, the male gametes that are essential for the fertilization of ovary are contained
in the pollen grains. Different agencies viz., water, wind, insect, animals, etc. called as pollinators
transport the mature pollens from the anther of a flower and deposit them on the surface of
receptive stigma of a flower. This is the process of pollination.
B. Pollen-pistil interaction: If the pollen is compatible with the stigma, few minutes after landing on
stigma, with the help of sufficient moisture and chemical signals, pollens germinate through any
one of the germ pore. Out of two cells the pollen tube cell and the generative cell; the pollen tube
cell forms the pollen tube to transport the contents of the pollen grains. Pollen tube penetrate
through stigma and enters the stylar tube; the path towards the ovule which may be from few
millimeters to centimeters as per the stylar length. The tissues of style support the pollen tube while
the pollen tube secretes hydrolytic enzymes that digest the female tissues to be used as a nutrient
source during the journey. The immotile generative cell, during transport, divides into two immotile
haploid sperm cells also called the male gametes. These two inter connected sperm and a vegetative
tube nucleus together called as a male germ unit. Intensive signals are sent through the chemical
communication during pollen tube journey towards ovule. All these events from pollen deposition
on the stigma until pollen tubes enter the ovule are together referred to as pollen-pistil interaction.
C. Penetration of the Ovule: As the pollen tube reaches at the mycropyle end of ovule, the chemical
secreted by the synergid cells as a directive communication and a filiform apparatus present at
mycropylar region guides the pollen tube through the funnel shaped micropyle opening of the
ovule. Thus, the pollen tube burst here, the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates and the two male
gametes enter into the ovule.
D. Fertilization: Both the male gametes thus released in ovule are guided towards the cleft between
the egg cell and central cell. One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and fuses with its
nucleus and form a diploid cell, the zygote (2n). This process is called as ‘syngamy’. The other
male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and fuses with them to
produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) (3n) which further developes as a primary
endosperm cell (PEC). The development of PEN is called as a triple fusion as it involves the fusion

63
of three haploid nuclei. While, as two types of fusions, syngamy and triple fusion take place in an
embryo sac, the phenomenon is referred to as termed double fertilization.

Types of fertilization:
On the basis of entry of pollen tube into the ovule, there are three primary types of plant
fertilization as follows:
1. Porogamy: It is the condition in which pollen tube enters the ovule from the micropylar end.
2. Chalazogamy: Chalazogamy is the condition of entering of pollen tube for the fertilization event
from chalaza.
3. Mesogamy: Mesogamy is the condition when the pollen tube enters via the integuments.

Post fertilization events:

After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. After the successful completion of
fertilization and further cell multiplication, the zygote develops into an embryo while the triploid
primary endosperm cell (PEC) develops into the endosperm which feeds the zygote, fertilized ovule
forms a seed while the complete ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed.

Source: https://www.sciencefacts.net/fertilization-in-plants.html
References

1. Thomas Dresselhaus, Stefanie Sprunck and Gary M. Wessel. 2016. Fertilization

Mechanisms in Flowering Plants. Current Biology 26, R125–R139, February 8, 2016. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.032
2. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants. 2015. In: Textbook of Biology, NCERT
publication. Pp: 31-34
3. V. Raghavan. 2003. Some reflections on double fertilization, from its discovery to the
present. New Phytologist, 159: 565–583.
4. Wikipedia
5. K R Shivanna. 2016. Fertilization in Flowering Plants. Resonance, November 2016, pp:
1007-18.
6. Science facts.net: https://www.sciencefacts.net/fertilization-in-plants.html

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 PARTHENOCARPY

Parthenocarpy may be broadly defined as the ability of a plant to develop ovary into a fruit
without fertilization or even without stimulus of pollination. Parthenocarpy is a Greek word which
literally means “virgin fruits”. Noll (1902) first introduced the term parthenocarpy to indicate the
development of fruits without pollination or other stimuli. Whereas Winkler (1908) defined it as the
development of fruits without seeds or with embryoless (aborted) seeds.
Parthenocarpic development is mainly due to the absence of fertilization, pollination and
embryo development. In parthenocarpy, the ovary is stimulated even without pollination and thus fruit
development begins without fertilization. This is common in plants that have no ovary or plants that
have lost their ability to reproduce sexually due to a mutation. Difference between the fruits developed
naturally and through parthenocarpy is that the fruits formed through parthenocarpy are seedless.

There are four different situations of development of parthenocarpy:

1. There is a normal pollination, pollen germination, pollen tube formation and fertilization but,
after fertilization ovules are aborted and the fruit contains aborted (empty) seeds e.g. few
varieties of grapes
2. Normal pollination, pollen germination and pollen tube growth but no fertilization takes place
and the ovary grows to form a false fruit.
3. Non-viable pollens lodge onto stigma and induce the ovary to develop into a fruit
parthenocarpically.
4. There is no pollination, even though ovary becomes the fruit without any intervention. e.g.
Banana

Types of Parthenocarpy:
1. Vegetative/autonomic parthenocarpy: Development of fruit takes place without pollination
or stimulus of pollination. Due to the absence of pollination, no seeds are produced within the
fruits. e.g. Banana, Fig, Pineapple, seedless cucumbers and seedless watermelon and certain
varieties of Japanese persimon, Peaches, Papaya, etc.
2. Stimulative/aitionomic parthenocarpy: Development of fruits with a stimulus of pollination
but external to ovary is termed as stimulative parthenocarpy. This generally takes place without
the process of fertilization. This condition occurs when the ovipositor of a wasp is inserted into
the ovary of a flower. This can also be achieved by blowing air or growth regulators into the
unisexual flowers that are present inside the syconium. e.g. Litchi, Bread Fruit, Guava cv.
Allahabad Round, Grape cv. Black Corianth.
Benefits of Parthenocarpy
1. Parthenocarpy provides seedless fruits and improves the fruit quality. It is a desirable character
in fruits with hard seeds such as banana, guava, pineapple, orange and grapefruit.
2. Parthenocarpy is most efficient way to produce fruits under environmental conditions adverse
for pollination and/or fertilization.
3. As there is no requirement of pollinating insects for formation of fruits; growers can easily
keep the insects and pests away without even using chemicals simply by covering them.
4. Parthenocarpy allows early fruit production and harvest.
5. Bypasses the need of planting the pollinizers for fruit set.

Reference: K. G. Shanmugavelu. (1987). Production technology of fruit crops. SBA Publications, Calcutta.

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 24. Medicinal and aromatic plant- Scope, Importance and classification

As per FAO diversification booklet-17 Medicinal and aromatic Plants (MAPs) are defined
as botanicals that provide people with medicines to prevent disease, maintain health or cure
ailments. According to the report of a first meeting of ‘Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants’ held during 12-14 September, 2002 in Slovenia, medicinal plants are defined as plants used
in official and traditional medicine whereas aromatic plants are defined as the plants used for their
inherent aroma and flavour. Medicinal plants are plants rich in secondary metabolites such as
alkoloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonides, steroids etc. and are the potential source of drugs.
MAP’s directly or indirectly benefit us through nutrition, toiletry, incense, pharmaceuticals and
drugs, bodily care, via ritual healing, herbal remedies, dietary supplements, homeopathics,
medicinal and herbal teas, liqueurs, spirits, sweets, aromas and essences, perfumes, cosmetics,
colouring agents, varnishes, fireworks, and detergents, etc.
Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAP’s) grow in almost all terrestrial and some aquatic
ecosystems around the world. More than 9,000 native plants reported to have curative properties
while around 1500 species reported for their aroma and flavour. In one of the studies, World Health
Organisation recorded that approximately 80 per cent population of developing countries relies on
traditional plant based medicines for health cure. India, Brazil and China are the largest exporters of
medicinal plants.
India, one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres with different 45,000 plant species
contributes to 8% of global biodiversity and is a well known home and treasure house of aromatic
and medicinal plants. India probably is the oldest, richest and most diverse cultural traditions in the
use of medicinal plants. Out of the biodiversity, around 30% plants are having medicinal values and
around 7000-7500 being used by the traditional communities as a raw material to the
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour, etc. industries.
Importance and scope of MAPs and their cultivation:
The indigenous systems of medicines (ISM), viz., Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and many other
indigenous practices developed in India since ancient times are mainly plant based medicine
systems. Ayurveda system uses 700 species, Unani 700, Siddha 600 and Aamchi 600 and Modern
system of medicine uses about 30 plant species for the drugs. Ancient Indian literatures like vedas,
Charaksanhita, Sushrutsanhita have reported the MAP’s and their formulations which are still in
use. The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India has identified and documented
over 9,500 species of medicinal plants having potential for the pharmaceutical industry of which
more than 2,000 species are used in ISM. The modern system of medicines like allopathic system is
also focusing on the plant based pharmaceutical preparations for some important chemicals. The
estimated area under the medicinal crops in India is around two lakh hectares. The importance and
scope of MAPs can be summarised as below:
1. World’s largest (approximately 75%) population for many ailments, still adopts the traditional
plant based system of medicines due to reasons like inadequate supply of modern drugs, higher
costs of treatments and drugs, side effects of allopathic drugs, development of resistance
mechanism to currently used drugs for the infectious diseases.
2. Poor and marginal population from LDCs and developing countries who cannot afford or access
formal health care systems, are especially dependent on these traditional herb based medicines
which is easily available, environment friendly, with least or no side effects, culturally familiar,
technically simple, financially affordable and generally effective with lasting curative property.
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3. Modern medicine system also derives the basic composition from medicinal plants due to easy
availability, less or no side effects, lower prices and lasting curative property. Approximately
100 plant species have contributed significantly to modern drugs as per a report of FAO.
4. The preparations from medicinal and aromatic plants are non-narcotic and have no ill effects.
This has resulted in a higher demand for these plants and products on international level in
developing as well as developed countries. As per a report of FAO, 2005, around 30 percent of
the drugs sold worldwide contain compounds derived from plant material
5. Indian system of medicine, a plant based system provides most appropriate first line therapy
against many diseases like jaundice, asthama, arthritis, diabetes, etc.
6. The demand for Indian MAPs, their extracts and products are huge in domestic and in global
markets with increasing interests of western world for the herb based eastern medicines,
cosmetics and aromatherapy products.
7. The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops provides sustainable means of natural source of
high value industrial raw material for pharmaceutical, agri-chemical, food and cosmetic
industries. Zandu, Himalaya Drugs, Baidyanath, Dabur, Patanjali, Charak, Kottakal, Kerala
Aurvedic Pharmacy, Dhootpapeswar, etc. are the major buyers of MAPs in India which produce
a variety of products from MAPs collected nationwide.
8. Indisrciminate harvest from wild habitat with rising international demand, practices of land
conversion leading to habitat destruction or degradation made them scarcely available and many
are on the verge of extinction. Therefore, it is important to conserve and cultivate highly traded
medicinal plants in their natural environment as well as cultivate them in favourable
environments. India with a wide variation in agroclimatic conditions, is one of the few countries
where almost all these known MAPs can be conserved and cultivated in one or more areas of the
country.
9. The cultivation of MAPs have many advantages over cultivation of traditional crops which
include low or no incidence of pest and diseases, lower costs of cultivation due to low
requirement of inputs like fertilizers and irrigation, higher net returns and less risk of the price
fluctuations, can be grown in degraded and marginal soils, can be grown as inter crops in wide
spaced crops like palms and fruit trees with less difficulty, drought tolerence, not easily grazed
by the animals, ability of long storage to fetch better prices in market, very high domestic and
export demand.
10. The priority species having huge demand in international market selected by the Planning
Commission and the NMPB and the rare species which are banned for collection from the wild
have a great scope for commercial cultivation owing to their high costs, high demand and low
market supply.
11. Cultivation of medicinal plants offers considerable scope for entrepreneurship and employment
in rural as well as tribal youth and women, through value added product development to get
added monetary benefits.
12. Since long back, India is exporting the raw material of MAPs on large volumes which consists
of mainly dried plant parts such as roots, leaves, bark, wood, flowers, or seeds, or several plant
parts or even the whole plant if the chemical constituents are concentrated in several plant
organs or even in the whole plant. For achieving the competitive advantage in global market we
need to go for value addition to the raw material and export finished products to earn higher
foreign exchange.
13. There is a great scope to develop genetically superior planting material for assured uniformity
in product and desired quality to avoid market rejection of consignments, standardize
production technology and go for organized cultivation to ensure the supply of raw material at
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 grower’s end, development of post harvest technologies to produce value added products with
export potential.
14. National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) has launched an online virtual platform www.e-
charak.in as well as a mobile application e-charak which provide an online market portal for
trade of medicinal plants for farmers and collectors to display their produce in possession &
buyers like traders, manufactures, exporters could able to look into their requirements. This is a
very good platform for producers and traders to create a vivid transparent and workable trade
linkages among them.
15. There is a great scope for cultivation of MAPs due to awareness and interest of farmers,
supportive government policies, availability of assured markets, profitable price levels,
development of simple and appropriate agro-techniques, release of new high yielding varieties
of MAPs by the CIMAP, different central institutes, SAU’s, etc.
Commercial intensive cultivation of specific crops within a selected production areas as a
cluster needs to be done by a chain of small and micro-enterprise-based groups and individual
farmers on a business platform to achieve economies of scale and desired impact on the purchasers.
Table: Description of some commercially important medicinal plants
S.N. Common Name Botanical Name Family Plant part Used Chemical content
Acorus / Vekhand / Calamus Oil & ß-
1 Acorus calamus Araceae Rhizomes
Sweet flag asarone
Adhatoda vasica Leaves, roots Bark, Vasicine, Vasicinone,
2 Adulsa Acanthaceae
Adhatoda zeylaznica Flowers, Stem Vasicol
Aloe vera,
3 Aloe Liliaceae Leaves Aloin oil, Gel
Aloe barbadensis
Vitamin C, Elagic acid,
4 Aonla Emblica officinalis Euphorbiaceae Fruits Sitosterol, Lupeol
Linoleic acid
Arjunolic and other
5 Arjun Terminalia arjuna Combrataceae Fruits
acids
6 Ashwagandha Withania somnifera Solanaceae Roots Withanine, Somniferine
7 Behda Terminalia belerica Combrataceae Fruits, Bark Tannins, Gallic acid
Atropa belladonna
8 Belladonna Solanaceae Leaves, roots Atropine, Hyosciamine
Atropa acuminata
Coleus Forskohlin, Thymol,
9 Coleus forskohlii Lamiaceae Tuberous roots
(Mainmula / Kapur) Comphor, Carvacrol
Guggul (Indian Guggulipids,
10 Commiphora spp Burseraceae Oleo resin, gum
bdellium) guggusterols
11 Gulwel Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Bark, Fruit, Root Tinosporin
Chebulin, Palmitic,
12 Hirda Terminalia chebula Combrataceae Fruits
Stearic Linoleic acids
Leaves, roots, Methyl chavicol,
13 Indian Basil / Tulsi Occimum basilicum Lamiaceae
Inflorescence Eugenol, Linalool
14 Isabgol Plantago ovata Plantaginaceae Husk, Seed Mucilage
Leaves, Bark,
Madhuca indica syn. Myristic, Palmitic,
15 Mahua Sapindaceae Flowers, Heart
Madhuca longifolia Stearic, etc. acids
wood, Fruits
Medicinal Solanum
Solanum khasianum
16 / Kate ringani / Solanaceae Fruits Solasodine
Solanum verum
bhui ringani
Diascoria floribunda
17 Medicinal Yam Diascoriaceae Rhizomes (Tubers) Diosgenin
Diascoria composita
Nux vomica Strychnine, Vimacine,
18 Strychnos nux-vomica Loganiaceae Seed, bark, Leaves
(Kuchala) Loganin, Bovicine
Opium Poppy / Milky white latex of Morphine, Codeine,
19 Papaver somniferum Papaveraceawe
Aphu / Khaskhas unripe capsules Narcotine, Papaverine

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 Periwinkle / Vinca Ajmalcine, Vincristine,
20 Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Roots and Leaves
/ Sadaphuli Vinblastine
21 Safed Musali Chlorophytum spp. Liliaceae Roots Saponins
Serpentine, Reserpine,
22 Sarpagandha Rauvolfia serpentina Apocynaceae Roots
Ajmalines, Saponins
23 Satap Ruta graveolens Rutaceae Leaves/ Aerial parts Oils and Alkaloids
24 Senna Cassia angustifolia Leguminoceae Leaves and pods Sennocides- A,B,C,D
Stevioside and
25 Stevia Stevia rebaudiana Asteraceae Leaves
Rebaudioside

Table: Description of some important aromatic plants

S. N. Common Name Botanical Name Family Plant part Used Oil content
1 Davana Artemisia pallens Asteraceae Leaves Davanol
Cymbopogon flexuosus Citral,
2 Lemon grass Gramineae Foliage / Herbage
C. citratus, C. pendulus Farnesol
Cymbopogon winterianus
3 Citronella grass Gramineae Foliage / Herbage Citronellal
Cymbopogon nardus
4 Pama Rosa Cymbopogon martinii Gramineae Leaves Geraniol
5 Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Myrtaceae Leaves Cineole
Jasminum sambac (Mogra)
6 Jasmine Jasminum auriculatum (Jui) Oleaceae Flowers
Jasminum grandiflorum (Jai)
Flowering tops &
7 Lavender Lavendula sp. Lamiaceae Ester
stalks
8 Mentha / Mint Mentha arvensis Lamiaceae Leaves Menthol
9 Pandanus Pandanus roseus Pandanaceae
Geraniol,
10 Geranium Pelargonium graveolens Geraniaceae Leaves, Flowers
Rhodinal
Rosa damascena Geraniol,
11 Rose Rosaceae Flowers
Rosa bourboniana Rhodinal
12 Sandalwood Santalum album Santalaceae Heartwood Santalol
13 Vetiver / Khus Vetiveria zizanioides Gramineae Roots Vetiverol

The worldwide interest of consumers in medicinal and aromatic plants is continuing to

increase due to the increase in awareness of the possible relationships between good health and
healthy living. But, these plant species with medicinal properties may not alone provide medicines
untill the traditional knowledge passed by the rural communities often passed down orally from
generation to generation about their preparation and use, to unlock their properties is put on paper
for future generations.
References:
1. Deshpande, R S, Neelakanta N.T. and Naveen Hegde. 2006. Research Report: IX/ADRT/115: Cultivation of
medicinal crops and aromatic crops as a means of diversification in agriculture, Agricultural Development and Rural
Transformation Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Nagarbhavi, Bangalore-560 072, June 2006. Pp.:
02-09.
2. Dagmar Lange. 2004. Medicinal and aromatic plants: trade, production, and management of botanical resources. In:
Proc. XXVI IHC – Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Eds. L.E. Craker et al., Acta Hort. 629, ISHS 2004,
pp: 177-197.
3. Report of a Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. First Meeting, 12–14 September 2002, Gozd
Martuljek, Slovenia. Compilers: D. Baricevic, J. Bernáth, L. Maggioni and E. Lipman. Pp: 08.
4. Elaine Marshall. 2011. Health and wealth from medicinal aromatic plants. FAO Diversification booklet-17.
5. Khan, N. and H. O. Sharma. cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops as a means of diversification in agriculture
in Madhya Pradesh
6. N. Kumar, 2018. Introduction to spices, plantation crops, medicinal & aromatic plants, Pub.: Scientific International
Pvt. Ltd.

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 25. Spices and condiments

Spices are defined as those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to add
aroma and flavour (ex. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Nutmeg etc).
Condiments are those plants, the products of which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only. Or
Condiments are defined as a prepared food compound, containing one or more spices or spice
extractives, which when added to a food after it has been served, enhances the flavour of food.
Spices as well as condiments contain essential oils, which provide the flavour and taste to
the food. They contain a low nutritive value. They are used mostly for flavouring and seasoning
where most spices also increase the shelf-life of food, some serve to improve texture, introduce a
palatable colour or odour of food. Spices and condiments are used as a whole, broken, ground, paste
or in liquid form.
Spices Condiments
Used as food adjuncts to add aroma and flavour Used as food adjuncts to add taste only
added to food during preparation or cooking commonly added prior to serving
Spices may be either the dried aril, bark, buds, Mostly are in simple or compound form of
bulbs, flowers, fruit, leaves, rhizome, roots, either powder or liquid mix.
seeds, stigmas and styles or the entire plant tops
from which no portion of any volatile oil or
other flavoring principle has been purposely
removed.
Cinnamon, cassia, nutmeg, mace, fennel, Barbecue sauce, compound butter, teriyaki
mustard, black pepper, cloves, saffron, sauce, soy sauce, marmite, ketchup, mustard,
turmeric, ginger and galingale, chili powder, and mayonnaise
curry powder, fenugreek, and salt

Uses/Importance of spices:
1. The major role of spices is to season the foods to impart flavour, aroma and taste which may
otherwise be insipid.
2. Spices are good appetizers.
3. They also have nutritional value. e.g. Clove and turmeric are rich source of iron, phosphorus
and calcium, chilli, clove and pepper are source of vitamin A, etc.
4. They are also used as preservatives and fumigants in meat products, pickles, canned products,
beverages, etc. due to antimicrobial properties which control the fungus development. e.g.
clove, mustard, etc.
5. Spices are having medicinal values and find places in pharmacy and indigenous (Ayurvedic,
Unani, Homeopathy) medicines.
6. Spices and their oils are used in manufacture of perfumery, soaps, cosmetics, tooth pastes, after
shave lotions, mouth fresheners, room fresheners, confectionery, dyes, etc.
7. They are used to flavor the alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, etc.
8. They are used to disguise the odour and sanitize the environment e.g. incense sticks.
9. Few spices viz. basil, mint, etc. find their role in insect repellents.
10. Spices like paprika, turmeric, saffron are used for the dye/colour extraction.
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Importance of spice industry in India:
Out of the spices listed by the ISO, about 65 spices are grown in India and almost all can be
grown due to the variety of soil and climatic conditions. India is called as Land of spices / Home
of spices as majority of the spices grown in the world are native to India. Further, since antiquity,
India pioneered in growing spices and exported. India has enjoyed virtual monopoly in the
international spice trade since ancient times.
India is the largest producer of spices and contributes to 75% of the world’ spices
production. Almost all Indian states produce spices, with the total area under spice cultivation
pegged at around 3.15 million hectares.
India commands a very important position in the world spice trade. During 2015-16, India
exported 8,43,255 tons of spices and spice products valued at Rs.16,238.23crore (US$ 2,482.83
million). Exports grew by 9% in terms of rupees over 2014-15. The USA is the major importer of
Indian spices by value followed by China, Vietnam, Malaysia, UAE, UK, Germany, Singapore and
Saudi Arabia. Exports to the USA stood at Rs. 28,932.5 million followed by Vietnam at Rs.
13628.7 million in 2015-16 (DGCI&S, Kolkata).
Commodity wise chilli is the major spice in terms of maximum area, production and export
(in terms of quantity as well as value) annualy. Chilli, Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Cumin, Turmeric,
Coriander, Fenugreek are the major spices exported from India in terms of quantity.

Classification of spices:
 Please refer Lecture 3 & 4

King of spices : Black pepper Queen of spices : Cardamom

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 IMPORTANT SPICES OF INDIA

Common Name Botanical Name Family Plant part used as spice

1. Cardamom (Small) Elettaria cardamomum Zingiberaceae Fruit, Seed
2. Pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae Fruit
3. Chilli
Bird’s Eye Capsicum frutescens Solanaceae Fruit
Chilli, paprika Capsicum annuum Solanaceae Fruit
4. Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Rhizome
5. Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Rhizome
6. Coriander Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae Leaf & Fruit
7. Cumin Cuminum cyminum Apiaceae Fruit
8. Fennel Foeniculum vulgare. Apiaceae Fruit
9. Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum Fabaceae Seed
10. Celery Apium graveolens Apiaceae Leaf, Fruit & Stem
11. Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Bark
12. Cassia Cinnamomum cassia Lauraceae Bark
13. Garlic Allium sativum Alliaceae Bulb
14. Curry leaf Murraya koenigii Rutaceae Leaf
15. Kokam Garcinia indica Clusiaceae Rind
16. Mint Mentha piperita Lamiaceae Leaf
17. Mustard Brassica juncea Brassicaceae Seed
18. Saffron Crocus sativus Iridaceae Stigma
19. Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Orchidaceae Pod
20. Tejpat Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae Bark & Leaf
21. Clove Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Unopened flower bud
22. Asafoetida Ferula asafoetida Apiaceae Oleogum resin
23. Nutmeg & Mace Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Seed & aril
24. Basil Ocimum basilicum Lamiaceae Leaf
25. Poppy seed Papaver somniferum Papaveraceae Seed
26. Allspice Pimenta dioica Myrtaceae Fruit & Leaf
27. Tamarind Tamarindus indica Caesalpiniaceae Fruit
References
N. Kumar, 2018. Introduction to spices, plantation crops, medicinal & aromatic plants, Pub.: Scientific
International Pvt. Ltd.
Kunte, Y. N., Kawthalkar, M. P. and Yawalkar, K. S. 2005. Principles of Horticulture and Fruit Growing.
10th edition. Pub: Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur
Spice Board website: www.indianspices.com
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 26. Importance of plant bio-regulators in horticultural crops

The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root, the
number of leaves etc., is referred to as plant growth, whereas, the qualitative changes such as
germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is referred
as development. The two sets of internal factors, viz., nutrition and hormone control the growth
and development of the plant. The raw material required for growth is supplied by nutritional
factors which include the minerals, organic substances the protein, carbohydrates, etc. Utilization of
these substances for proper development of the plant is regulated by certain chemical messengers‖
called plant growth substances or plant growth regulators, which in minute amounts increase or
decrease or modifies the physiological process in plants.
Phytohormones: These are the hormones produced by plants which in low concentrations regulate
plant physiological process. These usually move within the plants from a site of production to a site
of action.
Plant growth regulators: These are organic compounds other than nutrients, which in small
amounts promote, inhibit or otherwise modify any physiological process in plant. OR It may be
defined as any organic compounds which are active at low concentrations (1-10 ml) in promoting,
inhibiting or modifying growth and development in plants. The naturally occurring (endogenous)
growth substances are commonly known as plant hormones, while the synthetic ones are called
growth regulators.
Plant hormones:
It is an organic compound synthesized in one part of plant and translocated to other parts,
wherein very low concentration causes a physiological response. The plant hormones are identified
as promoters (auxins, gibberellin, and cytokinins), inhibitors (abscisic acid and ethylene) and other
hypothetical growth substances (Florigen, death hormone, etc.). Plant hormones have been referred
as ‘Plant Growth Regulators’ or ‘Plant Growth Substances’ OR ‘Growth Hormones’.
Definition
Hormone is a Greek word derived from Hormao means to stimulate. Phytohormones are the
organic substances other than nutrients which can modify the plant physiological processes when
applied at very low concentration and freely move in the plant body from site of synthesis to site of
action. The hormone which is not synthesized by plants but promotes the growth is known as ‘plant
growth regulators’ (PGR).
Types of plant growth regulators (PGR)
Phytohormones are divided basically in following classes/groups such as Auxins, Gibberellins,
Cytokinins, Abscisic acid, Growth inhibitors & retardants and Ethylene.

1. Auxins
This word was first time used by Went. Auxins means to increase. Hence the auxins are the
compounds characterized by their capacity to induce cell division in cambium tissues and inhibit
the growth of lateral buds. Senbert (1925) extracted auxins but not able to give the formula. Kogal
(1934) isolated Indole Acetic Acid which is common natural plant hormone.
Types of Auxins
Natural auxins: IAA, IBA (maize leaves and various dicots)
Synthetic auxins: NAA, 2,4-D, IBA, MCPA (2 methyl 4- chloro phenoxy acetic acid)

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 Anti-auxins: These are the certain compounds when applied to the plant which can nullify the
effect of auxins eg. 2, 3, 5- Tri - idobenzoic acid (TIBA) and 2,4 - Dichlocro ranizole (RCA).
Site of synthesis: The auxins are synthesized in shoot tips, young leaves, developing seeds.
They are transported in unidirectional from the apical to the basal end is known as ‘polar
transport’.
Effect of auxins/Role of auxins/Applications
 Root Induction: IBA is known as rooting hormone. IAA @ 75 ppm, IBA @ 1000 ppm, NAA
@ 200 to 7000 ppm for hardwood cutting, dipping of basal portion of cuttings for 5 to 10 sec.
 Weed control: 2, 4-D, 2, 4,5-T, MCPA are effective weedicides. 2, 4-D @ 750 gm/hectare
for broad leaves weeds.
 Control of fruit drop: NAA @ 10 to 20 ppm, 2, 4-D @ 10 ppm used for control of fruit drop
in mandarin and NAA @ 5 ppm used in apple.
 Regulation of flowering:NAA @ 600 ppm can be used in regulation of flowering in
pineapple and guava.
 Parthenocarpy: Un-pollinated flowers treated with auxins produces seedless fruits in many
species.
 Apical dominance: Inhibition of growth of lateral buds, when apical bud is removed lateral
buds begins to sprout; such phenomenon is known as ‘apical dominance’.
 Other effects: Delay leaf abscission, Induce callus formation, Induces shoot growth at higher
concentration and root growth at lower concentration and Increases total RNA protein
synthesis and enzymes helps in cell expansion.

2. Gibberellins (GA): This is the second important hormone. Gibberellins are the compounds that
have gibbane skeleton which stimulate the cell elongation.In 1926 discovered gibberellins by
Japanese scientist Kurosava, extracted from fungi grown on roots of rice seedlings i.e.Gibberella
fujikuroi. Yabuta and Sumiki (1938) gave the name gibberellins. Stodol (1955) gave the structure
of GA3.
Structural requirement for GA activity
 Gibbane skeleton is essential for activity.
 Fusion of rings A&B is essential.
 COOH group at carbon No.10.
 Rings a must have alternate double bound.
Chemical formula: C19H24O6
Site of syntheses: Main site is immature seeds embryo, young leaves, germinating seedlings.
Antigibberellins : Growth retardants – controls the height by inhibiting GA bio synthesis such
as Phosphon D, Cycocel (CCC) , Paclobutrazol (P333), AMO-1618.
Applications of gibberellins
 Germination: Widely used for seed germination eg. Dipping of papaya seeds in 20 ppm GA3.
 Better sprouting: Dipping of potato in 5 ppm for 5 min.
 Flowering: Cause rapid growth of flowers and induces flowering in short day plants. Long day
plants under non inductive conditions are induced flowering by GA3 @ 100 to 1000 ppm.
 Parthenocarpy: GA3 induces parthenocarpy in many fruits like grapes (100-125 ppm)
 Fruit setting: GA3 can increase fruit set in many fruits @ 40 ppm in grapes @ 50 ppm in lime
and @ 10 ppm in sweet lime.
 Fruit thinning: 60 ppm GA3 spray used for thinning of bunches of grapes.

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 Breaking of dormancy: GA3 can overcome seed dormancy by cutting as a substitute for
environmental variables.
 Extension of shelf life: GA3 @ 100 to 200 ppm in guava retards/ reduces PLW and enhance the
storage life.
Difference between gibberellins and auxins
 Auxins causes cell extension and cell divisions but GA3 has no effect on cell division.
 Auxins induces root initiation while GA does not
 Auxins inhibit development of laterals while GA stimulates rapid development of laterals
 Auxius normally inhibit leaf abscission; however, GA has no such effect.

3. Cytokinins: Cytokinins are the substances which promote cell division and exert other growth
regulatory functions of the plant. ORThe substances which promotes cell division in callus
tissues and promote cell growth of lateral buds. Cytokinins are also known as Phytokinins.
Miller in 1955 isolated kinetin from yeast and Letham and Miller (1964) isolated Zeatin from
maize seeds.
Types of cytokinins
Natural cytokinins: Zeatin, di- hydrozeatin, and iso-pentanyladanin (IPA)
Synthetic cytokinins: Kinetins, 6BA, (6- benzyl amino purine), Zip.
Site of synthesis: Root apical meristem, immature fruits, coconut water, maize seeds and tomato
juice.
Application of cytokinins/Functions
 Cell division: A major function of cytokinin is to promote the cell division.
 Organogenesis/morphogenesis: Cytokinins promotes formation of callus (mass of
specialized loosely arranged polyploid cells). Differentiation of callus into root or shoot
depends upon the auxin to cytokinin ratio. The high auxin to cytokinin ratio stimulates
formation of roots while low ratio leads formation of shoots in plants.
 Promotion of cell enlargement and organ enlargement:Cytokinin affects cell enlargement.
It promotes cell expansion without increasing dry weight of cotyledons.
 Breaking the seed dormancy: Quite effective in breaking the seed dormancy eg. Lettuce
seeds.
 Delaying of leaf senescence:Delays the senescence of cut flowers and vegetables and
postpone the degradation of chlorophyll.
 Promotion of lateral bud formation: It also plays important role in initiating the growth of
lateral buds.
 Promotes synthesis of chlorophyll and chloroplast development: It enhances the synthesis
of chlorophyll and photosynthetic enzymes.
 Promote stomatal openings: Cytokinins acts as important regulators for stomatal movement.
 Fruit shape and size: Mixture of BA and GA3 controls the fruit shape in apple.
 Fruit setting and fruit thinning: It improves fruit set in grapes e.g. CPPU @ 1.5 to 2 ppm.
 Increase shelf life: 6-BA used for enhancing the storage life in many fruits.

4. Abscisic acid (ABA)

Abscission is a great practical problem in plants. It is a sesquiterpenoid compound of 15
carbons. Osborne (1955) and Addicott (1963-1965) isolated several abscission accelerating
substances i.e. abscission I & II both are identical. After 1967 abscission II or dormin is named as
abscisic acid (ABA).

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Site of synthesis: The site of synthesis ischloroplasts and plastids of dicots & monocots.
Violoxanthin is the precursor of ABA. It is synthesized in plants under stress conditions; hence it is
known as ‘stress hormone’.
Functions of ABA/Role of ABA
 Regulate opening and closing of stomata: Induces stomatal closure under stress conditions
and regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
 Induces dormancy: Causes seed/ bud dormancy in some species but not in other.
 Inhibition of shoot growth and promote root growth: The effect of ABA on root and shoot
growth are strongly dependent upon the water status of the plant. ABA limits the expansion of
leaves when plant experiences water shortage.
 Seed development and germination: Inhibits the formation of germination enzymes in
embryos (nucleic acid). Exogenous application of ABA inhibits seed germination in presence
of GA and cytokinins. ABA blocks the synthesis of proteins.
 Regulate senescence and abscission: ABA is involved directly in leaf senescence.
However, ABA is not used commercially because of its high cost and instability in UV light.
Similar compounds are LAB-173 and 711, ABA-144 and 143 increases cold hardness & delays
flowering.

5. Ethylene (CH2 = CH2)

It is a plant hormone which has many effects in plant from seed germination to senescence
and death of plant. It is a simple unsaturated hydrocarbon and it is a natural product of plant
metabolism. Gane (1934) and Crocker et al. (1935) proposed that the ethylene is a fruit ripening
hormone which also acts as growth regulator in many plants. It is a gaseous in nature and moves
from site of synthesis to site of action. Methionin is precursor of ethylene and synthesized in the
tissues undergoing senescence and ripening.
Role of ethylene/Uses of ethylene
 Breaks seed dormancy and bud dormancy: Application of ethylene increases the rate of
germination. Promotes bud sprouting in potatoes and other tubers.
 Promotes fruit ripening: Ethylene stimulate or promote ripening in many climacteric fruits.
Some genes are used for delaying the fruit ripening.
 Stimulates abscission: It refers to the separation of organ or plant part from the parent plant. It
occurs in specific layers called as ‘abscission layers’.
 Induces flowering: Stimulate flowering in pineapple, mango, litchi by use of ethrel (2-chloro-
ethyl phosphonic acid)
 Promotes induction of female flowers: It stimulates early production of female flowers for
early harvest in cucurbitaceous crops.
 Ethylene acts as a wound hormone: Rapidly snthesised when plants get wounded.
 Other effects: Stimulates seedling growth and Induces adventitious rooting/root hairs.

6. Growth retardants and inhibiters

a. Growth retardants: These are the chemicals which check the growth with formation effect.
It slowS down the cell division and cell enlargement in short time and regulate plant height.
e.g. CCC, Phosphon - D, AMO-1618, B-995, B-9.
Effects
 Retards stem elongation
 Prevents cell division

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  Induce flower initiation
 Retard root development
b. Growth inhibitors: These are chemical substances which check the growth without formation
effects. Naturally occurring plant growth inhibitors are also called as ‘stress hormone’ eg.
ABA, MH-40, TIBA .
Effects
 Accelerate chlorophyll degradation.
 Inhibit germination.
 Suppress vegetative growth.
 Increases in tuber yield.
 Induce male sterility.

Various uses of plant growth regulators in Horticulture

1. Propagation of plants: A number of plants are propagated by stem, leaf cutting and by
layering. For promotion of rooting, the most commonly utilized hormone is IBA followed by
NAA, since auxins have the property of promoting cell division of Cambium. Before grafting,
either stock or scion or both are dipped in auxin solution for early union and better success of
grafted plants. Similarly, NAA and IBA are used to promote early and profuse rooting in air
layers. Gibberllic acid causes inhibition of root formation in cutting. Cytokinins also help in
quick and profuse root formation in cuttings and layers. By use of auxins, profuse root
formation is observed in cuttings of guava, fig, pomegranate, crotons, rose, hibiscus, etc.
2. Seed germination: Many seeds have natural dormancy which can be overcome by dipping the
seeds in auxins. Soaking seeds of French beans and peas in 10-20 ppm solution of GA for 12
hours before sowing, significantly improves the yield and quality. Dipping sweet potatoes in 5
ppm GA solution for 5 minutes before sowing increases sprouting and yield of potatoes.
Gibberellic acid can substitute chilling treatment (stratification), and ethylene or chlorohydrin
is equally effective in breaking bud dormancy in potato.
3. Control of plant size: In fruits and vegetables, spraying cycocel (growth retardant), the
superfluous growth of leaves is checked. By spraying 10 ppm solution of morphactin in potato,
the growth of plant is reduced and thereby the size of tubers is increased. The growth retardants
are useful in checking the growth of hedges in ornamental gardens thereby reducing the cost of
trimming the hedges effectively. It can replace pruning and maintain the natural beauty in
ornamental plants. CCC, B-9, MH and Phosphnon D are used in the case of Rhododendron,
Camellia and Poinsettia. These chemicals retard stem growth to make the plant more compact
and can be grown in pots. Besides results in prompt and profuse flowering with green leaves.
For easy transport and transplantation of apple seedlings B-9 and CCC are used.
4. Regulation of flowering: Flowering can be controlled (promoting and delaying) effectively by
using growth regulators. In Pineapple, due to late flowering the fruit get ready in rainy season.
This deteriorates the fruit quality. This difficulty can be overcome by spraying 5-10 ppm
solution of NAA before flowering. Application of 100-200 ppm GA in Dahlia plants induces
early flowering. Other examples are use of NAA in litchi, ethylene in pineapple, B-9 in apple,
pear, azalea, camellia and lemon, 2,4-D in sweet potato and CCC in bougainvillea for earliness.
Sometimes, it is necessary to delay flowering which can be done by using GA (apple, peach,
plum, apricot, strawberry, lemon and orange). CCC, B-9, phosphon D and Amo 1618 keep the
plants vegetative under conditions congenial for flowering.

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5. Control of Sex expression: In number of cucurbits, such as ridge gourd, bitter gourd, water
melon, cucumber and pumpkins which have proportion of male flowers is more than female
flowers. For better yield, it is necessary to increase the number of female flowers. This can be
achieved by application of auxins (NAA) which increases the number of female flowers and
decreases the number of male flower. Ethephon (ehrel) is more effective in producing
exclusively female flowers at higher concentration. Similarly, in a gynoecious line of cucumber
(MSU 713-5) application of GA results in production of male flowers.
6. Increase of fruit set and growth of fruit: Spraying NAA, TIBA, and PCPA on flowers
increases the fruit set. Dipping of grape bunches (young fruits) in 50 ppm GA solution
increases the berry size in Thompson seedless grape.
7. Control of fruit drop: In Nagpur Santra, the fruit drop can be controlled by spraying 10-20
ppm NAA or 10 ppm 2,4-D after fruit set. Fruit drop can also be checked by using growth
regulators like NAA (apple, mango and pear), 2,4,5-tP and B-9 (apples), 2,4-D (mango, Navel
orange and grape fruit). Sometimes it is desirable that matured fruits which are ready for
harvest should easily detach themselves from the tree, particularly to aid in mechanical
harvesting. Ethephon has been used extensively in apples pears, oranges and walnuts.
8. Thinning of fruits: Blossom thinning is advocated to reduce heavy setting in a particular
season so that fruits with improved size and quality or grade are obtained, which will also
prevent exhaustion and biennial bearing (NAA and GA at 50 ppm – apple, pear and grapes).
Similarly, fruit thinning is also desirable (mango and apple), therefore NAA and NAD
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) have been tried in apples, pears and grapes etc. Sometimes
it is necessary to thin the fruits so as to bring a balance between the supply of nutrients and
development of fruit. In such cases spraying with mild solution of ethrel or morphactin reduces
the fruit load by 25-30 per cent.
9. Early ripening and development of fruit colour: If the fruits could be brought in the market
in early part of the season, they fetch good price. Spraying with 2,4,5-T and B-9 hastens
maturity of apples by 1-4weeks. Maturity and ripening can be hastened by using 2, 4, 5-T
(Calysmyrna fig, peaches and plum B-9 (apple, Ethephon (grapes, banana, tomato, mango,
citrus etc.). Likewise, it is necessary to prolong the shelf life of climacteric fruits (apple,
banana). Application of 2,4-D at 16 ppm has been found to delay ripening in Washington Navel
oranges. The storage life of leafy vegetables is quite less but their storage life can be increased
and freshness can be retained for a longer period by the application of cytokinins and growth
retardants either before harvest or by dipping vegetables in these chemicals. The shelf life of
mushrooms and the vase life of cut flowers can also be prolonged with these chemicals.
10. Prevention of sprouting: In potatoes and onions, after harvest, in storage, the buds start
sprouting which makes them unfit for cooking. Spraying of malic hydrazide (MH), NAA and
methyl ester of NAA (MENA), MH, TIBA and ABA solution before storing prevents sprouting
and these can be stored safely for 6 months.
11. Control of weeds: The conventional method of controlling the weeds is to remove them by
uprooting manually. Successful control of wide range of weeds is obtained by spraying growth
regulators like 2,4-D, 2,4-DB, (2,4 – Dichloro phenoxy buryric acid), 2,4-T and MCPA
(Methyl chlorophenoxy acetic acid).
12. Stimulation of Latex flow: Growth regulators like ethrel, 2,4-D and 2,45-T are being
commercially employed in rubber plantation to avoid clogging of laticiferous ducts to ensure
free flow of latex for prolonged period thereby avoiding frequent cutting of the bark during
tapping period.

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13. Gametocidalo chemicals: In certain occasion it is necessary to induce male sterility
particularly for crossing and prevent self pollination, where flowers are minute of numerous
stamens present. TIBA, 2,4-D, MH, Dalapon are used in onion and tomato is gametocidal
chemical.
14. Tissue culture: Hormonal requirement of excised plant tissue is met by artificial supply of
growth regulators. Auxins and cytokinins are employed to induce cell division and callus
differentiation into root and shoot buds.
15. Overcoming incompatibility: Due to incompatibility a very low percentage of fruit set has
been obtained as normal embryos do not develop. Even when fruit develop these are devoid of
viable seeds. Secondly, crossed ovaries are not retained but soon develop abscission layer and
are shed. Application of auxins like NAA, IAA and PCPA in lanolin paste around the pedicel
increases retention of the ovary and fruit set in a number of plants.

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 27. Irrigation methods in horticultural crops

Water is an important constituent and plays a vital role in plant life.

 Water in sufficient quantities promote the good growth, development and yield of plants
whereas shortage of water reduces these activities and in acute shortage of water plants die.
 It is a structural constituent of plant cells and maintains the cell form by maintaining the turgor
pressure.
 Water accounts for the largest part of the body weight of plants.
 It is a source of oxygen and hydrogen required for synthesis of carbohydrates during
photosynthesis.
 It is a solvent for plant nutrients which are absorbed by active roots in the form of nutrient
solution from soil.
 It is a carrier of food synthesized by plants to the different organs.
 It is a medium allowing plant metabolic reactions to occur.
 It maintains the plant temperature by dissipating the heat through the process of transpiration
through stomatas where approximately 95 to 99 per cent of water absorbed by plant roots is
released in the atmosphere.
 It acts as a buffer against high or low temperature injury as it has high heat by vaporization and
high specific heat.
Plants absorb the water in the solution form along with mineral nutrients from soil through
roots and is conducted upto the leaves and other parts through the xylem. The water uptake by roots
is based on the cohesion theory where the capillary water held by soil between field capacity and
wilting point and at a tension between 0.33 and 15 atm is available to plants and is termed as
available water. It comprises the greater part of capillary water. While the water present between 0
to 0.33 atm pressure (above field condition) and below permanent wilting point (more than 15 atm
pressure) is unavailable water. It means that at field capacity the available water is 100 % whereas
at PWP the available water is 0%.
Certain quantity of water is absorbed by the foliage also from rains and water sprays.
Water absorption by plants is influenced by atmospheric, soil and plant factors.

Water requirement of plants: Water requirement is defined as the quantity of water, regardless of
its source, required by a crop in a given period of time for its normal growth under field conditions
at a place. Calculation of water requirement (WR) considers the losses due to evapotranspiration
(ET), the application losses of irrigation method and the special needs of the crop plants.
Considering these facts numerically it can be summarized as:
WR = ET + application losses + special needs
The water requirement of plants depends upon various factors such as
 Atmospheric factors affecting rate of evapotranspiration viz., temperature, wind speed,
humidity, sunlight, rains, bright sunshine hours, cloud cover, etc.
 Physical and chemical properties of soil viz., soil depth, soil structure and texture, pH, EC,
availability of toxic substances, etc.
 Plant characteristics viz., critical growth stages, root development pattern and moisture
extraction pattern, rooting depth

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 Irrigation: Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to land for growing crop plants.
It is also defined as the artificial application of water to the crop plants to obtain rapid growth and
increased yields in the event of shortage of natural rains.
Crop plants require certain amount of water at certain fixed intervals throughout its period
of growth. In tropical region, with the abundance of heat and light with rains mostly restricted to
monsoon (June-September), in perennial crops the moisture needs to be supplemented frequently by
artificial application of water even during the long dry spells of rainy season crops. For cultivating
the rabi and summer season crops the farmers are completely dependent upon the irrigation
resources for the success of crops. Moreover, the success of the horticultural crops depends upon
the frequency, duration, intensity, source and method of irrigation supply.

Advantages of irrigation
1. More crops per unit area can be taken round the year with sufficiency of water resources
2. Productivity of crop plants can be increased with increased efficiency of different inputs like
plant growth regulators, fertilizers, etc.
3. Farm produce is made available for long period of the year.
4. Farmers get higher economic returns through the improved yield and quality of the produce.
5. Employment generation in rural areas through round the year cultivation, transportation,
development of agro-based industries and allied industries.
6. Improves the economic status of growers through high returns and of farm labours by round the
year employment thereby fetching high wages.
7. Increase in gross domestic product of the country and land value.

Disadvantages:
1. Exhaustion and pollution of ground water resources
2. Salinization due to over watering
3. Round the year cultivation leads to more attack of pest and diseases
4. Reduced crop yields in high water table areas due to water logging as a result of over irrigation,
poor drainage and seepage.

Irrigation water is in short supply in most locations which requires a careful and economic
management to bring more areas under protective irrigation for a greater crop production in areas
with limited resources of available water. Hence, while applying protective irrigation in scarcity
zones, preference for crop stages according to their relative importance to yield should be
considered with minimal application losses.

Criteria for scheduling of irrigation

The optimum scheduling of irrigation should be based on crop needs to avoid both over and
under-irrigation and to ensure high water use efficiency which needs a thorough understanding of
the soil-water - atmosphere relationship.
The criteria for scheduling irrigation may be grouped into three categories as follows:
1. Plant criteria: plant characteristics changes as a result of water stress in plants should be
considered as a criteria for scheduling of irrigation are
a. Plant appearance: e.g. change in normal colour of plant, wilting or drooping of plants, curling or
rolling of leaves and should not be misjudged with disease or pest attack or plant nutrient status.
b. Plant water potential and water content: The relative leaf water content (RLWC) and leaf water
potential change with variations in soil water availability that needs to be standardized crop wise.
c. Plant growth: relative growth rate.
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 d. Critical crop stages of water need: most convenient method in which the critical stages are
considered for scheduling of irrigation in crops with well-defined crop growth stages.
e. Indicator plants: plants more sensitive to soil-water variations and showing symptoms of water
stress earlier than the major crop species suffer are used as an indicator plant for the irrigation
scheduling e.g. sunflower as indicator plants in onion crop.
f. Stomatal aperture and Leaf diffusion resistance: Relative opening of stomata directly relates with
the availability of water in plant. Leaf diffusion resistance (LDR) is a sensitive index of internal
water balance in the mild to moderate stress range which is a best measure for scheduling
irrigation.
g. Plant temperature: temperature of leaf tissues rises with water deficit in plant and is considered
as a sensitive index of plant water status.

2. Soil water criteria: it is the most accurate and dependable method for scheduling irrigation in crop
plants for which the information on the optimum water regime of crops and the available water
holding capacity of soils is essential. This includes the following criterias:
a. Soil water content: scheduling of irrigation is based on the lower limit of soil water content for
potential evapotranspiration is done by setting threshold limit of 50% of the available water
depletion in the root zone.
b. Depth-interval of irrigation: varies with soil depth, crops and their rooting characteristics at
different growth stages hence mostly not preferred.
c. Critical level of available soil water: available critical moisture limits are set for different crops
viz., brinjal, chilli and cucumber is 50%; Tomato, onion, garlic and cabbage is 60% and
cauliflower and leaf vegetables is 70%.
d. Soil water tension: the method of tensiometer to measure the soil water tension is preferred by
scientists for scheduling irrigation.

3. Climatological criteria: the rate of evaporation is best used climatological criteria for irrigation
scheduling.

Methods of irrigation:
Irrigation water is conveyed from a source to the root zone by different methods which are
broadly grouped under four major head and subheads. These methods are used for different
situations depending on their suitability. The classification of common methods of irrigation is as
under:
1 Surface irrigation: a. Flooding b. Basin irrigation c. Ring method
d. Furrow irrigation e. Border irrigation
2. Subsurface irrigation 3. Overhead or sprinkler irrigation 4. Drip irrigation

1. Surface irrigation: it is the oldest and most widely practiced irrigation method in which water
flows and spreads over the soil surface in the field and infiltrates in soil directly. Surface
irrigation is suitable for soils with low to moderate infiltration rate and slopes less than 2-3%.
The irrigation is conveyed through the channels that vary from corrugation to long narrow strips
or complete large fields where water is impounded. The proper surface irrigation method should
be selected based on factors such as slope and roughness of land surface, depth of water to be
applied, run length and time required, size, shape and discharge of water course and erosion
control. The different surface irrigation methods commonly used in India are as follows:

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a. Flooding: In this method, water flows freely from a channel in the field without any control. This
method is used in the canal command as well as tank fed areas in the wet fields. It is useful over
the flat and levelled land. In this method the water distribution is not uniform and leads to water
stagnation or water logging in low lying and ill drained areas. It leads to water scarcity in some
parts leading to poor growth and poor productivity in some parts of the field. Uneven distribution
of water, low water application efficiency, soil erosion, increase in weeds and disease attack are
the common disadvantages of this method. But the method is easy and inexpensive. Close
growing crops like banana, areca nut, etc. are generally irrigated by this method.
b. Basin Irrigation: In this method, the field is divided into several smaller, mostly square or
rectangular and sometimes circular, relatively levelled plots surrounded by bunds to contain the
water. The basins contain mostly a single tree in the centre. The basins are levelled or resembles
a trough sloping away from the stem to avoid the direct contact of water with the tree trunk. In
lighter soils, the size of a basin and irrigation interval may be small to achieve uniform wetting
and maintain the soil moisture while in heavier soils the size may be large with comparatively
longer spells for same crop. Water is conveyed to basins via a system of supply channel with
main supply channel on upper side perpendicular to slope and field channels along the slope laid
out in such a way that they run in between two rows of basins and irrigate basins on both the
sides. It is a most common method followed for the irrigation of fruit trees where the size of
basin increases with advancement of tree canopy. The major advantages of this system are high
water application efficiency over flooding, large saving of water over flooding, comparatively
uniform wetting of root zone and effective to be used in wide range of soils. However, the major
disadvantages of this method are that it requires the yearly reconstruction of basins as the tree
canopy increases and it restricts the movement of farm animals, implements and machinery for
interculture.
c. Ring irrigation: Similar to circular basins but here instead of constructing the basin only a ring
of sufficient width or a circular trench is prepared around a tree along the canopy/periphery. As
the tree grows, the size and width of ring also increased. The ring trenches are usually
maintained 30 to 50 cm wide. The layout of main channel and laterals and water supply process
is similar to the basin irrigation. Water flow is maintained slower so as to allow water in desired
quantity to stand in the rings and infiltrate/percolate. It avoids the direct contact of water with the
stem and avoids the chances collar rots in fruit trees. This method is common for citrus crops.
d. Border Irrigation: Borders are usually long, uniformly graded strips of land, separated by
earthen bunds. The bunds are low and guide water flow down the field along the slope. Borders
run along the slope and are 3 m or more in width. Border slopes should be uniform and around
0.05-2% to provide adequate drainage and reduce soil erosion. Deep loam or clay soils with
medium infiltration rates are preferred. It is suitable for close growing crops such as onion, leafy
vegetables, etc. Borders are laid along the slope or across the slope. Easy construction and
maintenance, low labour requirement, uniform water distribution and high application efficiency
are advantages of this method.
e. Furrow irrigation: it involves irrigating land by making or digging furrows of suitable depth
and width between crop rows or alternately after every two rows of crops. Water during
application in the furrow, move laterally and vertically by capillary action to the unwetted areas
of the ridge or bed and also downward to wet the root zone of soil. This method avoids the direct
contact of water with stem as well as the collar region thereby reducing the probability of disease

83
 attack. It is a best method for irrigating row crops such as fruits like banana, papaya, phalsa,
vegetable crops planted on ridges like potato, tomato, brinjal, etc.
Based on the types of furrows employed and the pattern of irrigation adopted, the furrow
irrigation is further classified as: straight graded furrow irrigation, levelled furrow irrigation,
corrugated furrow irrigation, contour furrow irrigation, alternate furrow irrigation, raised bed and
furrow irrigation, etc.
The advantages of furrow irrigation are large areas can be irrigated at a time, cheaper and
economical method, proper soil aeration and high water application efficiency. Major limitations
are it requires precise grading of land to a uniform slope not more than 2%, needs labour to guide
and control water and excess water penetration at the head than at the farther end which may result
in variation in vigour and growth.

2. Subsurface Irrigation method

Sub-surface irrigation also called sub-irrigation applies water below the soil surface to raise
the water table into or near the plant root zone. It involves applying water either through ditches or
trenches of 60-100 cm deep and 30 cm wide spaced at 10-30 m or through underground perforated
pipes or tiles. It is mostly used in wet lands and not preferred in arid or semi arid regions due to the
low water tables. When water is discharged into trenches, perforated pipes or tiles, due to the lateral
and upward movement of water by capillarity, root zone gets saturated with water till water stands
in the system. In this way water table is raised upto the root zone by maintaining the field surface
sufficiently dry. Existence of a high water table, uniform topography and moderate slope, high
permeability and uniform texture of soil for better lateral and upward movement of water, scarcity
of water and low salinity of water and soil are important considerations for sub-surface irrigation. In
places where sprinkler irrigation is expensive, sub irrigation is adopted. The irrigation components
also act as drainage channels and control the water table by removing excess water during the heavy
rainfall. The crops, particularly with shallow root system such as vegetable crops are well adapted
to sub irrigation. The major advantages of this method are it favours good plant growth and high
yields by maintaining sufficient soil moisture in root zone, minimizes the evaporation losses as soil
surface is maintained comparatively dry, very low cost of water application, efficient use for soils
with low water holding capacity and a high infiltration rate and recycling of excess water. While
high intitial cost, the problem of water logging and poor soil aeration in soil with low strata,
chances of chocking of pipes, non-applicability in saline soil or with saline water are the major
limitations of this method.

3. Sprinkler irrigation
The system of application of irrigation water through air in the form of spray of water
droplets like a rainfall or spring created by forcing water under pressure through nozzles is termed
as a sprinkler or overhead irrigation. For sprinkler irrigation system, water should be free of
suspended sediments to avoid problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage. The application rate should be
lower than soil infiltration rate and thus avoids the water stagnation or run off.
The sprinkler system consists of four major components:
 Pumping unit: mostly centrifugal pump is used that lifts water from the source and delivers into
the pipes system under an adequate pressure.
 Mainline: A mainline with or without a sub-main lines are pipes which deliver water from the
pump to the laterals. These pipelines may be permanently buried in soil or temporary to be
moved from field to field. They may be made of cement, PVC, plastic or aluminium.

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 Laterals: they convey water to the sprinklers from the main or submains. They are portable,
made from plastic or of aluminium for being moved quickly and easily by hand.
 Sprinklers: The sprinklers are the nozzles with riser pipes placed on the laterals at suitable
intervals. They are made of non-rusting alloy with an orifice to discharge water. They are having
different discharge rates and coverage as per the area to be wetted. The nozzles may be rotary to
discharge medium to larger water droplets in specified angles from 90-360 degrees or may be
stationary with fixed head that sprays smaller water droplets in a specified direction only.
Perforated pipe system with number of perforated holes in specially designed pattern and
propeller type sprinkler system with a number of sprinklers mounted on a horizontal pipeline
held above the crop by a horizontal super structure centrally pivoted are the modifications of the
sprinklers. Sprinkler nozzles break up the water stream into small water drops and spray them
into the air which falls to the ground. The droplet size is around 0.5 to 4.0 mm as per the pressure
applied and the orifice diameter.
Types of sprinklers
 On the basis of irrigation depth the sprinklers are classified as
 Low volume sprinkler: less than 13 mm/hr precipitation
 Medium volume sprinkler: 13-25 mm/hr precipitation
 Large volume sprinkler: More than 25 mm/hr precipitation
This method is used on large scale in sports grounds and stadiums, lawns, bedding plants
and other ground covers of landscape, foggers and misters in polyhouses and mist chambers, tea
plantation and to some extent in vegetables like onion and garlic.
Advantages:
 Best method for uniform irrigation on sloppy, highly erodable and undulated areas.
 Best method for shallow, sandy and other low moisture retentive soils requiring frequent, light
and uniform application.
 Economical method for areas of water scarcity / where daily limited source of water is available.
 More land is brought under cultivation of crops as space for channels and bunds is not required.
 No conveyance losses as conveyance channels are eliminated
 Higher application efficiency with 30-50 per cent water saving
 Increase the yield and quality of produce
 Reduction of soil compaction and erosion
 Mobile instruments can be shifted from one to another part of field.
 Areas at higher elevation than the source can be irrigated.
 Soluble fertilizers and other agrochemicals may be evenly applied by this method.
 Provides frost protection & helps in development of micro climate
 Large area coverage in a shorter period.

Disadvantages:
 High costs of establishment and maintenance.
 The uniformity of sprinkler applications affected by wind and water pressure.
 Clogging of nozzles due to impurities in water
 Interferes the pollination process
 Increased risks of fungal and bacterial diseases due to wetting of foliage.
 More labour requirement for removing or resetting of systems
 Chances of staining hard surfaces if the water is dirty or salty
 Makes the platforms slippery.

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4. Drip irrigation
Drip or trickle irrigation is a watering system containing standard set components with the
emitting devices that applies the water in the form of water drops directly near to the root zone of
crop above the soil surface or sub-surface at a progressive rate. This system supplies irrigation to
the crops equivalent to their consumptive use. Water is applied at 1 to 3 days interval at a very low
rate of 2-20 litres/hour. Water is applied close to the plants so that only the soil in root zone is
wetted leaving other parts dry. More frequent irrigation results in a highly favourable moisture level
that leads to highly uniform crop growth and development.
A standard drip irrigation system consists of following components:
 Pump set: it lifts water from the source and maintains the right pressure for efficient delivery into
the system.
 Control head: consists of series of valves to control the discharge and pressure in the system.
 Filters: filteRs are essential to maintain the quality of water by clearing the water from all
suspended impurities, bacterias, etc. Screen filters and sand filters are most commonly used
filters.
 Fertigation unit: for the application of nutrients through the irrigation system, the fertigation
equipments such as ventury injector, fertilizer tanks with flow bypass system or fertilizer injector
pumps may be connected.
 Mains and submain: mains supply the water from the control head to the submains attached with
the regulatory valves and the submain convey the water into the laterals under the pressure. Both
main and sub-main lines are usually made up of PVC or polyethylene hose and are buried in soil
to avoid degradation from the direct solar radiation. Mains are larger in diameter than submains.
For submains the pipes of 2 to 3 inches are mostly used.
 Laterals: are the flexible pipes of 12 to 32 mm diameter placed along the plant rows on which the
emitting devices are fixed
 Emitters or drippers: these are the devices that discharge the water from the lateral to the plants.
Drippers are having very small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter. Drippers
control the discharge rate as per make up from 2 to 20 litres per hour. As per the discharge rate
they are set as one or more emitters per plant. For row crops more closely spaced emitters may
be used to wet a strip of soil. The drippers may be fitted online or prefixed inline, may be
buttonn type or a microtube, pressure compensating or non pressure compensating, self flushing
etc types with different designs to provide a specified and constant water discharge even under
varying pressure. In recent years, the different modification in drip system such as line source
tubings and bubbler irrigation has come up.
Drip irrigation is highly adaptable to row vegetables, flower crops, soft fruit trees, vine
crops, nursery plants, container grown plants, hanging baskets in open field as well as green house
and shadenet house crops. It is suitable for almost all types of soils and slopes. It can be used in
plantations on slopes planted along contour lines by placing the laterals also along the contour to
minimize changes in emitter discharge due to land elevation changes.

Advantages
 High water use efficiency ranging from 50-70 per cent
 Can be efficentlu used on all types of soils and on levelled as well as slopy lands.
 Reduced losses of water due to evaporation, conveyance and seepage as water moves through the
pipes
 Adaptable for the saline irrigation water as well as marginal qulity water
 Reduces weed prevalence
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 Reduces the soil erosion
 Uniform water distribution to all the plants
 Fertilizers can be aplied with the gertigation giving high fertilizer use efficiency as run off,
leaching and other losses can be avoided
 Rdeduced disease attack in crop due to reduced contact of stem or foliage with the water.
 More areas covered within a short period
 Uniform crop growth, developement and maturity with higher yields and quality ensured over
the surface irrigation methods.
 Best method in the scarcity zones.
 Reduces the production cost where labours are more expensive
 Best method for high value crops requiring frequent water applications

Disadvantages
 Higher cost of establishment
 Extreme sun rays can damage the tubing if not UV stabilized.
 Laterals require to be removed and reset as they make problems in movement of farm
implements
 If filters are not properly functioning leads to clogging problems of laterals
 Laterlas are damaged by the rodents, agril equipments, etc.

Other methods:
Pitcher irrigation: The pitcher irrigation technique is very useful in arid zones with scarcity of
irrigation water to establish young plants as well as maintain the grown up plants. In the young
plants, alongside the sapling, a small pitcher of about 2-3 liter capacity with a bottom hole fitted
with a wick is buried upto the neck with its mouth closed. The pot is occasionally filled with water
at 7-10 days interval. Water trickles trough the wick into the root zone and prevents the plant from
drying out. In a grown up plants, one to three pitchers of large size and capacity of 10-30 litres are
buried in the canopy around a tree, depending on its spread.
The other methods such as double wall pot used in Bikaner, Chandrika method for custard
apple in Purandar of Pune district, injection method, bottle or funnel methods of irrigation are used
in water scarcity time to maintain the perennial plants.

References:
1. FAO Corporate Documentary Repository www.fao.org. Retrieved 27/04/2020.
2. K. S. Yawalkar, J. P. Agarwal & S. Bodke. (2011) Manures & Fertilizers, 11th Edition, Agr-
Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur
3. Peter, K.V. (2009). Basics of Horticulture (Ed). New India publishing agency, New Delhi.
4. Laxmi Lal. (2018), Textbook of water management in horticultural crops. Agrotech Publishing
Academy, Udaipur.
5. Jitendra Singh. (2014). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
6. K. G. Shanmugavelu. (1987). Production technology of fruit crops. SBA Publications, Calcutta.
7. Water Management in Horticultural Crops. ICAR e-courses online.
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in Retrieved 27/04/2020

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 28. Fertilizers application in horticultural crops

Fertilizer: A fertilizer is any material of natural or industrial (synthetic) origin that is applied to soil
or directly to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
The success of agriculture is largely dependent on the fertilizers.
A fertilizer is a rich source of one or more nutrients which is applied to the crop plants to
fulfill their nutrient requirement in which soil is deficient.

Types of fertilizers:
Organic fertilizers: These are the most commonly used fertilizers. These are the products of plant
and animal wastes. Organic fertilizers are easily available and extremely safe. e.g. vermicompost,
FYM, peat moss, bonemeal, fishmeal, sewage, seaweed, etc. The advantages of using organic
fertilizers are that they improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil, mobilize the
existing soil nutrients, do not harm the plants like inorganic fertilizers when applied in excess,
release nutrients slowly and consistently and retain the soil moisture.
Inorganic fertilizers: they are also called as chemical fertilizers as these are the chemical products
manufactured in industries as a concentrated source of nutrients. They release nutrients quickly after
release, make them available to the plants. The major disadvantages are nutrient losses due to
leaching, runoff, volatilization, soil fixation, etc., when applied in higher quantities have bad effects
on crop plants. e.g. Sulphate of potash, phosphoric acid, potassium chloride, ammonium phosphates
ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, etc.
On the basis of content, chemical fertilizers are grouped as
1. Straight fertilizers: fertilizers which supply only one primary plant nutrient namely nitrogen or
phosphorus or potassium are called as straight fertilizers. eg. Urea, ammonium sulphate, sulphate
of potash, murate of potash, etc.
2. Complex fertilizers: fertilizers containing either two or three primary plant nutrients of which
two primary nutrients are in chemical combination are called as complex fertilizers. e.g.
Diammonium phosphate, nitro phosphates and ammonium phosphate.
3. Mixed fertilizers: are physical mixtures of straight fertilizers made by thoroughly mixing the
ingredients either mechanically or manually. They contain two or three primary plant nutrients.
Fertilizers can also be classified based on physical form as solid fertilizers and liquid fertilizers
Solid fertilizers: they are available in several forms such as powder crystals, prills, granules, super
granules, briquettes
Liquid fertilizers: as name indicates they are available in liquid formulations and are applied
through fertigation technique or as a foliar spray. The benefits of liquid fertilizers are ease of
handling, readily soluble in water, less labour requirement for application but are costlier.
Table: different fertilizers and their nutrient content
Sr. No. Name of fertilizer Major nutrient contents
1 Ammonium chloride 25-26 % Nitrogen
2 Ammonium nitrate 35 % Nitrogen
3 Ammonium sulphate 20.6 % Nitrogen and 24 % Sulphur
4 Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26% Nitrogen and 12.1% Sulphur
5 Anhydrous ammonia 82 % Nitrogen

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Sr. No. Name of fertilizer Major nutrient contents
6 Calcium ammonium nitrate 25-26 % Nitrogen
7 Calcium cyanamide 20.6 % Nitrogen
8 Calcium nitrate 15.5 % Nitrogen and 19.5 % Calcium
9 Potassium nitrate 13 % Nitrogen and 36.4 % Potassium
10 Sodium nitrate 15.6 % Nitrogen
11 Urea 46 % Nitrogen
12 Urea (coated) 45 % Nitrogen
13 Single Super phosphate 14 OR 16 % P2O5
14 Triple super phosphate 46 % P2O5
15 Potassium chloride/ Murate of potash 60 % K2O
16 Potassium schoenite 23 % K2O and 10 % MgO
17 Potassium sulphate 48-50 % K2O
N and P fertilizers
1 Di-ammonium phosphate 18% N and 46 % P2O5
2 Ammonium phosphate sulphate 16 or 20% N + 20% P2O5 or 18% N + 9% P2O5
3 Ammonium phosphate sulphate nitrate 20% N and 20% P2O5
4 Nitro phosphate 20% N and 20% P2O5 or 23% N and 23% P2O5
5 Urea ammonium phosphate 28% N and 28% P2O5 or 24% N and 24% P2O5 or
20% N and 20% P2O5
6 Mono ammonium phosphate 11% N and 52% P2O5
N, P and K fertilizers
1 Nitrophosphate with potash 15% N, 15% P2O5 and 15% K2O
2 10:26:26 10% N, 26% P2O5 and 26% K2O
3 19:19:19 19% N, 19% P2O5 and 19% K2O
Along with these fertilizers different grades of fertilizer mix viz., 0:45:32, 12:32:16,
14:28:14, 14:35:14, 17:17:17, 20:20:0, 22:22:11, etc. are available in market with minimum
guaranteed percentages of N:P2O5:K2O. The content denoted by numbers on label are in sequence
of N:P2O5:K2O resembling the amount of nutrient per 100 kg.
The secondary major-nutrient fertilizers viz., magnesium sulphate, calcium Chloride, etc.
and different micronutrient fertilizers are also available in the markets.

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

Application of fertilizers in solid form Application of fertilizers in liquid form

A. Broadcast Broadcasting at planting Starter solution

Topdressing Foliar/spray application
Plough sole placement Application in soil
B. Placement Deep placement Through irrigation water
Sub-soil placement
Contact placement
C. Localised Placement Band placement
Pellet application
Side dressing

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A) Broadcast: in this method, fertilizers are spread uniformly all over the entire field. It is suitable
for the crops with dense stand like leafy vegetables e.g. methi, coriander, palak, bulb crops like
onion and garlic, spices like fenugreek, coriander, etc. Crop roots due to high density permeate
the whole volume of the soil and absorb the nutrients. Fertilizers are either incorporated in the
soil or are left uncovered. Fertilizers are applied at the time of primary tillage, immediately
before the sowing/planting or in standing crop. Large doses of fertilizers are applied and
insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.
Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types:
i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): broadcasting the fertilizers at
sowing time is done with objectives to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field
and incorporate them in soil. Part of N and full doses of P & K fertilizers are mostly applied.
ii) Top dressing: It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers with an
objective to supply nitrogen in readily available form to crop at its peak requirement periods.
One to several split applications in standing crop may be done. Topdressing should be done
when the leaves are not wet otherwise it may scorch or burn the plant leaves.
Advantages:
i. It is a simple and cheapest method of fertilizer application
ii. No special/costly equipments are required for fertilizer application
iii. Most suitable method when fertilizers are to be applied in larger quantities.
iv. Less labour requirement
Disadvantages:
i. More nutrient losses as compared to other methods due to lower penetration with irrigation
water and evaporation losses
ii. It stimulates the weed growth
iii. Nutrients like P and K are fixed in the soil due to contact with a large masses of soil.

B) Placement: In this method, fertilizers are placed in soil at a specific place with or without
reference to the position of the seed or seedling/plant. Placement methods of fertilizer
application are adopted when (i) the quantity of fertilizers to be applied is small (ii)
development of the root system is poor (iii) soil have a low level of fertility, (iv) and to apply P
and K fertilizers.
The common methods of fertilizer placement are as follows:
i. Plough sole placement: In this method, fertilizers are placed at the base (bottom) of the
furrow in a continuous band during ploughing operation. The band of fertilizers is covered
as the next furrow is turned. This method is suitable in areas where soil becomes quite dry
upto few inches below the soil surface as well as soils having a heavy clay pan just below
the ploughing depth.
ii. Deep placement: Best method of application of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizers in the
paddy field. Nitrogenous fertilizers are placed in reduction zone of soil where ammoniacal
nitrogen remains available to the crop during active vegetative growth phase. It ensures
better distribution of nitrogenous fertilizers in the root zone and prevents denitrification
and nutrient losses by run-off. Deep placement is facilitated by applying the fertilizers
under the plough furrow in irrigated areas and by puddling in comparatively drier areas.
iii. Sub-soil placement: in humid and sub-humid areas; most of the sub-soils are acidic that
limits the availability of most of the nutrients. In such conditions, for better root
development, the potashic and phosphatic fertilizers are placed in the sub soils. e.g.
Mango, Cashew in coastal areas.
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C) Localized placement: It is the application of fertilizers into the upper layer of soil closer to the
seed, seedling or plant in order to supply the nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of
growing plants. The common methods to place fertilizers close to the seed or plant are as
follows:
i. Contact placement: it is also termed as drill placement or combined drilling method in
which the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means of a seed-cum-fertilizer drill.
This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but at different depths. This method has
been found suitable for the application of phosphatic and potashic fertilizers in cereal crops.
However, higher concentration of soluble salts sometimes hampers the germination of seeds
and injures the young plants. Injuries are to the higher side in dry sandy soils.
ii. Side dressing: Side dressing of fertilizers refer to the placing the fertilizer in between the
rows and around the plants. The common methods of side-dressing are:
1. Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops to apply
additional doses of nitrogen to the growing crops and
2. Placement of fertilizer or fertilizer mixes around the base of fruit trees viz., sapota, mango,
apple, grapes, papaya etc. It sometimes also referred as hill application.
iii. Band placement: If refers to the placement of fertilizer in the form of continuous or
discontinuous bands close to the seed or plant. It is of two types:
a. Hill placement: It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in fruit orchards as well
as crops spaced at spacing wider than 90 cm. In this method, fertilizers are placed close
to the plant in bands on one or both sides of the plant. The length and depth of the band
varies with the nature of the crop. In Maharashtra, the ring and basin method of
fertilizer application is a hill placement method where fertilizers are placed in circular
shallow trenches of 10-15 cm depth dug at the outer canopy of the plant. e.g. Mango,
citrus, banana, papaya, etc. In vegetables like brinjal, chilli, tomato, beans, cucurbits,
etc. the fertilizers are placed in hills on oner or both sides of the plant.
b. Row placement: When the crops are sown close together in rows, the fertilizer is
applied in continuous bands on one or both sides of the row, which is known as row
placement. It is done by hand or by seed drills. e.g. potato.
iv. Pellet application: It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of small
pellets 2.5 to 5 cm deep between the rows of a crop. It is most common in paddy where
fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of 1:10 a nd made small pellets of convenient
size to deposit in the mud of paddy fields. Pellets are also used in banana crop for
efficient use of nitrogenous fertilizers.

Advantages of placement of fertilizers

The important advantages of different placement methods are as follows:
1. Weed growth is less as compared to broadcast method as the nutrients are placed closer to
crop plants.
2. Fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced in placement methods as there is minimum contact
between the soil and the fertilizer.
3. Residual response of fertilizers is higher.
4. Better utilization of fertilizers by the crops than broadcast method.
5. Leaching losses of nitrogenous fertilizers is reduced and immobile phosphates are better
utilized.

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Methods of application of liquid fertilizers:
The liquid fertilizers are now also used in India by the commercial growers of horticultural crops on
larger scales. The common methods of application of liquid fertilizers are as follows:
a) Starter solutions: It is the application of solution of fertilizers with N, P2O5 and K2O salts to
seedlings (young plants) at the time of transplanting, particularly for vegetables. Starter solution
contains the N, P2O5 and K2O salts in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2.
Starter solution helps in rapid establishment and quick early growth of seedlings. The problems
with starter solution are requirement of extra labour and higher rate of fixation of phosphate.
b) Foliar application: it consists of application of fertilizers solutions containing one or more
nutrients in the form of spray on the foliar parts of a plant. Several nutrient elements are readily
absorbed by leaves when they are dissolved in water and sprayed on them. Foliar application is
effective for the application of major elements like nitrogen and potash as well as minor nutrients
like iron, copper, boron, zinc and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with
fertilizers. The problems with foliar application are chances of toxicity and damage due to leaf
scorching with higher concentration of solution, several times application needed to fulfill the
plant requirements without soil application and the higher costs of fertilizers and application.
c) Fertigation: application of water soluble fertilizers to the crop through irrigation water is termed
as fertigation. Different straight and mixed fertilizers soluble in water containing N, P2O5 and
K2O salts and other micronutrients are dissolved in water and carried carried to the root zone of
crop in the solution form. It is best method of application of fertilizers as efficiency of fertilizers
can be increased to its peak with control on quantity of irrigation water, regular application of
different nutrients as per the need of the crop and growth stage of crop, reduction in cost of
fertilizer application.
d) Injection into soil: Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or non-
pressure types. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows without
appreciable loss of plant nutrients under moist conditions.
1. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and covered
immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.
e) Aerial application: In areas where ground application is not practicable, fertilizer solutions are
applied by aircraft particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in grass lands or in sugarcane fields
etc.

Fertilizer doses of important horticultural crops recommended by MPKV, Rahuri

Fruit crops
Sr. Name of the crop Organic manures N (g/plant) P2O5 (g/plant) K2O (g/plant)
No. (Kg/plant)
1 Mango 50 1500 500 500
2 Banana 10 200 40 200
3 Sweet orange 20 800 300 600
4 Papaya 10 200 200 200
5 Guava 40 900 300 300
6 Pomegranate 40-50 625 250 250
7 Sapota 100 3000 2000 2000
8 Custard apple 30-40 250 125 125
9 Aonla 40-50 500 250 250
10 Ber 50 250 250 50

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Vegetables and spices
Sr.No. Name of the crop Organic manures N (Kg/ha) P2O5 (Kg/ha) K2O (Kg/ha)
(t/ha)
1 Potato 30-40 150 60 120
2 Tomato 20 200 100 100
3 Brinjal 20-25 150 50 50
4 Chilli 20-25 100 50 50
5 Okra 20 100 50 50
6 Cucumber 20 100 50 50
7 Bitter gourd 20 100 50 50
8 Cluster bean 20-30 40 60 60
9 Onion 20-25 100 50 50
10 Garlic 20-25 100 50 50
11 Cabbage 20 160 80 80
12 Cauliflower 20 150 75 75
13 Turmeric 40-50 200 100 100
14 Ginger 40-50 120 75 75
Flower crops
Sr.No. Name of the crop Organic manures N (Kg/ha) P2O5 (Kg/ha) K2O (Kg/ha)
(t/ha)
1 Chrysanthemum 25-30 300 200 200
2 Marigold 25-30 100 100 100
3 Tuberose 40-50 200 150 200
4 China aster 25-30 100 100 100
5 Gladiolus 60-100 300 200 200

References:
1. Dr. Ranjan Kumar Basak. Fertilizers (2002) 2nd Edition. Kalyani Publishers
2. K. S. Yawalkar, J. P. Agarwal & S. Bodke. (2011) Manures & Fertilizers, 11 th Edition, Agr-
Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur
3. Handbook of Soil, Fertilizer & Manures, P. K. Gupta
4. John L. Havlin, James D. Beaten, Samuel L. Tisdale & Werner L. Nelson. (2010) Soil Fertility
and Fertilizers: An Introduction to Nutrient Management, 7th Edition, PHI Learning Private
Ltd., New Delhi.
5. Jitendra Singh. (2014). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
6. Website of Department of Agriculture, GoM: krishi.maharashtra.gov.in/1062/fertilizer-Control-
Order, 1985 dt. 20/04/2020
7. Indian Fertilizer Scenario. 2013. Department of fertilizers, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers,
GoI publication.
8. Krishidarshani. 2018. A MPKV Publication.

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 29 & 30. Principles, features and styles and types of garden

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING A GARDEN

A landscape is defined as an area, either big or small on which it is possible to mould a
view or a design. The application of garden forms, methods and materials for the
improvement of the landscape is termed as landscape gardening.
A garden may be defined as an area embellished with plants, a valuable and
pleasurable adjunct to a house. Garden should serve the feeling of comfort and pleasure with a
soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. A mere collection of plants will not
make a garden or a landscape. Landscape gardening is an interesting subject that involves an art of
gardening by a skillful arrangement and disposition of plants over the area making a design or
pattern or picture as it were that forms a garden. Therefore, gardening warrants apart from
knowledge of the science of plant growing, an artistic asset on the part of the gardener.
The gardener or a landscape designer should have thorough knowledge of plants, garden
styles, and history of gardening, ecology, geography and geology of the area. He should have a
good understanding of relationship between plant forms, colour, nature and buildings. He should
never make a copy of other famous gardens and should develop one’s own design. Before planning
a design; he must be sure for what purpose the garden is, utility or beauty or both and should take
into consideration basic principles of designing a garden.
1. Initial Approach of Designing a Garden: Generally, everyone would like to have a perfect
geometric and levelled plot of land, but in actual practice the plot available for gardening might not
be in a good size or the shape and size and not be ideal. But, one should not despair even if the site
appears to be useless or hopeless. A good designer should make the best use of such a site. Land
with natural undulations should never be levelled, but in different levels should be utilized with
advantage. Fencing to the garden should be such that it should not obstruct the natural view and
should look as natural as possible. Design should be flexible and should have enough scope to
change according to the local needs or own interest of the owner.
2. Axis: it is an imaginary line in any garden around which the garden is created striking a balance. In
a formal garden, the central straight line is the axis. At the end of an axis, generally there will be a
focal point viz., a tomb, statue, temple, etc.; although another architectural feature such as a
fountain, bird-bath or sundial can also be created at about the midpoint. In an informal garden the
axis may be zig zag or curvy may be designed as a drive or a path in the garden.
3. Focal Point: In every garden there is a center of attraction which is generally an architectural
feature focused as a point of interest. A focal point is one of the elements of good landscape design.
Viz., an aquarium, a statue, a temple, fountain, waterfall, a specimen tree, etc.
4. Mass Effect: The use of one general form of plant material in large numbers in one place is done to
create a mass effect. But, the mass arrangements should not become monotonous. For this, the size
of masses should be varied.
5. Unity: Unity in a garden is very important and it will improve the artistic look of the garden. Unity
has to be achieved from various angles. First the unity of style and functions between house and
garden has to be achieved and secondarily the different components of the garden should look
harmoniously with each other. The aim is to give the visitor an overall impression of the garden
rather than blowing up some special features. The last point, which is also very important, is to
achieve some harmony between the landscape outside and the garden.
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 6. Space: The garden design should be such that the garden should appear larger than its actual size.
For achieving this, keep vast open spaces preferably under lawn. Restrict the plantings in the
periphery and avoid any planting in the center. But, if planting is to be done; plant a single tall tree
with branches at higher levels. It will not obstruct the view and garden will not look smaller than
the original size. In smaller gardens narrow paths should be prepared.
7. Divisional Lines: In a landscape garden, there is a necessity of dividing or rather screening places
viz., dust bins, compost pit, mali's quarter or a vegetable garden from the rest part of the garden. In
fact, areas under lawn, gravel, stones or cement path, shrubbery borders have their own natural
divisional lines. The divisional lines should be artistic with gentle curves and these should also be
useful. Above all these lines should harmonize with one another.
8. Proportion and Scale: Proportion in a garden is a definite relationship between masses and there is
no set rule as regards the scale or proportion in garden. The proportion should be so that the garden
should look pleasant. For example, a rectangle having a ratio of 5:8 is considered to be of pleasing
proportion. As this ratio comes down the garden form looks neither in square nor a rectangle, and
the design becomes undesirable.
9. Texture: The surface character of a garden as a whole unit is referred to as texture. The texture of
the ground, the leaves of a tree or shrub will all determine the overall effect of the garden. The
texture of rugged looking ground can be improved to an appreciable extent by laying meticulously
chosen small pebbles from river beds, if establishing a lawn is out of the question. Gulmohar is a
fine textured tree when in full bloom with leaves whereas spathodia is a course textured tree.
10. Time and Light: There are three different categories of time in a garden.
a. The daily time: it provides different quantities and qualities of light during the course of the
day. As the morning sun is vital for all flowers, it should be taken into account while planning.
Garden design is planned in such a way to sit in the shaded place in the afternoon time from
where the best view of garden is visible.
b. Seasonal changes in a year: According to seasonal movement of sun where shed and light are
likely to fall during the different parts of the season like summer, winter and rainy season.
c. Creepers overlook or can not be visible in garden. Proportion and shape of trees and shrubs will
attain in the year, so that shade is obtained during the hot days at the appropriate time.
11. Tone and Colour: A tendency on the part of an amateur gardener is to create a riot of colours by
indiscriminately planting flowering annuals of all shades. This practice is not desirable. Moreover,
such riot of colours has only temporary effect. In a landscape garden, the permanent backdrop is the
green tones of the various trees and shrubs. It is possible to lay out a garden with subtle tone of the
entirely white or yellow flowers, but at the same time making it charming also. Another important
point is that it is better to have masses of a single colour against a mixture of colours. A bed of
roses containing only a single colour of say red, yellow or pink has a much softer tone and beauty
than a bed containing a mixture of colours.
12. Mobility: In a temperate country, garden changes its colour very sharply and contrastingly from
one season to the other thus symbolizing mobility or movement. e.g. many trees in the temperate
regions change their leaf colour in the autumn, then suddenly in the winter leaves fall and
everything goes to rest bringing an atmosphere of melancholy and dullness-all around and then they
come back in life in summer with new foliage. e.g. In tropical India, Terminalia cattapa (wild
almond) and Lagerstromia indica (gulmehandi) changes leaf colour. Butterflies, birds also bring
life and mobility in the garden. Trees attract birds and shrubberies are needed to protect the birds
from large predator birds.
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13. Style: Every garden has its own style of gardening with its budget, taste and the nature of the site.
The gardener should not get to use his mistake but critically access every feature and correct the
mistakes and improve upon the design with a new knowledge and experience learning from others.

GARDEN FEATURES AND ADORNMENTS

The beauty of the gardens whether it is a home garden or a big public garden; it is the
garden features and adornments which make garden more beautiful with the help natural or man-
made feature. If these garden features and adornments are arranged properly and placed suitably;
they will mould the garden into beautiful scenery. The important parts/ features of a garden are as
follows:
1. Protective wall: made for safety or beauty point of view. It may be prepared from stones,
bricks, concrete, RCC work or combination of these. The height may be around 60-90 cm and
put over some grills so that the view is not totally abrupt from the outside. Higher walls should
not be prepared as they give the feeling of jail in the garden.
2. Fencing: prepared for marking the boundary of the garden as well as for the protection purpose.
It may be prepared from bamboo, wires, wire nettings, barbed wires, chain linked fences.
Wooden, cement or iron angles / poles are used for support. It gives grace and stability to
gardens. Height of fencing should be reasonable upto 2.0 meters.
3. Gate: It is a protective garden feature and provides an entry/acess to the garden. It may be high
value, glorious, costly, baradari of Taj garden which also serves as a decorative feature or may
be of simple entry gate prepared by scrap material (wooden or iron). Size, material and quality
of gate should be proportionate and parallel to the garden type, space and style. Minimum width
of the gate should be 1.0 meter.
4. Road, walks, path and drives: Every garden necessarily have a garage or vehicle drives
leading from the entrance to the house or mansion and to the garage known as drive. It is made
of gravel or concrete where there is heavy vehicle traffic and serves as a passage for person and
vehicles. Few paths and walks are indispensable / absolutely necessary to go round and reach to
the several parts of the garden. The path should be direct and take as far as possible. The
shortest route to the point they should be planned that can to enjoy the best view of garden,
house and other things linked up from one part of the garden with other part without coming to
an abrupt termination. It may be made up of naked earth, red soil, simple sand sea sand, gravel,
selective smooth pebbles from river side, shahabad / kotah slabs, mosaic tiles, marble material,
wooden path, bricks, RCC, tar, etc. In formal gardens the roads, paths and walks are straight
while in landscape garden they are curved. The curves should be graceful and fit best in the
picture. The path should be suited in the position, not be more in number and should not occupy
more space. Roads may be 3-8 m wide and paths and walks 60-90 cm wide maximum upto 1.5
m in big gardens.
5. Steps: Steps in the garden connect different levels in the garden and are prepared from bricks,
stones, cement concrete, wood, tiles, grass or combination of 2-3 of these. Steps should be
uniform in height as low as possible about four inches high. High steps are usually disturbing,
physically tiring and psychologically irritating.
6. Edges: when low growing perennial plants are grown on the border of plots or beds, they are
called as edge plants or an edge. These plants hardly grow upto 20-30 cm. In garden edges are
soft dividers around rockery, trees, flower beds, pathways, drives, lawns. Gradual pruning,
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 shaping are essential operations. While the term edging is used to denote the material or plants
of any description which is employed in the garden for dividing the beds, borders, etc.
7. Hedges: Shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen are called as
hedge. They may be protective, ornamental or used for screens. Hedge should be quick
growing, hardy and should give high response to pruning. It is kept tidy by trimming into a
proper shape and kept in a bound form. It looks like a natural boundary to garden. It not only
protects the garden from strong winds, trace passing, cattles and thieves but also provides
privacy, separates one component of garden from another, afford pleasuring, hides the ugly or
unwanted spots of the garden like quarters and compost pits. Height is maintained about 1-4 m.
8. Topiary: it is an art of training the plants into different shapes i.e., of birds, animals, domes,
umbrellas, etc. It is an old art now becoming popular in city parks to provide passive recreation
to the visitors especially children. The ideal plants for topiary should be elastic, quick growing
with small foliage and stand against frequent trimmings. E.g. Clerodendron enerme, Duranta
plumeri, Sesbania aegyptica, Inga dulcis, Acasia modesta, thuja compacta, Casuarina
equisataefolia. Training frames made of steel rods or galvanized wire frames are employed for
making topiary. The desired skeleton of frames are first erected and depending upon the size the
number of plants are plants and by training, tying and constant trimming the desired shapes are
achieved.
9. Arches: Arches are generally constructed near the gates or over a path in garden for training the
climbers. An arch should be 2.0-2.5 m high. The width depends upon the path / gate width, but
it should not be less than 1.0 m. Over the poles or angles the longitudinal rails are placed and
cross rails are fixed over them at 40-60 cm apart. Generally made by wooden bamboo,
fabricated material. Iron arches are quite successful and durable.
10. Pergola: it is defined as a series of arches joined together having a particular length (on
common parlance so called depth). Pergolas are generally constructed over a pathway which
adds beauty in the garden. Like arches the supports made of wooden material, stones, bricks,
pillars, angles, G.I. pipes, etc. the roof may be made of angle iron of different sections with
longitudinal and cross rails over this base. Strong galvanized wire may be welded which is used
for placing the creepers to spread easily. The width should be around 1-3 m and length more
than 4 m. Pergola serve as an important resting place during summer in the tropical countries as
the path below them remains cool.
11. Dry wall: The gardens laid out on walls or the walls planted with different plants are called as
dry walls. It is a common feature of English gardens. Planting of plants in gaps or in crevices of
the wall and hanging down the wall looks beautiful. The one section / portion of concrete wall
or garage wall may be used for dry wall.
12. Terraces and terrace garden: Terrace is a raised space of ground constructed around a
dwelling house or on the sides of hill. It is a common feature of English and Japanese gardens.
When terrace is used for gardening it is called as terrace gardening. It is constructed just in front
of the house from where full view of garden is visible. It is suggested to raise the terrace atleast
45 cm above general level of garden and should not be situated on the western side and
separated from the garden with the help of wall and steps. Basically meant for leisure and
pleasure.
13. Lawn: A lawn which is a green carpet is an essential feature of a garden whether a small home
garden, public park, office or factory gardens. A fairly uniform well-maintained lawn binds the
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 different garden features together as a whole. The view of the lawn should be uninterrupted
from entrance, and should be visible from home windows or verandas, office, factory building
and windows. A beautifully maintained lawn adds and accounts for 75% beauty of the garden.
Jumping grass, diamond grass, blue panic, buffalo grass, dub grasses are different varieties of
grasses used for planting of lawn.
14. Carpet bedding: The term carpet bedding means covering an area preferably a bed or series of
beds with a dense low growing herbaceous plants according to a set design. Carpet bedding
looks better when arranged in slanting positions or on the slopes. Some designs or letters are cut
out with the help of plants having different growth habits or different coloured leaves planted
closely according to the design. After planting, plants are trimmed as soon as they are
established and frequent training is done. Plants for carpet bedding are: coleus, pilea, cineraria,
portulaca, iresine, alternanthera.
15. Shrubs: Shrub may be defined as a perennial having many woody branches arising from the
base of the plant. The basal portion of the plant is woody and upper shoots are soft. Shrubs are
generally erect and bushy and grow upto 0.5-4.0 m. They are smaller than trees but taller than
most herbaceous perennials, either deciduous or evergreen. Evergreen shrubs are slower in
growth and are difficult to transport.
Foliage shrubs: Acalypha, Crotons, Mussaendra, Penax, Aralia, Draecena, etc.
Flowering shrubs: Rose, Tagar, Hibiscus, Bouganvillea, Exora, Mussaenda, Crossandra, etc.
Attractive berries: Duranta, Karonda, Blood berry, etc.
16. Flower beds: Flowers are most attractive when marked in beds. These flower beds should be
simple in design such as square, circular, oval. The number and size of beds depend upon the
type of garden. In formal garden, flower beds are strictly picturous laid out in well marked out
beds in pairs. In landscaping, they are less in number, as they are of secondary importance.
There should be harmony in the bedding effect of the colour. Plants for flower beds are holly
hock, snapdragon, aster, chrysanthemum, balsam, calendula, dianthus, cosmos, celocia, candy
tuft, verbena, tuberose, gladiolus, tulips, salvia, zinnia, gerbera, cosmos, etc. The tall growing
species in garden are planted at back of the borders or along the compound wall, medium sized
in centre and dwarf species in the front.
17. Borders: Borders are the continuous beds of more length than breadth/width containing plants
of continuous heterogeneous characters. They are distinguished from flower beds which are
composed of plants of one kind only. Types are herbaceous borders, annual mixed border and
mixed borders. Borders are the shrubs and are planted in front of the hedge along the wall. E.g.
Canna indica, Lantana camara, Daisy, Lily, etc.
18. Rockery: the term rockery is usually associated with the large shady tree. For preparation of
rockery a large mound of earth hipped up with a number of bolters embedded in a jutting
(projections) out off the mound and few plants which are mostly hardy, firm through space
between rocks. The rocks selected should be of local origin, should be porous and have a
weathered look, different sizes, shapes and colours to give a desired landscape effect. The
rockery should always be away from the children in garden and may be located in slopy
undulated areas, end of path, in a corner of garden, on the side of a lawn, against a wall, under a
tree or in a sheltered but not shady place. Plants suitable for rockery are Cacti, Succulents,
Ferns, Crossandra, Jatropa, Russelia Juncea, pilea muscosa, Portulaca, Verbena, agave, sedum,
snake plant, asparagus, vinca.

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19. Water garden: for water garden the pools may be formal or informal. In informal garden, the
pools are more natural and are located in low lying areas of the garden whereas in formal
gardens it is located in the prominent place of garden and not in the low lying areas. It is made
of concrete; bottom is made waterproof and is then filled with soil, pebbles, etc. Different
aquatic plants like lotus, water lilies are planted in it. It should be drained once a year with
power operated water pump.
20. Marsh or bog garden: It is a marsh area in garden from where a shallow trickle or stream runs
through. The marsh garden should be maintained in moist and swampy state. The low lying site
with sticky soil is suitable. Plants for bog garden are Vekhand, Alocasia, Asplerium, Cana, Day
lily, Pendanus, Primula, Iris, etc.
21. Sunken garden: The garden laid below the ground surface is called as sunken garden.
Moisture loving plants like ferns and gardenia are planted. Surface of sunken garden is
decorated with crazy pavings, gravel, etc. and adequate drainage is provided.
22. Gardening in shade: An abundance of large trees and shady areas in the garden provide cool,
refreshing areas of beauty during summer's heat which also can contribute to the landscape
throughout the growing season. Some plants which tolerate relatively low light and thrive in it
can be chosen from an array of flowering annuals, perennials, bulbs, woodland plants, many
groundcovers, herbs, leafy vegetables by maintaining proper soil moisture, drainage, aeration,
soil fertility and foliar spray of nutrients therby avoiding the competition from big trees.
Browallias, coleus, wax begonias, dwarf salvias, and other shade tolerant annuals; bulbous
crops like crocus, scillas, snowdrops, tulips species, daffodils, tuberous begonias, may flower;
perennials like ferns, etc. can be used for the gardening in shade.
23. Roof gardening: Gardening on roof which will become the place of joy and recreation in cities
where there is no place for gardening. Plants with shorter/shallow roots are selected. It is very
costly and difficult to maintain.
24. Standards: Shrubs may be trained to a single stem and allowed to grow upto certain height and
then branch out and form a handsom head only above a particular height; then they are known
as standards. Plants suitable for standards are Duranta, Ficus benjamina, Thuja, Rose, etc.
25. Green house, Lath house, Conservatory: There are numerous types of rare ornamental plants
with beautiful foliage, flowers or both which can’t thrive in open when exposed to sun and wind
throughout the day length. The delicate ferns, graceful anthuriums, alocassia, caladium, orchid,
palms, aglaonema, diffenbachea, maranta and several other plants for healthy and successful
culture require reasonable amount of shade and protection from cold/ hot waves. For these
plants a conservatory with roof prepared with shading nets or creepers is prepared.
26. Climbers: Climber is defined as a plant which possess special structures to climb over a
support. The special structures may be hooks, thorns in Bouganvilleas, tendrils in Antigonon
leptopus and Bignonia, rootlets in Ficus repens or the modified leaves.
The climbing plant which do not possess such structures but climb over a support or plant by
twinning themselves spirally around such supports are called twinners. E.g. Lonicera japonica,
Hiptage madablata.
There are still other climbers which fail in their attempt to climb but somehow manage to
support themselves over trunk, branches of other plants are termed as ramblers and stragglers.
E.g. Quisqualis indica
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 Creepers are those plants which are unable to climb vertically on their own because of their
weak stems. E.g. Ipomoea palmata
Trailers are similar to creepers but only difference is being that they do not produce roots at
their nodes. In other countries like USA all climbers are termed as “vines’.
27. Succulents: The main character of succulents is that they have very fleshy foliage or stem or
even both. These plants mostly inhabit at dry, dessert locality in open situation and are capable
of withstanding long hot spell of drought as they store sufficient moisture in their succulent
parts. In most species the body is covered with thorns. E.g. Aloe, Cactus, Opuntia, Snake plant,
Bryophyllum spp.
28. Trees: Tree is a long stem growing with huge branches. A judicious planting of trees contribute
much to the beauty, variety and enjoyable features of the garden. It pleasures to the ground.
Trees afford shelter and shade and make summer pleasant. Many trees are ornamental in blooms
and foliage. Some trees fill the air with the delicious fragrance of their flowers. Some trees
provide fruits. Almost all these trees delight and refresh the eyes with their restful green foliage.
Flowering trees: Gulmohar, Cassia spp., Colvillea, Bakul, Kadamba, Copper pod tree,
Jacaranda, etc.
Ornamental trees: Eucalyptus, Ashoka, Silver oak, Ficus benjamina, Sita ashok, etc.
Foliage trees: Ficus spp., Rain tree, Mahogani, Royal palm, etc.
29. Avenue: Linear planting of tall straight growing, wide spreading trees, like Eucalyptus, Royal
palm, Drooping ashoka, Rain tree, Peltophorum, Banyan. There is no value of avenue without
proper width and length. Avenue adds in mass effect scenic beauty. Indirect benefit of avenue is
control of erosion, provides shelter to birds and shade to visitors.
30. Water channels: Common garden feature of mughal style. e.g. Vrindavan garden

GARDEN ADORNMENTS
To make the garden look more attractive and artistic, few adornments are used as ornaments.
1. Hanging Basket: ‘Hanging basket’ refers to the practice of growing plants in certain kinds of
plat baskets and other containers of pleasing design and suspending them, after placing them in
wire frames, in conservatories, corridors, rooms and under shady trees to have great ornamental
value. Prepared from clay, wood material, Bamboo’s, plastic, soil, even tyres-either painted on
any side is used. Plants for hanging baskets: Pilea, Portulaca, China rose, Office time, Shatavari
and Money plant.
2. Pot stands: Fabricated, well-designed stands made up of steel material. Selective places
preferably corners and pathways, terrace gardens are used for placement.
3. Garden seats: Garden benches or seats should also be so designed that they can’t be broken
away and should be durable in rains, under scorching heat and open sky. RCC slabs are found to
be most suitable. Prettiest part of garden is suitable for sitting in evening and enjoying the best
view of garden.
4. Garden bridge: Garden bridge over flowing water (may be as fly over) is common garden
feature in large size garden- carefully decorated. Garden bridge with wooden railings made up
of iron material/fabricated material.

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5. Fountains: fountains are made to work by circulating the same water containing in a pool /
pond. There are various designs of fountain. The jets and pipes are made of anti corrosive
materials. Dancing fountain water with light effect adds beauty. Vrindavan garden (Mysore) and
Saint Dnyaneshwar garden (Jaikwadi).
6. Garden statue: Statues are representative of art and is also a one kind of garden feature. Lady
with pitcher, farmers with plough and sickle. It’s a popular Italian, Roman garden feature.
7. Bird bath: it is a large bowl shaped container generally made of concrete fixed over a column
which is about 1 m tall. Clean water is stored in bowl for birds to come, drink and bath in it. It is
constructed in quiet and peaceful area/ corner of the garden.
8. Sun dials: can be used as a focal point in garden or can a centre piece of flower beds, can be
placed at the corner or centre of lawn or at the junction or termination of path. It should be
placed in an area where no shadow of any feature or building falls during the day.
9. Floral clock: huge clocks operated electrically having the dials of carpet bedding plants/ flower
beds, metal/ plastic minute, second and hour hands with underground machinery.
10. Japanese lanterns: preferably carved in stones and are low and decorative as the Japanese like.
They are placed in suitable places either near house or pool or stream.

GARDEN STYLES
With one’s own ideas of paradise; man has created his imaginary paradise on the earth in the
form of gardens for joy and entertainment. Various garden designers have evolved many garden
styles as per their architectural view and with lapse of time, these styles are continuously changing
with new ideas and necessities. But, broadly the different styles of gardening are grouped under
basic three categories as below:
I) Formal Garden:
Formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical / geometrical pattern. In this type of garden
everything is laid in straight lines. These types of gardens are either square or rectangular in shape.
If you divide the garden in two equal parts by drawing a straight line, one part is the mirror image
of the other i.e. if there is a plant on left hand side of a straight road, a similar plant must be planted
at the opposite place on the right hand side.
Features of formal garden:
 Plan is made on paper and accordingly the land is selected.
 The layout is symmetric with square or rectangular shapes.
 Roads, paths are straight and cut at right angles.
 It has some sort of enclosure or boundary e.g. wall.
 The flower beds, shrubbery, borders are also of geometric shapes.
 Features like fountains, pools, cascades, etc. are used for attraction.
 The arrangements of trees and shrubs is always geometrical and kept in shape by trimming
and training.
 Examples of formal gardens: Persian gardens, Mughal gardens, Italian gardens, French
gardens, Egyptian gardens, Greek/ Hellenistic gardens and Roman gardens.
 Popular formal gardens in India: Vrindavan garden, Taj Mahal Garden

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II) Informal Garden:
In this garden style, the plants and the garden features are arranged in a natural way
without following any strict / hard and fast rules. But here also the work has to proceed
according to a set and well thought out plan to make the creation attractive and artistic. The idea
behind this garden is to imitate the nature.
Features of informal garden:
 The style is more natural and holistic.
 Plan is asymmetric according to the availability of land for making the garden.
 No specific central axis.
 The land is first selected and then layout is prepared.
 Roads and paths are not straight but are curved.
 Water bodies, flower beds are irregular in shape.
 Plants are grown in natural form.
 Examples of this style are Chinese gardens, Japanese gardens.

III) Free Style / Intermediate style:

This is an intermediate type of garden with combination of good mixed principles of
formal and informal garden styles.
Features of free style / intermediate style garden:
 Not meant only for enjoyment but also for utility like growing of fruits and vegetables.
 The main features are rockeries, borders, lawn, shrubbery, winding walks, group of trees,
waterfalls, etc.
 Some garden features may follow strict geometrical outline but it is not bounded for all the
features.
 This style of garden provides an opportunity to the landscape designer to use his own
ideas/concepts by referring formal and informal styles.
 English gardens and many Indian gardens are of intermediate style.
 The example of this type of garden is the Rose Garden at Ludhiana in Punjab.

Garden Styles of the World:

1. English Gardens: The grass is the natural ground cover in English country side due to the
favourable climate and rains occurring throughout the year. The concept of English gardens is
that they should look like the country side. They are extremely fine and formed with an
agreeable wildness and pleasing irregularity. The main features of English gardens are lawn,
herbaceous border, rockery, flower beds, mixed annual borders and shrubbery. Water rivulets,
artistic fountains, curved paths, informal group of trees and clipped edges without barriers of
fencing also gained importance in the English gardens.
2. Italian Gardens: This style of gardening came into existence at the time of renaissance. There
is a similarity between Italian, Persian and Mughal gardens. The Italian elites conceived their
gardens just as an extension of the lavish palaces, as a glamorous outdoor hall for entertainment
and for showing off their wealth and status. In these gardens, the use of heavy masonry is of
great importance. The main features of this style are massive flight of marble stairs to connect
different levels in the garden, decorative runs, fountains in combination with or emerging from
the stone sculptures or statues.

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3. Mughal Gardens: These were laid out during the rule of Mughal emperors in India. They are
similar to the Persian styles. Babar (1495-1531) was the first Mughal ruler who introduced this
garden style in India. These gardens are laid out in symmetrical forms and are either square or
rectangular. The garden is divided by a central water canal. The entrance in this type of garden
is a big gate. On all sides a wall is constructed. At the end, there is a big building. The most
important feature of this style is the presence of running water. Most of the gardens preferably
are laid on the hill slopes with a perennial rivulet or along the banks of river. Mughal gardens
were at their best when built around a monument. The main features of Mughal gardens are:
site and styles of design, walls, gates, terrace, nahars or running waters, baradari, tomb or
mosque and trees
Baradari: It is an arbour like structure made up of stone and masonry with pacca roof and raised
platform for sitting. They were provided with 12 or more doors on all sides. They were used to
see the view of whole garden and to watch the dances.
e.g. Taj Mahal Garden (Agra), Vrindavan Garden (Mysore), Nishat garden (Kashmir).
4. French Gardens: the French style of gardening is developed due to the efforts of Le Notre who
served the Royal Garden of Louis XIV from 1643 to 1700. Before Le Notre the French gardens
were the copies of Italian gardens. He showed the impact in impressiveness of scale on garden
designs. Gardens are larger in size and teach ‘how to think big’. Le Notre’ designs completely
defined nature. His garden styles can be termed as a mastery of the art of formal gardens in its
perfection which dominated the gardens of civilized Europe for a long time. e.g. Gardens at
Vaux-le-Vicomte created over the space after removal of three villages.
5. Japanese Gardens: The Japanese gardens are famous for their unique style, natural beauty and
calmness. It is based on the Japanese ideas of heaven. The Japanese, being lovers of nature,
miniature natural landscape features of the country i.e. Mountains, rivers, lakes, island, bridges,
etc. are created in Japanese style of gardens. The plant materials are selected in such a manner
that the garden would not undergo any major changes during the four seasons of the year.
Japanese gardens are further classified into four major types according to positions, shapes and
purpose as:
A. Hill Garden: This type of garden is considered as an ideal Japanese garden and in Japanese
it is known as Tsukiyama-niwa/ Sansui meaning hills and water. Main features are hillocks
of soil with exposed weathered stones and water in the form of stream or ponds or waterfall
or all the three.
B. Flat Garden: Hira-niwa or flat gardens are supposed to represent the meadowland or a
mountain valley and hence are mostly without any ups and downs. The principle of this type
is to avoid strong vertical lines and hence low growing trees are used with small water wells
made with into a shape of urns with stones as a water basin and stepping stones to make the
monotonous nature of the flat garden.
C. Tea Garden: Tea garden is laid out based on the certain principles and customs of Japanese
tea ceremony. This ceremony needs a climate of intimacy and hence to be enclosed with the
fence of rustic nature with a gate. It is made up of very light material such as bamboo. To
protect from noise of the outer world, tea gardens are again divided into an outer garden
(soro-roji) and inner garden (uchi-roji). Outer garden is a waiting place for guests until the
master of the house appears to welcome them. It is provided with a water basin for hand and
face wash before entering the tea ceremony and stone lanterns for illumination. It may also
serve as a decoration piece. A stone path of stepping stones leads to the inner garden
separated from outer garden by a rustic fence and a gate of light material. Inner garden the
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 tea house with a low door so that the guests have to enter in a bending posture, simulating
the respect and humility. The tea house is a small straw hut with an outside waiting place
and a side room for washing the utensils and the main ceremonial tea house itself having the
capacity to accommodate only five persons. Outer garden is exposed ton sun and is mostly
planted with deciduous trees and as the inner garden is a subdued area; evergreen trees with
more shadows are used.
D. Passage Garden: Passage garden called Roji-niwa in Japanese are laid out in narrow
passages between two houses or over the approaches to the building. It is very simple and
devoid of or with very less man made features. The common features are few key rocks,
stone slabs, and very few plants with open form and slender shape.
E. Sand Garden: It is the simplest style of Japanese garden made in limited areas with few
vertical and prostrate stones in group of 2-3 and the gaps in between filled in with fine white
gravel. The gravel is raked repeatedly in simple way simulating the ripples of flowing water.
Important features of Japanese garden are: ponds, streams, waterfalls, fountains, wells,
islands, bridges, water basins, carved stone lanterns, stones, pagodas, fences and gates.

TYPES OF GARDEN

There are different types of gardens such as:

1. Home Garden: The aim is to beautify the area around the house. It includes flower garden and a
kitchen garden for the exclusive use of the family.
2. School Garden: Such gardens are established around the school to beautify the area and also
include a nutrition garden for educating children in nutritional importance of fruits and
vegetables.
3. Urban Park: It is a large area of open space organized primarily by landscape meant for
recreation of general public. It includes all features such as flower beds, lawns, fountains and
children corner. Area varies from 0.5 to 8.0 ha.
4. National Park: It is a garden meant for preserving the natural beauty of the area and to allow
free movement of wild life.
5. Industrial Gardens: The gardens around the industrial estates and factories. These gardens
beautify the premises and help in checking air pollution.
6. Arboretum: The garden is a museum of living plants where propagation of various plants is undertaken
and plants are grown for scientific study e.g. Botanical garden, Sibpore, Kolkatta.

References
1. Singh, A.K. and Sisodia, A. 2017. Textbook of Floriculture and Landscaping, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
2. Randhawa, G. S. and Mukhopadhyay, A. 1986. Floriculture in India. Publ.: Allied Publishers
Ltd., New Delhi
3. J. S. Arora. 2014. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture
4. Ornamental Horticulture in India. 1988. Ed. K. L. Chadha and B. Choudhury. Published by
Publication and Information Division, ICAR, New Delhi.

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 31 & 32. Types of vegetable gardening

Importance of vegetable gardening

 Vegetable farming is an important source of income.
 Cultivation of vegetables occupies an important place in agricultural development and economy
of the country.
 It is important in balanced diet.
 It is the cheapest source of natural protective food.
 Vegetable farming gives higher yield per unit area within the shortest possible time which
ultimately increases the income.
 Vegetables are exported to foreign countries which provide an opportunity for earning exchange.

Types of vegetable gardening:

1. Kitchen/ Home garden
2. Market/Peri-Urban garden
3. Truck garden
4. Vegetable Forcing
5. Vegetable gardening for processing
6. Floating garden
7. Organic Vegetable garden
8. Vegetable gardens for seed production
9. Container garden

1. KITCHEN GARDEN/HOME GARDEN

Kitchen gardening is the growing of vegetable crops in and around the residential houses
to meet the requirements of the family all the year round. A kitchen garden or home garden is the
most ancient type of vegetable gardening which started with the human civilization. Whether one
lives in a village/town/city whether one owns a land or not, a kitchen garden is a feature of every
home. Kitchen garden is most intensive method of vegetable cultivation where more types of
vegetables are cultivated closely on lesser areas with an aim of efficient and effective use of land to
facilitate successful production of family’s own daily requirement of vegetables.

Advantages:
1) It is a means of recreation & exercise, healthy hobby in spare time for house wives and aged
senior family members.
2) Continuous supply of fresh grown vegetables for better balanced diet of family.
3) It helps in lowering down the vegetable bill as the cost of raising vegetables in kitchen garden is
always less than what a family spends on vegetable purchase through the market.
4) No transport charges & middleman share, which greatly adds to, the price paid by the consumer.
5) Kitchen gardening does not cause toxic residues of pesticides in the vegetables produced as the
cultivation is in a small area that facilitates the methods of controlling pests and diseases
through the removal of affected parts and non-use of chemicals.
6) The waste water from kitchen and bathrooms can be utilized for the production of vegetables.
7) Organic waste produced in house can be utilized for preparation of compost for manuring
vegetable crops.
8) Kitchen garden is an ideal medium for training children about plant life, co-operation, nature’s
beauty and joy of creation with the concept of ‘work with play’.
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Site selection and layout:
There should be limited choice for the selection of site for kitchen garden and the most
convenient site is the backyard of the house. The size of a kitchen garden depends upon the
availability of land and number of persons for whom vegetables are to be provided.
The layout of villager’s garden will differ from that of a city garden. In villages, a more
extensive method of cultivation is followed than in the city kitchen gardens. It is because, the
village or home gardener has certain advantages as he has less limitations of land and sometimes he
may use his bullocks and other implements even in the kitchen garden. In the city, land is limiting
factor. So in a city home garden, one would like to produce as much as possible on small piece of
land by following a very intensive method of cultivation. If there is no land for growing vegetables
around home one can grow them on roof and terraces by putting soil on terraces after water
proofing or in bamboo baskets, wooden or plastic crates/pots, earthen pots, plastic bags, etc.

2) The perfect site for kitchen garden is the backyard, on southern or eastern side of the home to
avoid shedding and receive enough sunlight during major portion of the day. The backyard is
best site because; family members can give a constant care to the vegetables during leisure and
the waste water from the bathrooms and kitchen can easily be diverted to the vegetable beds.
3) Available soil should be light to medium, fertile and if not, it should be made so by addition of
organic matter, different compost mixtures and sand. It should be devoid of roots and rocks.
4) The site should be near to the source of irrigation.
5) The site should have good drainage and should have a gentle slope to avoid water stagnation
during the rains. Water should sip in or flow away instead of forming puddles.
6) The land selected should be preferably rectangular than square for easy cultivation.
7) It should be protected from the cattle with the help of fencing.
8) Firstly, the area is dug upto the depth of 30-40 cm and the stones, plastics, bushes and
perennial weeds are removed. The soil is well pulverized and the compost is mixed with the
soil.
9) The whole garden is laid out into small plots with narrow path borders. As per the requirement
of various types of vegetables to be grown; the plots are laid out into ridges and furrows at 45
& 60 cm spacing, flat beds and raised beds. Mostly the flat beds and raised beds of convenient
size are preferred. Raised beds help to overcome ill drainage conditions.
10) Layout is made such that a garden looks attractive and allows asses to all the parts.
11) Compost pit is dug at a corner of garden so as to dispose off the kitchen waste and crop wastes.
12) If space is lacking go for vertical gardening with wall planters, railing planters and hanging
baskets. It has good air circulation with reduced the maintenance and requirement of space,
reduced disease and pest attacks.

Designing of kitchen garden:

1) Climbing types of vegetables like cucurbits, beans, etc. can be trained on the fences. They will
also act as windbreaks to rest of the garden and adds organic matter through leaf litter.
2) Prefer transplanting of seedlings (except leafy vegetables) instead of direct seeding as they can
be made in pots and will save about 15-30 days of time in the garden.
3) In case of directly seeded vegetables like Okra, Beans, etc. the interspaces can be utilized by
broadcasting of seeds of short duration leafy vegetables like fenugreek and coriander.
4) Select early maturing varieties and early maturing crops. They should be planted together on
continuous row so that the area may be available at once for putting new/late crops.

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5) The vegetables with similar growing conditions should be planted together. E.g.
fenugreek+coriander, cabbage + cauliflower, carrot+radish, etc.
6) Plant few vegetables which repels the insect pests and thus can reduce the plant protection
budget. E.g. Garlic, mint and repels the ants; basil, chives, onion, garlic repels aphids; garlic
and mint repels cabbage fly; mint repels mice, citronella repels mosquitos, etc.
7) The ridge, which separates the beds, should be utilized for growing root crops like carrot,
radish, beet root, turnip, etc.
8) Several sowing & succession of sowing of a particular crop at short intervals should be done to
ensure a steady supply of vegetables e.g. leafy vegetables like fenugreek, coriander, Palak, etc.
9) The perennial plants like Drumstick, Curry leaf, Agathi, Banana, Papaya, Kagzi lime should be
located on one side preferably on northern side of the garden, so that they may not shade other
crops or compete for nutrition with the other vegetable crops.
10) Adjacent to the foot path all around the garden and the central foot path may be utilised for
growing different short duration green vegetables like Coriander, spinach, fenugreek, Mint, etc.

Crops for kitchen garden:

The crop to be grown in the kitchen garden depends mainly upon two factors :
1. Size of the kitchen garden 2. The choice of the family
In case of land availability is large for kitchen garden, a large number of vegetables that the family
likes can be grown. If it is limited, only those vegetables can be grown which gives better yield per
unit area. The cultivars should be selected according to the suitability of the region and according to
the period of sowing. The crops like tomato, beans, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, palak, beet root
and other root crops are desirable for small garden. Some flowers like marigold, nasturtium, damask
rose as well as mustard, sweet pea, calendula, onion, lemon grass, etc. and aromatic herbs like basil,
fennel, coriander enhance colour and aesthetic look along with adding scent to the garden.

Tentative monthly programme for kitchen gardening

Month Crop sowing/planting programme
January muskmelon, watermelon, coriander, lettuce, radish, cabbage, cauliflower
February okra, ridge gourd, cucumber, bottle gourd, pumpkin, bitter gourd, radish, leaf
beet, pointed gourd, eggplant, chilli, tomato and amaranth
March okra, amaranth, fenugreek, coriander, palak, cluster bean, and other above-
mentioned crops if not sown already, mint
April continue with the crops sown in March, leafy vegetables
May okra, luffa, radish, cucumber, bottle gourd, bitter gourd for rainy season
June continue with the crops sown in May and sow/plant cauliflower, cowpea,
cluster bean, french bean, dolichos bean, sweet potato and radish
July cauliflower, cluster bean, dolichos bean, bottle gourd, okra, tomato, chilli and
eggplant, radish, leafy vegetables
August chilli, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, cabbage, leaf beet, turnip, carrot,
fenugreek, knol-khol, kharif onion, beetroot and leafy vegetables
September Okra, pea, leafy vegetables, kharif onion, radish, carrot, turnip, celery,
beetroot, dolichos bean, cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, lettuce
October parsley, lettuce, parsnip, turnip, beetroot, radish, garlic, pea, french bean,
onion and knol-khol
November Okra, parsley, lettuce, parsnip, turnip, beetroot, radish, garlic, pea, french
bean, onion, knol-khol, leafy vegetables, tomato brinjal, chilli
December tomato, spinach, late cauliflower and pea, if not planted already

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2. MARKET GARDEN
 Farms those produce vegetables for supply to consumers in the local market is called a market
garden.
 Since people living in cities usually have neither the space nor the time to devote to kitchen
gardening, there is a tremendous demand of vegetables. Hence, The ultimate aim of vegetable
production in market gardens is their quick disposal in nearby market. Hence, nearness to market
with a reliable transport is essential.
 For a long time, market gardens were located near vicinity or within a distance of 10-15 km from
cities when a quick transport was not developed. However, with the expansion of cities and
improvement in road and transport network, such gardens are now located even beyond 30-40
km from main cities.
 The cropping pattern of these gardens will depend on the demand of the local market.
 The most important consideration is to develop a clearly focused marketing plan before any
vegetable crops are planted.
 The land being costly, intensive methods of cultivation are followed to earn maximum profit
from small to medium land holdings.
 Therefore, the fertility of soil needs to be replenished with the application of organic manure etc.
The high cost of land and labour is compensated by the availability of municipal compost, sludge
and water near some cities and high return on the produce.
 A market gardener will like to grow early varieties to catch the market early.
 He should be good salesman as he may have to sell his own produce without middlemen.
 He must be a versatile person as he will have to grow a number of vegetables throughout the
year.
 As intensive as well as extensive vegetable culture characterizes market gardens, a lot of green
matter is added to the soil every year. Decomposition of the green matter and the compost added
to replenish depleting soil fertility slowly but surely changes the soil reaction to acidity. It is
therefore important to get the soil tested periodically i.e. every three or four years. Application of
lime is desirable if the soil pH turns acidic.

3. TRUCK GARDEN
 The word truck has no relationship with the motor truck vehicle but has been derived from
French word ‘troquer’ meaning ‘to barter’.
 This is a more extensive type of farming where one or two crops are grown in large quantities to
feed the distant markets that are located hundreds of kilometers away from growing areas.
 The location of this type of garden is determined by the soil and climatic factors suitable for
raising a particular crop.
 Since farms are located away from the consumer markets, middleman is involved in marketing
the produce.
 The net income is also less as this includes the cost of transport and charges of middlemen.
 Due to large-scale production, farming is usually mechanized. Hence cost of cultivation is less.
 In this type of garden, varieties should possess special attributes to withstand distant
transportation. This is particularly true with the perishable vegetables.

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 For example, Punjab grown tomatoes, especially variety Punjab Chhuhara, were transported to as
distant places as Mumbai. Similarly, Punjab Sunehri variety of muskmelon is transported from
Punjab to Srinagar in J and K.
 Vegetables like pea, tomato, cauliflower etc. grown in the moderate climates of Solan and
Shimla in Himachal Pradesh are transported to the neighbouring states of Punjab, Haryana and
Delhi.
 Non-perishable vegetables like potato, onion, chilli, pumpkin, etc. do not suffer transport losses
and can be transported to any part of the country.
 The truck gardener should be a specialized person.
 He should be proficient in large scale cultivation and production and handling of some special
crops.
 With the development of quick and easy transport system, now a days, the distinction between
market and truck garden is continuously diminishing.

4. VEGETABLE GARDEN FOR PROCESSING

 The type of farming that produces vegetables with an objective to supply vegetables to the
processing industry is termed as vegetable garden for processing.
 These gardens come up around vegetable processing factories and are mainly responsible for
regular supply of vegetables to processing factories.
 For processing, only one or two varieties of one or two crops are grown on a large scale to
produce in bulk and have a continuous supply of raw material to feed the processing units for a
longer period.
 The vegetables meant for processing are grown exclusively in open field under naturally
occurring conditions.
 The farming is generally mechanized and away from the cities.
 A heavier soil is chosen to obtain high and continuous yield rather than early yields.
 Prices are paid on contract basis on weight and quantity of the produce.
 The return may be low but the cost of marketing and the transport charges are negligible.
 Vegetable production for processing is distinct from fresh market vegetable production and are
required to grow specific varieties for processing purposes suitable for canning, dehydration or
freezing .
 For example, in tomato, processing varieties, ought to possess higher TSS content and pH of
fruits between 4.0-4.5 to restrict the growth of thermophyllic organisms. Besides, the fruits
should have a balance acid:TSS ratio to impart desirable flavour to the product. The fruits should
be firm to withstand distant transportation, bulk handling and mechanical harvesting. The fruits
should be deep red (high in lycopene) to impart attractive colour to the processed product.
Otherwise, the processors add synthetic dyes, which may prove health hazardous. Further, in
tomato, there are different varieties for different processing methods viz., canning, freezing,
paste, powder, juice, etc.

5. VEGETABLE FORCING
 The word forcing designates growing of vegetables out of their normal or usual growing season.
 Here, vegetables are produced out of their normal season of outdoor production under forcing
structures that admit light and induce favourable environmental conditions for plant growth.
Greenhouses, cold frames, and hot beds are common structures used.

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 In temperate regions of developed countries like USA, Japan, Canada and parts of Europe, glass
house structures are constructed for vegetable forcing during the winter for their availability
during winter and spring season where, temperature, light, carbon dioxide and relative humidity
are controlled artificially. But, it is an expensive technology.
 Cultivation of vegetables under protected conditions ensures better quality, uniformity and
extended availability period.
 Hydroponics, sometimes called soilless culture, allows the growers to practice automatic
watering and fertilizing, thus reducing the cost of labour.
 To successfully compete with other fresh market producers, greenhouse vegetable growers must
either produce crops when the outdoor supply is limited or produce quality products
commanding premium prices.
 In India, this type of garden has very little chance to develop because the country being so large
and transport facilities becoming advanced, all vegetables can be grown normally throughout the
year in one or the other part. The cost of production and subsequent sale price is out of the reach
of a common Indian consumer. Therefore, the growers are not yet prepared to enter into this
costly venture.
 River bed cultivation is a type of vegetable forcing i.e. growing of summer vegetables on
riverbeds during winter months with the help of organic manures and windbreaks of dry grass.
 Sometimes, for early production of seedlings of tomato, brinjal, bell-pepper, chilli and cucurbits
in poly-bags are forced to germinate in small protected structures.
 Tomato, cucumber and capsicum are commonly grown vegetables under these structures.
 In India, on the other hand, some cheap but efficient polythene structures have been designed to
produce summer vegetables in winter months. In winter season, 4-6℃ higher temperature can be
maintained inside the poly-house without any heating provision, which provides better
conditions for plant growth. During extreme summer, desert coolers and sprinklers are installed
to reduce the temperature by 5-10℃.
 Honeybee boxes are placed inside the poly-house to facilitate pollination in cross-pollinated
vegetables. If poly-house is small, pollination is done manually.
 Vegetable forcing can also be adopted without any provision or structure when specific
production techniques or varieties of certain vegetables bred only for growing in the offseason
are available.

6. FLOATING GARDENS
 Floating gardens are found in lakes of Kashmir valley especially the Dal Lake of Srinagar.
 Most of vegetables in spring and summer seasons are supplied to Srinagar and rest cities of
Kashmir from floating gardens.
 A floating base is prepared using the roots of grass known as Typha that grows wild in some
parts of lake in Kashmir.
 on leaf compost made of vegetations growing wild in the lake.
 Compost and other organic matter spread over this base act as a seed-bed for growing
vegetables. Once this floating base is ready, seedlings are transplanted in this compost bed.
 Subsequent inter-culture operations and irrigation are accomplished with the help of boats.
 Besides vegetables, flowers are also successfully grown in this type of garden.
 This is a specialized type of farming and is, more or less, restricted to the Kashmir valley.

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7. ORGANIC VEGETABLE GARDEN
 Organic farming is defined as a system that excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,
and growth regulators.
 The conventional farming approach is to apply important nutrients directly into the soil solution
at rates and times to satisfy plant requirements. Synthetic chemicals are used to control insect-
pests and diseases. Chemicals are also used to affect physiological processes and conditions such
as flowering, fruit setting, colour development and ripening. However, injudicious use of
chemical fertilizers especially nitrogenous fertilizers leads to degradation of the earth
environment and outbreaks of aphid and other sap-sucking pests. Insecticides also kill natural
enemies of weeds; fungicides kill soil micro-organisms that control nematodes; and both
insecticides and fungicides reduce earthworm population, thus lowering soil fertility and water
infiltration rates.
 Nevertheless, human survival depends on agriculture production being improved and earth’s
environment being sustained. The concept of organic farming is to feed the soil and not the plant.
 Organic farming, therefore, is a production system that avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators etc.
 To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotation, crop residues,
animal manure, green manure, legumes, off farm organic waste, mechanical cultivation, mineral
bearing rocks and aspects of biological control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply
nutrients and to control insects, diseases and weeds.
 The crops and the crop varieties are selected carefully as some crops are less prone to the attack
of insects and diseases and thus can be grown easily without any chemical sprays. These crops
include beet, carrot, onion, garlic and leafy vegetables.
 However, some losses/ damages caused by insects, diseases and weeds are expected in Organic
Vegetable Gardens. There are many techniques that will reduce the need for synthetic pesticides
and improve soils without chemical fertilizers.
 Approaches and production inputs of organic farming
 Strict avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides
 Crop rotations, crop residues, mulches, animal manures and composts, cover crops and
green manures, organic fertilizers and soil amendments, composts as a source of nutrients
 Different botanical extracts, bioagents and traps for pest and disease control.

8. VEGETABLE GARDENS FOR SEED PRODUCTION

 Good seed is the base of any successful farming industry. Seed production is a specialized field
of vegetable growing.
 A thorough knowledge of the crop, its growth habit, mode of pollination, proper isolation
distance are of prime importance for quality seed production.
 Specialized knowledge is required to handle the seed crop i.e. curing, threshing, cleaning,
grading, packing and storage.
 This is an expanding industry in India and has a good future.
 To maintain genetic purity, the field for seed production should be free from volunteer plants. In cross-
pollinated crops, normally one crop variety is planted at one location.
 Beehive boxes are also placed inside the seed production blocks to enhance pollination and consequently
seed yield. Insecticides are sprayed only during morning and evening hours when bees are inactive.
 A proper isolation distance between varieties of the same crop and of other crops those are cross-
compatible, is maintained to produce true-to-type seed. The isolation distance depends upon the crossing
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 behaviour (self, often or cross-pollinated) of the crop and category (breeder, foundation or certified) of
the seed.
 Off-type plants from the seed production block are removed at vegetative, flowering and fruiting/ pod
formation stages.
 Owing to the diverse agro-climatic conditions, strong production infrastructure, abundant manpower and
market opportunity, India holds tremendous promise for vegetable seed exports especially of hybrid
seeds.

9. CONTAINER GARDEN
 In urban areas, mainly in big cities, land is a big constraint for home/kitchen garden, many types
of vegetables can be grown well in containers and space available in backyard, terrace, verandah,
balcony can be utilized for this purpose where sunshine is easily available.
 The 14 inch pots are plenty large for brinjal and cucumber and the 20-inch pots worked out well
for tomatoes.
 Generally we should grow those vegetables which facilitate multiple harvests like tomato, leafy
vegetables etc. instead of single harvest like cabbage or cauliflower etc.

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 TOPIC WEIGHTAGE

Lecture Topic Subtopics/ Key Points Weightage

No. (%)
Scope and Importance of Horticulture Definitions, Meaning, Role, Scope, Importance, 10
1-2
Areas with Examples.
Classification of Horticultural Crops Basis of Classification, Classification, Types with 10
3-4
Suitable Examples.
Meaning, Soil and Climatic requirement for
5-6 Soil and Climate for horticultural crops
horticultural crops, Suitable examples.
Plant propagation-methods and Sexual methods of propagation, Asexual Methods 15
7-11
propagating structures of Propagation, Propagation by propagules
Definition, types of seed dormancy, methods to 10
12-13 Seed dormancy and seed germination break seed dormancy. Process of seed germination
and its types.
Principles of orchard establishment, Site selection criteria, Principles, Preparation of
14-15
layout and planting systems land and layout, Planting systems
Principles and methods of training, pruning of fruit 10
16-17 Training & Pruning
crops and canopy management
Definition, Maturation Phase, techniques to reduce 10
18-19 Juvenility and flower bud differentiation juvenile phase, Ways for rejuvenation or reversion
to juvenile stage
Definitions fruitfulness, fruit setting,
20 Unfruitfulness in horticultural crops unfruitfulness, factors responsible for it, Steps to
overcome it, Suitable examples.
Definition, Types of pollinations, Mechanisms to 05
promote self & cross pollination, advantages &
21-22 Pollination, pollinizers and pollinators
disadvantages, Important pollinators & pollinizers
with examples.
23 Fertilization and parthenocarpy Definition, Types of parthenocarpy with examples
Medicinal and aromatic plant- Scope, Scope, Importance and its classification 05
24
Importance and classification
Spices and condiments- Scope, Scope, Importance and its classification
25
Importance and classification
Importance of plant bio-regulators in Definition, Role of Bio- regulators and its uses in 05
26
horticultural crops horticulture with examples
Irrigation methods and its advantages & 10
27 Irrigation methods in horticultural crops
disadvantages.
Fertilizers application in horticultural Types of fertilizers and methods of application its
28
crops advantages & disadvantages
Principles, features and styles and types Principles, features and styles and types of garden 05
29-30
of garden
31 Types of vegetable gardening Different types of vegetable gardening 05
Explanation and advancement in Kitchen
32 Kitchen gardening
gardening
Total 100

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