LEEA – Lifting Accessories Diploma (LAC) Global - Workbook

Lifting Accessories Diploma (LAC) Global

Workbook

Lifting Equipment Engineers Association

Lifting Standards Worldwide

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Welcome to the Lifting Accessories Diploma

The Diploma is LEEA's globally recognised, industry-standard qualification for lifting equipment testers, inspectors,
examiners, repairers and maintainers. The Diploma qualification is essential for anyone engaged in the testing,
inspection, examination and repair/maintenance of lifting equipment and responsible for assessing equipment’s
suitability to return to service following statutory examination.

The core areas covered in Unit 1 are:

▪ Working on-site
▪ Examiners' tools and equipment
▪ Types of examinations
▪ Slinging Accessories

LAC Diploma Unit 2 topics are:

▪ Non-fixed load attachments

▪ Recommended further reading and other resources

Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this Diploma course, students will acquire the knowledge that will assist them to
perform the 'thorough examination' of specific lifting accessories in service and validate or otherwise assess their
fitness for a further period of service, applying conditions as may be necessary.

Students will be able to refer to and extrapolate information from sources to support their analysis of lifting
equipment suitability for continued service.

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Working on-site

As a professional in the lifting equipment industry, there are high expectations of you to perform your role to
mitigate risk and keep people safe. This is of paramount importance and should always be the priority focus of your
work.

Secondly, our stakeholders, customers and employers rightly expect the highest professional standards from all
those working in such a high-risk industry. So you are expected to be competent in your technical abilities, but
moreover, as a professional, you must also manage your standards of service, both internally to your employer, and
externally to your customers and other stakeholders.

“Lifting and height safety industries which have eliminated accidents, injuries and
fatalities.”

LEEA’s Vision Statement

TEAM Card

On successful completion of this training course and the associated end-point assessment, you will be awarded the
LEEA Diploma in Lifting Accessories (Global), and where applicable, the LEEA TEAM Card.

As a TEAM Card holder, there is an expectation that you will perform your role to the very best of your ability,
meeting the requirements of a ‘competent person’ as defined by LEEA in its COPSULE.

Our industry ‘end-users’ are actively encouraged to use LEEA member companies that employ qualified and
competent individuals. They are assured that by using LEEA TEAM Card holders, they are putting their lifting
equipment into safe hands and minimising their risks as duty holders and owners of such equipment.

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In order that we continue ‘raising standards in the lifting equipment industry’, each of us
has our own part to play. As lifting equipment examiner/inspector/tester, employed by a
LEEA member company, you share this responsibility and have a very important role!

NOTES:

Pre-Job Information
Before we consider travelling to the customer’s site, we should pause to think about the following:

Representing Your Employer

To ensure you provide a professional representation of your employer, answer the following questions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Pre-Job Information, Representing your Employer and Signing In

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Reporting and Signing In

▪ Signing In –

▪ Meet –

▪ Exchange of Information –

▪ Agree –

▪ Communication –

IMPORTANT!

LEEA Members represent the highest standards within our industry. You are an Ambassador for your company
and your profession; it is essential that your personal behaviours are exemplary, and your competencies are
consistently maintained through your active participation in continuous professional development (CPD).

Firstly, you must consider the basic requirements for the examination to be effective:
• The area should be clean and clear of contaminants which may harm the examiner or the equipment
• Adequate access to the equipment shall be provided
• The equipment should be reasonably clean, and the examiner should have the means to clean local areas
• The examiner should have visual aids and tools required for the examination, including adequate natural or
artificial lighting

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During the Job

• Conduct your job safety analysis/risk assessment review before starting work – make sure any changes are
recorded as they arise

• Is a permit to work required?

• Confirm the identity of the equipment against the worksheet instruction or users record of the lifting
equipment

• Isolation (lock-out/tag-out) and cordoning off the work area as necessary

• Toolbox talk with colleagues if applicable before starting the job

• Talk to equipment operators/user. Are there any issues they may have noticed with the equipment?
o This is particularly important for lifting machines as the operator is usually the first to recognise
intermittent faults or other issues arising)

• Make sure all information is recorded regarding the equipment (e.g. location, serial numbers, ID numbers
and safety marking)

• Detail your findings for the report together with any defects found

• Maintain the safety of the area you are working in through awareness of your surroundings and what is
happening. You may need to change the JSA/risk assessment if new control measures are needed due to
changing hazards

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Why is it important to pre-arrange a sign off meeting with your customer prior to starting work
on site?

To ensure that checks can be made of the work area and customer is happy

To ensure customer is available for you to present your report summary

To ensure that work permits and control measures are removed

 To ensure that the customer can carry out operational checks of the equipment

Completing the Job

Returning 1. Have you ensured any isolated equipment has been put back into service?
equipment back 2. Have all machinery guards been replaced?
to service 3. Did you carry out post-examination running checks on equipment, where
necessary? Operational checks?
4. Do you need to colour-code equipment? What colour is needed?
5. Has equipment been stowed in designated storage areas or parked in a safe area?
6. Have all barriers and signs been removed from cordoned areas?
Communication 1. Let equipment users know that you have finished your work and that the equipment
has been returned to service
2. Complete your reports, identifying any issues and your recommendations; safety-
critical issues are your priority, and the owner of the equipment must be notified of
these immediately. If the equipment is to be removed from service, ensure it is
suitably quarantined and marked, “DO NOT USE”.
3. Identify and detail any repairs that may need carrying out and a timescale in which
this should be completed
Leaving the site 1. Have your debrief meeting with the site contact to present your report summary
2. Ensure your customer is completely satisfied before you leave the site

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NOTES:

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Equipment for Carrying Out On-Site Thorough Examinations

Tools

For the lifting equipment examiner/inspector/tester, a selection of hand tools will be required at work, which may
be for a thorough visual examination of lifting accessories such as shackles and chain slings, or perhaps lifting
appliances such as gantry cranes or electrically operated chain hoists fitted to slewing jib cranes. The selection of
tools will therefore depend on the nature of the job.

A broader perspective on tools required may include access equipment (MEWP, scaffolding etc.) You may also need
to consider the types of lifting equipment you need to hoist/lower spares, lubricants, and cleaning or test equipment.

You should be appropriately trained to use all equipment you are supplied with and have the appropriate PPE. Both
hand and power tools should be maintained in a safe and operable condition.

Measuring Equipment: Calibration of measuring equipment should be carried out in accordance with relevant
standards, and this is verified by LEEA during compliance audits.

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Lighting It is very important that the area of inspection is well lit with natural or artificial light so that defects can be
identified. Torches or portable lighting stations may be required to help you.

Cleaning

The area where you are carrying out the inspection should be reasonably clean and free of contaminants that
may affect the equipment you are inspecting.

It is recommended that you carry basic cleaning materials such as rags, dustpan and brush, a wire brush and PH
neutral cleaning fluids in the event that you have to clean the item(s) being inspected.

Ensure any data sheets and chemical warnings are adhered to for the use of such products and your JSA/risk
assessment reflects this.

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Types of Examination

There are 3 levels of inspection:

Pre-Use The pre-use inspection is normally carried out by the operator before operating the
Inspection equipment. The operator will visually check for any signs of obvious defect or damage that
give cause for concern. If such an issue is found, the operator must report their findings to
the appropriate maintenance/inspection personnel for further investigation before
operating the equipment.
Interim The interim inspection (sometimes referred to as the ‘frequent inspection’) is determined
Inspection by risk assessment as to how often, and to what extent the inspection is performed. This
level of inspection normally focuses on critical components that may become problematic
prior to the next periodic thorough examination. The number and frequency of these
inspections are also determined by the risk assessment and the manufacturers' literature.
Interim Inspections are often done at the same time as planned maintenance or following
a repair.
Thorough A thorough examination (sometimes referred to as the periodic, or thorough inspection)
Examination is a visual examination of lifting equipment that is carried out by a competent person. The
examination should be performed carefully and critically, supplemented by testing and
measurements required by the competent person to ascertain the equipment’s fitness for
a further period of service.
It is also used as a check of the suitability of the equipment and the
inspection/maintenance regime. This means that the thorough examination should not
find any defect affecting the safety of the equipment, if it does, this may suggest that there
is an issue with the inspection/maintenance regime, the competency of the inspectors or
maintainers or the product’s fitness for purpose, etc. In essence, it is a safety net, used to
identify inadequacies in the inspection/maintenance regime and thereby provide a means
of improvement and prevent a recurrence.
This means that the root cause of any defect found following a thorough examination
should be investigated and rectified with appropriate measures to prevent reoccurrence.

Note 1: the term ‘testing’ includes, for example, proof load testing, operational testing at lower loads and non-
destructive testing.

Note 2: the period between thorough examinations must be established by the competent person on the basis of
statutory requirements for the equipment.

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LEEA recommends that the following maximum intervals between thorough examinations are used as best
practice:

12 Months for?________________________________________________________________________________

6 Months for? _________________________________________________________________________________

Note 3: thorough examination shall be carried out following installation and after exceptional circumstances, i.e.
substantial repair or modification, following a collision, etc.

Note 4: the examination should identify issues that could become a danger in the period before the next thorough
examination and the subsequent report should advise the appropriate action to be taken.

Defined Scope of Examination

Irrespective of the type of examination the competent person should always be working to a predefined scope of
examination or inspection.

A predefined scope of the examination should be established with a clearly documented list, of everything that needs
to be checked, complete with acceptance/rejection criteria, which should be considered as the maximum permitted
and used as a means of reaching a conclusion as to the fitness for service of the equipment.

The examiner should take into account:

1 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

2 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

3 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

4 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

5 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

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It should also specify the intervals at which the equipment, or its individual parts, should be thoroughly examined in
accordance with the legislative requirements and, where appropriate, intervals for specific supporting reports and
tests. These intervals should reflect the anticipated rate of deterioration and the likelihood and potential
consequences of failure.

In all cases it is recommended that the scope of examination is drawn up specifically for the particular item of lifting
equipment, however, generic scopes of a thorough examination can be written for specific models and make of
lifting equipment. Either way, the scope should also include any dedicated ancillary equipment, such as wire ropes.

Further reading: LEEA Lifting Equipment Examiners Handbook

NOTES:

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Supplementary Testing and Documentation

Supplementary testing is carried out in support of a thorough examination and the extent and nature of any testing
are specified by the competent person carrying out the thorough examination. These tests should be carried out in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, the relevant standards and statutory requirements.

Test areas should be carefully selected and steps are taken to protect personnel and property. In particular when
load testing, ensure a clear area to facilitate the lifting and movement of test weights with a minimum of ground
clearance.

Common tests used to supplement a ▪ Operation testing

thorough examination include: ▪ SWL and deflection tests
▪ Proof load testing
▪ Light load testing
▪ Calibration checks
▪ Insulation and continuity testing
▪ Pressure tests
▪ Non-destructive testing

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Documentation and records

Following every examination, a formal report is drawn up. However, the examiner should always make a record at
the time of the examination on the job paperwork or in a notebook etc. This contemporary record should always be
authenticated and dated by the examiner and retained for reference purposes. If the formal report is authenticated
by someone on the examiner's behalf, the contemporary record should be available to the authenticator so that the
accuracy of the formal report can be checked.

When an examination reveals a defect, the user should be notified promptly so that appropriate action can be taken
and, if the defect is of immediate or imminent danger, further use is prevented. In some countries, it is also necessary
to inform the enforcing authorities of certain defects.

Textile Slings

Fibre slings (including additional information for HMPE slings)

The popularity of fibre rope slings has declined greatly in modern times, in favour of more convenient forms of sling
such as webbing and roundslings. However, a few remain in general service but in the maritime industry they are
still widely used.

The slings are produced from cut lengths of 3, 4 or 8 strand rope which is then hand spliced. They are bulky to handle
and natural fibres, in particular, are rough to the touch. Rope slings are less pliable than other types of textile slings
and, unlike other textile slings, they present a hard point contact with the load. However, this is still less severe than
with chain or wire rope.

Identification
Visually, the various fibres appear much the same. This makes identification extremely difficult. An international
system of colour-coded labels, which carry the information necessary to be marked on a sling (see marking), has
therefore been adopted in standards as follows:

WHITE:

BLUE:

GREEN:

BROWN:

YELLOW:

ORANGE:

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3 strand ‘hawser’ laid rope: constructed from three strands of yarns spun from fibres. The strands are twisted
together (laid) in right hand lay; this is known as a ‘Z’ direction of lay.

8 strand ‘plaited’ rope: constructed from eight strands of yarns spun from fibres. The strands are laid together in
pairs, each alternative pair consisting of two left hand (‘S’ twist) strands and two right hand (‘Z’ twist) strands
respectively. The eight strands contain the same number of yarns as the three strand rope of equivalent size. So, the
weights and breaking strengths of both constructions are the same size for size.

Fibre rope sling: a flexible sling, comprising one or more parts of identical fibre rope, terminating in spliced eyes
with or without thimbles and fittings, or in the case of an endless sling, joined to itself with a splice.

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Multi-leg sling: Fibre rope sling assembly, consisting of two, three or four identical legs attached to a master link.

Splicing

What is Splicing?

This is a method of laying the tail end strands of the rope into the strands of the standing part of the rope to
form an eye or join the ends of the rope together.

All splicing shall be carried out by a trained and competent splicer. Where 3 and 4 strands laid ropes are spliced by
short splices, the splice shall comply with the following requirements:

▪ All the tucks of the splice shall be against the lay of the rope
▪ For polyamide, polyester multifilament ropes and polypropylene monofilament ropes, either five full tucks
shall be made; alternatively, four full tucks with all of the yarns in the strands shall be made, followed by a
further tuck with not more than half of the material cut out of each strand and a final tuck with not less
than a quarter of the original strand material
▪ For polypropylene fibrillated film and staple ropes and for natural fibre ropes, not less than four full tucks
shall be made, each with all of the yarns in the strands

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The Liverpool Splice A method of splicing known as the 'Liverpool splice' where the tucks are made in
the same direction of the lay of the rope should not be used as this is unsafe and
can easily come apart under load, with possible severe consequences.

Length between splices For single leg slings and the individual legs of multi-leg slings, there shall be a
minimum length of rope between the emergence of the final tucks of the splice of
20 times the nominal diameter of the rope.

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Thimbles and Fittings

What are Thimbles?

Thimbles are rigid-shaped components which are inserted into an eye termination for the purpose of protecting
the eye from contact damage, abrasion and deformation.

The thimbles used to form thimble, or hard, eyes shall comply with the relevant national standard and have a
corrosion-resistant finish.

Steel thimbles should not be a black finish but should be suitably plated or galvanised to resist corrosion. The use
of thimble (hard) eyes is recommended when fittings form part of the fibre rope sling.

The fitting of heart-shaped thimbles will prevent the sling from being used in the choke hitch. In such cases, either
a soft eye or thimbles of a shape and size suitable for reeving may be used.

NOTES:

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Fittings Loadbearing metal components are designed to be fitted and supplied as part
of a sling, so as to permit the sling to be attached to other lifting accessories or
connected to the load.
Master link A link, or link assembly, forms the upper terminal fitting of a multi-leg sling
assembly by means of which the sling assembly is attached to the hook of a
crane, other lifting machine or accessory.
Nominal diameter The specified diameter of the rope, which is usually used as the reference value
for a given product.
Nominal length The specified length of the sling, inclusive of fittings, from bearing point to
bearing point.

Thimbles are not included within the term ‘fitting’

Effective Working Length (EWL): the actual finished length of the fibre rope sling, inclusive of fittings, from bearing
point to bearing point. The effective working length of a fibre rope sling shall not differ from the nominal length by
more than 3% when laid flat underhand tension and measured with a steel tape or rule graduated in increments of
1 mm. The length of each leg of a multi-leg sling shall not differ from the lengths of the other legs by more than
2.5%.

Fibres Natural fibres - Manila (Ma), Hemp (Ha), Sisal (Si) and man-made fibres Polyamide
(PA), Polyester (PES) and Polypropylene (PP) fibres are used to manufacture fibre rope
slings, including High Modulus Polyethylene for which ISO2076 is the standard for
HMPE fibres)

Sling construction Splicing is the only method to be used for joining or producing eyes. Endless slings
shall have only a single splice. Other sling legs shall be spliced at each end to produce
an eye and no other splices shall be permitted. Multi-leg slings shall be constructed
so that all corresponding items are identical in respect of rope construction, size,
material and fittings.

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Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s certification, statement of conformity / test certificate

Fibre rope slings are not subject to proof load testing, as this could be detrimental to the sling and will not reveal
any additional information.

The standard requires the sling manufacturer to perform type tests and manufacturing tests at certain intervals to
ensure that the performance requirements are met and maintained. It also requires the manufacturer to issue a
manufacturer’s certificate with each batch of slings which states the WLL and, in the case of slings with integral
fittings, this will also contain details of the fittings.

Natural fibre rope slings offer little or no resistance to chemicals, their fumes or to
certain gases.

Chemical resistance

Natural fibre rope slings offer little or no resistance to chemicals, their fumes or to certain gases. Man-made fibre
rope slings however offer selective resistance to chemicals as follows:

▪ Polyamide [nylon] is virtually immune to the effects of alkalis. It is attacked by moderate strength acids. It
also suffers the loss of strength on wetting which can be as much as 15%

▪ Polyester is resistant to moderate strength acids but is damaged by alkalis

▪ Polypropylene is little affected by acids and alkalis but is damaged by solvents, tars and paints

▪ HMPE fibres have good resistance to contact with chemicals, however, the sling manufacturer should be
consulted if exposure has taken place and care should be taken to assess any contaminated sling for
continuing service

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▪ Aramid Polyamide is resistant to most chemicals

Natural fibre ropes deteriorate with age and as natural lubricants dry out; the fibres become brittle. Mould and fungi,
e.g. mildew, will readily grow on damp natural fibre ropes living on the cellulose and greatly weakening the rope.
Man-made fibre ropes do not suffer in the same way, mould only being able to live on surface contamination, but
they can be affected by ultra-violet light and therefore may suffer solar degradation if exposed to strong sunlight or
other sources of ultra-violet radiation. Mildew does not attach HMPE ropes, but surface contaminants may provide
a nutrient for its growth.

Temperature

Fibre rope slings are suitable for use within the following temperature ranges:

Manila, Sisal, Hemp and Polypropylene -40°C to 80°C

Polyester and Polyamide [nylon] -40°C to 100°C
HMPE -40°C to 70°C
Aramid Polyamide -50°C to 130°

Critical components

The critical components of textile slings are:

▪ The rope
▪ Terminal fittings such as master links, intermediate links and hook terminations
▪ Thimble eye protection
▪ The splicing of the rope terminations
▪ Identification labels/tags

NOTE: Unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or manufacturer

dictates, LEEA does not recommend the routine overload testing of slings.

Marking requirements

The necessary marking should be made in such a way that it is not harmful to the sling. One suitable method is to
apply the marking to a plastic sleeve which may be fitted over the rope during the sling manufacture and then shrunk
to it. A further, clear plastic, a sleeve may also be fitted over the marked sleeve protecting it from soiling.

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Slings which incorporate links should be marked on a suitable tag permanently attached to the master link or one
leg of the sling. If the latter option is adopted, care must be taken to ensure the tag is such that it cannot become
trapped by the sling thereby damaging the sling.

In addition to the information required by the national legislation and the standard being worked to, the marking
should indicate the following minimum information:

NOTES:

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Defined Scope of Examination

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

• Thimbles should not be collapsed, cracked deformed or twisted

• There should be no damage to areas of the fibre ropes in contact with fittings
• It is necessary to evaluate the extent of soiling to a fibre sling as this can conceal damage which is very
difficult for the examiner to see. Where necessary they should be washed in clean water or in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions
• Grit and dirt will pick up on the rope fibres and can cause rapid wear and abrasion
• Terminal fittings should be examined carefully. Particular attention should be paid to any twisting,
permanent deformation and signs of overloading
• The maximum wear for metal terminal components is stated by LEEA as 8%
• Cuts, nicks and cracks to any materials should be assessed for their likely impact as a stress raiser and
whether they will affect the slings continued service
• Wear and chafing: this indicates that the filaments and fibres are breaking down. In ordinary use, some
disarrangement or breaking of the fibres is to be expected. This is harmless if not excessive. It is natural for
man-made fibre ropes, especially those of multifilament construction, to raise a pile or fur on their surface
as the result of use. This is not cause for concern unless it becomes excessive
• Localised areas of abrasion, as distinct from general wear, are caused by mishandling such as the passage
of the sling over a sharp edge whilst under tension
• Fraying of the yarns or strands is often an indication of cutting
• In the case of natural fibre rope slings, the growth of mildew will cause a serious loss of strength as the
mould will live on the cellulose of the rope. It is caused by dampness, storage of wet slings or storage in
stagnant air. In the case of man-made fibre rope slings, mildew will only grow on surface contamination, it
does not affect the rope and may be removed by washing in clean water only. Detergents or other cleaning
agents must not be used
• In the case of natural fibre rope slings, any known contact with chemicals or their fumes. In the case of man-
made fibre rope slings, selective resistance permits some contact with chemicals however attack by strong
solutions or by other chemical contaminants will result in loss of strength. Chemical attack may be
recognised by embrittlement and flaking of the fibres or by a softening of the fibres, which may be rubbed
or plucked from the rope
• Charring of natural fibres, fusing of fibres and glazed appearance of man-made fibres indicate the sling has
been subjected to excessive heat, often as the result of friction. This can occur in use, e.g. by careless
handling when the sling is used in choke hitch. It is difficult to observe unless severe. Other forms of heat
damage, such as burning caused by weld splatter, are more easily identified
• Solar degradation. The outer fibres become brittle as the result of exposure to sunlight or other sources of
ultra-violet radiation
• Localised flat areas of the rope where it has been suspended and loaded in one point (e.g. over a shackle)

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Keynote: Great care must be taken when inspecting slings as the vulnerability of fibre rope slings to the effects of
wear, abrasion and mechanical damage increases inversely with the size of the rope. The smaller the rope diameter,
the more of the yarns are exposed on the surface, hence the effects of wear and damage are more severe.

Unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or

manufacturer, LEEA does not recommend the routine overload testing of fibre rope slings.
- LEEA

NOTES:
LEEA’s Vision Statement

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Webbing Slings

These may be endless or in the form of single or multi-leg slings which can terminate with soft eyes or metal terminal
fittings.

This section covers flat woven webbing slings for multi-purposes, made of Polyamide (Nylon), Polyester,
Polypropylene or Aramid Polyamide, but excludes special slings or slings used for certain applications as follows:

Excluded • Bag slings or the lifting straps which form part of flexible intermediate bulk containers
• Nets, i.e. consisting of several crossed webbings stitched together, or fibre rope cargo
nets
• Webbings used for the securing or lashing of cargoes to each other on pallets and
platforms or in vehicles
• Adjustable slings, e.g. with intermediate buckles stitched along the webbing
• Slings consisting of webbing with a nominal width of less than 25mm or more than
450mm, or with a nominal thickness of less than 1.2mm
• Slings made from webbing woven from mono-filament yarns
• Slings of tubular webbing
• Slings formed from strips of cut fabric
• Disposable or ‘one trip’ slings used for pre-slung cargo and not reused
o This is an example of a one-trip sling made to German DIN standards. These
slings shall only be used in accordance with the specified limitations of use
supplied by the manufacturer

NOTES:

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Flat-woven webbing slings, also commonly known as belt slings, are used for a variety of lifting purposes. They are a
form of textile sling which is soft and easy to handle whilst offering rigidity across their width. They are available as
single-leg, endless or multiple leg slings with a choice of terminations.

These qualities make them ideal for handling loads which require some support when being lifted as the load is
spread across the full width of the webbing, thus avoiding point contact as is the case with chains or ropes. They are
therefore less liable to damage finished surfaces than rope, wire rope or chain slings. However, they are less robust
and more easily damaged than equivalent capacity wire rope and chain slings.

Sewn Webbing Component

The sewn webbing component is that part of the sling comprising woven webbing only including the stitching, i.e.
an endless sling, a single sling with soft eyes or a single sling excluding its terminal fittings if any.

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All stitching used to make the sling is made from the same thread material as the webbing itself (so all properties
are the same) and a locking stitch machine is used for the process. The lockstitch uses two threads: ‘upper’ and a
‘lower’. The two threads lock together in the fabric which they pass through, hence the name ‘lockstitch’.

The stitches of the seam run across the sections of the webbing to be sewn together; the stitching must lay flat and
not have loops above the surface of the webbing which could be caught and damaged whilst in use.
The ends of cut webbing are treated to prevent them from fraying and coming apart. Treatment of cut ends by
heating is normally used which melts the material and seals the fibres. As this process can produce a sharp edge, the
stitching of the sling avoids running across it.

Did you know?

Some webbing material is pre-treated which avoids the need to heat seal the edge of the webbing. In this case,
the stitching can run over the cut edge.

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Working load limit

Marked on the sewn webbing component and indicated by any colour codes or stripe markings. It is the maximum
load that the sewn webbing component may sustain when it is in straight pull.

Note: For use in normal conditions, the SWL of a single leg sling in a straight pull, or an endless sling in a straight
pull, will be equal to the WLL.

Capacity The capacity of the sling is related to the width and thickness of the webbing. Slings are
available as ‘Simplex’ (a single length of webbing), or, in order to provide a fuller range of
capacities or allow a narrower sling, ‘Duplex’ or multi-layer slings are available, although it
must be realised that this results in some loss of flexibility.

Sling width There is a wide range of flat woven webbing slings in a range of widths from 25mm to
450mm.

Mode factor This is a numerical value which is applied to the marked working load limit of a sewn
webbing component to determine the maximum load which the sling may lift according to
the mode of use and assembly, e.g. choke hitch, basket hitch, single or multiple slinging.

Protective sleeve: a tubular sleeve, either fixed or movable, which may be of leather, woven fabric or other
material placed over the webbing to provide extra protection to the webbing. It has no effect on the strength of
the sling. Similar protection may also be given to soft eyes.

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Soft eye: this may be used to terminate a sling leg. It is formed by folding the webbing back on itself in the form of
a loop, the free end of which is then sewn back to the body of the webbing so forming an eye. There are many
variations of the soft eye which are available to suit the mode and method of use. The three main variations are the
flat eye, reversed eye and folded eye.

Metal fittings: Terminal fittings must be compatible with the other items to which they may be attached. The use of
metal terminal fittings allows for more arduous conditions of wear on the sling eye and permits wide webbings to
be readily attached directly onto the hooks of lifting appliances without the need for other fittings, e.g. shackles.
They help to ensure that the load is taken evenly across the width of the webbing. If the sling is always to be used in
straight pull or in basket hitch, metal ‘D’ links or eye plates may be used. If the sling is to be reeved into choke hitch,
choker ‘D’ links or eye-plates may be used. These allow one plate to pass through the other and also enable the sling
to be used in straight pull or in basket hitch.

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Selvedge: the natural woven edge of the material produced by the weaving process and which therefore is free of
cutting, folding and stitching.

Effective Working Length (EWL): the actual finished length of the flat woven webbing sling, inclusive of fittings, from
bearing point to bearing point.

NOTES:

Identification: an international system of colour-coded labels, which carry the information necessary to be marked
on a sling (see marking), has therefore been adopted in standards as follows:

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▪ Polyester- blue
▪ Polyamide - green
▪ Polypropylene - brown
▪ Aramid Polyamide - yellow (where used regionally)

Flat-woven webbing slings and roundslings are colour coded to signify the WLL of the sewn webbing component in
straight pull. This must not be confused with the WLL of the completed sling assembly, which may be different. The
marking information must always be read to establish the WLL of the sling assembly.

It is however usual to find black coloured slings in the entertainment and events industry. This is so that their visual
impact in stage and theatre rigging is minimised. Therefore the colour alone should never be assumed as the WLL
and reference should always be made to the label. This is an equally true statement for roundslings (as the following
pictures show) which will be covered in our next section.

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Traceability code: the traceability code, which is to be included in the marking, should provide the following basic
elements of the manufacturing record for traceability purposes:
▪ Identification of webbing
▪ Identification of manufacturer's control
▪ Identification and grade of fittings
▪ This information is marked in the sling identification label and is sewn into the eye or the joining stitches of
the sling

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Record

Flat woven webbing slings are not subject to proof load testing, as this could be detrimental to the sling and will not
reveal any additional information. They are however subject to strength tests made on a number of representative
slings during manufacture. Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement
of conformity is supplied with each sling.

Note: A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by
some national legislation.
NOTES:

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This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests
as required have been completed. In the case of slings with integral fittings, this will also contain details of the
verification of the fittings.

NOTES:

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Chemical resistance If the webbing sling is to be used in a chemical environment, the

supplier/manufacturer should always be consulted for advice. Man-made fibres offer
high resistance to chemicals and can, subject to correct material selection, be used in
certain chemical environments without detriment.

• Polyamide [nylon] is virtually immune to the effects of alkalis. It is attacked

by moderate strength acids, but it is attacked by moderate strength acids
• Polyester is resistant to moderate strength acids but is damaged by alkalis
• Polypropylene is little affected by acids and alkalis but is damaged by
solvents, tars and paints
• Aramid Polyamide is resistant to weak acids and alkalis
• Terminal fittings: Certain grades of steel are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement as the result of contact with acids. This can seriously reduce
the ductility and load-bearing capacity, and cause cracking and catastrophic
brittle failures at stresses below the yield stress of the material. Other metals
may be subject to corrosion. The advice of the supplier should always be
sought when selecting flat woven webbing slings and/or fittings for use in
chemical environments
Temperature Webbing slings are suitable for use within the following temperature ranges:

• Polypropylene - 40°C to 80°C

• Polyester and polyamide [nylon] - 40°C to 100°C
• Aramid Polyamide -50°C to 130°C

Care must be taken when selecting slings for use at low temperatures. Although the
qualities of the materials used for flat woven webbing slings makes them suitable for
use at temperatures as low as -40°C, if moisture is present, ice will be formed.

Ice will both act as an abrasive and cutting agent and will damage the sling. Slings
selected for use at low temperatures should be dry and steps must be taken to
prevent ice forming on or, more importantly, between the woven strands of the
webbing

Ultraviolet radiation All textile fibres become brittle as the result of exposure to sunlight or other sources
of ultra-violet radiation. This is known as solar degradation. Its effect is more
pronounced in man-made fibres, but it is hard to detect until at an advanced stage.
Then, very quickly, they will become brittle, turn to powder and crumble away.

During the manufacturing stage man-made fibres, intended for use in sling
manufacture, are subject to a process known as stabilising. Whilst this does not
prevent solar degradation it does slow down the rate of this effect.

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Effects of water (wetting)

• Polyamide loses up to 15% of its strength when wet

• Polyester and Polypropylene are unaffected by water and therefore the strength remains unchanged
when wet

Critical Components

• Webbing material
• Stitching
• Soft eye protection
• Metal fittings
• Identification labels/tags

Marking Requirements

The marking may be directed onto the sling or on a sewn-on label. This marking must be such that it will not affect
the safety of the sling when in use. Depending on the standard being worked to, for some slings the material of the
webbing will be identified by the colour of the label: for polyamide (nylon) this will be green, polyester blue,
polypropylene brown and Aramid Polyamide yellow. Terminal fittings should be individually marked to identify them
with the appropriate record. In addition to the marking required by the applicable standard and legislation the
marking on the label should indicate the following minimum information:

SWL:

Marks:

Length:

Material:

Manufacturer:

Year:

Mode Factor:

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Some slings are dyed with a colour code to indicate the working load limit of the sewn webbing component. The
WLL may also be indicated by stripes or lines running along the length of the sling, i.e. 1 stripe = 1 tonne, 2 stripes =
2 tonnes and so on. These colours and markings relate to the WLL of the sewn webbing component only and older
slings may be marked with alternative colours or no specific colouring. For these reasons and due to the fact that a
large proportion of the working population are colour blind to some degree, the user should always check the label
to confirm the WLL of the sling.

NOTES:

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Defined Scope of Examination

Did you know?

The webbing sling must regularly be thoroughly examined by a competent person to check whether it is safe to
use. LEEA recommends that this is to be done within a maximum period of 6 months unless a written scheme
of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn up by a
competent person is in place and operating.

Reports of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report
documents, retained and cross-referenced to the sling’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person
or the enforcement authority. Overload testing is not recommended!

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

Question: “…unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or manufacturer, LEEA does
not recommend the routine overload testing of slings”.

True

False

NOTES:

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• Surface chafing: some chafing will occur and is unavoidable. If this is confined to the surface fibres as
opposed to the yarns, it has no effect on the safe use. However, in extreme cases, the faces of the webbing
become so worn that the outer yarns are severed

• Localised abrasion: if the webbing shows signs of local abrasion, as opposed to general wear, serious loss
of strength may occur
• Sling eyes and the eye protection: paying particular attention to the point where the eye passes around
other lifting accessories or fittings as this is likely to be the point of the highest wear
• Cuts: longitudinal and across the webbing, paying particular attention to the selvedges (edges) of the sling
as even a small nick in the selvedge of the webbing can seriously weaken the strength of the sling

• Soiling: this can conceal damage which is very difficult for the examiner to see. Where necessary they
should be washed in clean water or in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Grit and dirt will
pick up on the rope fibres and can cause rapid wear and abrasion
• Chemical attack: which may be indicated by the flaking of the surface fibres which will then be able to be
picked or rubbed off
• Heat and friction damage: this can be seen by the surface taking on a glazed appearance and signs of the
fibres fusing together

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• Weld splatter: textile slings are often used in welding processes as they insulate the workpiece from the
lifting appliance. Weld splatter will cause localised burning and will be embedded in the webbing, causing
internal abrasion

• Damaged stitching or loosening of the threads

• If the textile webbing sling has terminal fittings like master links and hooks fitted, then these should always
be examined paying particular attention to permanent deformation, cracks or cuts, wear (maximum 8%),
corrosion, stretched or twisted hooks, inoperative or missing safety catches
• Check tolerances of manufacturing length are correct, especially where slings are used in pairs which could
be dangerous

The webbing of a duplex sling that has come loose and the layers of the sling webbing are parting:

Damaged web sling which has been cut over a period of time by localised abrasion:

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A cut in the selvedge of a webbing sling:

Illegible markings:

NOTES:

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Roundslings

This section covers man-made fibre roundslings for multi-purpose use made of Polyamide (Nylon), Polyester,
Polypropylene and Aramid Polyamide .It should be noted that anything other than a roundsling as defined in this
section is excluded (e.g. an endless rope sling).

The most popular roundslings are usually supplied as single endless slings, manufactured in polyester in a range of
working load limits up to 12 tonnes, although there is no restriction and higher capacities are becoming more
commonly available. Roundslings of 1 metre to 6-metre effective working length are readily available but other
lengths can be readily manufactured to order and again there is no restriction other than that imposed by the
capacity of the manufacturing equipment. Similarly, slings in polyamide and polypropylene can be supplied to order.

A man-made roundsling is soft and pliable to use. It is easy and light to handle and is particularly useful when lifting
loads with delicate surfaces. They are however less robust that chain and wire rope slings and can b be easily
damaged if used, transported or stored incorrectly.

A roundsling is a sling comprising a core enclosed in a protective cover.

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Core
This is a hank of yarn, made up of one or more strands of the parent material which are wound together in a
continuous loop and joined to make an endless sling. This core is the load-bearing part of the sling. An outer sleeve
made of the same material as the core yarns, contains the inner core and protects it from wear, damage and
contamination.

Core termination join Yarn join

Cover: the cover is made from webbing which is woven from identical parent material to the core, and it is made
with the ends overlapped and sewn. The edges of the woven cover material are finished in such a way that they
cannot unravel. If the cover is hot-welded, care must be taken to ensure that the welding does not affect the core.

Note: the cover is designed to be non-load bearing; its sole purpose is to contain the core and protect it from
contamination.

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▪ Protective sleeve: not to be confused with the roundsling cover. This is a sleeve which is fitted to the
roundsling on top of the cover, protecting part of the overall sling length. It is a loose sleeve that slides
around the sling circumference. The protective sleeve does not affect the strength of the sling in any way

▪ Effective Working Length (EWL): the effective working length of a roundsling is equal to half its
circumference

▪ Terminal and connection fittings: these are loadbearing metal components, supplied as part of a roundsling
which allows it to be attached to other lifting accessories, connected to other roundslings to form a multi-
leg sling assembly or connected to the hook of a crane or other lifting machine. They may be permanently
attached to the roundsling in the course of manufacture or, more commonly, fitted by the means of metal
connecting fitting, otherwise known as a coupling component

Working Load Limit: the working load limit marked on the roundsling label and indicated by any colour codes or
stripe markings is the maximum load that the sling may sustain when it is in a straight pull condition of loading

NOTE:

The covers of slings to BS EN 1492-2 and the latest version of BS 6668: Part 2 are dyed with a colour code to indicate
the working load limit of the roundsling in straight pull.
The WLL may also be indicated by stripes or lines running along the length of the sling:

i.e. 1 stripe = 1 tonne, 2 stripes = 2 tonnes, etc.

Older slings may be marked with alternative colours or no specific colouring. For these reasons and due to the fact
that a proportion of the working population are colour blind to some degree, the user should always check the label
to confirm the WLL of the sling.

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Mode Factor This is a numerical value which is applied to the marked working load limit of a sewn
webbing component to determine the maximum load which the sling may lift
according to the mode of use and assembly, e.g. choke hitch, basket hitch, single or
multiple slinging.

Identification An international system of colour-coded labels, which carry the information

necessary to be marked on a sling (see marking), has therefore been adopted in
standards as follows:

• Polyester- blue
• Polyamide - green
• Polypropylene - brown
• Aramid Polyamide - yellow (where used regionally)

NOTES:

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Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Roundslings are not subject to proof load testing, as this could be detrimental to the sling and will not reveal any
additional information. They are however subject to strength tests made on representative slings during
manufacture. Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity
is supplied with each roundsling. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such
manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. In the case of slings with integral fittings, this
will also contain details of the verification of the fittings.

Note: A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by
some national legislation.

Chemical Resistance

If the roundsling is to be used in a chemical environment, consult the supplier for advice. Man-made fibres offer high
resistance to chemicals and can, subject to correct material selection, be used in certain chemical environments
without detriment.

• Polyester is resistant to moderate strength acids but is damaged by alkalis

• Polyamide (nylon) is virtually immune to the effect of alkalis but is attacked by moderate strength acids
• Polypropylene is little affected by either acids or alkalis but is damaged by some solvents, tars, paints etc.
It is suitable for applications where the highest resistance to chemicals, other than solvents, is required
• Aramid Polyamide is resistant to weak acids and alkalis
• Terminal fittings: Certain grades of steel are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement as the result of contact
with acids. This can seriously reduce the ductility and load-bearing capacity, and cause cracking and
catastrophic brittle failures at stresses below the yield stress of the material. Other metals may be subject
to corrosion. The advice of the supplier should always be sought when selecting flat woven webbing slings
and/or fittings for use in chemical environments

Temperature

Roundslings are suitable for use within the following temperature ranges:

• Polypropylene - 40°C to 80°C

• Polyester and polyamide [nylon] - 40°C to 100°C
• Aramid Polyamide -50°C to 130°C

Care must be taken when selecting slings for use at low temperatures. Although the qualities of the materials used
for roundslings makes them suitable for use at temperatures as low as -40°C, if moisture is present, ice will be
formed. Ice will both act as an abrasive and cutting agent and will damage the sling. Slings selected for use at low

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temperatures should be dry and steps must be taken to prevent ice forming on or, more importantly, between the
strands of the sling core or the cover.

Ultraviolent radiation

All textile fibres become brittle as the result of exposure to sunlight or other sources of ultra-violet radiation.
This is known as solar degradation. Its effect is more pronounced in man-made fibres, but it is hard to detect
until at an advanced stage. Then, very quickly, they will become brittle, turn to powder and crumble away. During
the manufacturing stage man-made fibres, intended for use in sling manufacture, are subject to a process known
as stabilising. Whilst this does not prevent solar degradation it does slow down the rate of this effect.

Effects of water (wetting)

• Polyamide loses up to 15% of its strength when wet

• Polyester and Polypropylene are unaffected by water and therefore strength remains unchanged when
wet

Summary:

Critical Components: Cover, Stitching, Metal fittings (coupling components), Identification labels/tags

Marking Requirements

Marking should be directed onto the outer cover or on a label attached to the outer cover of the roundsling.

This marking must be such that it will not affect the safety of the sling when in use. Depending on the standard being
worked to for some slings the material from which the sling is constructed will be identified by the colour of the
label:

• Polyester slings will be blue

• Polyamide (nylon) green
• Polypropylene brown
• Aramid Polyamide yellow

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The information required by the applicable legislation and standard the markings on the label should indicate
the following minimum information: (Select ALL that apply)

Self-weight of the sling

SWL in straight pull for single or endless slings, or for the appropriate range of angles in the case of multileg
slings
Distinguishing mark(s)
Date of last thorough examination
Nominal length
The material the roundsling is made from
Manufacturer’s name or identification
Name of last examiner
Year of manufacture
Mode factors or SWLs for various modes of use and the grade of fitting (if applicable)

NOTES:

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Did you know?

Some slings are dyed with a colour code to indicate the working load limit of the roundsling in straight pull. The
WLL may also be indicated by stripes or lines running along the length of the sling, i.e. 1 stripe = 1 tonne, 2 stripes
= 2 tonnes and so on. Older slings may be marked with alternative colours or no specific colouring. For these
reasons and due to the fact that a large proportion of the working population are colour blind to some degree,
the user should always check the label to confirm the WLL of the sling.

Defined Scope of Examination

The roundsling must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe
to use.

This is to be done within a maximum period of 6 months unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer
to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn up by a competent person is in place and
operating.

Reports of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report
documents, retained and cross-referenced to the sling’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person
or the enforcement authority. Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the
equipment who must assess the root cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g.
training of operators, increased inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service. The
competent person may deem it necessary to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination.

Note: unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or manufacturer, LEEA does not
recommend the routine overload testing of slings.

• Chemical attack. Normally difficult to detect until advanced deterioration has occurred. In an advanced
state, surface powdering occurs. Possible loss of colouring of the sleeve. Unless the manufacturer has
agreed to such usage and a safe system of work has been agreed, slings exposed to chemicals (e.g. acids,
alkalis, solvents) should be washed and cleaned in water and withdrawn from service for examination by a
Competent Person
• Illegible marking or missing label, i.e. the sling identification mark and safe working loads
• Soiling. Heavy soiling can obscure damage, making detection during inspection difficult. It can also make
identification difficult by obscuring any marking or colour coding. Grit and dirt will pick up on the face of
the cover and can cause rapid wear and abrasion. Clean the sling in an approved manner but if the soiling
is such that cleaning has little or no effect, withdraw from service and refer to a Competent Person
• Check tolerances of manufacturing length are correct, especially where slings are used in pairs which could
be dangerous
• Knotted slings or those that have been tied together for shortening purposes should be removed from
service

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Only use cleaning agents approved by the manufacturer, whose instructions on its use must be sought and
followed. Clean water may however be freely used.

An international system of colour-coded labels, which carry the information necessary to be marked on a sling -
from the options below - select the CORRECT label and colour. (Select one answer)

Polyamide - Brown
Polyamide - Yellow
Polyamide - Green
Polyamide - Blue

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Chain Slings

Types of load chain

Chain is the most basic of lifting media, and although it is far heavier than rope it has a far longer life and is far more
robust. It can better withstand rough usage, is less likely to damage, is almost perfectly flexible and can be stored
for long periods without serious deterioration.

In use it tends to show evidence of damage better than wire rope or textiles, consequently examination is more
reliable. Therefore, it remains the principal component of much lifting equipment. In this unit we will consider the
various grades of chain in use in our industry today.

Chain slings manufactured from wrought iron are obsolete and no longer available. Similarly, mild steel chain slings
were rendered obsolete in the early 1980’s following the publication of newer standards which specifically exclude
the use of this grade of chain for lifting applications. However, it is possible that examples of wrought iron and mild
steel chain slings may occasionally be found in service, but their continued use is not recommended by LEEA and
they are therefore outside the scope of this course.

At the present time, the majority of chain slings in service are grade 8 or grade 80 (or T – See note below about the
use of letter grades in older standards). Other grades, notably 40, M, 4 and, to a lesser degree, 60, S, 6, of welded
construction may also be found in service and are therefore covered by this code of practice. Grades 8, 80 and T
have a breaking load twice that of grades 40, M, 4 and are therefore lighter for the same strength.

Keynote

Older national and international standards permitted the use of either letters or numbers to indicate the grade of
the chain irrespective of its intended use. However, most modern standards now reserve the use of numbers to
indicate the grade of medium tolerance chain for chain slings and the use of letters to indicate the grade of fine
tolerance chain for lifting appliances.

Although not yet standardised in many parts of the world, grade 10, or higher, chain slings are available and gaining
in popularity.

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Short link chain

A short link chain only short link chain is allowed for lifting purposes.

• ‘Fine tolerance’ chain is used in lifting machines

o Usually grade T, DT or DAT
▪ Each link must fit precisely into the load pocket wheel of the hoist!

• ‘Medium tolerance’ chain is used generally in the manufacture of lifting slings

o Usually, grade 8
o Can be found marked T(8)

Grade T chain slings

Chain slings made in the UK between 1981 and 1997 may show the letter ‘T’ or as a grade mark. Students should
therefore make themselves familiar in the recognition of fine tolerance and medium tolerance chains by looking at
as many examples as possible and referring to the chain manufacturer if in doubt.

Long Link Chain

In the past, certain types of chain sling were made from or included, ‘long link’ chain. It should be noted that the
European Machinery Directive only permits the use of a short link chain for lifting purposes and therefore the use of
a long link chain is prohibited. This is generally the case for all known standards.

Grading of Chain Slings

Recognising Different Chain Grades

A fine tolerance chain may be recognised in two ways.

The calibrating process has the effect of removing all of the residual scales from the heat treatment process and
many of the finish treatments include corrosion-resistant finishes. As a result, it has a bright finish and of course,
there is also the grade mark. Fine tolerance chains to EN 818 use the letters ‘T’, ‘DAT’ and ‘DT’ to indicate the type
of treatment given to the chain and its intended application.

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Chains in all of these grades may not be covered by European Standards. Grade T (Fine Tolerance) and 8 (Medium
Tolerance) is currently the highest standardised grade of chain.

This grading system has also been applied to hooks, links, shackles and other accessories, indicating their strength
compatibility with the appropriate grade of chain.

Should a sling be found in use manufactured from fine tolerance chain grades, it should be removed from service
immediately. However, there is a slight problem here, which may apply to some older chain slings that can still be
found in use.

A fine tolerance chain is a chain which has been manufactured to precise dimensions for use as a load chain in lifting
appliances - it is outside of the scope of this course, however it is important that we know a little about it.

Medium tolerance chain is used to manufacture chain slings. It has to be more ductile in order to withstand shock
loading in use, however, in use it is not subject to wear and can therefore have a softer outer surface. As it does not
mate with other moving parts it does not need to have such a precise pitch.

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Note: This grading system has also been applied to chain sling components to indicate their strength compatibility
with the appropriate grade of a chain.

Nominal size: the nominated size of the round section of steel wire or bar from which the chain is made. That is, for
example, a nominal 7mm chain has a link diameter of 7mm.

Material diameter: this is the measured diameter of the chain link or its actual diameter.

Pitch: this is the internal length of a chain link as measured.

Heat treatment: all load chain is subjected to the appropriate heat treatment specified in the standard to which it
is manufactured, for the particular type and grade of a chain. This is carried out before the application of the
manufacturing proof force.

Surface finish: the `finished' condition for load chain can be of different types depending on the standard to which
it is manufactured. For example, chains are supplied with various surface finishes including natural black (i.e. furnace
scaled), de-scaled, electroplated or painted.

Grade marks: the chain grade mark should appear at regular intervals throughout the entire length of the load chain.
By way of example, British standards call for the grade mark of the chain to appear at every 20th link or, at intervals
of 1 metre, whichever is the least distance. The links must be stamped or embossed on the least stressed part of the
chain, i.e. on the side of the link opposite the weld.

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Short link chain used in lifting machines is:

Fine tolerance
Medium tolerance

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Manufacturer’s Certificate

A certificate of test and examination stating the load chain conformance to the relevant standard supplied to the
purchaser. Typically, the information on the certificate will include:

▪ The name and address of the manufacturer or his authorized representative, including the date of issue of
the certificate and authentication
▪ Number and Part(s) of the relevant standard
▪ Quantity and description of the chain of which the test sample is representative
▪ Identification of the chain of which the test sample is representative
▪ Nominal size of chain
▪ Manufacturing proof force
▪ Breaking force, in kilonewtons (i.e. confirmation that the specified minimum breaking force was met or
exceeded)
▪ Total ultimate elongation at fracture, as a percentage (i.e. confirmation that the specified Minimum total
ultimate elongation has been met or exceeded)

NOTES:

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Components and Assembly Methods

Chain sling assemblies are manufactured in various material and heat-treatment combinations to produce the
different grades and to suit differing service conditions. The end fittings are attached to the chain by means of one
or more welded links, or by mechanical joining devices.

All grades are available in welded construction but only grades 8 (or 80), 10 (or 100) and 12 (or 120) are available
constructed with mechanical joining devices.

Chain connector pins: these pins are common for connecting components to the load chain. Manufacturers use their
own patented pins of different shapes and sizes, usually oval or round in shape. They are held securely in place using
roll pins. Some connectors use 1, others have two roll pins.

Chain coupling component: some systems employ fittings with large eyes through which half a coupler is passed;
the other half of the coupler is passed through the end link of the chain. Couplers are available for a chain to chain,
chain to eye type fitting and chain to master link attachment. The two halves of the coupler fit together and a

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locking/load pin passes through the centre to hold them together. The locking pin is kept in position by a central
retaining collar, spring clips or circlip type fixings.

Adjustable slings: Most manufacturers can incorporate shortening devices into all sling assemblies rendering them
adjustable. Shortening clutches are the preferred devices for adjusting leg length as they maintain the correct ‘in
line loading’ of the chain so that the rating is not affected. The use of hooks that lock onto a link of the chain,
commonly known as grab hooks, is not recommended for this purpose as they involve a transverse or oblique loading
on the chain. If a manufacturer provides grab hooks for shortening purposes, their recommendations on de-rating
must be sought and followed. Another, more appropriate, type of grab hook that is sometimes used is the cradle
type and again if using these the manufacturer’s instructions must be strictly adhered to.

Shortening devices in multi-leg slings will adjust the leg length, but care must be taken to ensure that no one leg is
overloaded as a result. Bear in mind that if the legs are not equally disposed about the vertical, the leg making the
smaller angle to the vertical will carry a larger share of the load. Such shortening devices MUST be used correctly
with the load-bearing chain always leading out from the bottom of the device.

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General precautions

Mechanically assembled chain system components are supplied by the system manufacturer in hardened and
tempered conditions. As the assembly of the sling does not affect the material condition no further heat
treatment is necessary, indeed it would be positively dangerous.

This is particularly important when chain slings are used around heat, such as welding, or in a galvanising plant
process area.

Common chain sling assemblies

The most commonly used chain sling assemblies are referred to in this course. Other special assemblies may be
devised for lifting specific unusually shaped loads. Although the upper terminal fittings are usually links, rings were
also permitted in some standards, but LEEA does not recommend their use.

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Rating chain slings

When a multi-leg sling is used with the sling legs at an angle, the load in the individual sling legs will increase as the
angle to the vertical (included angle between the legs) becomes greater.

Traditionally, the angle has been measured as the included angle α (alpha) between the legs of a two-leg sling and
between the diagonally opposite legs of a four-leg sling. As three-leg slings do not have an ‘opposite’ leg it was taken
for these as twice the angle to the vertical. This assumed that the legs would be symmetrically disposed of in the
plan.

In order to emphasise that the angle of each leg to the vertical affects the share of the load, it will carry and to
remove the anomaly with three leg slings. It should therefore be noted that the traditional method of measuring the
included angle α (alpha) between the legs of a two-leg sling and between the diagonally opposite legs of a four-leg
sling is no longer recommended by LEEA, and the angle between the leg and the vertical β (beta) should be used
instead.

It is possible that some multi-leg slings in service will be marked with the rating expressed at the included angle or
range of angles, e.g. 0-90°. However, based on the above for this course, the rating is expressed at the range of
angles of a leg to the vertical, e.g. 0-45°. This is based on new methods that have been used in previous LEEA training
courses, however, as the courses have now been written to reflect equipment that will be found in service and the
acceptance that some geographical regions have not yet adopted the new approach, reference is also made to the
included angle.

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Method of Rating
If a sling is to be used safely, allowance must be made for this angle and this is achieved by rating the sling in one
of two ways. The two methods of rating are often known as the ‘uniform load method’ and the ‘trigonometric
method’

It should be noted that the uniform load method is the only method of rating multipurpose slings used in
harmonised European standards.

The uniform load method must be used for general purpose lifting. The trigonometric rating is more suited to
engineered lifts or where fitted to a fixed lifting frame or beam.

Uniform Load Permits only one working load limit up to an angle of 45° to the vertical (90° included angle)
Method and a reduced working load limit at angles between 45° and 60° to the vertical (90° and 120°
included angle). This is the recommended method which should be used for all multipurpose
slings Working load limits are derived from the following:

• Single leg sling = 1.0 x WLL of a single leg

• Two leg sling 0-45° (included angle 0-90°) = 1.4 x WLL of a single leg
• Two leg sling 45°-60° (included angle 90° -120°) = 1.0 x WLL of a single leg
• Three and four leg sling 0-45° (included angle 0-90°) = 2.1 x WLL of a single leg
• Three and four leg sling 45°-60° (included angle 90° -120°) = 1.5 x WLL of a single leg

The uniform load method simplifies matters by removing the need for calculations and
reducing the need for the operative to determine angles. Whilst the uniform load method of
rating is most easily applied to equipment such as multi-leg slings, it may, with advantage, also
be applied to such items as, for example, eyebolts when used in pairs.
Standards where the uniform load method has been used, rate a multipurpose four-leg sling
at the same working load limit as a three-leg sling of the same size and grade. This assumes
that the load may only be taken by only three of the four legs. However, some national
standards have now been amended such that they work on the assumption that the load may
be carried by two of the legs.
Trigonometric This method provides for a variation in the working load limit as the angle to the vertical (or
Method the angle between the sling legs) varies. It was traditionally used in the UK, but in order to use
it for multipurpose applications, the operative must be provided with tables showing the safe
working loads at various angles for each size of chain, rope, etc. It also requires the operative
to be trained in judging a range of angles and has the inherent danger that if he should
misjudge these, the sling may well be overloaded.

Although the uniform load method was introduced several years ago, some manufacturers
continued to rate and mark multipurpose slings by the trigonometric method. Slings intended
for multipurpose use marked this way will not comply with the requirements of harmonised
standards and it is strongly recommended that this method should be used only for slings
designed for a single purpose, as specified in the withdrawn standard, BS 6166 Part 1. Working
load limits are derived from the following:

• Single leg sling = 1 x WLL of a single leg

• Two leg sling = 2 x WLL of a single leg x cos β
• Three leg sling = 3 x WLL of a single leg x cos β
• Four leg sling = 4 x WLL of a single leg x cos β

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Where β is equal to the angle between the sling leg and the vertical (i.e. half the included
angle α).

In the case of a single purpose four-leg sling designed for exclusive use in an application
where the load will clearly be shared by the four legs, it is permissible to calculate the
working load limit on that basis.

NOTE
Some standards do not recommend the rating of three leg slings at included angles greater than 90°. This is due
to the possible hazard of a user assuming that the ‘included angle’ referred to the angle between the legs of the
sling instead of twice the angle of a leg to the vertical. Where slings are rated and marked on the basis of the
angle to the vertical, this hazard does not exist.
Many national and international standards are now in favour of the uniform load method, largely on the grounds
of safety and simplicity. However, this does not exclude the trigonometric method when working to national
standards that allow it within their scope or with justified reason to deviate from the uniform load method. This
code recommends that the uniform load method is used for all multipurpose applications and that the
trigonometric method should be restricted to slings designed and used for a single purpose.

Uniform v. Trigonometric Rating example:

Uniform load method sling:

• 7mm (1.5t) 2-legged chain sling 0-45°

• 2 x Cos β x WLL of single leg
• 2 x 0.7 x 1.5t = WLL 2.1t

Trigonometric load method sling:

• 7mm (1.5t) 2-legged chain sling @ 40°

• 2 x Cos β x WLL of single leg
• 2 x 0.766 x 1.5t = WLL 2.3t (2.298t)

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Re-marking of chain sling rating method:

It should be clearly understood by the lifting equipment examiner that whilst equipment designed to be used under
the trigonometric method may be re-rated and marked according to the uniform load method, the reverse is NOT
always possible and may be dangerous. It is therefore recommended that to avoid confusion, all items of a given
type (e.g. all chain slings) at the location should be rated and marked by the same method.

The method of expressing and marking the rating at the angle to the vertical also raises the question of how a user,
with existing slings rated by the uniform load method but marked with the ‘included angle’, will avoid confusion
when introducing new slings marked with the ‘angle of inclination’. It is LEEA’s recommendation that the user should
consider whether a programme of re-marking is worthwhile, bearing in mind the expected life of the slings.
Irrespective of whether existing slings are re-marked, there will inevitably be a period when both systems are in use.
We therefore further recommend that all operatives are made aware and trained to recognise the differences.

Rating assumptions

We have looked at both the uniform load and trigonometric methods of rating chain slings, we need to be mindful
that both methods assume certain conditions of use which are imposed to ensure that no part of the sling can
become overloaded.

It is important to understand that although the weight to be lifted may be within the maximum lifting capacity of
the sling, lifting it in the wrong way can place an excess of the load onto one part of the sling.

Although deviations from the assumed conditions have the same effect whichever method of rating is used, it varies
in degree and it is with the multipurpose slings where the designer has the least information about possible
applications and where the responsibility to make allowance for the actual method of slinging employed therefore
lies with the user.

The first of the assumptions is that the sling legs are symmetrically disposed of in a plan, i.e. for three leg slings, all
included angles between the legs in the plan are equal; for four leg slings, opposite included angles between adjacent
legs, in a plan, are equal.
The effect of tilt of the load during the lifting operation is also significant and becomes increasingly more so as the
included angle between the legs decreases. As tilt increases, the loading in the leg on the ‘downhill’ side (i.e. the leg
with the smaller angle to the vertical) increases.

The second assumption, particularly applicable to multi-leg slings but also applicable to single leg and endless slings
where more than one is used, is that all legs are of identical materials and load-bearing capacity. Assumptions are
also made with regard to the method of attachment. Single leg and multi-leg slings are rated for use with the leg or
legs in a ‘straight pull’, i.e. the legs are not bent around the load, choked, back hooked or otherwise prevented from
taking up a straight line under load. There may be some variation from these assumptions, and this may in fact be
desirable offering a more secure way of attaching to certain loads.

Endless slings have fewer variations of use, but it should be remembered that the slinging factor for endless chain
and wire rope slings assumes choke hitch, whereas the standard rating for textile slings assumes a straight pull.

In all cases, it is also assumed that, at the points of attachment to both the lifting appliance and the load, the radii
around which the sling passes are large enough to avoid damage to the sling. In the case of chain and wire rope
endless slings, the rating takes account of the chain and wire rope being bent around itself on the bight.

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Adverse Conditions

In adverse environments, the SWL must be reduced from a value equal to the working load limit, in accordance with
the following recommendations.

High-temperature conditions: As the temperature which a sling attains in service increases, its strength decreases.
Care must be taken to account for the maximum temperature which can be reached by the sling in service. This may
be difficult to determine in practice, but under-estimation of the temperature involved must be avoided.

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Low temperature conditions: Chain slings covered by most standards will not be adversely affected by temperatures
down to minus 40°C (see note below) and no reduction from the working load limit is, therefore, necessary on this
account. Where slings are to be used at temperatures below minus 40°C, the manufacturer should be consulted.

Depending on the manufacturing processes some grades of chain can only be used as low as minus 20°C.
Care must therefore be taken to ensure the correct chain is selected and advice sought from a Competent Person
and manufacturers literature.

Acidic and Alkaline conditions

Chain slings manufactured to Grades S, T, 8 (or 80), 10 (or 100) and 12 (or 120) should not be used either immersed
in acid solutions or exposed to acid fumes, as this can cause and phenomena known as hydrogen embrittlement or
hydrogen cracking, that can seriously reduce the ductility and loadbearing capacity, cause cracking and catastrophic
brittle failures at stresses below the yield stress of sling material.

Certain coating processes, i.e. galvanizing, give rise to these conditions. Slings of Grade S, T, 8 (80), 10 (100) and 12
(120) should not, therefore, be used in such an environment nor should they be subjected to such processes
themselves without the express approval in writing from the manufacturers.

Chain slings of Grade 40, M or 4 may be used in such an environment subject to the following precautions:

▪ The SWL of such a sling should not be greater than 50% of the working load limit
▪ The sling should be thoroughly washed in clean water immediately after use
▪ The sling should be given a thorough examination by a Competent Person prior to use each day

In other conditions in which the sling is likely to be subjected to chemical attack, the manufacturer should be
consulted.

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Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Load chain
• Master link and intermediate links
• Component fittings (hooks, shortening devices, etc.)
• Component connectors (pins and roll pins to secure them in place)
• Chain coupling components (sometimes referred to as ‘couplers’)
• Identification tags

Marking requirements

In addition to the information required by the applicable legislation and standard, the following information should
be permanently and legibly marked:

• Identification mark, (If the manufacturer has not provided a unique serial number, then it is the
responsibility of the user to add the identification mark to identify the equipment with the inspection and
examination reports)
• SWL
• Material grade
• Year of manufacture
• Name and address of the manufacturer or unique identification mark/symbol
• Any other information called for by the standard being worked to or by legislation

Marking should be by means of a suitable plate or metal tag permanently attached or by stamping directly into the
equipment, preferably in a non-load-bearing or low-stress area.

Stamping into a stressed area may also be permissible provided that the mechanical properties of the component
are not significantly impaired. Where applicable, the position and size of stamping should be as indicated in the
relevant standard.

When a plate or tag is used to convey this information, it is recommended that the identification mark should also
be put directly onto the equipment so that in the event of the plate or tag becoming detached, the identity is not
lost, and the other information can be recovered from the related documentation.

The method of marking will depend on the rating method adopted and the style of expressing this:

• For uniform load rated slings, or slings which have otherwise been rated to express the SWL in terms of the
inclination angle:
o SWL Ut 0-45º plus optionally Vt 45º-60º
• For uniform load rated slings to other standards expressing the rating at the included angle:
o SWL Wt 0-90º plus optionally SWL Xt 90º-120º

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NOTE:

Users of slings rated by the uniform load method and marked at the ‘included angle’ may wish to consider a
programme of re-marking to show the SWL in terms of the angle to the vertical. E.g. a sling with SWL of say 8t
would be re-marked SWL 8t 0-45º instead of SWL 8t 0-90º.

• For single purpose trigonometrically rated slings which express the SWL in terms of the angle to the
vertical:
o SWL Xt @ 45º
• For single purpose trigonometrically rated slings which express the SWL in terms of the included
angle:
o SWL Zt @ 90°

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The Thorough Examination

Chain slings must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
This is to be done within a maximum period of 6 months unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer
to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn up by a competent person is in place and
operating.

Reports of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report
documents, retained and cross-referenced to the sling’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person
or the enforcement authority.

Chain slings should be thoroughly examined using a systematic method from one end of the sling to the other. The
examination should be methodical and cover all parts of the sling, including all sides of the load chain and the internal
bearing surfaces between links for inter-link wear. The examination should include the following:

▪ Articulation: ensure that the links of the load chain and coupling devices are free to articulate
▪ Wear: the maximum permissible wear is an 8% reduction in material diameter for the chain, the
components and fittings
▪ Elongation maximum elongation, mainly due to seating and interlink wear, is 5% - Caution! This is not a
stretch of the chain which is classed as permanent deformation which is unacceptable
▪ Sling leg lengths: unless the sling is specifically designed otherwise, the legs of multi-leg slings should be of
equal length so that the seat of hooks, or bearing point of other fittings, is equal. This is an important matter
to check, particularly if a leg of the chain has been replaced, as the pitch may vary from the original.
▪ There should be no signs of bending, twisting or other distortion to the chain, master link or other fittings
▪ There should be no signs of nicks, cracks, corrosion or chemical attack
▪ Hooks should show no signs of opening or of distortion and, where fitted, safety catches should be
undamaged and operate freely
▪ Incorrect assembly of any mechanical joining devices (refer to manufacturer’s instructions where
necessary)
▪ Marking should be clear and legible; it must give all of the necessary information for the particular grade
and type of sling
▪ Check for mixing of grades of component or chain, and correct assembly
▪ Ensure that 3-4 leg slings are fitted to a masterlink quad assembly and not a single masterlink

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Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

The competent person may deem it necessary to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be
NDT, overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination.

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Overload Testing Unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or

manufacturer, LEEA does not recommend the routine overload testing of slings,
except following an exceptional circumstance such as significant modification or
repair. This is because overload testing has few benefits and a number of
disadvantages:
• Some manufacturers do not recommend overload tests, except in
‘exceptional’ circumstances
• Repeated overloads can cause deterioration of the equipment over time
• Most structural failures are the result of fatigue and such defects will not be
revealed by an overload test; fatigue cracking can be identified during a
thorough examination
• Defects such as fatigue cracking can be made worse by overload testing but
may still not be identified by the test
• If equipment fails during testing it could be dangerous and will certainly be
expensive- Inspection bodies do not recommend it as there is no defined
structural or mechanical benefit

Repairs For repairs using mechanically assembled components testing is not necessary if the
components have been individually tested. Inspection to check for correct assembly
is all that will be required.

Stainless Steel Be aware that stainless steel chain slings may be found in service, although these are
a non-standard product and manufacturers advice should always be sought.

NOTES:

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Wire Rope Slings

Wire rope slings give the user a versatile and safe means of connecting loads to lifting appliances, provided that they
are used in the correct manner and dangerous lifting practices and service damage are avoided.
There are however applications where wire rope slings are to be preferred to other types of slings and similarly there
are applications where other types of slings may be preferable to wire rope slings.

Types of wire rope

Wire rope has been in common use since the late 1800s and is a good medium for making slings, which are lighter
than the equivalent capacity chain slings. Due to its construction, there are a large number of small wires at the
surface and so is more susceptible to damage than a chain. Additionally, if a sling is bent around a corner of the load
or repeatedly used to lift identical loads, the rope will take on a permanent set.

How is wire rope is made

There are many constructions of wire rope which use a variety of wire sections, wire diameters and methods of
spinning the wires together to obtain very different characteristics of rope with different properties for specific
duties.

The process starts at the steel wire rope manufacturing plant where a billet (a block of steel) is extruded and shaped
into a rod (round bar) and collected in coils. Following testing and heat treatment, the coils of the rod are drawn
through dies, reducing the rod into smaller size wires. During the drawing process, surface finishing is also applied
before a final test. The finished coils of wire are then supplied to wire rope manufacturers for the construction of
the final product.

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Ropes are produced from firstly establishing the core, which is made of metal wires or an organic material such as
natural or synthetic fibres (Fibre Core, or FC).

Metal wire cores can be produced in several types of construction:

▪ Wire Stranded Core – (WSC) - This type of core can be either one single wire as the core, or more typically
the core construction is the same as the outer strands
▪ Independent Wire Rope Core – (IWRC) - This type of core is made up of a core and strands so is actually a
smaller wire rope that is used as the core

To form the rope, a number of single wires are twisted (laid) together to form a strand. A number of strands are then
taken and twisted (laid) together around the core to form the rope.

For sling manufacture, ropes formed from round section wire are used. Although slings can be made from any
suitable six or eight stranded ropes, six-stranded are by far the more common. We will therefore limit our
considerations to six-stranded ropes but exactly the same principles apply to eight stranded ropes.

• Stranding: the stranding operation takes place when all the wires are brought together at the forming point.
Wires used during this and the closing operation are spun into the correct helical shape, this process is
called preforming. This reduces the internal stresses in the strands and the rope meaning that if the wires
and strands are cut, they do not spring out of the rope formation

Preforming gives certain advantages with regards to the performance of the rope in that it results in a relatively
inert (dead) rope that is more resistant to kinking, it becomes easier to handle so when such a rope is cut wires will
stay in position, broken wires do not stick out, therefore, making it less dangerous to the user and that the rope is
more flexible.

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Strand Construction: a single wire, known as a king-wire, is taken and then the remainder of the required number
of wires are twisted around this to form a strand

• Outer wires: all wires positioned in the outer layer of a spiral rope or in the outer layer of wires in the outer
strands of a stranded rope
• Inner wires: all wires of intermediate layers positioned between the centre wire and outer layer of wires in
a spiral rope or all other wires except centre, filler and outer wires in a stranded rope
• Filler wires: wires used in filler construction to fill up the gaps in between the layers
• Centre wires: wires positioned at the centre of a spiral rope or the centres of strands of a stranded rope

The most common wire rope for sling manufacture is 6 x 19. However, 6 x 36 is also widely used, but other
constructions can be employed.

6 x 19 means that there are 6 strands, each of which has 19 wires, and 6 x 36 means that there are 6 strands each of
which has 36 wires. Both of these are equal lay ropes.

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There are generally four different methods of constructing the wire rope:

Seale Construction – this is a parallel lay strand with the same number of wires in both layers

Warrington Construction – a parallel lay strand having an outer layer containing alternately large and small wires

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Filler Construction – a parallel lay strand having an outer layer containing twice the number of wires than the inner
layers with filler wires in the valleys between the layers

Combined Construction – a parallel lay strand having three or more layers laid in one operation and formed from a
combination of the previous strand types

Grades of Wire Rope Wire tensile strength/grade

Wire ropes are supplied in different grades. The grade of the wire rope is based on the tensile strength of the wires
in N/mm².

Wire Rope Finish: coatings and plating are added to the wire to provide protection such as galvanising (a surface
coat of zinc is given to the wire). This coating will resist oxidisation which will improve the corrosion resistance of
the wire rope. The coating is normally referenced by the quality and mass of the coating applied, and its adherence
to the steel on which it is applied. This will depend on the standard to which the wire is manufactured.

By way of example, we can look at EN 12385-2 which uses the symbol ‘U’ to denote an uncoated or bright finish.

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For zinc coating the symbol will depend on the class of the coated finish:

• Class B zinc coating is designated ‘B’

• Class A zinc coating is designated ‘A’

Rope Lay

Rope lay refers to the way in which the wires are laid when forming the strands and the way in which the strands
are laid when forming the rope. There are 2 types of lay:

Ordinary (regular) lay:

Ordinary lay: The wires that make up the strand and the strands that make up the rope are laid in opposite
directions. When formed, this gives the impression that the wires are running the length of the wire rope.

Lang’s lay: (not suitable for manufacturing wire ropes slings!)

Lang’s lay: The wires that make up the strand are laid in the same direction as the strands in the
rope. When formed the wires quite clearly run across the diameter of the rope. Due to the tendency of the rope to
unwind, Lang’s lay ropes are not suitable for wire rope slings.

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The lower case letter indicates the direction of the wires and the capital letter, the
direction of the strands.

Rope Details and Designation

The following is a list of typical information that might be required with the rope:
▪ Length of rope
▪ Standard to which the rope conforms
▪ Nominal diameter of rope*
▪ Construction of rope*
▪ Type of core*
▪ Grade of rope*
▪ Wire finish*
▪ Direction of lay and type of lay*
▪ If the rope is preformed
▪ If special lubrication has been applied
▪ Minimum breaking load

*EN 12385-2 for example, requires the designation to be made up of the six pieces of information indicated above.

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Example:
A 20mm diameter right-hand ordinary lay wire rope of 6 x 36 Warrington-Seale construction with a wire core made
in 1770 grade wire with a bright finish. Following EN 12385 the designation will then be 20 6x36WS-IWRC 1770 U sZ.

Key Components

Wire Rope Slings

Wire rope slings give the user a versatile and safe means of connecting loads to lifting appliances, provided that they
are used in the correct manner and dangerous lifting practices and service damage are avoided.

In many cases the use of a wire rope sling in preference to, for example, a chain sling is a matter of the personal
choice of the user. There are however applications where wire rope slings are preferred to other types of slings and
similarly, there are applications where other types of slings may be preferable to wire rope slings.

Most global standards call for multi-leg slings to be rated and marked with their WLL expressed in terms of the
inclination angle to the vertical, e.g. 0-45°.

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Eye terminations single slings:

Eye terminations single slings are produced by taking a length of wire rope and forming an eye at each end.
Multi-leg slings are made in exactly the same way except that the eyes at the top of the sling are made through
a master link. If terminal fittings are required, these can be attached by making the eye through the fitting. To
help the eye keep its shape and to give the rope protection a thimble is used.
This is often known as a ‘hard eye’ and this is advised when fittings are to be made onto the sling as permanent
attachments.

Thimbles

Thimbles are to be visually inspected for surface defects liable to damage the rope or injure the user. Thimbles of
any size should comply with the following dimensions

Ferrules
Ferrules are made from different materials for different types of rope, care is therefore required to ensure
compatibility of the ferrule material to the rope. There are also different shapes of ferrules for the different types of
termination. Global standards recognise the differing methods of terminating a wire rope, but generally give the
same termination efficiency for all ferrule secured terminations of 90%.

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Turn Back Loop

When square-cut ferrules are used, in order to ensure that the rope is fully engaged within the ferrule it is necessary
for a small amount of the tail to protrude through the ferrule. Standards provide guidance on the length of this…EN
standards state that this should be no more than one half of the rope diameter. However, if the rope has been cut
by a heat process a portion of the rope will have become annealed (softened) in the heat-affected area. The
protruding tail in this case should be no more than an amount equal to one diameter of the rope and positioned so
that none of the annealed section is within the ferrule.

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Soft Eye

A simple loop in the wire, with no protective thimble, is known as a soft eye, most soft eyes are manufactured to the
following dimensions which require the length of the soft eye (h) to be at least fifteen times the diameter of the
rope and the width (h/2) to be half the length of the eye, as illustrated below. This provides a large enough radius
for connection to load attachment points (both ends) whilst preventing the rope from becoming unseated/displaced.

Sling Terminations

When a thimble is fitted, the size and shape of the correctly sized thimble will dictate the length and width of the
eye. Typically after pressing the clearance between the base of the thimble and the ferrule should be approximately
1.5 times the nominal rope diameter for a thimble without a point, and 1 times the nominal diameter for a thimble
with a point unless specified otherwise by a competent person.

Note: Upper eyes shall always be fitted with thimbles, and if lower terminal fittings are used, the eyes shall always
be fitted with thimbles.

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Hand Spliced Terminations

Spliced terminations must be carried out by a trained splicer.

When a spliced termination is utilised, the termination efficiency of 80% is used.

The splice shall have at least five load-carrying tucks from which the name five tuck splice is taken. These can also
be known as “dock splices” and these splices must be made against the lay of the rope.

At least 3 of these load-carrying tucks must be made with the whole strand, the remainder can be made with at least
50% of the wires in the strand. This then gives a taper to the lower part of the splice.

Protruding Wires

Any protruding wires must be addressed; for example by serving, reinsertion of the tails back into the rope, or by
covering with heat shrink wrapping. Where used, serving or wrapping shall not cover the three full strand load-
carrying tucks.

NOTES:

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Safety Requirements

• Grade of Rope

The rope grade should be either 1770 or 1960 (certain regions permit the use of lower and higher grades).

• Formation of a Sling

The rope size type and grade for each leg shall be the same. The legs of two-leg slings shall be joined at their upper
ends by a master link. In a three-leg sling, two of the legs shall be joined by a single intermediate master link to the
master link, the third leg shall be connected via a second intermediate master link. In a four-leg sling, each of the
two pairs shall be joined by an intermediate master link to the master link. Upper eyes shall always be fitted with
thimbles, and if lower terminal fittings are used, the eyes shall always be fitted with thimbles.

As mentioned previously, some standards allow all the legs of a 3 or 4 leg sling to be joined by a single master link.
Before the rejection of such slings, reference should always be made to the certification of the sling to verify the
standard.

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Use in Adverse Conditions

High and Low Temperatures

Account should be taken of the maximum temperature that can be reached by the wire rope sling in service. This is
difficult in practice but underestimation of the temperature should be avoided.

The use of wire rope with a wire core to produce slings with either hand spliced or steel ferrule secured eyes enables
them to be used at temperatures up to 400°C. However, a reduction in strength occurs necessitating a reduction in
SWL as shown in the following table:

The use of wire rope slings within the permissible temperature ranges given in the table above does not require any
permanent reduction in the working load limit when the rope is returned to ambient temperature. Wire rope slings
will not be adversely affected by temperatures down to -40 °C and no reduction from the working load limit is
necessary, therefore, on this account. Where wire rope slings are to be used at temperatures below -40 °C the
manufacturer should be consulted.

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De-Rating Slings due to Temperature

Acidic/Alkalic Conditions

Wire rope slings should not be used either immersed in acidic/alkalic solutions or exposed to acid fumes. Attention
is drawn to the fact that certain production processes involve acidic/alkalic solutions, fumes and sprays and in these
circumstances, the manufacturer’s advice should be sought.

Classified Atmospheres

Due to the possibility of sparking, the use of aluminium is restricted in certain classified atmospheres. Care must
therefore be taken when selecting wire rope slings with ferrule secured eyes for use in such areas to ensure the
suitability of the ferrule material.

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Steel wire rope slings are not subject to proof load testing, as this could be detrimental to the sling and will not
reveal any additional information. They are however subject to strength tests made on representative slings during
manufacture. Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer's certificate or statement of conformity
is supplied with each wire rope sling. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that
such manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. In the case of slings with integral fittings,
this will also contain details of the verification of the fittings. This certification will then be retained by the duty
holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Note: A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by
some national legislation.

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Recommended Marking Requirements

The sling should be withdrawn from service if the sling markings, i.e. information on the sling identification and /or
the working load limit, are illegible. Marking should be by means of a suitable plate or metal tab permanently
attached or by stamping directly into the equipment, preferably in a non-load-bearing or low-stress area. Stamping
into a stressed area may also be permissible provided that the mechanical properties of the component are not
significantly impaired. Where applicable, the position and size of stamping should be as indicated in the relevant
standard. When a plate or tag is used to convey this information, it is recommended that the identification mark
should also be put directly onto the equipment so that in the event of the plate or tag becoming detached, the
identity is not lost and the other information can be recovered from the related documentation.

Single-Leg Sling (Single Part or Endless)

• Manufacturers identifying mark

• Numbers and/or letters identifying the sling with the manufacturer’s certificate
• Working load limit
• Year of manufacture
• Material grades
• Any other legal markings (e.g CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

Multi-Leg Sling

• Manufacturers identifying mark

• Numbers and/or letters identifying the sling with the manufacturer’s certificate
• Working load limit and the angles applicable
• Year of manufacture
• Material grades
• Any other legal markings (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

The Thorough Examination Steel wire rope slings must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent
Person to check whether it remains safe to use. LEEA recommends that this
is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months as accessories are more
prone to damage even when not being used in a lifting operation (some
regions specify within 12 months) unless a written scheme of examination (for
guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination),
drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

Steel wire rope slings should be thoroughly examined using a systematic

method from one end of the sling to the other. The examination should be
methodical and cover all parts of the sling, including the full length and
circumference of the wire rope.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with

testing. Such testing could be NDT, etc. The nature and extent of testing is
always at the discretion of the competent person in support of their thorough
examination.

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NOTE:
Unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or manufacturer, LEEA does not
recommend the routine overload testing of slings.

Wear Is a normal feature of wire rope in service. The use of the correct rope
construction ensures that it does not become a primary cause of
deterioration. Lubrication may help to reduce wear.
Broken wires Are a normal feature of rope service towards the end of the rope’s life,
resulting from bending fatigue and wear. The local break-up of wires may
indicate some mechanical fault in the equipment. Correct lubrication in
service will increase fatigue performance.
Distortions Usually as a result of mechanical damage, and if severe, can considerably
affect rope strength. Visible rusting indicates a lack of suitable lubrication,
resulting in corrosion. Pitting of external wire surfaces becomes evident in
some circumstances. Broken wires ultimately result.
Internal corrosion This occurs in some environments when lubrication is inadequate or of an
unsuitable type. A reduction in rope diameter will frequently guide the
observer to this condition. Confirmation can only be made by opening the
rope with clamps or the correct use of a spike and needle to facilitate internal
inspection.

NOTE:
Non-destructive testing (NDT) using electromagnetic means known as ‘magnetic rope testing, or MRT’ may also
be used to detect broken wires and/or loss in the metallic areas. This method complements the visual
examination but does not replace it.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Steel wire rope leg(s)

• Master link and intermediate links
• Component fittings (hooks)
• Thimbles
• Terminations (ferrules, splices)
• Identification tags

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection
Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports

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Markings
All clear, legible, present, and compatible with the sling (using the information above). Marked in a manner which
does not affect the mechanical properties of the sling (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas,
ensuring any tags are securely attached to an upper terminal fitting.

Master Link / Master link Assembly / Hooks

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – Direct (weld splatter), Indirect (hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes hydrogen embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape)
• Maximum wear (loss of diameter) 8% in all components
• No throat opening of hooks
• Safety latches (if fitted) – compatible in size to hook, captive / securely fitted with OEM parts, reasonable
spring tension (functional test), trigger mechanism not slack and functioning correctly in a self-locking hook
with no excessive sideways movement
• Visual inspection of any welds (NDT if required)

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Thimbles

• Captive and securely fitted, compatible in size to the dimension of rope, no distortion bending or flaring of
flanges
• No excessive wear

Ferrules

• Securely and correctly fitted with correct dimensions (both Width to rope diameter and length), no fatigue
cracking or splits/cracks, gouges or excessive corrosion at either end of the ferrule. Correct dead-end
protrusion based on cutting off the rope (generally this should be no more than - 0.5 x Rope dia. mechanical
cut, 1 x dia. Heat cut). No indication of the dead-end slide.

NOTES:

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Corrosion Pitting Corrosion Pitting of the wires or loss of flexibility of the rope due to severe internal
corrosion (this may also cause the rope diameter to increase causing the strands to
appear to open up).

Note: Corrosion may occur where slings have been improperly stored or have been
used in particularly corrosive conditions, such as moving loads in and out of acid/alkali
baths. The effect is readily identified through the loss of flexibility and roughness to
the touch. While light surface rusting is unlikely to affect the rope strength, it may be
indicative of internal corrosion, the effect of which is not predictable.
Heat Damage Heat damage is evidenced by discolouration of the wires, and loss of lubrication or
pitting of the wires caused by electric arcing.

Sling Leg Lengths Unless the sling is specifically designed otherwise, the legs of multi-leg slings should
be of equal length so that the seat of hooks, or bearing point of other fittings, is equal.

Broken Wires Broken wires are detrimental because of:

• The possibility of injury to the user’s hands

• The loss of strength in the rope Broken wires is usually caused by mechanical
damage, although corrosion may also be a factor

NOTE: To prevent injury to the user’s hands, protruding broken wires can be broken
off in the valleys between the strands by reverse bending the wire, with the help of
pliers, until a fracture occurs. Such actions should be recorded.

Randomly Distributed Broken Wires (no more than)

6 randomly distributed broken outer wires in a length of 6d but no more than 14
randomly distributed broken wires in a length of 30d where d is the nominal rope
diameter

Concentrated Broken Wires 3 adjacent broken outer wires in one strand

Rope Wear The sling should be withdrawn from service if there is wear above 10% of the nominal
rope diameter.

Rope Distortion Kinking, crushing, flattening, sunken strands (core deterioration) bird-caging, core
protrusion or other damage which distorts the rope structure. NOTE: The main thing
to look for is wires or strands that are pushed out of their original positions in the
rope.

Slight bends in a rope where wires or strands are still relatively in their original
positions would not be considered serious damage.

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Post inspection

Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the sling’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Eyebolts
Most global standards cover 3 basic types of eyebolts, most commonly made from grade 4 (M) higher tensile steel.
Each specific eyebolt has differing characteristics of use, which if not fully understood can result in accidents due to
misuse.

Supplementary information can be found in Section 20 of the LEEA Code of Practice for
the Safe Use of Lifting Equipment, which you should read in conjunction with this course.

Dynamo Eyebolt

• Large eye sitting on a small collar but not blended into that collar
• The eye will bend if side loaded
• Shank will bend or crack as the collar offers little support
• Axial loading only

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Collared Eyebolt

• The eye is not large enough to accept a hook so a shackle must be used
• Shims up to a maximum of ½ of 1 thread for alignment purposes can be used so as not to stress the shank
• It may be used in pairs of the same capacity provided that recommended limitations of loading are strictly
followed:

Eyebolt with Link

• Can be used in any direction up to the stated SWL although the angle of the load to the axis of the screw
thread of the eye does not exceed 15°
• Can be used for non-axial loading at inclinations greater than 15° but the SWL must be correctly reduced
• SWL is greater than the collar eyebolt when used in the same scenario, but the load can be applied at any
angle to the plane of the eye

Safety Requirements

Critical Components

The underside of the collar is be machined in true alignment at right-angles to the axis of the shank.
The shank shall be screwed concentrically with the outside diameter of the collar.

The thread run out and undercut shall be smoothly radiused and free from surface irregularities.

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Within most global regions the recommendation is that eyebolts, when used for lifting, should have a coarse type of
thread (Metric coarse, Unified Coarse, British standard Whitworth), fine threads are generally not recommended for
lifting purposes.

Undercut

The illustration below shows the underside of the collar which has a recessed area cut into the collar. This is to allow
the collar to seat fully with the load. The undercut facilitates the slight raise of the load surface when a hole has been
drilled and tapped into it.

Thread Run Out

The illustration below indicates the thread form finishing before it reaches the collar of the eyebolt providing a plain
length of shank which will prevent stress raisers forming between thread and collar.

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Eyebolts are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL, this confirms all mechanical properties required
have been achieved and is intended to be the manufacturer's test only. Depending on the standard being worked
to, a manufacturer's certificate or statement of conformity is with each eyebolt. This confirms compliance with the
manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed.
This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period of ownership.

Recommended Marking Requirements (ISO 3266)

Each eyebolt should be legibly and indelibly marked in a manner which will not impair the mechanical properties of
the eyebolt. This marking should include at least the following information:
▪ The manufacturer's identification mark or symbol
▪ The nominal size, i.e. the nominal diameter of thread e.g. 24
▪ The axial working load limit in general service e.g. WLL 2.5t
▪ The traceability code enables any particular eyebolt or batch of eyebolts to be identified with the
manufacturer's certificate
▪ Any other legal markings (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

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The Thorough Examination

Eyebolts must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
This is typically carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12 months) unless a
written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn
up by a competent person is in place and operating.

Eyebolts should be thoroughly examined using a systematic method from one end of the eyebolt to the other. The
examination should be methodical and cover all components, including the full length and circumference of the
threads.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Eye
• Shank & threads
• Undercut and thread run out
• Link (if fitted)
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

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Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the eyebolt
(Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas (Raised flat areas, the periphery of the collar – NOT on the
machined mating surface).

Eyebolt

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – Direct (Tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (Hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape)
• Maximum wear (loss of diameter) 8% in the eye

Shank, Threads, Undercut

• No deformation of the shank (must be 90° to the machined surface – no attempt to be made to straighten
minor bends), necking or fatigue cracking
• Threads, no signs of stripping, flattening, crushed, presence of excessive corrosion / contaminates /
debris, cross-threading or cutting down of the shank length
• Undercut present and fully formed, with no build-up of contaminants or debris
• Machined surface not marked, pitted or excessive mechanical defects, minor burrs can be dressed with a
fine file

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Post-inspection

Regardless of findings, a report examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports of
thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the eyebolt’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Hoist Rings

What are Hoist Rings?

Hoist rings are widely used within the industry offering significant advantages over eyebolts in that they swivel freely
through 360 degrees, and typically incorporate a tilting bail that can be loaded to its full WLL regardless of the angle
of loading. They are available in many different grades and types, and due to their unique nature manufacturers,
information must always be strictly sought and followed.

Swivel Hoist Ring Types

Use of Swivel Hoist Rings

• When used in a threaded hole, the effective thread length should be 1.5 times the diameter of the bolt for
steel (to allow for enough surface contact to achieve full capacity). For other thread engagements or
engagement in other materials, contact the manufacturer or qualified person
• When used in a through-hole application, a nut and washer shall be used. The thread and washer shall be
in accordance with the hoist ring manufacturer’s recommendations. The nut shall be fully engaged
• The bushing flange shall fully contact the load surface
• Spacers or washers shall not be used between the bushing flange and mounting surface of the load
• The swivel hoist ring shall be tightened to the torque specifications of the manufacturer
• The swivel hoist ring shall be free to rotate and pivot without interference during load-handling
• The load applied to the swivel hoist ring shall be centred in the bail to prevent side loading

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• Any attachment load handling component shall be narrower than the inside width of the bail to avoid
spreading
• Components shall be in good working order
• Shock load should be avoided

Recommended Marking Requirements

WLL The working load limit

Traceability code Traceability code
Legal markings Any other legal markings (e.g CE / UKCA marking where applicable)
Identification The manufacturer's identification mark or symbol
Torque requirements The specific torque requirements when fitted

The Thorough Examination

Hoist rings must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
LEEA recommends a maximum period of 6 months, as accessories are more prone to damage even when not being
used in a lifting operation, (although it is noted that some regions allow a maximum of 12 months)unless a written
scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn up by
a competent person is in place and operating.

Hoist rings should be thoroughly examined using a systematic method from one end of the hoist ring to the other.
The examination should be methodical and cover all components, including the full length and circumference of the
threads.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Bail
• Shank & threads (Bolt)
• Swivel busing/bearings
• Locking pins/washers / circlips
• Markings

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Initial inspection Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past

examination reports

Markings All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect
the mechanical properties of the hoist ring (Not deep/aggressive), and in
selected low-stress areas (this may be achieved through marking the bail,
and additional tag or upon the upper surface of the swivel bushing
assembly – NOT on the machined mating surface).

Hoist ring Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

Heat attack – Direct (Tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (Hot
environment)
Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel
causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion
(permanent set/change of original shape)
Maximum wear (loss of diameter) 8% in the bail
All components must be manufacturer-approved parts (no unauthorised
modifications or replacements, and they need to be verified for correct
fitting and compatibility to the hoist ring – any locking devices torqued to
manufacturers specifications)
Bushings and bearings – ensuring they are well maintained/lubricated,
free moving and not stiff or seized (this can be achieved through a
functional test through all ranges of movement.)

Shank, threads, bolt No deformation of the shank (must be 90° to the machined surface – no
attempt to be made to straighten minor bends), necking or fatigue
cracking
Threads, no signs of stripping, flattening, crushed, presence of excessive
corrosion / contaminates / debris, cross-threading or cutting down of the
shank length
Undercut (if present) fully formed, with no build-up of contaminants or
debris
Machined surface not marked (unless by the manufacturer), pitted or
excessive mechanical defects, minor burrs can be dressed with a fine file

Post inspection Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be

compiled after the inspection and reports of thorough examination
should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template
report documents, retained and cross-referenced to the hoist rings
historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.
Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner
of the equipment, who must assess the root cause of the defect and
implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of
operators, increased inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment
and returning it to service.

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NOTES:

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Shackles

Shackles are probably the most common and universal lifting accessory; their uses are extensive. They may be used
to connect a load directly to a lifting appliance, for the connection of slings to the load and/or lifting appliance, as
the suspension for lifting appliances or as the head fitting in certain types of pulley blocks.

Shackle Manufacture

Shackles are generally manufactured by two principle methods:

Drop forged; this can be easily identified by the flash line around the body or bent from the billet bar so there would
be no flash line. In either case, the body of the shackle must be in a single piece and there should be no welding.

• Heat Treatment After forging, but prior to machining and finishing, shackles are hardened and tempered.
• Finish Shackles are supplied in various surface finishes, depending on the standard to which they are made
for example EN 13889 permits many of these, e.g. descaled, electroplated, hot-dip galvanised or painted
• BS3032 shackles and some stainless steel shackles may also be found in service

Types of Shackle Body and Pin

There are two types of shackle pin in common use, the screw pin and the bolt, nut and cotter pin.

Screwed pins with eye and collar are the most common type of pin and are suitable for a wide range of uses,
however, if they are subject to movement and vibration, e.g. by a sling moving over the pin, they can loosen and
unscrew.

The bolt with hexagon head, hexagon nut and split cotter pin is used where a positive connection is required as it
cannot unscrew unintentionally. They are also ideal where a permanent connection is required, e.g. connecting the
top slings to a spreader beam.

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Bow Shackle

Bow shackles are designed to enable three or more items to be joined.

Dee Shackle

Dee shackles are generally used for joining two items in a straight line.

Wide Body Shackles

These shackles provide a larger radius surface area to ease the stresses imposed on the lifting slings. When carrying
out a thorough examination, you are to measure wear from the top of the pin to the inside of the shackle crown
(intrados).

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Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Shackles are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL, this confirms all mechanical properties required
have been achieved and is intended to be the manufacturer's test only. Depending on the standard being worked
to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied with each shackle. This confirms compliance
with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests as are required have been
completed. This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period of
ownership.

Recommended Marking Requirements

Each shackle should be legibly and indelibly marked with the following information by the manufacturer:

• Working Load Limit in tonnes

• Grade mark
• Manufacturer’s name, symbol or code
• Traceability code
• Mandatory markings (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

As shackle pins are detachable and therefore the potential of using the wrong pin with the wrong body increases
(Different OEM, Grade) it is recommended that the pins are also marked with the following based on the pin
diameter.

▪ Pins of less than 13mm diameter should be marked with either:

▪ Pins greater than 13mm diameter should be marked with:

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Stress in Shackles

A shackle is designed so that the strength of the body and pin is approximately equal (the pin will be larger in
diameter than the body).

The pin acts as a beam and if subject to a point load, it will be both in a condition of bending and of double shear.

If the jaw is fully filled (load spread evenly over the full width of the pin) it will only be in double shear. For a point
load, the maximum tensile stress occurs at the centre on the outward-facing side of the pin.

Dependent on the proportions of the shackle body, the maximum stress may occur either on the outside on the
crown of the body or on the inside of the sides of the body as shown.

The Thorough Examination

Shackles must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
This is typically carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12 months) unless a
written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of Examination), drawn
up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination.

NOTES:

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Defined scope of Examination

Critical components

• Shackle body
• Pin
• Nut and cotter pin (if applicable)
• Threads (male and female)
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection
Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports

Markings
All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the shackle
(Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. The compatibility of the body and pin should be verified
against the manufacturer's certification (It must be the same manufacturer, Grade, and size).

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Shackle body, pin and nut

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – direct (tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen
Embrittlement/cracking
• Excessive Corrosion – loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape)

• Maximum wear (loss of diameter) 8% on both the pin and body.

• Free working of the pin (Smooth operation through the full range of movement) ensuring the collar of the
pin engages flush to the body/shoulder of the shackle

NOTE: Some manufacturer's pins do not fully screw into the palm which gives the impression that the shackle jaw
has stretched

• The threads, both male and female, should be fully formed with no flats or worn portions and must be full
size. There should be no excessive play when the pin is screwed in by hand from either the correct or reverse
side
• Holes must align. The pinhole should not be too large so as to allow a gap when the pin is in place
• Excessive wear within the unthreaded hole(s)
• Cotter pin present and compatible to pinhole diameter if applicable

NOTE: Shackle pins are always greater in diameter to the body of the shackle

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Can a shackle pin be replaced?

Providing the pin and the body do not come from different manufacturers and that the correct type of shackle pin
is fitted and that the pin meets the fit requirements specified in the standard to which it was made- then there is no
reason to reject a shackle because it has a new pin fitted.

Post inspection

Regardless of findings, a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the shackle’s historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the
root cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Rigging Screws and Turnbuckles

Rigging screws and turnbuckles are used to for the tensioning and fine adjustment of length in lifting assemblies and
stays where chain, wire rope or textile element form the main component of the assembly. They can also be used
on their own for some applications. Further uses include cargo restraint, suspension, etc.

Rigging Screws

A Rigging Screw has a tubular body, internally threaded at each end, with one right hand and one left-hand thread
connecting to terminal fittings of various forms e.g. screwed eyes, hooks or forks. They are also known in some
industries as bottle screws. The purpose of the inspection viewing holes is for the end-user to ensure enough male
thread is still retained within the female thread of the body.

Turnbuckles

The principle of the operation of the turnbuckle is to have the screws operating clockwise and counter clockwise to
close the eye or opening between two end fittings. It consists of an open body consisting of reins, with internally
threaded bosses at each end, with one right and one left-hand thread connecting to terminal fittings of various
forms, e.g. screwed eyes, hooks or forks.

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Types of Rigging Screws and Turnbuckles

Strength

A rigging screw or turnbuckles must have a working load limit at least equal to the load that will be imposed on it,
taking account of the angle of use. Care must also be taken to ensure that it is compatible in size with any mating
equipment.

Length

The working range between maximum and minimum length must be adequate for the application.

Safety / Vibration

Where vibration may occur, locknuts or other suitable methods of securing must be used, e.g. wire seizing. If locknuts
are used, the closed dimension will be increased by twice the dimension of one locknut.

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Lock Nuts

Where vibration can occur, lock nuts must be fitted between the termination accessory and the body to prevent the
thread from opening up. This will increase the closed dimension which should be taken into account.

Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Turnbuckles and rigging screws are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL at the fully extended position,
this confirms all mechanical properties required have been achieved and is intended to be the manufacturer's test
only. Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is
supplied with each turnbuckle or rigging screw. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and
certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed.

This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Recommended Marking

Rigging screws and turnbuckles used for lifting purposes should be marked with the following information:

• Working load limit in kilograms or tonnes

• Identification mark traceable to the manufacturer’s / supplier’s documentation
• Manufacturer’s name or identification
• Traceability code on all load-bearing components, i.e. body, eyes, hooks, forks, etc.
• Mandatory markings (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)
• Markings should be applied positioned as shown on a tubular body, or in the centre of the length of one of
the reins

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The Thorough Examination

Turnbuckles and rigging screws must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it
remains safe to use. This is typically carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within
12 months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes
of Examination), drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Body of the turnbuckle/rigging screw

• Locknuts
• Terminal fittings (elongated eyes / screwed fork)
• Threads (male and female)
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm the suitability of use
(designed and tested for lifting applications)

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Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the
turnbuckle/rigging screw (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. Compatibility of the body and
terminal fittings are to be verified against manufacturers' certification (Same OEM, grade, correct size). The markings
may also be used to confirm the suitability of use, turnbuckles and rigging screws designed for lifting will be marked
with their capacity in Kg’s or tonnes (Not N, DaN, KN)

Turnbuckle/rigging screw body, terminal fittings

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – Direct (tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (Hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape
• The threads, both male and female, should be fully formed with no flats or worn portions and must be full
size. A functional test maybe performed throughout the total range to ensure smooth operation (no stiff /
seized sections)
• Excessive wear in elongated eyes/hook terminations (LEEA recommends max 8% loss of diameter)
• Confirm pins for screwed fork terminations are OEM parts only (no substitutes), no excessive wear to
pinholes or opening/closing of the screwed fork jaw
• Ensure inspection holes on rigging screws are clear of dirt, debris and contamination

Post inspection

Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the turnbuckle/riggings screws historical records for inspection by the Competent
Person or the enforcement authority.

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Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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UNIT 2: Non-Fixed Load Attachments

Plate clamps

Plate clamps are widely used, particularly in the steel fabrication industry, for handling a variety of work including
individual pieces of plate, fabricated assemblies and bundles of plates. The term covers several designs which fall
into two basic types.

Plate handling clamps can have a long life. It is not therefore possible in a general-purpose code to cover every
variation and for certain designs, special precautions or instructions may apply.

The manufacturer’s or supplier’s instructions should always be sought and followed.

This illustration shows an exploded view of a typical vertical plate clamp.

When a plate is placed in the jaw of this type of plate clamp the handle is used to close the jaw by pushing a cam
onto the link lever.

NOTE: Most manufacturers stipulate the type of material that can be lifted by their clamps. The examiner should be
aware of this in case they witness or suspect that incorrect materials are being lifted.

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Upward movement of the hook ring places an increased gripping action onto the jaw via the linking lever, which is
also spring-assisted.

Operation of Horizontal Plate Clamps In the case of horizontal clamps with a toe, or toe and tongue, these are always
used with a chain sling arrangement. The plate simply sits on the toe the only grip given to the plate is the natural
gripping action of the sling legs trying to close together. Where the clamps have a tongue, this is also caused to grip
the plate by the natural action of the sling.

Horizontal clamps are designed to be used in pairs, either with a two-leg sling or with a chain made endless to a link.
It is important to note they should never be exchanged one for the other as the geometry of the arrangement and
therefore the gripping forces would be altered from that for which the clamps were designed.

Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate:

Plate clamps are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL, this confirms all mechanical properties required
have been achieved and are intended to be the manufacturer's test only. Depending on the standard being worked
to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied with each plate clamp. This confirms
compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests as required
have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period
or ownership.

A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by some
national legislation.

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Recommended Marking Requirements

• Name and address of the manufacturer

• Model identification
• Serial number (identification mark)
• Year of manufacture
• WLL
• The self-weight of the clamp if it exceeds 5% of the WLL or 50kg
• Range of plate thickness
• Mandatory marking (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

The Thorough Examination

Plate clamps must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to
use. LEEA recommend that this is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12
months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of
Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination. Load testing is typically carried out on a plate of the minimum thickness the clamp is
designed to lift, and of material hardness acceptable to the type of jaw fitted.

LEEA: Unless a mandatory requirement of the applicable national legislation or

manufacturer, LEEA does not recommend the routine overload testing of plate clamps,
except following an exceptional circumstance such as significant modification or repair.
Manufacturers’ information must be sought and strictly followed if the inspector deems an
overload test necessary.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

• Hook ring
• Side plates
• Jaw and pad
• Operating handle (if applicable)
• Spacer pins
• Spring mechanism
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection
Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports

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Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the plate
clamp (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. The compatibility of all the components is to be
verified against the manufacturers' certification.

Hook ring, side plates, jaw and pad

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – direct (tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape
• Excessive wear in the hook ring (LEEA recommends max 8% loss of diameter)
• Mechanism and parts not working freely, or slack/loose fittings
• Fatigue cracking in either the Jaw or Pad (evidence of shock loading, being dropped, misuse)
• Worn, blunted, chipped or otherwise damaged teeth, including any contamination/debris (no attempt
should be made to resharpen teeth if necessary replace jaw/pad using specific OEM components)

• Frame and side plates opened out, bent or distorted

• Surface breaking defects in any welds (NDT may be carried out)
• Spring is correctly seated and has reasonable spring tension
• Loose, worn or bent fixing pins and bolts, ensuring OEM parts throughout. All bolts are securely fitted.
• Any additional accessories (chain, component connectors, master link etc) are visually inspected as per the
previous relevant section(s)
• General for all types of plate clamps; the general appearance and operation of the plate clamp. A functional
test should be made to ensure the correct operation of the clamp, its levers and gripping mechanisms

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Post-inspection

Regardless of findings, a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the plate clamps' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority. Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment,
who must assess the root cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of
operators, increased inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service

NOTES:

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Beam Clamps

Beam clamps are generally used to provide a ready means of attaching lifting appliances to suitable structural
steelwork.

Due to their versatility if designed and tested and stated within the instructions for use then certain types can be
used for attaching to the upper flange of the beam to facilitate the lifting of a beam.

Types of Beam Clamps

An adjustable type beam clamp, as the name implies, is adjustable to fit beams of various sizes. Some, such as the
type illustrated in Figure 1 are self-adjusting whilst others, such as the type shown in Figure 2, require the operative
to make the adjustment.

There are some designs which, while not adjustable, will nevertheless accommodate beams of various size and may
therefore be conveniently placed in this class, e.g. Figure 3.

Depending on the design, adjustable clamps are only capable of adjustment within specific limits and are therefore
manufactured in a series of size ranges.

Line of Loading

Many designs of clamps are intended for ‘in line’ use only – i.e. the line of force must be at right angles to the beam
flange to which it is attached (Figure 4)

It is therefore important to ensure that for ‘angled’ applications (Figure 5, a clamp of suitable design is selected and
that manufacturers' information is sought and strictly followed.

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Example of permitted lifting angles (refer to manufacturer)

Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate:

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each beam clamp. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such
manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the
duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

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A statement of conformity is not the same as an Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by some
national legislation.

Recommended Marking Requirements

Each beam clamp should be permanently and legibly marked with the following information:

• Identification mark
• Safe working load
• Width of the beam for which the clamp is designed or, in the case of an adjustable clamp, the range of
widths and the section of the beam if applicable
• Toe thickness of beam if applicable

The marking should be either by means of a suitable metal tab permanently attached or by stamping, provided that
no mechanical property of the clamp is significantly impaired.

The Thorough Examination:

Beam clamps must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to
use. This is typically carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12 months)
unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of
Examination), drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing is always at the discretion of the competent person in support
of their thorough examination.

NOTES:

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Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

• Beam clamp jaws

• Side plates/cheek plates
• Suspension point
• Operating handle
• Threaded bar
• Locking arrangements
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment.

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past Examination reports.

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the beam
clamp (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. Compatibility of the body and terminal fittings are to
be verified against manufacturers certification (Same OEM, grade, correct size)

• In the case of a clamp in-situ, distortion of the beam to which clamp is attached
• Distortion of any part of the clamp
• Weld defects (NDT if required)
• Cracks especially at bends or changes of section, nicks, gouges and corrosion
• Excessive wear at application and suspension points (LEEA max 8%), pins, pivots and other moving parts
• Insecure locking arrangements including substitute nuts and bolts were used
• The threads, both male and female, should be fully formed with no flats or worn portions and must be full
size. A functional test may be performed throughout the total range to ensure smooth operation (no stiff /
seized sections)
• Illegible safe working load or other markings
• In addition, for clamps in-situ, if either of the following faults are found the appropriate actions should be
taken:
• The clamp of incorrect profile and/or width for the beam. Replace clamp with one of the correct width and
profile

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• Incorrect fitting of any hook, shackle, etc. used for attaching other lifting equipment to the clamp. (Other
equipment attached to the clamp should be securely retained within the fixing and free to align itself under
load). Exchange clamp and/or other lifting equipment for equipment which is compatible, or insert
additional linkage of suitable capacity and which will correct the defect

Post-inspection

Regardless of findings, a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the beam clamps' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Lifting Beams

This section covers lifting beams, spreader beams and lifting frames that are usually designed either for a specific
purpose or as general-purpose beams for a specified range of lifts.

Our focus is on cover beams, spreaders and frames which are attached to the load suspension point of a lifting
machine or crane and can therefore be considered to be portable. It is not intended to cover beams which are
permanently attached to a crane in place of a bottom block or patent lifting frames used in the handling of cargo
containers.

Principles for Selection Application of Lifting Beams, Spreaders and Frames

Lifting beams etc. are used for various purposes as detailed below:

• To reduce the headroom required when lifting long loads

• To provide multiple lifting points
• To provide a means of handling out of balance loads
• To provide a vertical lift with controlled or no inward pull for:
o Eyebolts and similar lifting points
o Loads which must be protected from crushing forces
• To provide a means of handling loads requiring special attachments such as hooks, plate clamps, etc.
• To provide a means of using two cranes in tandem
• To provide lifting points at adjustable centres

Beam Weight

The weight of the lifting beam, spreader or frame, together with its associated lifting accessories, must be added to
the weight of the load when assessing the total load imposed on the crane hook.

Lifting Accessories

Many lifting beams and spreaders are fitted with standard lifting accessories such as shackles, wire rope slings, chain
slings, web slings, plate clamps, turnbuckles, etc. The requirements of the individual sections of the LEEA COPSULE
apply whether these items are readily removable from the beam or not. Whilst removable lifting accessories can be
used for separate lifting applications, it is good practice to keep them together as if forming an integral part of the
lifting beam. This is particularly the case if they are recorded with the beam on the manufacturer’s initial
certification, report of thorough examination etc.

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In the case of lifting accessories used separately, the onus is on the user to replace or reassemble these onto the
beam.

Care should be taken to ensure that the component has in fact been thoroughly examined in accordance with current
legal requirements and the relevant section of the LEEA COPSULE before using it for a different lifting application.

Types of Lifting Beam, Spreader Beam and Lifting Frames

Lifting Beam

The types of lifting beams are diagrammatically represented in the figures below. Note that the suspension points
are shown as being vertically below the crane hook. Although single suspension points are shown, multiple
suspension points for use with two or more crane hooks can be provided, as can multiple load attachment points.

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Combination Spreader Beams

Modular Spreader Beam

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Lifting Frame

A lifting frame is diagrammatically represented in the figure below, which is in effect a combination of four spreaders.

Combination Lifting Beams

If headroom is restricted, a combination of spreader and lifting beam is necessary. In this case, there will be bending
in the overhanging ends (like a cantilever). The maximum bending stress will occur at each cantilever end of the
beam when under load. The maximum compressive stress will be at the centre of the lower flange of the beam. The
maximum tensile stress will occur at the centre of the top of the beam between the top sling connection points.

Adjustable Lifting Points

If the lifting beam is constructed with movable lifting points to allow for adjustment, the lifting points must be captive
and lockable on the beam to prevent them from falling off during the lift.

Tilt

If designed to tilt the maximum angle of tilt to the horizontal should be clearly indicated.

If not intended to tilt it should be designed to tolerate a tilt of 6⁰ to the horizontal.

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Safety Requirements

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate:

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each lifting beam. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such
manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the
duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Note: A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by
some national legislation.

Recommended Marking Requirements

• Name and address of the manufacturer

• Model identification
• Serial number (identification mark)
• Year of manufacture
• WLL
• The self-weight of the beam if it exceeds 5% of the WLL or 50kg
• Maximum tilt angle (if applicable)
• Mandatory marking (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

The Thorough Examination

Lifting beams must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to
use. LEEA recommends that this is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within
12 months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes
of Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination, however following a repair, lifting beams, spreaders and frames must be re-
verified by a Competent Person. In the case of structural repairs, the verification will usually be by way of a proof
test and thorough examination, but great care will be needed to ensure that any load is applied correctly so as not
to damage the beam.

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Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

• Beam
• Suspension point(s)
• Load attachment points
• Fixings (bolted, welded)
• Locking pins (if applicable)
• Additional accessories (shackles, chain etc)
• Markings

For the continued safety of the equipment, it is important that the list of defects should be assessed:

• Initial inspection
• Markings
• Lifting beam and associated accessories
• Post-inspection

Initial Inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the lifting
beam (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. Also, ensure that any associated accessories are
marked accordingly if required.

Lifting beam and associated accessories

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – direct (tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (hot environment)
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting (for extendable beams, removing the internal
sections will allow the competent person to inspect for internal corrosion/debris)
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape. This also includes surface bruising, creasing and buckling in hollow box sections (signs of impact
damage)

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• Excessive wear in the suspension and load attachment points (LEEA recommends max 8% loss of diameter)
• Any locking arrangements (pins) are OEM parts only (no substitutions), with no excessive wear to the bolt
holes or signs of fatigue cracking around the edges.
• Visual inspection of any welds for surface-breaking defects, poor techniques, (NDT may be carried out if
deemed necessary)
• Distorted, buckled flanges on rolled steel sectioned beams
• Any bolted connection is captive and securely (correct minimum torque setting) – typical minimum grade
of bolt 8.8 / OEM pins only
• Any additional accessories that form part of the beam (shackles, chain etc) are visually inspected as per the
previous relevant section(s)

Post inspection

Regardless of findings, a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the lifting beams' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Lifting Magnets

Applications

Magnetic lifters can be suitable for a variety of applications. Some may be used as general-purpose lifting
accessories, and therefore require their capacity to be assessed for each application, whereas others may be
dedicated to a single application and are selected specifically for it. However, not every load with ferromagnetic
properties can safely be handled with a magnetic lifter.

The magnetic lifter selected must match the characteristics of the load, As well as the:

• Weight
• Shape
• Surface finish
• Magnetic properties of the load

The shape of the magnet should be compatible with that of the load. For example, a magnet with a flat face can
handle sheet material whereas for lifting round section material, a magnet with a V-shaped recess in the face is more
suitable.

For long loads, an arrangement of several magnets used in conjunction with a lifting beam is generally suitable as it
provides the load with adequate support along its length. The position and capacity of the individual magnets should
be such as to ensure that the share of the load imposed on each does not exceed its working load limit. For flexible
loads, the positioning should provide support in short enough spaces to prevent the load from peeling off the
magnet.

There are four different types as follows:

1. Battery-fed electric lifting magnets

2. Mains-fed electric lifting magnets
3. Permanent lifting magnets
4. Electro-permanent lifting magnets

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Lifting magnets are normally rated for lifting a horizontal load in the vertical plane only. If the line of pull is not at
right angles to the plane of the load, their lifting capacity will be substantially reduced and slippage may occur. For
such applications, the advice of the manufacturer should be obtained.

General consideration should be given to the following:

• Lifting capacity required

• Characteristics of the load in terms of shape, surface finish and porosity
• The lifting machine it is to be used with
• Available headroom
• Self-weight of the vacuum lifter and degree of portability required
• Whether self-actuating or powered type required
• For powered lifters, whether battery or mains power required
• Method of control and control features required
• The proximity of persons during operations
• Back up and other safety features required

Although some manufacturers offer a standard range of magnetic lifters, unlike other lifting equipment, they are not
usually regarded as “general purpose” equipment.

Magnetic lifters are usually employed in specific circumstances to lift specific loads. As there is no positive connection
between the lifting device and the load, the ability of the magnetic lifter to safely lift a particular load needs to be
carefully considered. This will normally involve tests to determine the lifting power of the magnet on the specific
load.

Magnets will only work on a magnetic material which usually means a ferrous metal although some other materials
such as cobalt or nickel are capable of being lifted magnetically.

Due to the specialized nature of magnetic lifting applications, the advice given in this unit can only be of a general
nature and should be augmented by the specialist advice provided by the manufacturer or supplier of the magnetic
lifter.

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Terminology

Ferro-Magnetic Material

A Ferro-Magnetic material is one which behaves like iron under the influence of a magnet, that is, it is attracted by
the magnetic field. Some examples are cast iron and carbon steel.

Magnetic Field

The “field” of a magnet is the space beyond the physical boundaries of the magnet where the effects of magnetism
can be detected.

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux is a measure of the quantity of magnetism taking into account the strength and extent of the magnetic
field. As such it is a measure of the “power” of a magnet.

Magnetic Poles

Magnetic poles are at the ends of a magnet and are the points at which the magnetic field is concentrated.

Permanent Magnet

A magnet that is permanently magnetised and does not depend upon an electric current.

Electro-Permanent Magnet

A magnet where an electric current is used to switch the polarity of the magnetic material. There are no moving
parts and the electric current is only required to create the magnet, not to sustain it

Electro Magnets

If an electrical current is passed through a wire it will produce a magnetic field around that wire which will exist
whilst the current flows. In most cases when the current is switched off the magnetic field will collapse. The strength
of the magnetic field can be intensified by forming the wire into a coil containing a core made of magnetic material.
The core will display the properties of a magnet for as long as current flows through the wire. The power can be
supplied to an electro-magnet lifter from the mains electricity or from built-in rechargeable batteries.

Electro magnet lifters can vary from small portable units to large multi-head units integrated into the crane.

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Types of Lifting Magnets

In this section, we will explore in some detail the different types of lifting magnets.

Battery Powered Magnetic Lifters

Battery fed electric lifting magnets should provide a tear-off force corresponding to at least 2 times the working load
limit under the conditions specified by the manufacturer.

There should also be an indicator to show if the magnet is switched on or off.

An automatic warning device should be provided which monitors the power supply and provides a warning at least
10 minutes before the supply reaches the level where the load will be released.

The warning device can either be optical or audible.

There should also be a safety device which, in the event that the low power warning is activated, prevents the
magnet from being switched on again until the battery is recharged to the minimum level at which the low power
warning is not activated.

Mains Electricity Powered Magnetic Lifters

Mains fed electric magnets should also provide a tear-off force corresponding to at least 2 times the working load
limit working under the conditions specified by the manufacturer.

There should be an indicator to show if the magnet is switched on or off and, for magnets with variable power, to
distinguish between full and partial magnetism.

An optical or audible warning device should be fitted to indicate mains power supply failure. A standby battery
should be fitted to supply power to the magnet in case of mains failure.

The battery should be capable of supplying enough power to hold the working load limit for at least 10 minutes.

The warning device and stand-by battery are not necessary if the unit is working in a ‘no go’ area or if the maximum
height of lift at the magnet is restricted to 1.8m and the load is less than 20kg.

Magnets lifting loads such as plates, sheets or bars from the top of a stack, should have controls to allow the operator
to reduce the power to shed any excess load and restore full power when the excess has been removed.

Permanent Magnets

Some substances are naturally magnetic and others are capable of being “magnetized” and retaining that
magnetism. The most common form of a permanent magnet is a substance called Magnetite and this is used for
domestic applications. Industrial permanent magnets use “rare earth” substances such as Samarium or Neodymium
which produce very much stronger magnetic fields. An industrial permanent magnet is switched “on and off” by
mechanically rotating a moveable magnet or magnets within the device thereby arranging it to add to or cancel out
the field of the static magnets.

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Most permanent magnet lifters are switched manually by means of a lever but some manufacturers offer the option
of electrical or pneumatic powered mechanisms.

This type of magnetic lifter shall provide a tear-off force at least three times the working load limit under the
conditions specified by the manufacturer. The controls shall clearly indicate whether the magnet is on or off.

Methods of Attachment

Portable magnets are generally of the permanent or electro-permanent type with a lifting capacity up to
approximately 3 tonnes or of the battery type with a lifting capacity up to up to approximately 5 tonnes.

They will usually be fitted with a lifting eye to facilitate an easy connection to the lifting machine hook. Higher
capacity magnets of the electro-permanent or electrotype are often an integral part of the lifting machine.

Multiple magnets of all types may be used with advantage in conjunction with a lifting beam or spreader to lift long
and/or flexible loads.

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Safety Requirements

Safety Requirements – Exposing People to Danger

In the case of electromagnets, the magnetic forces are only generated when the electrical supply is flowing. Failure
of the electrical supply will cause the magnet to lose its lifting power instantaneously. Without additional safety
features, their use is therefore limited to situations where a risk assessment has established that falling loads do not
present a hazard to people.

The warning devices and stand-by battery referred to above are intended to allow time for persons to leave the
danger zone. In applications where it may be difficult to leave the danger zone within a safe period of time, further
measures will be required. These may include a redundancy of the supply lines and control systems or a secondary
mechanical holding system which can be deployed before exposing persons to danger.

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each lifting magnet. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such
manufacturing and sampling tests as are required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by
the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Did you know?

A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by some
national legislation.

NOTES:

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The Thorough Examination

Lifting magnets must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to
use. LEEA recommends that this is typically carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify
within 12 months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written
Schemes of Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination. Manufacturers’ information must be sought and strictly followed with
regards to descriptive discard criteria and any mandatory testing required.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Magnetic lifter contact faces

• Lifter frame (if applicable)
• Power cables (if applicable)
• Batteries
• Control boxes / pendants
• Control Systems
• Additional Accessories (if applicable)
• Markings

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm the suitability of use
(designed and tested for lifting applications)

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the lifting
magnet (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas.

Magnet lifter, associated accessories, power feed systems and controls

Power cables to the magnet

Check for damage and ensure that they are properly supported. All electrical cables need to be fully insulated, with
no tears / splitting at terminations.

Magnet assembly
Check for damage to the suspension points (Mechanical defects – bent, twisted, deformation) and that retaining
bolts are kept tight (captive/secure – minimum torque settings).

Surface breaking
Surface breaking defects in any welds (NDT maybe carried out).

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Magnet face
Check for any damage to the face which might affect performance, also any form of heat defects, presence of foreign
bodies or corrosion (pitting of the magnets surface).

Electrical plug and socket connectors

Check that mechanical strength, insulation and electrical conductivity are being maintained.

Lifting accessories
Lifting accessories e.g. chains, links etc associated with the magnet - thoroughly examine at appropriate intervals
using information described in previous modules.

Electrical back-up batteries

Check their condition and that the battery back-up alarm works when the power is off. Also confirm charge levels
and batteries are capable of holding a charge (no discharge).

Control boxes/pendants
Check for damage, legibility of control labels, and correct function of controls including audible and visible warning
devices.

Magnetic adhesion / Air gap tolerance

Periodic verification by inserting a ‘test piece’ of non-metallic material between the magnet and the material. It
should still be possible to pick up the load with the test piece inserted. Air gaps are tolerable within the limits laid
down by the manufacturer.

NOTES:

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Post inspection

Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the lifting beams' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

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Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

Training

Operator training should take into account the manufacturer’s instructions and also pay particular attention to the
following:

• The limits of the applications for which the particular magnetic lifter has been specified or is otherwise
suitable
• The controls, indicators and warning devices of the magnetic lifter
• The precautions to be taken to avoid risk to persons in the vicinity of the lifting operation
• The precautions to be taken when lifting the various types of load such as thin material, low-density material
and material with poor surface finish
• How to check that the load is securely held, balanced and not at risk of slipping, peeling or otherwise
becoming detached

The training should emphasize that magnetic lifters are for use in a limited number of applications and should not
be regarded as “general purpose” equipment. For this reason, training should cover the fundamentals of safe lifting,
the use of magnetic lifters in general and the use of the particular magnetic lifter in the particular application. To do
so, it may be necessary to enlist the services of the manufacturer or supplier of the magnetic lifter.

NOTES:

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Vacuum Lifting Devices

Because of the specialised nature of vacuum lifting applications, the advice given in this section of the code should
be regarded as general advice which should be augmented by the specialist advice provided by the supplier of the
vacuum lifter.

Although some manufacturers offer a standard range of vacuum lifters, unlike other lifting equipment, they are not
usually regarded as “general purpose” equipment.

Vacuum lifters are usually employed in specific circumstances to lift specific loads. As there is no positive connection
between the lifting device and the load, the ability of the vacuum lifter to safely lift a particular load needs to be
carefully considered. This will normally involve tests to determine the lifting power of the vacuum lifter on the
specific load whilst manipulating it in any way required for the lifting operation.

There are four different types as follows:

1.

2.

3.

4.

We will now explore each of these in more detail, with the exception of hand-held vacuum devices (commonly used
by glaziers to handle sheets of glass) as these are not items of lifting equipment.

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• Self-Priming Vacuum Lifter

This type of vacuum lifter uses the load being lifted to create the vacuum.

This type of vacuum lifter has an integrated piston and cylinder which creates the vacuum. The vacuum lifter is
initially held in contact with the load by its own weight which acts on the flexible seal around the vacuum pad. On
hoisting, the piston is pulled up creating a partial vacuum in the cylinder and vacuum pad. The piston moves within
the cylinder until the force generated by the vacuum within the cylinder equals the weight of the load. The vacuum
generated is therefore proportional to the weight of the load.

The area of the vacuum pad is greater than that of the cylinder thereby increasing in proportion the adhesive force
arising from the vacuum. The self-priming or actuating type vacuum lifters must be equipped with an indicator to
show the operator that the end of the working range has been reached. This indicator must be visible to the slinger,
or if there is no slinger, to the driver of the crane. To prevent risks due to vacuum losses a reserve stroke capacity of
at least 5% of the total stroke of the piston must be provided.

• Non-Self-Priming Vacuum Lifter

This type of vacuum lifter uses an external energy source to create the vacuum to enable lifting.

• Powered vacuum lifters

This type of vacuum lifter uses a pump to generate the vacuum and are normally electrically operated either by
mains or battery. The pump may be housed within the vacuum lifter itself or may be separate, with the vacuum
transmitted to the vacuum lifter by means of a hose. They may be equipped with single or multiple lifting pads
dependent upon the application.

There are three basic types of pumps. The piston-type has the advantage of generating a high level of vacuum,
essential for applications where the size of the vacuum pads must be kept to a minimum.

• Venturi

When air under pressure flows through a constricted section of pipe, the air velocity increases through the
constriction and its pressure drops creating a partial vacuum which can be piped to a vacuum pad.

The venturi type has the advantage of simplicity and the facility to be powered by a remote source of compressed
air which is useful in applications where the presence of electricity is a hazard. The turbine type produces a relatively
low level of vacuum but can pump a high volume of air.

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• Turbine

A machine comprising of a rotor with one or more shaped blades which when rotated will cause suction and this, in
turn, creates a vacuum in the vacuum pad.

The turbine is usually integrated with a single large area vacuum pad and the combination of low vacuum and high
air volume is an advantage when lifting porous loads and those where the adhesive force must be spread over a
large area.

NOTES:

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Safety Requirements

Vacuum Lifters should be designed to hold at least 2 x WLL at the end of the working range and the beginning of the
danger range at all intended angles of use.

Danger Range: The range of vacuum levels is below the working range but which is still capable of holding the
load.

The maximum tilt should be designed for an angle exceeding a minimum of 6° the maximum working angle.
Attachments not intended to tilt should be designed for an angle of a minimum of 6°.

• Non-self-priming vacuum lifters should incorporate a pressure measuring device showing the working
range and danger range of the vacuum
• Self-priming vacuum lifters should be equipped with an indicator that shows the operator that the end of
the working range is reached. If fitted, this has to be clearly visible to the slinger or crane driver (if no slinger
is present)
• Powered Vacuum Lifters

Powered vacuum lifters must also be equipped to prevent the risks arising from vacuum losses. Where a vacuum
pump is used, a vacuum reservoir with a non-return valve fitted between the reservoir and the pump must be
provided.

Where a venturi is used, a pressure reserve tank or a vacuum reservoir with a non-return valve between the system
and the tank or reservoir must be provided. For a turbine system, a supporting battery or an additional flywheel
mass must be provided.

Note: In the case of a power failure, the vacuum lifter should be able to hold the load for 5 minutes.

This is not necessary for ‘no go’ areas where persons are excluded from the danger zone. It is also not necessary for
turbine types provided that the operator controls the load through steering handles which ensure that the operator
is outside the danger zone, the height of the lift is restricted to a maximum of 1.8m and a warning sounds as soon
as the power fails.

Lifting Loads above People

For powered vacuum lifters used to lift loads over areas where persons are present, e.g. on a construction site, a
secondary positive holding device which can be deployed to secure the load is required or there must be a
duplication of the vacuum systems including the vacuum reservoirs and vacuum pads.

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The release of the load must be actuated by a two action control unless the vacuum lifter is being used in a ‘no go
area’ or release is not possible until the load has been set down.

Pads

The shape of the vacuum pads should be matched to the load to be lifted and if more than one vacuum pad is being
used, the share of the load imposed on each vacuum pad must not exceed the working load limit of the individual
vacuum pad.

For vacuum lifters with the facility to orientate the load, the controls for tilting or turning the load must be the hold
to run type.

NOTES:

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Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each vacuum lifter. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such
manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the
duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Recommended Marking Requirements

• Name of the manufacturer

• Identification mark
• Year of manufacture
• WLL
• The self-weight of the vacuum lifter if it exceeds 5% of the WLL or 50kg
• On self-priming vacuum lifters, the minimum load
• On turbine vacuum lifters where the holding time in the event of power failure is less than 5 minutes, the
following warning: Warning, Load must not be lifted above 1.8 m
• Mandatory marking (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

The Thorough Examination

Vacuum lifters must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to
use. LEEA recommends that this is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within
12 months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes
of Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination.

NOTES:

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Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

• Vacuum lifter pads

• All pneumatic hoses and attachments
• Lifter frame (if applicable)
• Power cables
• Batteries
• Control boxes / pendants
• Control Systems (pumps, reservoirs, accumulators)
• Additional Accessories (if applicable)
• Markings

The following list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm suitability of use
(designed and tested for lifting applications)

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the vacuum
lifter (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas.

Post-inspection

Regardless of findings, a report examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports of
thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the vacuum lifters' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or
the enforcement authority.

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Vacuum lifter

(Including associated accessories, power feed system and controls, reservoirs/accumulators)

• Visually check all bolted or other fastening connections to ensure they have not worked loose and are
correctly torqued
• Surface breaking defects in any welds (NDT may be carried out)
• Visually check the attachment point(s) for attaching the vacuum lifting device to the crane or lifting machine
for damage, wear (LEEA recommends max 8%, cracking, corrosion and free movement of any swivels etc.
• Visually examine all pipes and flexible hoses for damage and leakage – splitting of any holes, especially at
end terminations
• The vacuum motor and pump should be visually examined for damage – confirmation that the motor and
pump area are able to achieve and sustain minimum levels of suction (functional testing)
• The vacuum suction pads should be visually examined for security and damage ensuring that there are no
cuts, tears or other damage, which would prevent an effective vacuum
• The electrical power supply to the vacuum system should be visually checked for damage and wear ensuring
that there is no access to live conductors
• Ensure that all controls (levers, buttons etc.) are marked with their function and mode of operation
• Reservoirs/accumulators are fully formed and securely attached to the vacuum lifter.
o No presence of air leaks and any drain valves are operating as intended
o Pressurising the reservoirs can allow them to be drained to remove any presence of moisture
• A functional test of all controls (levers, buttons etc.) should be carried out to ensure smoothness of
operation and freedom from wear and other damage. Ensure as appropriate that controls return to neutral
when released

After carrying out all necessary examinations carry out a functional test on the vacuum device ensuring that the
vacuum system is effective by attaching a suitable load within the safe working load

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A visual check shall be made to ensure the vacuum lifting device and the crane or lifting machine are marked with
their compatible safe working loads

Ensure that warning signs and other important manufacturer’s instructions are present and readable e.g. rating
plate.

Post-inspection

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the
root cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES

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C Hooks

C Hooks (named from their notable shape of the letter ‘C’) is also suspended from a lifting appliance. The C hook is
mainly used for lifting coils of material such as steel rods and steel sheets without damaging the material.

Positioning Handles

To enable the operator to position the C-hook without the risk of finger injuries, positioning handles must be fitted
in an appropriate position unless the design has features that will provide natural hand-holds.

Unloaded Attitude

Crane forks and C-hooks must be designed so that they hang when unloaded with the fork arms or bottom leg of
the 'C' within 5°of the horizontal. This is so that they can easily engage with the load.

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Unintended Load Displacement

The design must incorporate features to prevent the load from sliding and becoming displaced or falling. Various
ways of achieving this are typically outlined within the standard it's built to, however, the choice will largely depend
on the nature of the load to be lifted and the intended lifting operation.

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each C hook. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing
and sampling tests as required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for
the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

Note: A statement of conformity is not the same as a Declaration of Conformity which is a document required by
some national legislation.

Recommended Marking Requirements

• Name and address of the manufacturer

• Model identification
• Serial number (identification mark)
• Year of manufacture
• WLL
• The self-weight of the C-hook if it exceeds 5% of the WLL or 50kg.
• The limits of the intended position of centre of gravity of the load.
• Mandatory marking (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

NOTES:

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The Thorough Examination

C hooks must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
LEEA recommends that this is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12
months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of
Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment. Let's
look at each of these in more detail.

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm the suitability of use
(designed and tested for lifting applications)

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the C hook
(Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas.

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C Hook inspection

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – signs of flame cutting/modifications
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting (for extendable beams, removing the internal
sections will allow the competent person to inspect for internal corrosion/debris)
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape. This also includes surface bruising, creasing and buckling in hollow box sections (signs of impact
damage)
• Excessive wear in the suspension point (LEEA recommends max 8% loss of diameter), also excessive wear
to the lower arm and the wear pad (if fitted)
• Any locking arrangements (pins) are OEM parts only (no substitutions), with no excessive wear to the bolt
hole or signs of fatigue cracking around the edges
• Visual inspection of any welds for surface-breaking defects, poor techniques, (NDT may be carried out if
deemed necessary)
• Any bolted connection is captive and securely (correct minimum torque setting) – typical minimum grade
of bolt 8.8
• Any additional accessories that form part of the C hook (shackles, chain etc) are visually inspected as per
the previous relevant section(s)
• For motorised / machine operated C hooks (rotation) a simple visual inspection for the security and
insulation of a power feed system unless duly qualified. This can be supported by functional testing through
a full range of movements. Any defects / further in-depth inspection can be supported by a relevant
tradesman

Post-inspection

Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross referenced to the c hook historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

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Crane Forks

Crane forks are suspended from a lifting appliance (in most cases from an overhead travelling crane) and are used
mainly for lifting palletised loads. Crane forks can be supplied as self-levelling or manually adjustable.

Crane Forks – Adjustment for Balance

Some crane forks are designed where the position of the lifting eye can be manually adjusted along the length of the
cross member to facilitate lifting loads where the position of the centre of gravity may vary. Other crane forks where
the position of the lifting eye is automatically adjusted to facilitate lifting loads where the position of the centre of
gravity may vary.

Positioning Handles

To enable the operator to position the crane fork or C-hook without the risk of finger injuries, positioning handles
must be fitted in an appropriate position unless the design has features that will provide natural hand-holds.

Unloaded Attitude

Crane forks and C-hooks should be designed so that they hang when unloaded with the fork arms or bottom leg of
the 'C' within 5°of the horizontal. This is so that they can easily engage with the load.

Unintended Load Displacement

The design must incorporate features to prevent the load from sliding and becoming displaced or falling.

Various ways of achieving this are given in the standard, however, the choice will largely depend on the nature of
the load to be lifted and the intended lifting operation. In the case of crane forks, the requirements are slightly

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different as the load is often made up of loose items, e.g. bricks, stacked on the pallet and steps have to be taken to
ensure they are captive during the lift so that they do not fall.

The forks must adopt a backward tilt when in the lifting position.

Loose Materials

Where loose materials are to be lifted, e.g. bricks, there should be a secondary load holding device, such as a net or
cage, capable of holding a uniformly distributed load equal to 50% of the WLL in all four horizontal directions.
Openings in the mesh must not be more than 50mm square to prevent small items from falling through. When unit
loads are to be lifted, e.g. a plastic-wrapped palletised load, a retaining device should be fitted, e.g. a chain, strap or
bar, which will prevent the load from sliding off the forks.

See the image below.

Crane forks are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL, this confirms all mechanical properties required
have been achieved and is intended to be the manufacturer's test only.

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Depending on the standard being worked to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied
with each crane fork. This confirms compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that
such manufacturing and sampling tests as required have been completed. This certification will then be retained by
the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period or ownership.

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Recommended Marking Requirements

• Name and address of the manufacturer

• Model identification
• Serial number (identification mark)
• Year of manufacture
• WLL
• The self-weight of the crane fork if it exceeds 5% of the WLL or 50kg
• The limits of the intended position of centre of gravity of the load
• Mandatory marking (e.g. CE / UKCA marking where applicable)

Who retains the manufacturer’s certification, and statement of conformity/test certificate for the lifetime
of service?

□ Duty Holder
□ Employer
□ Competent Person

NOTES:

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The Thorough Examination

Crane forks must regularly be thoroughly examined by a Competent Person to check whether it remains safe to use.
LEEA recommends that this is carried out within a maximum period of 6 months (some regions specify within 12
months) unless a written scheme of examination (for guidance refer to LEEA 032 Guidance to Written Schemes of
Examination), is drawn up by a competent person is in place and operating.

The competent person may decide to supplement their examination with testing. Such testing could be NDT,
overload testing, etc. The nature and extent of testing are always at the discretion of the competent person in
support of their thorough examination.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical Components

• Crane fork body

• Forks (tines) including locking mechanisms if appropriate
• Suspension point
• Secondary holding device (net) including mounting points

The following is a list of defects that should be assessed with respect to the continued safety of the equipment:

Initial inspection

Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm suitability of use
(designed and tested for lifting applications)

Markings

All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical properties of the crane fork
(Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas. Compatibility of the body and terminal fittings are to be
verified against manufacturers certification (Same OEM, grade, correct size)

Crane fork and secondary holding device (net)

• Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges

• Heat attack – flame cutting / illegal modifications
• Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Excessive Corrosion – Loss of CSA due to heavy pitting
• Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent set/change of original
shape. This also includes surface bruising, creasing and buckling in hollow box sections (signs of impact
damage). Care is also required to consider mounting points for the net (deformation due to shock loading)
– potential weld defects/fatigue cracking
• Excessive wear in the suspension point (LEEA recommends max 8% loss of diameter)
• Both forks are fully formed with no deformation or signs of welded repairs, also consider excessive wear to
the forks (including the underside and heels)
• Any locking arrangements (pins) are OEM parts only (no substitutions), with no excessive wear to the bolt
hole or signs of fatigue cracking around the edges. All locking arrangements (suspension point and forks
area capable of being captively secured)

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• Visual inspection of any welds for surface-breaking defects, poor techniques, (NDT may be carried out if
deemed necessary)
• Any bolted connection is captive and securely (correct minimum torque setting) – typical minimum grade
of bolt 8.8
• Any additional accessories that form part of the beam (shackles, chain etc) are visually inspected as per the
previous relevant section(s)
• Any form of the secondary holding device is fully intact, no rips, cuts, abrasions or excessive chaffing, and
it is available at all times. Also, ensure compatibility with the particular make/model / WLL of the crane fork
it is used with

Post-inspection

Regardless of findings a report of examination/inspection report must be compiled after the inspection and reports
of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal requirements or the LEEA template report documents,
retained and cross-referenced to the crane forks' historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the
enforcement authority.

Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess the root
cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators, increased
inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES

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Lifting Inserts (concrete lifters/clutches)

Concrete Lifters (Clutches) are typically designed with a spherical head anchor lifting system which is cast into the
concrete together with a recess former, which will be removed afterwards. A quick and easy universal head link is
used to lift and transport the concrete unit; loads in any direction can be carried.

Socket anchors consist of a round steel anchor foot and a threaded socket, into which a lifting device such as
threaded loops are screwed. Used especially for thin elements.

How to use concrete lifters:

Engaging:

Releasing:

Manufacturer’s Certification, Statement of Conformity / Test Certificate

Lifting inserts are typically subjected to proof load testing at 2 x WLL, this confirms all mechanical properties required
have been achieved and is intended to be the manufacturer's test only. Depending on the standard being worked
to, a manufacturer’s certificate or statement of conformity is supplied with each lifting insert. This confirms
compliance with the manufacturing standard and certifies that such manufacturing and sampling tests as required
have been completed. This certification will then be retained by the duty holder for the lifetime of service or period
or ownership.

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Recommended Marking Requirements

Suitable identification of lifting clutches can be made by the permanent marking on the clutch itself or by attaching
a durable tag, they should be marked with the following minimum information.

Defined Scope of Examination

Critical components

• Anchor / clutch body

• Lifting Anchor
• Pin attachment
• Bail / lifting point

Initial Previous Certification (Manufacturer’s certificate / DOC), past examination reports – confirm
Inspection the suitability of use (designed and tested for lifting applications)

Markings All clear, legible, present, and marked in a manner which does not affect the mechanical
properties of the lifting insert (Not deep/aggressive), and in selected low-stress areas.
Compatibility of the body and terminal fittings are to be verified against manufacturers
certification (Same OEM, grade, correct size)
▪ Metallic defects – excessive nicks, cuts, cracks gouges
▪ Heat attack – Direct (Tack welds & weld splatter), Indirect (Hot environment)
▪ Chemical Attack – Acid (fumes, vapour, liquid) in contact with alloy steel causes
Hydrogen Embrittlement
▪ Excessive Corrosion – Loss of cross-sectional area due to heavy pitting
▪ Mechanical deformation – bending, twisting, deformation, distortion (permanent
set/change of original shape)
▪ Maximum wear (loss of diameter) 8% in the bail/lifting point
▪ Manufacturers parts and components only to be used, correctly assembled and
captively secure
▪ Ensure the lifting insert is compatible with the anchor assembly (size, capacity)
▪ A locking device is fitted correctly and fully engages with the anchor (maybe
confirmed through a functional test)
▪ No excessive freedom of movement of connections, no stiffness / seized components
Post-inspection Regardless of findings a report examination/inspection report must be compiled after the
inspection and reports of thorough examination should be compliant with the legal
requirements or the LEEA template report documents, retained and cross-referenced to the
lifting inserts historical records for inspection by the Competent Person or the enforcement
authority.

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Any defects found by the examination should be reported to the owner of the equipment, who must assess
the root cause of the defect and implement procedures to prevent reoccurrence, e.g. training of operators,
increased inspections, etc., before remedying the equipment and returning it to service.

NOTES:

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Summary
On completion of this training course, you will sit your end-point assessment (exam) for the qualification of Lifting
Accessories Diploma (Global). On successful completion, you will receive a LEEA Diploma and TEAM Card (or a new
TEAM Card if you already have a different LEEA Diploma. You will be trained to perform the 'thorough examination'
of specific lifting accessories in service and validate, or otherwise, its fitness for a further period of service, applying
conditions as may be necessary. Students will be able to refer to and extrapolate information from sources to
support their analysis of lifting equipment suitability for continued service.

Further Resources

LEEA COPSULE (Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Lifting Equipment) Edition 9 -November 2019 ISBN 978-0-
9930124-0-2

LIFTING EQUIPMENT – A USER’S POCKET GUIDE (5th Edition) – A6 Pocket Guide published by LEEA
– www.leeaint.com

LEEA Lifting Equipment Examiner’s Handbook

Copyright and legal information

The content of this course handbook is provided for general information only.

Whilst it is intended to represent a standard of good practice, it has no legal status and compliance with it does not
exempt you from compliance with any legal requirements. Although we make reasonable efforts to provide accurate
guidance, we make no representations, warranties or guarantees, whether express or implied, that the content of
our guidance and our interpretation of the requirements is accurate, complete or current. It is therefore
responsibility of those with specific duties under the legislation to ensure that they fulfil the obligations imposed on
them.

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We would be grateful for your feedback regarding this Workbook, after completing this training course. Please make
your comments known to your LEEA Facilitator – you can use the note box below to list anything you would like to
bring to our attention.

We value your views and will use your comments to help our continual improvement of our learning and
development materials.

Thank you for in advance for your participation.

Andrew Wright LEEA Deputy CEO

NOTES:

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