1. What is language? Describe it.

Language is how people communicate with each other. It allows us to share

ideas, express feelings, and understand the world around us. Without language,
we wouldn’t be able to talk, write, or even think clearly. It helps us form
relationships, solve problems, and share knowledge.

Language changes over time as people use it in different ways. New words are
created, and old words might disappear or change their meaning. For example,
words like selfie and blog didn’t exist a few decades ago but are now common.

Language is made up of three main parts:

- Sounds (Phonology): This part focuses on how we make and hear sounds. For
example, the sounds we make when we say a word, like how cat sounds
different from bat.
- Words (Lexicon): These are the actual words we use to name things or
actions. Words like apple or run are part of the lexicon.
- Grammar: This is the set of rules that helps us use words in the right order to
create sentences that make sense. Without grammar, we couldn’t form correct
sentences. For instance, dog the chased doesn’t make sense, but The dog chased
does.

Language is a tool for understanding and sharing our experiences with others,
and it helps us connect with people.

2. What are the three constituent parts of language? Characterize each of

them.
Language is made up of three parts, and each part is important for making
communication clear:

1. Sounds (Phonological System):

- This part is all about the sounds that make up words. We use these sounds to
pronounce words correctly and to make them understandable to others.
Phonology is the study of these sounds.
- Example: If you change the first sound in bat to pat, the meaning of the word
changes. This difference in sound can change what we understand.
- Phonology also includes stress and rhythm, like how we say certain words
more strongly or how the rhythm of speech can change the meaning. For
example, "I didn't say she stole the money" can have different meanings
depending on which word you stress.

2. Words (Lexical System):

- This part is about the vocabulary or the set of words we use to communicate.
The lexicon is the collection of all words in a language, including how they're
formed and how they’re used.
 - Words can represent things, actions, or ideas. For example, dog names an
animal, run describes an action, and happiness refers to an idea or feeling.
- The lexicon grows over time as new words are added and others fall out of
use. For example, words like smartphone or internet are modern additions to the
lexicon.

3. Grammar (Grammatical System):

- Grammar is the set of rules that helps us put words in the right order so that
our sentences make sense. It’s like a guide that tells us how to use language
correctly.
- Grammar includes syntax (how words are arranged in a sentence) and
morphology (how words change form).
- For example, English grammar tells us that we generally put the subject before
the verb in sentences (She runs), and it tells us how to change words like run to
ran in the past tense.

Each of these systems—phonology, lexicon, and grammar—works together to

help us communicate clearly and effectively.

3. Define parts of speech.

Parts of speech are categories that group words by what they do in a sentence.
These categories help us understand how words work together to make
meaning. Without parts of speech, it would be difficult to know how to use
words in a sentence.

There are eight main parts of speech in English:

- Nouns: These are words that name people, places, things, or ideas. They are
the most basic building blocks in a sentence.
- Example: dog, house, happiness

- Verbs: These are words that show actions or states of being. Every sentence
needs a verb.
- Example: run, eat, is (for a state of being)

- Adjectives: These words describe or give more information about nouns.

- Example: beautiful, tall, quick

- Adverbs: These words describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

- Example: quickly, very, well

- Pronouns: These words replace nouns to avoid repetition.

- Example: he, they, it
 - Prepositions: These words show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun)
and another word in the sentence.
- Example: in, on, under

- Conjunctions: These words connect other words, phrases, or clauses.

- Example: and, but, or

- Interjections: These are short words or phrases that express strong feelings or
reactions.
- Example: wow, ouch, oh

Each part of speech plays an important role in building meaning in a sentence.

For example, in the sentence The quick dog runs fast, the noun dog names the
subject, the adjective quick describes the dog, the verb runs tells what the dog
does, and the adverb fast explains how the dog runs.

These parts of speech are grouped using three main rules:

- Meaning (semantic criterion): What the word represents.
- Form (formal criterion): The word’s structure, like adding -ed for past tense.
- Function (functional criterion): The role of the word in the sentence (e.g.,
subject, action, modifier).

By understanding parts of speech, we can put words together to create

sentences that communicate meaning clearly.

4. What are the main criteria of discriminating parts of speech in modern

English? What does each criterion concern?
In modern English, parts of speech are classified based on three main criteria:

1. Semantic Criterion (Meaning):

This criterion focuses on the meaning of the word. For example:
- Nouns usually represent things, people, or places (like dog, house, happiness).
- Verbs show actions or states of being (like run, eat, is).
- Adjectives describe things or people (like beautiful, tall).
- Adverbs describe how actions are done (like quickly, slowly).
This criterion helps us group words based on what they mean in the sentence.

2. Formal Criterion (Form):

This criterion looks at the form or structure of the word. For example:
- Nouns change to show singular or plural (e.g., dog> dogs).
- Verbs change based on tense (e.g., run → ran or running).
- Adjectives change to show degree (e.g., big → bigger → biggest).
These changes in form help us recognize the part of speech a word belongs to.
 3. Functional Criterion (Role in a Sentence):
This criterion focuses on the role or function of the word in the sentence. For
example:
- Nouns often act as subjects or objects (The dog runs).
- Verbs show the action or state in the sentence (He eats).
- Adjectives modify or describe nouns (The big dog).
- Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (She runs quickly).
The role a word plays in a sentence helps us understand its part of speech.

These three criteria—meaning, form, and function—work together to help us

group words correctly.

5. Name the features of the notional parts of speech.

Notional parts of speech are words that have clear meanings and carry
important information in a sentence. These parts of speech include nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and numerals. Here are the main features
of notional parts of speech:

1. Independent Meaning:
Notional words have specific meanings. For example, dog refers to a type of
animal (noun), run describes an action (verb), and happy describes a feeling
(adjective).

2. Grammatical Forms:
These words can change their form to express different grammatical features.
For example:
- Nouns change to show number (singular or plural), like cat (singular) and cats
(plural).
- Verbs change to show tense, like play (present) and played (past).
- Adjectives can change to show degrees, like big (positive), bigger
(comparative), and biggest (superlative).

3. Syntactic Role (Sentence Function):

Notional parts of speech play specific roles in sentences. For example:
- Nouns usually act as subjects or objects in a sentence (The dog runs).
- Verbs show actions or states (He is running).
- Adjectives describe nouns (The tall tree).
- Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (She runs quickly). These
words are important for building sentences that make sense.

4. Combinability (How They Combine with Other Words):

Notional words can combine with other words to create phrases and sentences.
For example:
- Nouns combine with articles and adjectives (the big dog).
 - Verbs combine with adverbs (He runs fast).
These combinations help us express more complex ideas. These features make
notional parts of speech essential for building meaningful sentences.

6. Define parts of speech.

Parts of speech are categories that group words based on their meaning, form,
and function in a sentence. They help us organize words and understand how to
use them properly. There are two main types of parts of speech:

1. Notional Parts of Speech:

These are words that carry full meanings and are the key parts of a sentence.
Examples include:
- Nouns: Name things or people (dog, city).
- Verbs: Show actions or states (run, eat).
- Adjectives: Describe nouns (beautiful, tall).
- Adverbs: Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (quickly, very).

2. Functional Parts of Speech:

These words link or connect other words in a sentence. They don’t carry a full
meaning by themselves, but they help the sentence make sense. Examples
include:
- Articles: Words like the, a, or an, which are used with nouns.
- Prepositions: Words like on, under, by, that show relationships between
things.
- Conjunctions: Words like and, but, or, that connect words or ideas.
- Interjections: Words like wow, oh, that express emotion.

Parts of speech are essential for understanding how words function in a

sentence. They help us construct clear and meaningful sentences.

7. What are the main criteria of discriminating parts of speech in modern

English? What does each criterion concern?
8. Name the features of the notional parts of speech.
9. Name the features of the functional parts of speech.
Functional parts of speech are words that do not carry full lexical meaning on
their own but instead perform grammatical roles in a sentence. These include
articles, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, modal words, and interjections.
The key features of functional parts of speech are:

1. Lack of Independent Meaning:

Unlike notional parts of speech (e.g., nouns and verbs), functional words do not
provide significant meaning by themselves. Instead, they serve to connect or
modify the notional words in a sentence.
 - Example: the, on, and, but.

2. Grammatical Function:
Functional parts of speech often serve a mediating role, connecting different
parts of a sentence or showing relationships between them.
- Articles limit the meaning of nouns (the dog).
- Prepositions express relationships between other words (on the table).
- Conjunctions link phrases or clauses (and, but).

3. Syntactic Position:
Functional words are typically used to express grammatical relationships within
a sentence. They often occupy specific positions to help structure the sentence
properly.
- Example: In She went to the store, to is a preposition that shows the
relationship between went (verb) and store (noun).

4. Lack of Inflection:
Most functional parts of speech do not undergo inflection (changes in form for
tense, number, etc.). However, some, like modal verbs (can, must), may show
variations in form.

In summary, functional parts of speech help shape the meaning of sentences by

organizing and linking words.

10.What is the subcategorization of parts of speech? What are parts of speech

subcategorized into?
Su bcategorization is the process of further dividing parts of speech into subtypes
based on their semantic and functional features. This helps to better understand
how words from the same part of speech can function in different contexts. Here’s
how parts of speech are subcategorized:

1. Nouns:
Nouns are subcategorized based on their type and countability. Examples
include:
- Proper vs. Common Nouns: Proper nouns name specific entities (London,
Mary), while common nouns refer to general items or ideas (city, person).
- Animate vs. Inanimate Nouns: Animate nouns refer to living things (man,
dog), while inanimate nouns refer to non-living things (stone, chair).
- Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns: Countable nouns refer to things that can be
counted (apple/apples), while uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be
counted (water, furniture).
- Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns: Concrete nouns refer to physical things (car,
book), while abstract nouns refer to ideas or concepts (love, freedom).
 2. Verbs:
Verbs can be subcategorized into:
- Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs: Transitive verbs require an object (eat in
*She eats an apple*), while intransitive verbs do not (sleep in *He sleeps*).
- Actional vs. Statal Verbs: Actional verbs describe actions (run, jump), while
statal verbs describe states of being (exist, seem).
- Finite vs. Non-finite Verbs: Finite verbs show tense and agree with the
subject (he runs), while non-finite verbs do not show tense (running, to run).

3. Adjectives:
Adjectives are subcategorized into:
- Qualitative vs. Relative Adjectives: Qualitative adjectives describe qualities
(big, tall), while relative adjectives describe relationships or origins (wooden,
rural).
- Evaluative vs. Factual Adjectives: Evaluative adjectives express a judgment
(beautiful, ugly), while factual adjectives describe properties without judgment
(round, smooth).

4. Pronouns:
Pronouns are often subcategorized by their function in sentences, such as:
- Personal Pronouns: These refer to specific people or things (he, she, it).
- Demonstrative Pronouns: These point to specific things (this, those).
- Indefinite Pronouns: These refer to unspecified things or people (anyone,
something).

Subcategorization helps identify the specific role and characteristics of words

within each part of speech, making it easier to understand their behavior in
sentences.

11.What are the characteristic substantive functions of the noun?

The noun in English has several important substantive functions, meaning it plays
key roles in sentences. The main functions include:

1. Subject: The noun often acts as the subject of a sentence, which means it is the
person, place, or thing performing the action.
- Example: The dog runs. Here, *dog* is the subject.

2. Object: Nouns can also serve as the object in a sentence, which means they
receive the action of the verb.
- Example: She read the book. Here, *book* is the object.

3. Substantival Predicative: A noun can be part of the predicative structure, where

it describes the subject through a linking verb.
- Example: He is a teacher. Here, *teacher* is the predicative noun.

Other functions performed by nouns include attributive (modifying other nouns),

adverbial (indicating circumstances), and even predicative functions, though these
are less characteristic of their substantive role.

12.Define the noun.

A noun is a part of speech that primarily refers to a substance or a thing. Nouns can
represent concrete objects, such as a dog or a house, as well as abstract concepts,
like love or freedom. Nouns are the main nominative part of language, meaning
they serve as the primary way to name things.

Nouns also have specific grammatical features, such as the ability to change form
to indicate number (singular or plural) and case (e.g., possessive). For example,
dog becomes dogs in the plural, and *John's book* shows possession with the
genitive case. Nouns can combine with other words (like adjectives) to provide
more specific meaning (e.g., big dog).

13.What is the combinability of the noun?

Nouns have several types of combinability, which refers to how they can combine
with other words or phrases in a sentence:

1. Prepositional Combinability: Nouns can combine with prepositions to show

relationships.
- Example: The entrance to the house. Here, *entrance* combines with *to* (a
preposition) and *house* (another noun).

2. Possessive Combinability: Nouns can combine with other nouns in a possessive

form, showing ownership.
- Example: The President's speech. The possessive form *President's* shows
ownership of the speech.

3. Contact Combinability: Nouns can combine with other nouns directly, without
the need for prepositions or possessive markers. This typically involves a noun in
the first position that modifies the noun in the second position.
- Example: Cannon ball, log cabin, sports event. The first noun in each pair
qualifies the second noun.

Nouns are flexible and can combine with various other parts of speech to create
more complex meanings.

14.Group the nouns into oppositional pairs.

In English, nouns can be grouped into several oppositional pairs based on different
semantic features. Here are four major oppositional pairs of nouns:

1. Proper vs. Common Nouns:

- Proper nouns refer to specific names of people, places, or organizations (e.g.,
*Mary*, *London*).
- Common nouns refer to general things or concepts (e.g., *dog*, *city*).

2. Animate vs. Inanimate Nouns:

- Animate nouns refer to living things (e.g., *man*, *dog*).
- Inanimate nouns refer to non-living things (e.g., *table*, *stone*).

3. Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns:

- Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns: Concrete nouns refer to physical things (car, book),
while abstract nouns refer to ideas or concepts (love, freedom).

4. Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns:

- Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted (e.g., *book*, *apple*).
- Uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted directly (e.g., *water*,
*furniture*).

These oppositions help classify nouns based on their characteristics, providing a

clearer understanding of how they function in sentences.

15.How is the category of gender presented in theoretical treaties and

practical grammars? What is the difference in their treatment of this
category?
16.How is the category of gender presented in theoretical treaties and
practical grammars? What is the difference in their treatment of this
category?
In theoretical treatises, the category of gender in English is often defined as a
lexical or semantic feature, meaning that gender is determined based on the
meaning of the noun itself. Nouns are divided into two main categories: person
(human) nouns and non-person (non-human) nouns. In the subset of person nouns,
a further distinction is made between masculine and feminine genders. Thus,
English gender operates with a strictly oppositional structure.

In practical grammars, however, gender is more commonly described in terms of

practical usage, where the focus is on how gender is used in everyday speech and
writing. This includes the correlation of nouns with personal pronouns (like he,
she, and it) to reflect gender in speech. Practical manuals also include examples of
gendered terms, such as using actor/actress for gender distinctions.
The main difference is that theoretical treatises focus on the inherent meaning of
nouns to determine gender, while practical grammars concentrate on usage and the
grammatical rules that reflect these meanings in actual speech and writing.
17.Dwell on the semantic nature of the difference between singular and plural.
The difference between singular and plural forms in English often expresses the
idea of quantity, with singular referring to one thing and plural indicating more
than one. However, the semantic distinction is not always this straightforward.

For example, singular nouns like tear refer to a single instance (a drop of liquid),
whereas the plural noun *tears* refers to multiple instances (drops of liquid as a
sign of emotion). Similarly, potato refers to a single item, but potatoes refers to the
vegetable in general as food.

Additionally, the plural form can sometimes express a set of objects, as in *eyes*
(referring to both eyes as a set), or intensity, as in *years and years* (suggesting an
extended duration).

In cases like news or measles, the plural form does not simply mean “more than
one” but can refer to a collection or state (e.g., news as a collection of information,
measles as a disease), even though these nouns do not have a true plural form in
the traditional sense.

18.What are the two subtypes of the genitive case in English?

In English, the genitive case can be divided into two main subtypes:

1. The word genitive: This is the most common form and involves adding the 's
suffix to a noun. This form shows possession or a relationship between the noun
and its referent.
- Example: The man's book (the book belonging to the man).

2. The phrase genitive: This involves using the "of" construction to show
possession or a relationship, typically used when the possessive form would sound
awkward or unclear.
- Example: The book of the man (though less common, this form is used for
certain phrases or formal constructions).

19.What are the semantic types of the genitive?

The genitive case in English can express several types of relationships or
meanings, and these can be grouped into the following main semantic categories:

1. Genitive of Possessor: This type shows possession, where the genitive noun
indicates ownership or association with the object referred to by the head noun.
- Example: Dad's earnings (earnings belonging to Dad).
2. Genitive of Integer (Whole-to-Part Possession): This type expresses a
relationship where the genitive noun refers to the whole entity, and the head noun
refers to a part of it.
- Example: Jane's busy hands (hands are part of Jane).

3. Genitive of Agent: This form shows the doer of an action or the initiator of a
process.
- Example: The president's speech (the speech delivered by the president).

4. Genitive of Qualification: This type shows a quality or characteristic attributed

to the head noun.
- Example: Mr. Dodson's vanity (vanity associated with Mr. Dodson).

5. Genitive of Quantity: This expresses a measurement or quantity, often used with

units of time, distance, or weight.
- Example: Three miles' distance (distance measured in miles).

6. Genitive of Comparison: This form expresses a comparison between two things.

- Example: The cock's self-confidence (self-confidence like that of a cock).
These semantic types show how the genitive case can indicate a wide range of
relationships beyond simple possession.

20.Define the article.

An article is a small word that comes before a noun to show if the noun is specific
or general. Articles are part of the functional parts of speech in English and are
used to help the listener or reader understand what the speaker or writer is talking
about.

There are three articles in English:

- a and an are indefinite articles. They are used when we are talking about
something general or mentioning it for the first time.
Example: I saw a dog in the park. (This could be any dog.)
- the is the definite article. It is used when we are talking about something specific
that is already known to both the speaker and listener.
Example: The dog in the park was very friendly. (This is a specific dog, not just
any dog.)

Articles are important because they give clarity to sentences and help avoid
confusion.

21.How do articles differ from determiners?

Articles are a type of determiner, but determiners include a wider range of words.
While articles focus on showing whether a noun is specific or general, determiners
can give more information about a noun, such as quantity, possession, or
proximity.
Here are some examples of determiners:
- Articles: a, an, the
- Possessive Determiners: my, your, his, her. Example: This is my book.
- Demonstrative Determiners: this, that, these, those. Example: I want that apple.
- Quantifiers: some, many, few, no. Example: I have some money.

The main difference is that articles are limited to showing definiteness (the) or
indefiniteness (a, an), while determiners can provide a variety of other information
about nouns.

22.What is characteristic for the use of articles?

Articles are used in specific ways to help clarify whether a noun is definite or
indefinite. Some important characteristics of article use include:

1. Definite and Indefinite Articles

- The definite article (the) refers to something specific or already mentioned.
Example: I saw a cat. The cat was black.
- The indefinite articles (a, an) refer to something general or mentioned for the first
time. Example: I saw a bird flying.

2. Phonetic Rules
- Use a before words starting with a consonant sound: a car, a house.
- Use an before words starting with a vowel sound: an apple, an hour.

3. Omission of Articles
Articles are not used with uncountable nouns or plural nouns when talking about
them in general. Example: Water is important for life. (No article before water.)

4. Special Uses
- Use the with unique things: the moon, the sun, the Earth.
- Use the with superlatives: the best, the biggest.

Articles are a simple yet powerful tool to give more meaning to sentences.

23.How does the oppositional theory affect the use of articles?

The oppositional theory explains how articles work by dividing them into two
opposite categories: definiteness and indefiniteness.

1. Definite Article (The)

- Shows that the noun is specific or already known.
- Example: The book on the table is mine. (A specific book is being referred to.)
2. Indefinite Articles (A, An)
- Show that the noun is general or not known yet.
- Example: I saw a bird in the sky. (This could be any bird.)

3. Zero Article (No Article)

- Sometimes, no article is used, especially with uncountable nouns, plural nouns, or
proper nouns.
- Example: I love coffee. (No article before coffee because it is general and
uncountable.)

The oppositional theory helps explain why we choose a specific article or no article
at all, depending on whether we want to emphasize something definite, indefinite,
or general.

24.What parts of speech do pronouns share common properties with?

Pronouns share properties with both nouns and adjectives, depending on their use.

1. Like nouns:
- Pronouns can replace nouns in sentences.
- Example: Instead of saying *John is reading a book*, you can say *He is reading
a book*.
- Pronouns can also act as subjects (*he, they*) or objects (*him, them*).

2. Like adjectives:
- Some pronouns, like possessive pronouns (*my, your, his*), can modify nouns.
- Example: *This is my car.* Here, *my* works like an adjective describing *car*.

This flexibility allows pronouns to adapt to different roles in sentences, making

them unique.

25.What is the semantic interpretation of pronouns?

The meaning of pronouns depends heavily on the context in which they are used.
Pronouns don’t have a fixed meaning on their own; they point to or replace other
words (like nouns) in a sentence.
- General and undetermined meaning:
Pronouns like *he, she, it* don’t name specific things but indicate them based on
the situation. Example: *She is late.* (Who is *she*? It depends on the context.)

- Indication:
Pronouns indicate people, objects, or ideas without naming them directly. This is
their primary function.
- Substitution:
Pronouns can substitute for nouns or phrases to avoid repetition. Example: Instead
of saying *John went to John’s house*, we say *John went to his house*.

The meaning of pronouns is flexible and depends on their role in the sentence and
their connection to other words.

26.Name the formal and structural peculiarities of pronouns.

27.Name the formal and structural peculiarities of pronouns.
Pronouns have specific forms and structures that make them different from other
parts of speech:

1. Variable and invariable forms:

- Some pronouns change form depending on case, number, or gender. Example:
*he/him/his* or *this/these*.
- Other pronouns do not change their form, like *someone* or *something*.

2. Word-building structure:
- Pronouns can have simple forms like *I* or *we*.
- Some are compound, formed by combining words, such as *everyone* or
*somebody*.

3. Grammatical categories:
- Pronouns can show distinctions like number (*this/these*), case (*he/him*), and
gender (*he/she/it*).

4. Syntactic roles:
- Pronouns can function as subjects, objects, or possessives in a sentence.
Example: *She gave him her book.* (*she* = subject, *him* = object, *her* =
possessive).

5. Substitution and reference:

- Pronouns refer to something previously mentioned or implied, avoiding
repetition.

These peculiarities make pronouns versatile and important for creating concise and
meaningful sentences.

28.What is the status of the pronoun in the system of the parts of speech?
Pronouns have a special status in the system of parts of speech. Some pronouns
share properties with nouns, such as *someone*, which acts like a noun. Other
pronouns have more in common with adjectives, such as *this*, which can modify
a noun. Because pronouns can perform different roles, some grammarians place
them between nouns and adjectives. However, most modern grammars consider
pronouns to be a separate part of speech.
Pronouns are different because they often don’t name things directly; instead, they
point to them or replace them. This is called "indication" or "substitution."
Pronouns represent other parts of speech and take on their meaning based on
context, helping avoid repetition in sentences. This flexibility makes pronouns a
unique and important part of language.

29.What are the syntactic functions of the pronouns?

Pronouns can serve various syntactic functions in sentences. Their primary roles
include:

1. **Subject**: Pronouns can act as the subject of a sentence, performing the

action. Example: *She is studying.*
2. **Object**: Pronouns can act as the object, receiving the action. Example: *I
saw him.*
3. **Possessive function**: Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession.
Example: *That is my book.*
4. **Predicate nominative**: Pronouns can be used after linking verbs to rename
or identify the subject. Example: *It is I who will help you.*
5. **Reflexive function**: Reflexive pronouns reflect the subject’s action back
onto itself. Example: *She made herself dinner.*
Pronouns can also function as determiners, modifying a noun directly. For
example, in *this book*, *this* is a demonstrative pronoun acting as a determiner.

30.Classify English pronouns.

English pronouns can be classified into different types based on their function and
meaning. Some common classifications include:

1. **Personal Pronouns**: These pronouns refer to specific people or things.

Example: *I, you, he, she, it, we, they.*

2. **Possessive Pronouns**: These show ownership or possession. Example: *my,

your, his, hers, ours, theirs.*

3. **Reflexive Pronouns**: These reflect the action of the verb back onto the
subject. Example: *myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves.*

4. **Demonstrative Pronouns**: These point to specific things or people.

Example: *this, that, these, those.*

5. **Indefinite Pronouns**: These refer to people or things in a general way,

without specifying them exactly. Example: *some, any, nobody, someone,
everything, each.*
6. **Interrogative Pronouns**: These are used to ask questions. Example: *who,
what, which.*

7. **Relative Pronouns**: These introduce relative clauses and relate to a noun

mentioned earlier. Example: *who, whose, which, that.*

8. **Reciprocal Pronouns**: These show a mutual action or relationship.

Example: *each other, one another.*

Each of these types of pronouns serves a unique role in sentences, helping to make
language more efficient by replacing nouns and modifying nouns.

31. What grammatical categories do pronouns have?

Pronouns possess the following grammatical categories:

Person: Identifies the speaker (first person: I, we), the addressee (second person:
you), or others (third person: he, she, they).
Number: Indicates singular (I, he, she) or plural (we, they).
Gender: Reflects masculine (he), feminine (she), or neuter (it).
Case: Shows the role of the pronoun in the sentence, such as subject (I), object
(me), or possessive (my, mine).
Animacy: Some languages or contexts differentiate between animate (he, she) and
inanimate (it).

32. What classes of pronouns have the category of person?

The category of person is found in:

Personal pronouns (I, you, he, we, they)—clearly distinguish 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
persons.
Possessive pronouns (my, your, their)—show ownership related to a specific
person.
Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, themselves)—refer back to the person doing
the action.
Interrogative and relative pronouns can imply person indirectly in some cases
(who, whose).

33. Define deixis.

Deixis refers to words or expressions that are context-dependent, meaning their
interpretation relies on the speaker, time, or location of the speech. It helps indicate
who, where, or when something happens. Types include:

Person deixis: Refers to participants (I, you, they).

Time deixis: Points to time (now, yesterday, tomorrow).
Place deixis: Indicates location (here, there, this, that).
For example, "I’ll meet you there tomorrow" relies on context to identify I, you,
there, and tomorrow.

34. What cases do pronouns have?

Pronouns in English typically have three cases:

Nominative (subjective): Used when the pronoun is the subject of a sentence (I, he,
she, we, they).
Objective: Used when the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition (me, him,
her, us, them).
Possessive: Shows ownership (my, mine, his, her, their, theirs).
Other languages may include more cases, such as dative or accusative, depending
on grammatical structure.

35. Characterize the verb from the semantic and structural points of view.

Semantic View:
Verbs describe actions (run, eat), states (be, seem), or processes (grow, develop).
They indicate what happens or exists.

Structural View:
Verbs are marked by inflections (changes in form) for tense (walk/walked), aspect
(is walking), mood (might walk), voice (was walked), and person (I walk, she
walks). Verbs can function as the core of a predicate in a sentence.

36. How do notional verbs differ from functional verbs?

Notional Verbs:
These verbs have independent, clear meanings. They express actions, states, or
processes (run, sleep, think).

Functional Verbs:
These verbs help construct grammatical forms or express relationships but don’t
have much meaning alone. Examples:

Auxiliary verbs (is, do, have in is running, does run).

Modal verbs (can, must, should in can go, must stay).

37. Why are modal verbs defective? Give examples.

Modal verbs are called defective because they:

Lack certain forms like infinitives, participles, or a full conjugation.

For example, there’s no to can, no past participle of must, and shall cannot be
conjugated as shalls.
Examples:

Modal verbs: can, must, may, shall, will.

They only function in limited ways: "He can swim" vs. (no form for "He is to can
swim").

38. Give the difference between actional, statal, and processual verbs.

Actional Verbs: Show actions performed intentionally or physically.

Example: run, write, jump.

Statal Verbs: Express states or conditions rather than actions.

Example: be, know, love, own.

Processual Verbs: Indicate a process or change over time.

Example: grow, develop, increase.

39. What is syntactic valency? What types of valency do linguists distinguish?

Syntactic valency refers to the number and types of elements (arguments) a verb
can combine with to form a complete sentence. Types of valency:

Monovalent: Verbs with one argument (He sleeps).

Bivalent: Verbs with two arguments (She writes a letter).
Trivalent: Verbs with three arguments (He gave her a book).
Valency shows how verbs connect to subjects, objects, and complements.

40. How is verbal transitivity and objectivity treated in modern linguistics?

Transitivity: Refers to whether a verb takes an object.

Transitive verbs require an object (eat an apple).
Intransitive verbs do not take an object (sleep).

Objectivity: Examines the role and type of objects verbs take.

Modern linguistics analyzes how object roles (direct, indirect, etc.) interact with
meaning and structure. For example:

He gave a book to Mary (direct: a book, indirect: to Mary).

Verbs can also change their transitivity (She eats → She eats an apple).

41. Classify complementive and uncomplementive verbs.

Complementive Verbs:
These verbs require additional elements (complements) to complete their meaning
or grammatical structure. Complements can be objects, predicates, or other
sentence elements.
Examples:

Monotransitive verbs: Take one object (She read a book).

Ditransitive verbs: Take two objects (He gave her a gift).
Linking verbs: Connect the subject to a subject complement (She is a teacher).

Uncomplementive Verbs:
These verbs are complete on their own and do not need complements. Often, they
are intransitive verbs.
Examples: He sleeps. They run.

42. What is the processual meaning of the verbids?

Verbids (non-finite forms of the verb) represent the action or state as a process, but
without being tied to a specific subject or time.

They convey the generalized or abstract meaning of an action or state.

Example: In Swimming is fun, the gerund swimming refers to the process or

activity, not a particular instance of swimming.
Similarly, To run is difficult uses the infinitive to run to describe the process of
running in general.

43. What are the four forms of English verbids?

The four non-finite forms (verbids) in English are:

Infinitive (to write, write): General, untensed form of the verb.

Gerund (writing): Functions as a noun while retaining verb-like qualities.
Present Participle (writing): Used in continuous tenses or as an adjective.
Past Participle (written): Used in perfect tenses or passive constructions, or as an
adjective.

44. Define the infinitive.

The infinitive is the basic form of a verb, often preceded by to (to go, to read). It:

Represents the action or state in a general way, without tense or subject.

Can function as a noun (To swim is healthy), adjective (a book to read), or adverb
(He works to earn money).
May appear as a bare infinitive (without to) after certain verbs (help her finish).
45. What is the combinability of the infinitive?

The infinitive can combine with:

Nouns/Pronouns: I want her to succeed.

Adjectives: She is happy to help.
Verbs: He decided to leave.
Adverbs: He works hard to achieve his goals.
Conjunctions: He plans to leave when it’s ready.
Objects and modifiers: He tried to fix the broken machine.
Infinitives are highly versatile and can act as subjects, objects, or modifiers.

46. Name and characterize the semi-predicative constructions with the

infinitive.

Semi-predicative constructions with infinitives include:

Complex Object: Combines an object and an infinitive to form a secondary action.

Example: I want him to leave. (him is the object, to leave is the infinitive).
Complex Subject: Combines a subject with an infinitive to describe secondary
information.
Example: He is believed to be honest.
For-to-Infinitive Construction: Introduced by for, with the infinitive describing
purpose or condition.
Example: It is important for you to succeed.
These constructions introduce secondary ideas or actions related to the sentence’s
main meaning.

47. What is peculiar about the form of the “to-infinitive” and the “split
infinitive”?

To-Infinitive: The base form of the verb is preceded by to (to read, to learn).
However:
In some cases, the bare infinitive (without to) is used, especially after modal verbs
(can go, must do) or certain verbs like let, make (let him leave).

Split Infinitive: Occurs when an adverb or other word is placed between to and the
verb (to boldly go), (to secretly admire).
Historically frowned upon, split infinitives are now widely accepted for clarity or
emphasis in modern English.

48. How do the gerund and the infinitive differ from each other?

The gerund and infinitive differ in form, function, and meaning:

Form: The gerund ends in -ing (swimming), while the infinitive is to + verb (to
swim).
Function:
Gerunds act as nouns (Swimming is fun).
Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs (To swim is hard, a place to
swim, He trains to swim).
Meaning:
Gerunds describe activities or processes (I enjoy swimming).
Infinitives express purpose, goals, or intentions (I plan to swim).
Verb Usage: Some verbs take gerunds (enjoy swimming), while others take
infinitives (want to swim).

49. What is the combinability of the participle?

Participles can combine with:

Nouns/Pronouns:
The running man stopped (running modifies man).
A broken vase lay on the floor (broken describes vase).
Adverbs:
Running quickly, she reached the station.
Auxiliary Verbs:
She is writing a book. (writing forms the present continuous).
Objects:
Having finished his homework, he left. (his homework = object of having
finished).
Conjunctions: Participles often combine with conjunctions to form participial
Phrases: While running, he saw a friend.
Participles function as adjectives, parts of verb phrases, or in adverbial
constructions.

50. What do finite forms of the verb express? What are they related to in the
sentence?

Finite verbs express grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, mood, person,
and number.
They are the main verbs in a sentence and relate directly to the subject, showing
who performs the action and when it happens.
For example:
She works (works agrees with the subject she and is in the present tense).
They were singing (were singing expresses past progressive tense for the plural
subject they).
Finite verbs are crucial for building the predicative structure of a sentence, as they
link the subject to the action or state.
51. How is the category of person expressed in modern English?
The category of person in English is expressed through the relationship between
the subject (doer of the action) and the speech act, as reflected in pronouns and
limited verb forms:
Personal Pronouns:

First Person: Refers to the speaker(s): I, we.

Second Person: Refers to the addressee(s): you.
Third Person: Refers to someone or something other than the speaker or addressee:
he, she, it, they.

Verb Agreement:
In the present tense, the verb changes its form for the third-person singular.
Examples: I run, You run, He/She/It runs.
In all other forms, verbs remain neutral to person (I run, We run, They run).

Possessive Forms: Person is also reflected in possessive pronouns/adjectives:

First Person: my, our.
Second Person: your.
Third Person: his, her, their.

52. What does the category of tense express?

The category of tense in English reflects the relationship between the time of the
action and the time of speaking. It includes:

Three Basic Tenses:

Present: Action happening now or regularly (He sings every day).

Past: Action completed before the present (He sang yesterday).
Future: Action to occur after the present (He will sing tomorrow).

Aspect in Combination with Tense:

Tense combines with aspect to express the completeness, duration, or habitual
nature of the action:
Simple Aspect: Basic statement of the action (He sings).
Continuous/Progressive Aspect: Action in progress (He is singing).
Perfect Aspect: Completed action with a link to another time (He has sung).
Perfect Continuous: Ongoing action with relevance to another time (He has been
singing).
Tense thus not only situates actions in time but provides nuance about their
temporal flow.
53. How is the verbal category of voice expressed in modern English?

The category of voice reflects the relationship between the subject of the sentence
and the action of the verb.

Active Voice:
The subject performs the action of the verb.
Example: The teacher explained the lesson.
Passive Voice:

The subject receives the action of the verb.

Example: The lesson was explained by the teacher.
Formation of Passive Voice:

Passive constructions are formed using:

A form of the auxiliary verb to be
Past participle of the main verb.
Example: is written, was completed, will be solved.
Use of Passive Voice:

When the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant (The window was broken).
To shift focus to the action or the recipient (The report was submitted yesterday).
Passive voice is common in formal, scientific, and objective writing.

54. What are the points of view as to the number of moods in modern
English?

Linguists differ in their classification of moods in English, which express the

speaker’s attitude toward the action or state described by the verb:

Traditional Classification (Three Moods):

Indicative Mood: Used for factual statements and questions (She reads books).
Imperative Mood: Used for commands or requests (Close the door!).
Subjunctive Mood: Used for hypothetical, wishful, or contrary-to-fact situations (If
I were you, I would go).
Expanded Views:
Some linguists add additional moods:

Conditional Mood: Expresses conditions or hypothetical scenarios (He would

study harder if he had time).
Interrogative Mood: Embedded in questions (Does he read books?).
Modern English relies heavily on auxiliary verbs (would, could, might, should) to
express many meanings traditionally associated with subjunctive or conditional
moods.
55. What subclasses are adjectives divided into? Characterize each of them.

Adjectives in English are classified into:

Qualitative Adjectives: Express the quality of the noun (size, shape, color, etc.).
Examples: tall, red, clever, beautiful.
Can form degrees of comparison:
Positive: strong.
Comparative: stronger.
Superlative: strongest.

Relative Adjectives:
Denote characteristics related to materials, origin, or purpose.
Examples: wooden (made of wood), silk (made of silk).
Do not form comparative or superlative degrees.

56. Characterize adverbs from the structural point of view.

Adverbs can be analyzed structurally based on how they are formed:

Simple Adverbs: Single-word forms with no prefixes or suffixes.

Examples: soon, here, well.

Derived Adverbs: Formed by adding suffixes (often -ly) to other parts of speech.
Examples: quickly, slowly.

Compound Adverbs: Made by combining two words.

Examples: sometimes, everywhere.

Phrasal Adverbs: Multi-word expressions acting as a single adverbial unit.

Examples: in time, at once, by far.

57. What do qualitative, quantitative, and circumstantial adverbs express?

Qualitative Adverbs:
Describe the manner or quality of an action.
Examples: happily, loudly, skillfully.

Quantitative Adverbs:
Express the degree, extent, or intensity of an action or quality.
Examples: very, almost, quite, too.

Circumstantial Adverbs:
Provide additional information about the circumstances of an action.
Types:
Time: yesterday, soon, always.
Place: here, there, everywhere.
Reason: therefore, thus.
Condition: otherwise.

58. Define the numeral as a part of speech.

A numeral is a part of speech that represents numbers, quantity, or sequence.

Numerals specify:

Cardinality (How many?): one, two, three.

Ordinality (In what order?): first, second, third.
Numerals function as:

Modifiers: five books.

Nouns: The five gathered together.
Pronouns: Only two were chosen.

59. What is the main subdivision of the numerals?

Cardinal Numerals: Represent a count or quantity.

Examples: one, two, fifteen.

Ordinal Numerals: Represent a position in a sequence.

Examples: first, second, tenth.

Other types include:

Fractional Numerals: one-half, three-quarters.
Multiplicative Numerals: once, twice, thrice.

60. How are conjunctions subdivided according to their function?

Conjunctions are classified as:

Coordinating Conjunctions:
Link words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank.
Examples: and, but, or, nor, yet, so.

Subordinating Conjunctions:
Connect dependent (subordinate) clauses to independent clauses.
Examples: because, although, if, when, since.

Correlative Conjunctions:
Work in pairs to join elements.
Examples: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also.