Memory
“Special ability of our mind to conserve or store what
has been previously learnt or experienced, and then at
some later stage to enable us to make use of it retrieval.”
“Memory is a complex process which involves factors
like learning, retention, recall, and recognition.”
Cognitive process whereby past experiences are
remembered and brought back in the active part of
mind.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Memory Process/ The Information Processing
Model
i. Encoding
ii. Storage
iii. Retrieval
Encoding (Getting Information In):
The first step in the memory system is to get
sensory information (sight, sound, etc.) into a
form that the brain can use, a process called
encoding.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Encoding is the set of mental operations that
people perform on sensory information to
convert that information into a form that is
usable in the brain’s storage system.
For example, when people hear a sound, their
ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural
message from the auditory nerve, which makes
it possible for the brain to interpret that sound.
Encoding is not limited to turning sensory
information into signals for the brain, but
instead it can take a different form in each of
three storage systems or the stages of memory.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
In one stage of memory storage, encoding can
take the form of rehearsing information over
and over to keep it in memory, where in
another stage encoding involves elaborating on
the meaning of the information.
Types of Encoding Process
a. Automatic encoding process
b. Effortful encoding process
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
a. Automatic encoding process:
As its name implies, automatic encoding
occurs automatically with little or no effort.
The materials can be brought back easily.
For example, whole day’s events can be
recalled in a sequence, without any
interference.
Memories like these form almost
automatically.
It is also difficult to get away without
registering it.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
For example, it is easy to recall where the key
was dropped.
We go on recreating the picture mentally with
recall the sequence of the day’s event, where
we were yesterday, who was with us, where
we sat, what we wore, whom we talked with,
etc.
b. Effortful encoding process
Encoding that requires attention and conscious
effort is called effortful processing.
After practices, effortful processing becomes
more automatic.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
For example, remembering names, dates,
definition, formulas, giving attention to the
professor’s words in the class requires effort of
conscious repetition and rehearsal.
It is more complex and requires more time than
automatic encoding.
Storage (Retaining Information):
The next step in memory is to hold on to the
information for some period of time, a process
called storage.
This period of time will actually be of different
lengths, depending on the stage of memory
being used.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
For example, in one stage of memory people
hold on to information just long enough to
work with it, about 20 seconds or so. In another
stage of memory, people hold on to
information more or less permanently.
Retrieval (Getting Information Out):
The biggest problem many people have is
retrieval, getting the information they know
they have out of storage.
We recall or bring a memory into
consciousness, from among the stored
materials and this process is known as retrieval
process.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Psychologist have distinguished three different
ways of retrieving process that are stored.
i. Recall method
ii. Recognition method
iii. Relearning method
Recall method: Recall is bringing past experience
into present consciousness in the absence of
stimulus.
For example, in examination, we try to recall
the material we have learnt earlier in the
absence of the notes or copies we have
prepared for this purpose.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Recognition method:
A different way to retrieve information is
through recognition. Recognition is retrieving
the information in the presence of the stimulus
we have already experienced.
We simply require sorting out the material
among other new materials before us.
Usually in recognition process individuals are
presented with a name, or situation or
photograph and asked if they have
encountered it before.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Relearning method (Going through the Material
Again):
Another way to test the memory is through
relearning the material. It is easier than original
learning.
The relearning speed can reveal memory.
It saves time, effort and is simpler than original
learning process.
For example, if you once learned something and
then forget it, you probably will relearn it more
quickly than when you learned it originally.
It is like when you study for the final exam the
relearning is easier. This is why relearning method
is also called ‘a saving method’.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Retrieval of Memory
Retrieval is the process of getting information out
of memory. Retrieval cues are stimuli that help
the process of retrieval. Retrieval cues include
associations, context, and mood. Lets discuss
a. Memory Cues
b. Recall
c. Recognition
d. Reconstruction
e. Automatic encoding
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
a. Retrieval cue refers to a stimulus that helps
you recall information from long-term
memory.
b. Recall: Recall refers to a test of explicit memory
in which a person must retrieve and reproduce
information from memory.
c. Recognition: Recognition refers to a test of
explicit memory in which a person must decide
whether or not the information has been
encountered before.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
d. Reconstruction: Reconstruction refers to
forming a new set of experiences or knowledge
by mixing some part of knowledge from the
LTM and some part from the present
experiences.
e. Automatic Encoding: Automatic encoding is
the transfer of information from STM into LTM
without any effort and usually without any
awareness.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
The Three Stage Theory Model / Atkinson and
Shiffrin Model of Memory
Stage theory model of memory was developed
by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in
1971. Hence, it is also referred to as the
Atkinson – Shiffrin Model of Memory.
As we have to store different types of memory
in our daily life, the stage theory model of
memory is described as the most influential
model by the psychologist.
It describes that there are several memory
storage system having different properties and
capacities.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
The stage theory of memory assumes that
humans have a three stage memory that meets
our need to store information for different
length of time.
According to them one memory holds
information for brief intervals, a secondary
system for less than 30 seconds and the third is
of a permanent nature.
These three different storage systems have
different rules and functions, because we
remember some information for a longer time
and forget the other one easily.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
The model contains three different stages of
memory system closely linked with each other.
These three processes are encoding, storage and
retrieval.
Stage Theory Memory System:
Encoding Storage Retrieval
(Automatic, (SM, STM, LTM) (Recall,
Effortful) Recognition,
Relearning)
Note: Encoding and Retrieval are described under
the topic ‘Memory Process/Information
Processing Model’ and ‘Storage System’ is
described below:
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
The Storage System /Memory System / Types of
Memory / is divided into:
i. Sensory Memory (SM)
ii. Short Term Memory (STM) or working memory
iii. Long Term Memory (LTM)
Sensory Memory:
It is a very short duration memory or impression
collected by our senses from all experiences.
Many of sensory impressions are forgotten
immediately, and some of the attended
experiences are stored in STM store.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
For example, when we walk on the road, we
see many people. The sensory impressions of
all these people are mad in our brain. However,
we may take attention on only few of them. In
a very short time, we forget about these people.
Many of them which are unnoticed are
forgotten immediately, and only few portions
of such memory is transferred into our memory
store.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Short-term memory:
STM includes instant change in environment, area
immediate local attention, working decisions,
etc. It is also called working memory. It
remains in our mind until it has some utility.
This type of memory is faded out when its
utility is finished. Only some part of STM is
transferred into our long-term memory (LTM).
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Long –term memory:
LTM remains preserved in our mind for a long
duration of time. It can be recalled when it is
needed. It is also known as the permanent store
of knowledge and skill of individuals. It
contains perceptions, procedural memories,
beliefs, concepts etc.
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Note: Consult the PDF file
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
Note: Consult PDF file
Rom Sharma, Lecturer, Lumbini
Banijya Capus, Butwal
