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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 8
Launching Your Study Social Penetration Theory
of Communication Theory 2 of Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor 93
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 9
Talk About Theory 13 Uncertainty Reduction Theory
of Charles Berger 105
CHAPTER 3
Weighing the Words 24 CHAPTER 10
Social Information Processing Theory
CHAPTER 4 of Joseph Walther 117
Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in
the Field of Communication Theory) 36 Relationship Maintenance 129
CHAPTER 11
DIVISION TWO Relational Dialectics Theory
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION of Leslie Baxter & Mikhail Bakhtin 131
Interpersonal Messages 51 CHAPTER 12
Communication Privacy Management Theory
CHAPTER 5
of Sandra Petronio 145
Symbolic Interactionism 53
of George Herbert Mead CHAPTER 13
Media Multiplexity Theory
CHAPTER 6
of Caroline Haythornthwaite 158
Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)
of W. Barnett Pearce & Vernon Cronen 65
vii
viii CONTENTS
If you’re already familiar with A First Look at Communication Theory and understand
the approach, organization, and main features of the book, you may want to jump
ahead to the “Major Changes in the Tenth Edition” section. For those who are new
to the text, reading the entire preface will give you a good grasp of what you and your
students can expect.
A Balanced Approach to Theory Selection. We’ve written A First Look for students
who have no background in communication theory. It’s designed for undergraduates
enrolled in an entry-level course, regardless of the students’ classification. The trend
in the field is to offer students a broad introduction to theory relatively early in their
program. But if a department chooses to offer its first theory course on the junior or
senior level, the course will still be the students’ first comprehensive look at theory,
so the book will meet them where they are.
Our goal in this text is to present 32 communication theories in a clear and
interesting way. After reading about a given theory, students should understand the
theory, know the research that supports it, see useful applications in their lives, and
be aware of the theory’s possible flaws. We hope readers will discover relationships
among theories located across the communication landscape—a clear indication that
they grasp what they’re reading. But that kind of integrative thinking only takes place
when students first comprehend what a theorist claims.
With the help of more than 400 instructors, we’ve selected a range of theories
that reflect the diversity within the discipline. Some theories are proven candidates
for a Communication Theory Hall of Fame. For example, Aristotle’s analysis of
logical, emotional, and ethical appeals continues to set the agenda for many public
speaking courses. Mead’s symbolic interactionism is formative for interpretive theo-
rists who are dealing with language, thought, meaning, self-concept, or the effect of
society upon the individual. Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory was the first objec-
tive theory to be crafted by a social scientist trained in the field. And no student of
mediated communication should be ignorant of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which
explains why heavy television viewing cultivates fear of a mean and scary world.
It would be shortsighted, however, to limit the selection to the classics of commu-
nication. Some of the discipline’s most creative approaches are its newest. For exam-
ple, Sandra Petronio’s theory of communication privacy management undergirds
much of the research conducted in the field of health communication. Leslie Baxter’s
theory of relational dialectics offers insight into the ongoing tensions inherent in
x
PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xi
Features of Each Chapter. Most people think in pictures. Students will have a
rough time understanding a theory unless they apply its explanations and interpre-
tations to concrete situations. Many chapters offer an extended example to illustrate
the “truth” a theory proposes. We encourage readers to try out ideas by visualizing
a first meeting of freshman roommates, trying to persuade other students to sup-
port a zero-tolerance policy on driving after drinking, considering the turbulent
marriage of a prophet and a prostitute, and many others. We also use two speeches
xii PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS
of President Barack Obama, and scenes from Mad Men, The Office, The Help, and
Thank You for Smoking to illustrate principles of the theories. The case studies
in chapters follow the pedagogical principle of explaining what students don’t yet
know in terms of ideas and images that are already within their experience.
Some theories are tightly linked with an extensive research project. For exam-
ple, the impact of cognitive dissonance theory was greatly spurred by Festinger’s
surprising finding in his now classic $1/$20 experiment. And Orbe’s co-cultural
theory emerged when he conducted intensive focus groups with members of the
LGBTQ community, African American men, and people with physical disabilities.
When such exemplars exist, we describe the research in detail so that students can
learn from and appreciate the benefits of grounding theory in systematic obser-
vation. In this way, readers of A First Look are led through a variety of research
designs and data analyses.
Students will encounter the names of Baxter, Berger, Bormann, Burgoon,
Burke, Deetz, Fisher, Giles, Kramarae, Orbe, Pacanowsky, Pearce, Ting-Toomey,
Walther, Wood, and many others in later communication courses. We therefore
make a concerted effort to link theory and theorist. By pairing a particular theory
with its originator, we try to promote both recall and respect for a given scholar’s
effort.
The text of each chapter concludes with a section that critiques the theory. This
represents a hard look at the ideas presented in light of the criteria for a good theory
outlined in Chapter 3. Some theorists have suggested that we are “friends” of their
theory. We appreciate that because we want to present all of the theories in a con-
structive way. But after we summarize a theory’s strengths, we then discuss its weak-
nesses, unanswered questions, and possible errors that remain. We try to stimulate a
“That makes sense, and yet I wonder . . .” response among students.
We include a short list of thought questions at the end of each chapter. Labeled
“Questions to Sharpen Your Focus,” these probes encourage students to make con-
nections among ideas in the chapter and also to apply the theory to their everyday
communication experience. As part of this feature, words printed in italics remind
students of the key terms of a given theory.
Each chapter ends with a short list of annotated readings entitled “A Second
Look.” The heading refers to resources for students who are interested in a theory
and want to go further than a 10- to 15-page introduction allows. The top item is
the resource we recommend as the starting point for further study. The other list-
ings identify places to look for material about each of the major issues raised in the
chapter. The format is designed to offer practical encouragement and guidance for
further study without overwhelming the novice with multiple citations. The sources
of quotations and citations of evidence are listed in an “Endnotes” section at the end
of the book.
We think instructors and students alike will get a good chuckle out of the car-
toons we’ve selected for each chapter. The art’s main function, however, is to illustrate
significant points in the text. As in other editions, we’re committed to using quality
cartoon art from The New Yorker and comic strips such as “Calvin and Hobbes” and
“Dilbert.” Perceptive cartoonists are modern-day prophets—their humor serves the
education process well when it slips through mental barriers or attitudinal defenses
that didactic prose can’t penetrate.
A co-authored book always faces the challenge of being consistent in style and
voice across chapters. This has been less of a problem for us because of our history
PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xiii
together. Andrew Ledbetter and Glenn Sparks continue to be co-authors and equal
partners with Em. Both men are highly recognized scholars in their field—Andrew
in online communication and family communication, Glenn in media effects and
interpersonal communication. Glenn was a student in Em’s first persuasion course
at Wheaton; Andrew aced one of the last communication theory classes Em taught
before he retired from full-time teaching. Despite differences in our ages of more
than 40 years, the three of us are close friends and colleagues who have published
together before. Each of us vets and edits what the other two write and offers advice
on what to cover. We’re convinced that this interactive process ensures students will
read up-to-date information presented in the same style that has characterized the
book throughout the previous nine editions.
While no author considers his or her style ponderous or dull, we believe we’ve
presented the theories in a clear and lively fashion. Accuracy alone does not com-
municate. We’ve tried to remain faithful to the vocabulary each theorist uses so that
the student can consider the theory in the author’s own terms, but we also translate
technical language into more familiar words. Students and reviewers cite readability
and interest as particular strengths of the text. We encourage you to sample a chapter
so you can decide for yourself.
In 13 of the chapters, you’ll see photographs of the theorists who appear in “Con-
versations with Communication Theorists,” eight-minute video clips of our discus-
sions together. The text that accompanies each picture previews intriguing comments
the theorists made so students can watch the interview with a specific purpose in
mind. These videos are available at www.afirstlook.com, our authors’ website averaging
50,000 log-ins a month. On that site you will also find auto-graded quizzes, chapter
outlines, theory abstracts, web links, an archive of theory chapters no longer in the
text, and a list of feature film scenes illustrating specific theories. In a password-
protected section of the site, instructors can see suggestions for classroom discussion
and activities, recommendations for further theory resources, chapter-by-chapter
changes from the previous edition, and a chart of theory coverage in other commu-
nication theory texts.
Along with many of these resources, an Instructor’s Manual, test bank, and
lecture slides are available through McGraw-Hill Connect. Connect, McGraw-Hill
Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform, also offers SmartBook
for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve
grades and help students study more effectively. Additional information about Con-
nect is available at the end of this preface.
We’ve made a concerted effort to update and replace examples that no longer
have the explanatory power or appeal they did when introduced in previous editions.
We’ve also worked hard to sharpen the end-of-chapter Critique sections, and in
almost all chapters we base our comments on the six criteria for a good interpretive
or scientific theory outlined in Chapter 3. Half the chapters in the book have under-
gone major additions, deletions, or alterations. Here’s a sample:
Em Griffin
Andrew Ledbetter
Glenn Sparks
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DIVISION ONE
Overview
2
CHAPTER 1: Launching Your Study of Communication Theory 3
“It’s just a theory, but perhaps it’s their opposable thumbs that makes them crazy.”
©Charles Barsotti/The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank
A Set of Hunches
If a theory is a set of hunches, it means we aren’t yet sure we have the answer.
When there’s no puzzle to be solved or the explanation is obvious, there’s no need
to develop a theory. Theories always involve an element of speculation, or conjec-
ture. Being a theorist is risky business because theories go beyond accepted wisdom.
Once you become a theorist, you probably hope that all thinking people will even-
tually embrace the trial balloon you’ve launched. When you first float your theory,
however, it’s definitely in the hunch category.
Theory By referring to a plural “set of hunches” rather than a single “hunch,” Burgoon
A set of systematic, makes it clear that a theory is not just one inspired thought or an isolated idea. The
informed hunches about dog in the cartoon above may be quite sure that all humans are crazy. But, despite
the way things work.
what the pup says, that isolated conviction isn’t really a theory. To become one, it
would have to go further. For example, good theories define their key terms, so we
might ask how the dog defines “crazy.” Perhaps the hound would say he thinks his
owner is crazy because she shows no interest in eating puppy chow and insists that
4 OVERVIEW
her dogs stay off the furniture. That definition may be debatable, but at least it begins
to flesh out the dog’s initial hunch. A theory will also give some indication of scope.
Are some humans crazier than others? Apes and giant pandas have opposable
thumbs too. Are they just as crazy? Theory construction involves multiple hunches.
Informed Hunches
For Burgoon, it’s not enough to think carefully about an idea; a theorist’s hunches
should be informed. Working on a hunch that opposable thumbs make people crazy,
the canine theorist could go check it out. Before developing a theory, there are
articles to read, people to talk to, actions to observe, or experiments to run, all of
which can cast light on the subject. At the very least, theorists should be familiar
with alternative explanations and interpretations of the types of phenomena they
are studying. (Little doggie, could it be that animals who bark at passing cars are
actually the crazy ones?)
Pepperdine University emeritus communication professor Fred Casmir’s descrip-
tion of theory parallels Burgoon’s call for multiple informed hunches:
Theories are sometimes defined as guesses—but significantly as “educated” guesses.
Theories are not merely based on vague impressions nor are they accidental
by-products of life. Theories tend to result when their creators have prepared
themselves to discover something in their environment, which triggers the process
of theory construction.4
Images of Theory
In response to the question What is a theory? we’ve presented a verbal definition.
Many students are visual learners as well and would appreciate a concrete image
that helps us understand what a theory is and does. So we’ll present three metaphors
CHAPTER 1: Launching Your Study of Communication Theory 5
that we find helpful, but will also note how an overreliance on these representations
of theory might lead us astray.
Theories as Nets: Philosopher of science Karl Popper said that “theories are nets
cast to catch what we call ‘the world’. . . . We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer
and finer.”5 This metaphor highlights the ongoing labor of the theorist as a type of
deep-sea angler. For serious scholars, theories are the tools of the trade. The term
the world can be interpreted as everything that goes on under the sun—thus requiring
a grand theory that applies to all communication, all the time. Conversely, catching
the world could be construed as calling for numerous special theories—different kinds
of small nets to capture distinct types of communication in local situations. But
either way, the quest for finer-meshed nets is somewhat disturbing because the study
of communication is about people rather than schools of fish. The idea that theories
could be woven so tightly that they’d snag everything humans think, say, or do seems
naive. The possibility also raises questions about our freedom to choose some actions
and reject others.
Theories as Lenses: Many scholars see their theoretical constructions as sim-
ilar to the lens of a camera or a pair of glasses, as opposed to a mirror that
accurately reflects the world out there. The lens imagery highlights the idea that
theories shape our perception by focusing attention on some features of commu-
nication while ignoring other features, or at least pushing them into the back-
ground. Two theorists could analyze the same communication event—an argument,
perhaps—and, depending on the lens each uses, one theorist may view the speech
act as a b reakdown of communication or the breakup of a relationship, while the
other theorist will see it as democracy in action. A danger of the lens metaphor
is that we might regard what is seen through the glass as so dependent on the
theoretical stance of the viewer that we abandon any attempt to discern what is
real or true.
Theories as Maps: A good map helps us understand unfamiliar terrain. It’s
designed with a purpose. Road maps explain how to get from point A to point B.
Political maps show boundaries between states and nations. Climate maps reveal
whether a place is hot or cold. Within this analogy, a communication theory is a
kind of map that’s designed to help you navigate some part of the topography of
human relationships. In a sense, this book of theories is like a scenic atlas that pulls
together 32 must-see locations. However, we must remember that the map is not
the territory.6 Like a still photograph, no theory can fully portray the richness of
interaction between people that is constantly changing, always varied, and inevitably
more complicated than what any theory can chart. As a person intrigued with
communication, aren’t you glad it’s this way?
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
So far we’ve discussed theory, but what about communication? What is it, exactly?
To ask this question is to invite controversy and raise expectations for clarity
that can’t be met. When it comes to defining what it is we study, there’s little
discipline in the discipline. Frank Dance, the University of Denver scholar cred-
ited with publishing the first comprehensive book on communication theory,
cataloged more than 120 definitions of communication—and that was 50 years
ago.7 Communication scholars have suggested many more since then, yet no
6 OVERVIEW
single definition has risen to the top and become the standard within the field
of communication.
At the conclusion of his study, Dance suggested that we’re “trying to make the
concept of communication do too much work for us.”8 Other communication the-
orists agree, noting that when the term is used to describe almost every kind of
human interaction, it’s seriously overburdened. Michigan Tech University commu-
nication professor Jennifer Slack brings a splash of reality to attempts to draw
definitive lines around what our theories and research cover. She declares that
“there is no single, absolute essence of communication that adequately explains
the phenomena we study. Such a definition does not exist; neither is it merely
awaiting the next brightest communication scholar to nail it down once and
for all.”9
Despite the pitfalls of trying to define communication in an all-inclusive way, it
seems to us that students who are willing to spend a big chunk of their college
education studying communication deserve a description of what it is they’re look-
ing at. Rather than giving the final word on what human activities can be legiti-
mately referred to as communication, this designation would highlight the essential
features of communication that shouldn’t be missed. So for starters, we offer this
working definition:
Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that
elicit a response.
Communication
The relational process of
To the extent that there is redeeming value in this statement, it lies in drawing
creating and interpreting your attention to five features of communication that you’ll run across repeatedly
messages that elicit a as you read about the theories in the field. We’ll flesh out these concepts in the
response. rest of this section.
1. Messages
Messages are at the core of communication study. University of Colorado emeritus
communication professor Robert Craig says that communication involves “talking
and listening, writing and reading, performing and witnessing, or, more generally,
doing anything that involves ‘messages’ in any medium or situation.”10
When academic areas such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, political
science, literature, and philosophy deal with human symbolic activity, they inter-
sect with the study of communication. The visual image of this intersection of
interests has prompted some to refer to communication as a crossroads discipline.
The difference is that communication scholars are parked at the junction focus-
ing on messages, while other disciplines are just passing through on their way
to other destinations. All the theories covered in this book deal specifically with
messages.
Text Communication theorists use the word text as a synonym for a message that
A record of a message can be studied, regardless of the medium. This book is a text. So is a verbatim
that can be analyzed by transcript of a conversation with your instructor, a recorded presidential news
others (e.g., a book, film,
conference, a silent YouTube video, or a Justin Bieber song. To illustrate the fol-
photograph, or any
transcript or recording of
lowing four parts of the definition, suppose you received this cryptic text message
a speech or broadcast). from a close friend: “Pat and I spent the night together.” You immediately know
that the name Pat refers to the person with whom you have an ongoing romantic
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— Enkä kirjoita.
— No ka…
— Hyvä asia… sama se, kuka kulkee, kun kerran kuljettava on.
Maattomat saavat maata.
— Ka… hitsiläistä…
7.
— Jo toki riittääkin.
Hentu oli kylällä käynyt kehuskelemassa, että hän saa koko mökin
siirtymään takamaalleen, kun on talon viljelyksien tiellä ja muutenkin
liian lähellä taloa.
Hentu oli sen nyt huomannut, kun piti luovuttaa hänelle tiluksensa
omikseen. Hentu ei tosin voinut kieltäytyä antamasta, mutta lain
varjolla olisi hänellä ehkä tilaisuus tehdä kiusaa torpparilleen ja
karkoittaa tämä syntymäkodistaan raivaamattomaan korpeen.
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